Lecturer : KONE Klohinlwélé nielfang@yahoo.

fr
Université Félix Houphouet-Boigny Academic Year : 2023-2024 Licence 3.

PART ONE : GENERALITIES ON ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

I- Historical background to Elizabethan Theater.

1- Political history

United Kingdom = GB + Northern Ireland ; the official name is therefore the

United Kingdom of GB and Northern Ireland.
GB= Sctoland + England + Wales.

Main steps of British History:

o 55 BC : Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. They found local
inhabitants who spoke a variant of celtish
o AD 43 : 2nd Roman invasion and occupation. This started Roman rule of
Britain until 436 where Romans withdraw from Britain completely.
o Settlement in Britain of Jutes, Saxons and Angles in the 5th century (449).
o 597 : arrival of St Augustine and the conversion of England to Latin
christianity.
o The Viking invasions of the 9th century
o The Norman Conquest of 1066.
o The Statute of Pleading in 1362 which required that court proceedings be
conducted in English)
o The setting up of William Caxton’s printing press at Westminster in 1476 ;
o The full flowering of the Renaissance in the 16th century
o The publishing of the King James Bible in 1611.
o The completion of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of 1755
The expansion to North Americaand south Africain the 17th centiry, to India,
Australia, New Zealand in the 18th century

2- Sociohistoical background to the play King Lear

Life in the early 16th and 17th century was hard and the majority of the people were poor. They
were busy struggling to survive on a daily basis. There was a tiny class of wealthy and educated and
noble people. For the majority of these poor people, popular entertainment was therefore an
important way to forget their daily chores and existential hardships. Other entertainments included :
cruel sports, enjoyment of blood sports like bull baiting, cock fighting, and bear baiting, animals were
chained and dogs let loose on them, etc A few festivals and events such as Harvest and New Year
were the only breaks from hard working. There existed an early vision of football which the poor
indulged in. Originally theatres founded in the 1600s were mainly for the entertainment of the upper
classes.

The rich and noble attended and participated into sport and hunting parties. They would entertain in
private homes watching masques, minstrels and private showing of play after feasts and banquets.
Such entertainments were oposed to strolling players puppet shows and conjurors.

Prior to shakespearian time

- drama and acting styles were linked to the catholic church. Early drama was designed to
teach people about the Bible and God’s word. It was therefore performed solemnly and
reverently in Latin as an illustration of the liturgy – except during the Feast of Fools and
similar holidays of subversion and parody. Themes were taken fom the Old and New
Testament. By 975, these dramatizations were enacted by amateur actors altar boys, clerics
and, on occasion congregation members become a common feature of church services. By
1350, dramas were performed in the vernacular rather than Latin but were still almost
exclusively located within church walls. Theatre will get secularized over time. With this
secularization, we see a class of professional, largely itinerant actors. They were often
protected by private houses of the nobility even after the advent of commercial theater at
the end of the Dark Ages. We had Saint plays which reenacted the incidents and lives of
saints. These were very popular. These plays were not necessarily spiritual in nature but
were perfomed as entertainment at community gatherings. We also had Mystery and
Miracle plays based on stories such as creation or from Noah’s adventure ; Passion plays
(Christmas, Easter first perfomed within the church and later in public halls, theaters or
outdoors
- In French neoclassicism, supernatural events were strictly forbidden. All action had to be
believable and true to life. Early realists whose tradition is present today in modern realism
(as oposed to Shakespeare‘s Hamlets or Macbeth which represented supernatural events).
French neoclasicism had a strict sense of decorum : kings should act like kings, servants
should act like servants and everyone else should be strictly true to their roles in society.
Everyone was expected to be mannerly and to behave in a morally upright fashion. They
were punished for their failure to exhibit proper decorum. Cardinal Richelieu established
rules that theater should follow that conform to french neoclassicism.

The following groups of the Elizabethan society were opposed to theatre :

- Puritans who disaproved of the non religious trend or nature. Performances were believed to
lead to bad habits and behaviours. They believed it kept people from going to church
(particularly as they were performed on Sundays)
- Religious leaders in Wales felt the immoral actions and bad language in plays were sinful.
- The authorities were unhappy because they believed it encouraged people to miss work and
be idle. They also believed that theatres were ideal places for thieves and vagabonds to
 operate. Theatres were also regarded as places where plague and other infectious diseases
could spread.
Despite this opposition, the popuarity of theatre continued to grow and would spread
further in Wales as towns expanded in size.

Topics or themes

Theatre was generally about religious events that were been enacted. It was referred to as religious
or morality plays which showed good and bad conduct. Others were « miracle plays » showing
scenes from the bible ; Against these trends we had the strolling players » wandering groups of
actors. Because of the liberality and freedom of minds with wich they adressed social issues, the
language they spoke, the political and religious authorities tried to ban them.

During Queen Elizabeth’s reign (1558-1603), the themes changed and English playwrights began to
write comedies and tragedies. The main playwrights were : Marlowe, Johnson, Shakespeare. As
theatre became popular, theatres were built. Before this era, there were no buildings built
specifically for theatre. Plays were performed in the court yards of inns. Examples of theatres built
between 1587 and 1598 are : the Rose, Swan and Globe theatres in London.

The 16th century audience and playwrighter and actors were educated, acquainted with the classics
and knowledgeable about theatre in other countries particularly France.

- Tudor times experienced a growth of the arts and Queen Elizabeth encouraged this through
her patronage of the theater, music and art. Before Elizabeth’s reign, drama mainly focused
on religious plays that were performed in public. Greek and Roman dramas were performed
at Oxford and Cambridge universities.
- Difference between classic Greek and Elizabethan theatre : In classic Greek, the play was
performed once during an annual three-day festival with religious topics sponsored by the
state. Elizabethan tragedy was played almost any time without religious purpose. Their
purpose and goals were entertainment and commercial success.

Definitions.

The term « drama » is derived from the greek word for « action ». Drama uses dance, music to
convey message (cf opera whish uses song throughout the entire performance, musicals inlude
dialogue and songs). Theater or drama today come from classical Greece and included tragedies
and comedies. It is officially dated to the 6th century in Athens in Greece. Medieval drama (476
AD – 1450) had no ressemblance to Greece drama. Priests initiated biblical figures and
performed small scenes from holiday stories. But they soon went from church to market place.

The terms drama, theatre and play are very confusing ; But generally, drama is the printed script
or text of a play, the written version of a play that is read by the actors but not the audience ;
One is a script while the other is the performance of the script. Theatre is also the place, the
building which consists of a stage and seating in which the audience gathers to watch plays being
performed. Theater is the entire performance on stage, the play production. Theatre is a
physical, real life portrayal while drama is abstract. It is the overall spectacle of the drama, how a
drama is staged, schowcased and performed. Note that play and drama are even more confusing
as the play is the written diaogue between characters for theatrical performance. What can be
said it that drama is more general as it is present in opera, cinema, all forms of literature while
play is specific to a genre.
 The two dominating types of drama are comedies and tragedies. Tragedy is a drama that
presents non common (heroes, kings, gods) who shift from good fortune to bad fortune. By
instilling « fear and pity », tragedy cleans the soul. Aristotle defined this cleansing as catharsis.
Comedy is about typical or below average people who move from bad situations to good ones ;
Characters speak everyday language.

Elizabethan theatre. It refers to plays performed in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth
(1558-1603). Shakespeare was not the only one playwright of this era. His contemporaries
included Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Kyd, Thomas Heywood
and Robert Green.

Function of dama :

- Drama includes character, plot and theme. Plays have major and minor characters. The plot
is generally made up of acts and scenes. The plot is dependent on the suspense of a conflict
in which the hero is not ill-fated. Theme is generally considered as the soul of the play.
Dramas are animated by a set of conflicts : between individuals, man and society, man and a
greater power or man and himself. Plot and theme in drama should compliment each other

Some of the main themes :

- Antisemitism (hatred of Jews prevailed ; this is reflected in the plays of that era
- Disguise as a favorite device used fequently by characters : King Lear : Cordelia,etc
- humours
- revenge
- the supernatural

Dramatic style and devices

Elizabethan plays commonly consisted of :

- dialogue (in verse or blank verse) in poetic, dramatic and heightened beyond that of the
vernacular of the day ; there was an Apartheid with lower class characters’ speech which was
colloquial (prose), upper class characters spoke stylised, rythmic speech pattens.

The main features of Elizabethan theatre :

- The theatre was open and plays were performed in daylight.

- The flag was hoisted to indicate that a play was going to be performed or was going on.
- People sat around the stage in galleries according to their social status
- The cheapest place was the front stage for ordinary eople. Also known as « groundlings »
- Women were not allowed to act or perform ; Thier parts were played by boys.
- There was very little scenery. A character would tell the audience where the scence was set.
- There was generally plenty of violence in the plays as Tudor audience loved it.

Aspects of Elizabethan drama :

- natural and universal lighting (think of when electricity was invented). Elizabethan Theater
made use of natural and universal lighting. Shows were performed in the afternoon in open-
air theaters or grounds. Those shows that were performed indoors were done to candle light
where audience and actirs shared the same lighting. Think of modern–day companies that try
 to recreate Elizabethan theater : they leave the house lights up and forgo the use of spots or
hanging lights.
- Minimal sets : companies performed on the road, in-barns, innyards, nobleman’s houses,
from the backs of wagons or in city squares. This implies set pieces that had to be minimal,
often limited to a few curtains or a backdrop of wood.
- Live sound effects and Music : Actors had to create all sound effects using theatrical devices
for such sounds as rain and cannons. Many actors were also musicians and it was common to
have singers and instrumentalists perform before, during and after a show. As a
consequencce theater was a total art. An actor in William Shakespeare’s compnay, Philip
Henslowe, recorded in his diary that the company owned trumpets, drums, a treble viol, a
bass viol, a bandore and a cithern. Other Elizabethan instruments used in the theater
included recorders, lute and fife.
- Audience involment : people came and went during the show, eating, talking. As a
consequence, playwrights included expository summaries. They would sometimes catcal,
boo, throw things or talk directly to the actirs. They walked around during the show, talked
and ate. In respons, actors would talk and interact with the audience. Many playwrights
wrote speeches in which the actors would deliver monologues directly to the audience.
- Doubling and cross-gendered casting : companies were under noble sponsorship and had 12
to 15 actors who would fulfill all roles, playing multiple parts in a single play. Acting was
considered inappropriate profession for women and female roles were played by young
boys. Comedy often played upon this with Shakespeare writing comedies in which boys
dressed as girls who disguised themselves as boys. Modern companies that use original
practices recreate this with gender-blind casting.
- Company structure : Elizabethan theater had not yet developed a structure in which different
jobs were given to different people. Instead, everyone in the company did nearly every job.
Actors were in charge of props, costumes and selling tickets. Playwrights performed as
actors. There were no directors and the company decided casting and blocking.
- Elaborate costumes : costuming was elaborate, colorful, rich and helped distinguish between
social classes. A particular costume communicated societal roles. AT THE Globe Theater, each
actor had hs own costum, often one that a rich patron donated.

The following three elements are a legacy of French neoclassicism :

- Unity of Time : Plays were expected to be 5 acts long ; They had to take place in a 24-hours
period. This often led to absurdities
- Unity of action : a single plot line (avoid subplots)
- Poetic justice : characters were expected to be dealt with according to their actions. Good
were rewarded and the evil were punished. In so doing, the audience was enlightened,
educated and entertained.

Some identifiable acting and staging conventions common to Elizabethan theatre :

1- Soliloquy & monologue : both are long delivered speeches in the play. The main difference lies in
the fact if the monologue is a speeh delivered by a charater to another character or characters
on stage, in the soliloquy one character speaks his inner thoughts. In the monologue, the
character speaks to other characters who are with him on stage. Two main types of monologues :
dramatic monologue and interior or inner monologue. In the later, the character externalises his
ideas to the audience which would remain incomprehensible as it is internal.
The soliloquy is used to make a character’s thoughts known to the audience though the
character does not speak to them. (this means the audience is present physically to hear him but
not in his mind.) It serves as a confession for the benefit of the audience. It is used to share
character’s motivations and desires that they would never articulate to other characters in the
play. Such a function is often played with a chorus character (from Ancient Greece).
2- Aside : It is the closest device to soliloquy as it is spoken to other characters on stage but
contrary to soliloquy, the aside is very short.
3- Boys performing female roles : in Elizabethan era, acting was regarded as an unsuitable
profession for women as it was rough and rowdy while women were regarded as the very
image of being genteel. They were therefore not legaly allowed to act on the stage until King
Charles II in 1660 while they were allowed to act in other countries in Europe in Commedial
dell’Arte : Italy, France, etc). The troupe directors had no other option but to cast young boys
in the roles of women.
4- Masque : originally designed in Greek theatre, masks have a function : they are used as a
megaphone for actors’s voice, carrying actor’s words to the audience who was often far away
from stage. It is used as an aid in disguising actors’ genders as men played female roles who
were not allowed to perform on stage. Masks were originally dedicated to the altar of
Dionysus after performances. They consisted in helmet-like, concealing the entire face and
head with holes for the eyes and the mouth. It had a wig. The masks allowed the actor to
play many roles as it prevented the audience from associating the actor with one particular
character. We had unique masks for each specific character and event in a production.
5- Eavesdropping : this device sat between a soliloquy and an aside. Some characters would
strategically overhear others on stage, informing both themselves and the audience of the
details while the characters being overheard had no idea what was happening. This
convention opened up opportunities for the playwright in the evolving plot.
6- Dialogue : plays consisted and still consist of dialogue that are poetic, dramatic and
heightened beyond that of the vernacular of the day. While often the lowet class characters’s
speech was somewhat colloquial (prose), upper class characters spoke stylised, rythmic
speech patterns (verse). Shakespeare’s dialogues are sometimes blank (unrhymed), but at
other times rhyming (couplet) and often used five stressed syllables in a line of dialogie
(iambic pentameter).
7- Play writhin a play : that is referred to as intertextaluity or autoreferentiality in modern
theory. This Elizabethan convention was a playwriting technique used by Shakespeare and
others that involved the staging of a play inside the play itself. It was not a flimsy convention,
but rather one that was used judiciously and with purpose. But this is even clearer in Hamlet
when the title character is convinced that his uncle Claudius murdered his father for the
throne. So Hamlet organises an out-of-town troupe of performers to attend one evening and
perfom a play before King Claudius that involves the same plot line as the events in the larger
play (murder of a king), but in a different setting …all to let Claudius know Hamlet is on to
him.
8- Stagecraft : Elizabethan dramas used elaborate costumes, yet quite the opposite for scenery.
Acting spaces were large (bare stage) with isolated set pieces representing many of the same
and minimal use of props (a single tree equalled a forest, a throne for a King’s palace). This
explains the use of rich dialogue full of imagery, as there was no set on stage to designate
the scene’s location. However, Elizabethan costumes were often rich and colourful, with a
character’s status in society being denoted by their costume alone. There were no stage
lights of any kind, with plays strictly performed during daylight hours. A simple balcony at th
rear of the stage could be used for scenes involving fantastical beings, Gods or Heaven, while
a trap door in the stage floor could also be used to drop characters into Hell or raise
characters up from beneath.
 Entrances and exists were at tow doors at the rear (tiring house) and not the side wings, as is
the case in modern theatre. An Elizabethan actor exiting side stage may well have landed in
the groundlings after falling off the edge of the (three-sided thrust stage that jutted out into
the audience)
9- word puns : a word pun or also called paronomasia is a humorous use of word that exploits
multiple meanings of a term, or of similar–sounding words, for an intended humorous or
rhetorical effect.
NB : audience : the aside, the prologue, the chorus, the soliloquy and the epilogue were all
variations on a character’s direct address to the audience when staged. The epilogue is the
contrary of the prologue. If the prologue is a speech of exposition, outlining the situation and
theme to be unfolded, the epilogue is a section at the end of the play that serves as a
comment on or a onclusion to what has happened. A final or concluding act or event. It
serves as a summary of the lay’s moral lessons as well as a wrap up of the characters’ fates.

Part two : Analysis of the play King Lear

Assignments
The author. Students have to do the research
Summary. After reading the play students must write summaries for the different acts then a
summary for the whole play. This helps in situating passages when it comes to analyze an
excerpt.
Characterization : Students have to write about the different characters, their familial
relationships. Who are the protagonists ? Who are their antagonists ? Which character in the
play help one of two categories.

I- Lecturer’s notes

A- Sources and setting of the play

Ancient Britain before Christianity. It is based on the chronicles of a mythological Leir
who ruled around the 8th century BC as presented by its source material Holinshed’s
Chronicles and to other early modern texts like Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie
Queene, Philip Sidney’s The Countesss of Pembroke’s Arcadia, and political tracts
written by King James I. We have several references to ancient pantheon of Greeco-
roman religions with invocation of gods like Apollo, Fortuna, with anachronistic
references to Greek philosophers from Athens and Thebes.
The play is also set during harsh winter, brutal storm.

B- Characterization in King Lear

A- Natural order. The protagonists are those who defend the « natural » order. They are
the living embodiment of loyalty, fidelity to their king and fathers. Even when they
have good reasons to revolt, they remain loyal until the end. It is the natural duty of
 the ruled to serve their king, of sons and daughters to be loyal to their fathers or
aging parents.
Lear, King of Britain, a very passionate but also cruel and whimsical character with an
almost childlike behaviour. He is also a very complex personality. He expresses
violent impetuosity. He becomes mad when confronted with the treason of is
daughters. This character can also fall into the category of the unnatural characters
for his attitude is not what is expected of a father and ruler.
Cordelia : a paragon of virtue, loyalty and true love. Thanks to her actions, the king
realizes a bit too late his blindness. She is there to restore order by expressing loyalty
to father and king thus saving the play from a gloomy and despearte look.
Gloucester, an Earl. He has two sons and commits the mistake of having an
illegitimate son among them. He can be considered responsible for his own doom by
his own flaws. He becomes blind for his refusal to betray the king. he sometimes
accuises the stars (nature or cosmos, his chance) for bringing chaos to his family life.
EDGAR, oldest and legitimate son of Gloucester. He remains loyal to his father even
if the latter is after him for a fabricated treason. He is naive, gullible enough to be
manipulated by his half brother Edmund. He is disguised as Poor Tom, a peasant or
an ordinary gentleman.
The Fool : he is the attendant to Lear, a court jester who uses wordplay and jokes to
shallenge and entertain the king. He remains loyal even when the king goes mad and
follows him in his trials. He speaks the truth despite his whimsical language. He
produces witticism to entertain the king.
KENT, he is an Earl : a loyal advisor to Lear. He tries to show the King the wrong in
disinheriting Cordelia. This enrages the king who banishes him. Kent disguises as
Caius and continues to serve the old king. He is thrown in the stocks by Regan and
Goneril. When released, he stands by the king until the latter’s death. When the
throne is proposed to him after the deaths of all potential inheritors, he declines the
offer saying that his time has come for death to join the king.
The King of France : loyal to his love Cordelia and accept her even when she is
disowned.
The Duke of Albany : husband of Goneril. He takes the option of defending Lear and
is angry with the two sisters (Goneril and Regan) who maltreat the old man. He is
strong and remains firm in his convictions. At the end of the play, he is in charge of
ruling the British Kingdom.

B- Against the natural order.these are the characters whose behaviours or attitudes
defied natural laws. They are opposed to what is regarded as natural norms that are
responsible for order. They are often described with animal imagery. They betray,
king, father, friends. They are the antagonists (as they oppose the protagonists)

Goneril, King Lear’s eldest daughter. She uses flaterry to reach her goals. She throws
the king out of the castle once she gets what she wants. She develops relationships
with Edlund while she is married.
 Regan, second daughter of King Lear. She is the second vilainous character. She also
has an affair with Edmund while she is married.
Edmund, Gloucester’s illegitimate son. He is the central evil character in the best
Shakespearian tradition like Iago, Hamlet, etc He is angry with the « world ». He is a
frustrated young man because he was conceived out of wedlock. He is treated
poorly, always mocked at by his own father in his presence. He has decided to
revenge by manipulating and controlling the situation to his favor. All the people
around him are his eventual victims even those who might be regarded as his allies.
In the last moment before his death, he seems to have changed his heart, admits his
wrongdoing and gives information about Cordelia’s hanging.

King of Burgundy : he was candidate to marry Cordelia but when she is disinherited,
he won’t marry her without a dowry.
We have other minor characters like the Old man, Gloucester’s tenant, the herald, the
captain, an officer, a doctor, the knights, a gentleman, attendants, servants and messengers.

C- Social ranking in Elizabethan era : nobility : from King to knights

King (the highest status), then Dukes (Albany and Cornwall). After the Dukes we have the
Earls status (Gloucester and Kent). The Knights can be included with the respectful status
because of their code of honour.
Below the social ladder we have : Fool - Servants/stewards – slaves
D- Famous quotes from King Lear
- Nothing can come of nothing (Act one scene 1) : Lear to Cordelia
- When we are born, we cry that we are come to this great stage of fools (Act 4 scene
6)
- As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods (Gloucester Act 4 scene 1)
- Jesters do oft prove prophets
- The weight of the sad time we must obey
- Let me wipe it first, it smells of mortality
- Now gods, stand up for the bastards !/to have a thankless child/
- thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst been wise.
- The prince of darkness is a gentleman
- Many a true word hath been spoken in jest
- Who is it that can tell me who I am ?
- The worst is not so long as we can say ‘this is the worst » (94)
- How sharper than a serpent’s tooth it is to have a thankless child
- I am a man more sinned against than sinning
- Hell is empty and the devils are here
- Better a witty fool than a foolish wit
- I would challenge you to a battle of wits, But I see you are unarmed
 - Laughing at your own mistakes can lengthen your life/lauging at your wife’s mistakes
can shorten your life
- When the mind’s free, the body is delicate.

II- STRUCTURE OF THE PLAY

- TRAGIC FLAW : Lear values appearances above reality. He wants to be treated as a

king and to enjoy the title but he does not want to fulfill a King’s obligations of
governing for the good of his subjects. Stepping down from the throne, he has also
given up all of his formal authority to those who do not actually love him.
- Climax : it can be situated in act 3. Lear realizes the misjudgment he has made about
his daughters and becomes mad.

III- Summaries (write synopsis as if you were to perform these acts)

Act one : the King has decided to divide his kingdom between his three daughters. He asks
each to tell him how much they love him. Goneril and Regan issue statements of insincere
flaterry. Cordelian refuses to play the game. Lear disinherits her. His counselor (Kent)
questions the decision of the king and as consequence is also banished by the angry ruler.
The King of France and the Duke of Burgundy are waiting for the division of the kindgom.
When Lear informs both suitors that Cordelia won’t get anything of his kingdom, Burgundy
withdraws his proposal as he will not marry her without any dowry. The King of France
admires her honesty and agrees to marry her. Goneril and Regan discuss their father’s old
age, strange behavior and ways to do « something about it ». Edmund plots to trick his
father into believing the letter he carries is proof of the betrayal of Edgar the legitimate son
against their father Gloucester. Kent disguises as a peasant. He convinces Lear to be his
servant. The King and his knights began noticing the strange behviour of his daughter.
Goneril asks the king to dispatch half of his knights creating a shock in the old man. He leaves
for Regan’s kingdom hoping to be better treated.
Act two : (to be done by students)
Act three : (to be done by students)
Act four : (to be done by students)
Act five : (to be done by students)
IV- Themes
Nature : natural and unnatural, attitudes or behaviours that are considered insults to
nature. To have a good or evil nature. Can one change one’s nature ? Is it inherent or ca
nit be changed ? Is it culturally defined or affected by the environment in which we live ?
When children betray parents to gain power (Edmund, Goneril, Regan), the natural order
is defied.
Betrayal : lots of betrayal in the play. Lear betrays Cordelia when he reacts to her
honesty by disinheriting her. Regan and Goneril betray their father. They betray their
husbands when they fight to win Edmund’s love. Edmund betrays father, brother and
even the women with whom he organizes his evil schemes. Gloucester betrays Edgar
when Edmund convinces him that Edgar is not loyal. It is the most powerful theme in the
play. These characters who betray all die by the end of the play.
Loyalty : closely related to betrayal. Several characters exhibit loyalty toward King LEAR
and Gloucester. They will pay for their loyalty in a most unfair way. They are disinherited
(Cordelia), banished (Kent and Edgar). Although Kent, Edgar, Cordelia, have no moral
obligation towards those who wrongly accused them, they come back to the latter to
serve and help. What is the motivation behind this loyalty ? How is it shown ?
Family : this play makes us reflect on the meaningof what is a family. Two men, King Lear
and Gloucester, who are family heads breaks up their families. One disinherits his
daughter, the other is after his own son to harm him. Familial bonds bonds have no
meaning here. Children betray parents, parents betray children and their responsibilities
towards their offspring. Isn’t it because these families have no women or mothers ? what
make Edgar and Cordelia remain loyal ? Why are they different from the other siblings ?
is there any meaning in categorizing one’s children, some being legitimate while others
are illegitimate ? Wasn’t Edmund justified after all as his status causes anger and
shame ? Do children have to declare love to parents and go through blackmailing ?
Gender : Lear sometimes negatively speaks about the nature of the female gender. The
only women are children’s mothers in the play. They are only referred to.
Forgiveness : Cordelia has forgiven her father, Edgar has forgiven his father. Kent also
has forgiven Lear and has come back to be his servant. Should these figures be forgiven ?
Should their offenders forgive ? For what gain ?
Power : Lear wants to give up his kingdom but apparently not his power and what goes
with it. Even if Gloucester and Lear are legitimate owners of their powers, can we say the
same thing for Regan, Goneril, Edmund ? What can’t we do for power ?
Madeness : madeness is a consequence of the betrayals Lear has gone through. We also
have the madness of the Fool which is assimilated to wisdom, some insightfulness, the
Fool being a sort of philosopher or poet. Lear gains insight into life and human nature in
madness. It humbles him and make him know his true friends.
Blindness : Lear and Gloucester are blind to the reality of their situations. Before his
literal or physical blindness, Gloucester is already blind. They are able to see the truth
when they lose their sanity and eyes at the end of the play. When surrounded by loyalty,
they can’t see it. They are incapable of self-reflection, the ability to see themselves for
what they really are.

V- DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRAMATIC TECHNIQUES

- Dramatic irony : when the reader knows a secret but the characters in the play do
no. Words/ actions of a character carry a special meaning for the reader but are
understood differently by the character. Characters are blind to facts but not the
readers. To support Lear Gloucester says to Regan : Because I would not see thy cruel
nails/pluck out his poor old eyes, nor thy fierce sister/In his anointed flesh stick
boarish fangs » (Act 3 scene 5). He will later be the one whose eyes will be plucked
out. This statement foreshadows his own mutilation. More elements of irony :
a) Blindness as sight : the play tells us that Knowledge and Truth are not dependent
on what is before one’s eyes. Most characters learn about life, humans see things
as they are once they lose their eyesight. Gloucester is the character who fulfils
this role to perfection when he is physically blinded by Regan and Cornwall in the
middle of the play.
b) Madness as clarity or insightfulness : madness is the condition to self-knowledge
c) The wise fool : this is an ironic convention of the Elizabethan drama. The fool is
usually a typical character who entertains and is often ridiculed. He is not
expected to be full of wisdom. But en early modern english theater, fools and
clowns jesters and other characters meant for comic relief are used to convey
moments of knowledge and thoughtfulness.
d) Poor Tom (or Edgar disguised) represents a major instance of dramatic irony.
Although the audience is informed about Edgar’s disguise, the latter uses the
Poor Tom persona to hide from Cornwall abd remain anonymous to Gloucester
who is caring and paternal toward him without the latter knowing him as his son.
- Nemesis : it is applied to justice. Evil act brings its own punishment and poetic justice
prevails.
- Paradox : used to attract readers’s attention. It is a statement that seems
contradictory or absurd, but well founded and true at the same time.
- Pathetic fallacy : used by poets and writers whereby nature mirrors the political
condition of society. Pathos is a situation that elicits pity from audience.
- Aside
- Foreshadow/ flashbacks : foreshadow : a hint or warning of things to come, making
specific events in the plot seems more probable as they unfold.
- Imagery : using images to describe or compare something so that the reader can
form a picture in his mind.
- Hamartia : an error, mistaken judgement or a mistake through which the fortunes of
the hero of a tragedy are reversed.
- Soliloquy : Edmund’s soliloquy in Act 1 scene 2. He gives his grievances directly to
audience. Thou, nature, art mo goddess. To thy law My services are bound.
Wherefore shoudl I Sdtand in the plague of custom and permit The curiosity of
nations to deprive me For that I am some twelve or fourteen monnshines/ Lag of a
brother ? Why ‘bastard » ? Wherfore « base » ?
When my dimension are as weel compact,/ My mind as generous, and my shape as
true/ As honest madame’s issue ? Why brand they us/With « base » , with
« baseness », « bastardy », « base », « base » - /who in the lusty stealth of nature
 take/ more composition and fierce quality/Than doth within a dull, stale, tired
bed/Go to th’creating a whole tribe of fops/Got’ tween a sleep and wake ? Well then,
/Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land. / Our father’s love is to the bastard
Edmund/As to the legitimate. – Fine word, « legitimate » !/ Well, my legitimate, if
this letter speed/And my intention thrive, Edmund the base/ Shall top th’ legitimate. I
grow, I prosper. / Now, gods, stand up for bastards !
[Enter Gloucester, Edmund looks over his letter]
Edgar’s soliloquy in Act 2 scene 3 in which he undertakes a transformation and
reveals his thought process to audience : I heard myself proclaimed, /And by the
happy hollwo of a tree/Escaped the hunt. No sport is free, no place : That guard and
most unusual vigilanve/Does not attend my taking. While I may scape/ I will preserve
myself, and am bethought/To take the basest and most poorest shape/ That ever
penury in contempt of man/Brought near to beast. My face I’ll grime with filth, / ….
That’s something yet. Edgar I nothing am. Exit
- Parallelims. We have parallelism as a stylistic feature in the analysis of the discourses
of different characters. In addition to that, we have the structural parallelism. Lear
and Gloucester seem to share the same course of destinities. One parallel the other.
They both misjudge their children at the beginning of the play. They will be the
victims of their offspring. One will be blinded while the other dies out of pain when
he realizes his mistakes. They both realize their mistakes and reconize the truth
about their children a bit too late for Lear. It is only when he descends into madness
that he realizes his folly and longs for the love of his daughter Cordelia. Gloucester
learns that Edmund has manipulated him and the Earl laments his misjudgement of
his true and legitimate Edgar.

VI- SYMBOLS

- The storm in ACT 3 : combination of thunder and lightning. It is paralled to what is

going on in Lear’s mind. It also parallels Britain’s fall into political chaos. Lear has
divided his kingdom instead of unitying it : civil war is breeding ; All human beings are
vulnerable to overpowering forces like nature. The storm is the symbol of divine
justice. Its unpredictable nature : uncertainty, madness, chaos. It is used by writers as
a metaphor of internal conflict or when one has to make a decision with serious
consequences. It shows that nature is angry with Lear for his actions and wishes to
make his mistakes clear to him. It also symbolizes the chaos that Lear’s kingdom will
soon be experiencing as a result of Lear’s decisions.
- Madness : ironicallyit is when he goes mad that Lear is more thoughtful ; he becomes
much more compassionate and thoughtful than he was sane. The jester is the more
philosophical character. Gloucester’s blindness is the opportunity to acceed to truth,
intelligence and knowlegde of human nature.
- The egg : the fool compares Lear’s crown to an egg. His kinship is fragile and brittle,
on the verge of breaking at any moment [Cordelia : what does this flower name
mean ?: Cordelia is a british nature goddess who is associated with themes of
blessing, prayers, beauty, fairies, and wishes. Her symbols are flowers and water. She
 is part of every spring and summer flower that blossoms. She brings beauty and
positive energies of spring.
- Nothingness : nothing can come of nothing, ex nihilo nihili fit. Meaning from nothing
nothing comes against biblical notion that God created the world out of nothing.
- Blindness as a recurring motif in figuration and literal sense. Characters are blind by
their egos, ambitions. Lear is blinded by his ego and lack of insightfulness. He neither
knows himself nor his daugters. Gloucester misjudges his own children. Like Lear,
they make fatal mistakes (flaws). As a consequence, Gloucester is literally blinded in a
brutal scene. He will carry that handicap and remain weak, dependent and
vulnerable. But this experience renders him astute. The play suggests that his
blindness enables him to develop a sense of knowledge that he did not have at the
beginning of the play. Figuratively Lear’s blindness will lead to a better
comprehension of human nature. Edmund, Regan, Goneril can be seen as being
blinded by their egos and ambitions.
- The Fool : this typical character is meant for comic relief. Here he plays a much more
significant role. He symbolizes wisdom. His observations foreshadow Lear’s fate. He
speaks truthfully about Lear’s lack of self-knowledge. Lear refuses to listen to him
(because of his ego) but ironicallyends up being a Fool himself, speaking like one.
Fools are kings and kings are fools.

VII- STYLISTIC FEATURES

- Alliteration and assonance : repetition of the same sound in a group of words.
Repetition of sounds. We two alone will sing like birds i’the cage : « i » sound for
alliteration and « w » for assonance.
- Simile : figure of speech that compares two unlike things. They use words « like »,
« as » but also use words that indicate explicit comparison : « A woman is like a tea
bag ». It functions sometimes like metaphors but metaphors are less explicit a
comparison. If in simile A and B are set side by side, metaphor is implicit comparison.
« The world is your osyter ». As flies to wanton boys, are we to the gods/They kill us
for their sport » (4.1). Mankind is compared to insignificant flies that young boys kill
for fun. This is a nihilistic view of life on earth : nothing has any inherent meaning or
value. Lear and Cordelia are compared to two caged birds who will continue to sing
and enjoy each other’s company even though in prison. This implies a joyful
imprisonment, another apparent paradox.

- Allusion : intertextual ; unexplained reference to someone or something outside the

text. The allusion can be direct or undirect. Allusion is made up of citation (quotation
of a relevant author or source ; parody which consists in imitating an author or style
with the intent to ridicule ; pastiche : imitating an author or style with the intent to
celebrate. The play makes some allusions to the source material of the play,
Holinshed’s Chronicles, Edmund’ Spenser’s The Faerie Queene, Philip Sydney’s The
Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia and political tracts written by King James I.
 - Motif : it is an element or repeated patterns that recurs throughout the play. It can
be related symbol which help develop the central themes. Related to themes and
symbols. It consist in images and symbols in Act one scene 4.
- Mood : general atmosphere of emotional complexion and feelings the work evokes
(Act 1 scene 1/ A King who behaves erratically and with impunity and disregards the
advice of his most faithful advisors.
- Hyperbole : Regan and Goneril’s expression of love is exagerated.
- Imagery : a) animals: Animal imagery is pervasive all through the play. It interrogates
whether mankind is anything « more » than animal after all : savage or carnivorous
beasts associated to Regan and Goneril. Thes two characters are clearly the
antagonistic figures. Other characters are either their helps, their opponents or
victims of their attacks. b) decaying bodies : lots of metaphors about physical disease,
aging bodiesand decaying corpes. Goneril and Regan are compared to ailments of his
[Lear’s] own body suggesting their parasitical nature and drain on his power. In early
modern England, a king’s body was often used as a metaphor for his kingdom. That
Lear is « sick » suggests a similar fate for Britain as turmoil among Lear’s family
members increases.
- Metaphors : Gloucester compares Goneril and Regan to carnivorous beasts by a
metonymic « cruel nails ». Other metaphors and similes :
a) Lear’s threat when Kent tries to dissuade the king to disown Cordelia, Lear says :
« Come not between the dragon and his wrath « (2.4) By comparing himself to a
dragon, an angry dragon, we have a clear case of a metaphor. Ironically enough,
we see a poor picture of him in Act 3. These threats symbolize a lack of self-
knowledge : he lacks wisdom, humility, political insightfulness. This self
awareness is responsible for his demise.
b) The fool’s warning : in 2.4 the Fool compares fortune to a fickle woman who
never turns the key to the poor. Lear is unlikely to recover and enjoy power once
more.

- Parody : mimic the style of another work, artist or genre in an exagerated way usually
for comic effect. Act 3 scene 6 : Arraign her first … judgement (trial)
- Personification : Act 2 scene 3 : all weary and o’rewatched, take advantage heavy
eyes, ot to behold. This shameful ledging … Thy wheel based on chronicle. EX O me,
my heart ; my rising heart ! but down. [= Oh, my heart, my heart is rising into my
throat ! Stay down, heart.] The Storm is personified by Lear as a raging emperor.
CONCLUSION
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