Organizational Leadership

Developing Leadership Skills

Introduction
Someone inevitably can ask, ‘Isn’t leadership something you either have or you don’t? Aren’t leaders born that
way? Can people really become leaders? In fact, leadership characteristics can be developed. You can be a better
leader. It is true that some leadership characteristics can be identified early in life, but it is also true that people
often can’t predict who will become the great leader.

Leadership experts James Kouzes and Barry Posner wrote, “We would be intellectually dishonest if we did not
say that some individuals clearly have a higher probability of succeeding at leadership than others. But this
does not mean that ordinary managers cannot become extraordinary leaders. With effort and practice, a
person can become an excellent leader (Zenger & Folkman, 2007)

Skills for Building Personal Credibility and Influencing Others

The focus will be turned towards the most ‘basic’ skills with which almost every leader should be
equipped:

• Building credibility

• Communication

• Listening

• Assertiveness

• Conducting meetings

• Effective stress management

• Problem solving
• Improving creativity

Building Credibility
Credibility may be one of the most important components of leadership success and effectiveness (Kouzes
& Posner, 1996 in Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). Employees working for leaders they thought were
credible were willing to work longer hours, felt more sense of ownership in the company, felt more
personally involved in work, and were less likely to leave the company over the next two years (Ibid in
Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). ‘Credibility can be defined as the ability to engender trust in others.

Leaders with high levels of credibility are seen as trustworthy, they have a strong sense of right and wrong,
stand up and speak up for what they believe in, protect confidential information, encourage

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ethical discussions of business or work issues and follow through with commitments. Sometimes
dishonest leaders, personalized charismatic leaders, or power wielders can initially be seen by followers as
credible, but their selfish and self-serving interests usually come to light over time.

Credibility is made up of two components:

• Expertise

• Trust

Followers will not trust leaders if they feel they do not know what they are talking about. Similarly,
followers will not trust leaders if they feel confidential information will be leaked, if their leaders are unwilling
to take stands on moral issues, or if their leaders do not follow through on their promises.

Expertise
Expertise consists of technical competence as well as organizational industry knowledge, so building
expertise means increasing your knowledge and skills in these three areas. Building technical competence,
concerns increasing the knowledge and repertoire of behaviors you can bring to bear to successfully
complete a task. To build technical competence, leadership practitioners must determine how their jobs
contribute to the overall mission of the company or organization, become an expert in those jobs through
formal training or teaching others and seek opportunities to broaden their technical expertise (Hughes,
Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

Apart from building expertise, leaders also need to understand the company and the industry they are in.
Building one’s organizational or industry knowledge may be just as important as building technical
competence. However, the ways in which leadership practitioners build these two knowledge bases is
somewhat different from building technical competence. Building technical competence often takes more of a
hands-on approach to development, but it is hard to do this when building organizational or industry
knowledge.

Many leaders spend 5-10 hours a week building their industry and organizational knowledge using this
approach. Getting a mentor or being coached by your boss is another way to build such knowledge. The
important thing to remember is that learning is not over once you have obtained a degree (Hughes,
Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

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Building Trust
The second component of credibility is building trust, which can be broken down into clarifying and
communicating values and building relationships with others. In many ways leadership is a moral
exercise. Having a strong values system is an important component both in the building blocks model of
skills and in leadership success.

Values are defined as constructs representing generalized behaviors or states of affairs that are
considered by the individual to be important. Provided that leaders make ethical decisions and abide by
organizational rules, however, differences in values among leaders and followers may be difficult to
discern.

One way to assess the degree to which leaders are living according to their personal values is by asking what
they truly believe in and what they spend their time and money on (for example, you could write down the
five things you believe most strongly in and then review your calendar, daytime, checkbook and credit
statement to determine where you spend your time and money. If the two lists are aligned, you are likely
living according to your values. If not, you may be living according to how others think you should act).

If there is some discrepancy between the two lists, what should you do? Of course, some discrepancy is
likely to occur because situational demands and constraints can influence how we behave. On the other
hand, large discrepancies between the lists may indicate that you are not living consistently with your values,
and those you believe in.

Another key way to build trust is to form strong relationships with others. There is apt to be a high level
of mutual trust if leaders and followers share strong relationships; if these relationships are weak, the level of
mutual trust is apt to be low. Perhaps the best way to build relationships with followers is to spend time
listening to what they have to say. Because many leaders tend to be action-oriented and are paid to solve
problems, some leaders overlook the importance of spending time with followers (Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy,
2014).

Expertise x Trust
Leaders vary tremendously in their levels of both expertise and trust, and these differences have
distinct implications for leaders wanting to improve their credibility. Consider leaders who are in the first
quadrant of figure 1. These individuals have a high level of trust and a high level of expertise; they would
likely be seen by others as highly credible. Individuals in the second quadrant might include leaders who
have spent little time with followers, who do not follow through with commitments, or who are new to
the organization and have had little time to build relationships with co-workers (Hughes, Ginnett,
Curphy, 2014).

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In all three cases, leaders wanting to improve their credibility should include building relationships with
co-workers as key development objectives. Leaders in the third quadrant may be new college hires or
people joining the company from an entirely different industry knowledge, or time to build relationships
with co-workers. These leaders may be in touch with their values and have a personal mission statement,
but they will need to share their statement with others and act in a manner consistent with this
statement to build their credibility. Other developmental objectives could include building expertise and
strong relationships with others. Leaders in the fourth quadrant might include those promoted from among
peers or transferring from another department within the company.

Figure 1 The credibility Matrix (Source Curphy, 1997 in Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014 pp. 282)

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Communication
Bass (1990) has defined communication effectiveness as the degree to which someone tells others
something and ensures that they understand what was said. In a more general sense, effective
communication involves the ability to transmit and receive information with a high probability that the
intended message is passed from sender to receiver. Studies show that good leaders communicate feelings and
ideas, actively solicit new ideas from others, and effectively articulate arguments, advocate positions and
persuade others (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kanter, 1983 in Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014 ).

The quality of a leader’s communication is positively correlated with subordinate satisfaction (Klimoski
& Hayes, 1980 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014) as well as with productivity and quality of services (Snyder
& Morris, 1984 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). Effective communication skills are also important
because they give leaders and followers greater access to information relevant to important organizational
decisions (Fletchtner & Krayer, 1986 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

The model below illustrates how to improve communication skills. This can be done by determining the
purpose of their communication before speaking, choosing an appropriate context and medium for the
message, sending clear signals and actively ensuring that others understand the message.
Summary of different ways in which leaders can improve their communication skills:

1. Know what your purpose is and what you intend to communicate

2. Choose an appropriate context and medium by selecting physical and social settings that will enhance
the effectiveness of any communication.
3. Send clear signals (be mindful of the others level of expertise, values, experiences and
expectations and how these characteristics affect their frame of references).
4. Actively ensure that the others understand the message (e.g., by seeking feedback)

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Figure 2 A systems view of communication

Intention Expression Reception Interpretation

What do you want What medium? Was it seen? Was it understood?

to accomplish?
Consistent verbally and Was it heard? Do the receiver’s ego
Is your purpose nonverbally? needs interfere with
clear? Were there competing understanding?
Expressed with messages or other
Who needs to receiver’s frame of noise? Do the receiver’s biases
hear you? reference in mind? or assumptions
Are there reasons the interfere with
Expressed in terms receiver wittingly or understanding?
receiver will unwittingly may have
understand? filtered the
information?

New Intentions

Feedback

Did you communicate what you

intended?

History of prior communication,

context of relationships and
common practices, concurrent
events

(Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014)

Listening
Good leaders and followers recognize the value of two-way communication. Listening to others is as
important as expressing oneself clearly to the others. Listening may seem like an automatic response to things
being said, not something one practices to improve. However, the best listeners are active listeners, not
passive listeners (Davis, Hellervik & Sheard, 1989 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). In passive listening,
someone may be speaking but the receiver is not focused on understanding the speaker. Instead, the
receiver may be thinking about the next thing he will say or how bored he/she is. In either case, the receiver is
not paying attention to what the sender is saying.

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To get the fullest meaning out of what someone else says, we need to practice active listening.
Individuals who are listening actively exhibit a certain pattern of nonverbal behavior, do not disrupt the
sender’s message, try to put the sender’s message into their own words, and scan the sender for various
nonverbal signals. Knowing what nonverbal signals to send and correctly interpreting the sender’s
nonverbal signals are the knowledge component of listening skills. Nonverbal signals are the behavioral
component, and how well we can paraphrase a sender’s message (Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

Active listening is a way to demonstrate that we respect others. People, particularly those with high self-
monitoring scores, can often sense when others are not truly paying attention to what they are saying.

Summary of four ways to improve active listening skills:

1. Demonstrate nonverbally that you are listening (e.g. eye contact, body movement)
2. Actively interpret the sender’s message (find the meaning behind someone else’s words)
3. Attend to the sender’s nonverbal behavior (identifying the feelings expressed through the
speaker’s loudness, tone of voice, pace of speech, facial expressions, posture, gestures etc.)
4. Avoid becoming defensive

(Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014)

Assertiveness
What is assertive behaviour, and what are assertiveness skills? Individuals exhibiting assertive behaviours
are able to stand up for their own rights in a way that also recognizes the concurrent right of others to do the
same. It is crucial to know where and when not to behave assertively. People who are overly assertive may
be perceived as aggressive. Assertiveness is distinguished from two other styles people have for dealing
with conflict: acquiescence and aggression (Alberti & Emmons, 1974 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014):

• Acquiescence: people who back down easily when challenged. By not speaking up for themselves,
they abdicate power to others. This characteristic typically leads to negative feelings such as
guilt, resentment, self-blame and self-image.

• Aggression: is an effort to attain objectives by attacking or hurting others (direct forms such as
threats, verbal attacks, physical intimidation, emotional outbursts, explosiveness, bullying and
hostility or non-direct forms such as nagging, passive-aggressive uncooperativeness, guilt arousal).

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Techniques for behaving more assertively:

1. Use ‘I’ statements (taking responsibility for what they said)
2. Speak up for what you need
3. Learn to say no
4. Monitor your inner dialogue (self-talk that is positive and affirming)
5. Be persistent

(Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014)

Conducting meetings
Meetings are a fact of organizational life. It is difficult to imagine a leader who could avoid them,
particularly when groups, committees, or teams have high levels of tasks or lateral interdependence. Well-
planned and well-led meetings are a valuable mechanism for accomplishing diverse goals and are an
important way of exchanging information and

Keeping open lines of communication within and between work groups or volunteer organizational (Bass,
1990; O’Reilly, 1977 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). Although meetings have many advantages, they also cost
time and money. Unnecessary or inefficient meetings can be frustrating and are often a source of
dissatisfaction for participants. Given the investment of tim and energy meeting require, leaders have a
responsibility to make them as productive as possible.
Sevel tips for running meetings (Guth & Shaw, 1980 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014):

1. Determine whether it is necessary

2. List the objectives of the meeting and develop a plan for attaining them
3. Stick to the agenda
4. Provide pertinent materials/reports in advance
5. Make it convenient (choose time and place as convenient as possible for all participants)
6. Encourage participation
7. Keep a record (take the meetings minutes)

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Effective Stress Management

People use the term stress in different ways. Sometimes people use the term to describe particular
sorts of events or environmental conditions (e.g., receiving a failing grade or coming late to an
important meeting). Other people use the term in a different way. Sometimes it refers to the effects
of the environment (e.g., symptoms a person is experiencing such as muscular tension or difficulty
concentrating) (Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

Stress can be defined as the way we perceive and respond to situations that challenge or threaten us.
These responses usually include increased levels of emotional arousal and changes in physiological
symptoms, such as increases in perspiration and hear rate, cholesterol level, or blood pressure. Stress
often occurs in situations that are complex, demanding or unclear. Stressors are specific characteristics
in individuals, tasks, organizations, or the environment that pose some degree of threat or challenge
to people. It is important to realize that stress is in the eye of the beholder (what one person may see
as challenging and potentially rewarding, another may see as threatening and distressful (McCauley,
1987; Staw, 1984 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

Who experiences more stress?

Who experiences more stress? Followers or leaders? The role of leader certainly can be quite stressful.
Leaders face a major stressful event at least once a month (Ivancevich, Schweiger & Ragan, 1986
Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014). Followers’ stress levels, often depend on their leaders. Leaders can
help followers cope with stress or alternatively can actually increase their followers’ stress levels.
Many leaders recognize when followers are under a lot of stress and will give them time off, try to
reduce their workload, or take other actions to help followers cope.

Stress can either facilitate or inhibit performance, depending on the situation. Too much stress can
take a toll on individuals and organizations that includes decreased health and emotional well-being,
reduced job performance and decreased organizational effectiveness. Stress or arousal is helpful in
increasing motivation and performance, but too much stress can be counterproductive. For example,
it is common and probably helpful to feel a little anxiety before giving a speech, but being too nervous
can destroy one’s effectiveness.

The optimal level of stress depends on a number of factors. One is the level of physical activity
demanded by the task Another is the perceived difficulty of the task. Performance often suffers when
difficult tasks are performed under stressful situations. For instance, think how one’s performance
might differ when first learning to drive a car with an instructor who is quiet and reserved rather than
one who yells.

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Note that tasks difficulty is generally a function of experience; the more experience one has with a
task, the less difficult is becomes. Moreover, people not only cope with stress more readily when
performing easier tasks- but often need higher levels of stress to perform them optimally.
Although stress can have positive effects, research has focused on the negative implications of too
much stress on health and work. Stress has been linked to heart disease (Friedman & Ulmer, 1984
Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014), immune system deficiencies (Pomerleau & Rodin, 1986 Hughes,
Ginnett, Curphy, 2014), and the growth rates of tumors (Justice, 1985 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).
Various studies have reported that work-related stress has caused a dramatic increase in drug and
alcohol use in the workplace (Latack, 1986; Quayle, 1983 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014) and that
stress is positively related to absenteeism, intentions to quit and turnover.

Guidelines for effective stress management:

1. Monitor your own and followers’ stress levels

2. Identify what is causing the stress
3. Practice a healthy lifestyle
4. Learn how to relax (physical exercise, deep-breathing techniques, progressive muscle
relaxation, thinking of calming words and images)
5. Develop supportive relationships
6. Keep things in perspective

The A-B-C Model

Cognitive approaches to stress management, have the common goals of changing a person’s self-talk
about stressful events. One of the simplest of these to apply is called the A-B-C model (Ellis & Harper,
1975; Steinmetz, Blankenship, Brown, Hall & Miller, 1980 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014).

Something external happens (a stressful event) and then something internal follows (symptom of
stress). The sequence is as follows:

a. Triggering event (knocking your boss’s coffee onto his shirt)

b. Your thinking (‘He must think I’m incapable)
c. Feelings and behaviors (anxiety, fear, embarrassment)

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From this perspective you can see the causal role played by inner dialogue, in contributing to feelings of
stress. Such inner dialogue can be rational or irrational, constructive or destructive. People gain
considerable freedom from stress when they realize that by changing their own self-talk, they can
control their emotional responses to events around them.

Consider a different sequence for our scenario:

A. Triggering event (knocking your boss’s coffee onto his shirt)

B. Your thinking (This was just an accident)
C. Feelings and behaviors (apologizing and helping clean up)

Thus, a particular incident can be interpreted in several different ways some likely to increase feelings of
stress and distress, and others likely to maintain self-esteem and positive coping. You will become better
at coping with stress as you practice listening to your inner dialogue and changing destructive self-talk to
constructive self-talk.

Changing self-talk is more difficult than you think., especially in emotionalized situations. Because self- talks
is convert, spontaneous and reflexive (McKay, Davis & Fanning, 1981 Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2014) like
any bad habit it can be difficult to change.

Leaders need to recognize their role in their followers’ stress levels. Leaders need to recognize the
importance of role modeling in reducing (or increasing) followers’ stress levels.

Problem Solving

Identifying Problems or Opportunities for Improvement

1. The first step in solving a problem is to state it so everyone involved in developing a solution has
an informed and common appreciation and understanding of the task. This is a critical stage in
problem solving and will take time and probably group discussion.
2. Analysis of a problem’s causes should precede a search for its solutions. Two helpful tools for
identifying the key elements affecting a problem situation are a cause-and-effect diagram and
force field analysis. Cause and effect diagrams use a graphic approach between different
causes, and potentially a prioritization of which causes are most important.

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