Chapter 11
Chapter 11
Chapter 11
Introduction to
Machine Tools
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A machine, which performs the material removing operation with tools, to produce desired
shape and size of the work piece, is known as machine tool. The various types of machine
tools commonly used in manufacturing are: Lathe, Shaper, Planer, Drilling machine,
Grinding machine, Milling machine, Sawing machine and there may still be several
machines to serve special purposes.
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Just as various speeds are required to revolve the work, the cutting tool must also move
along at different speeds. This movement is known as the feed.
4. Carriage: The carriage is a moving part that slides over the way between the headstock
and the tailstock and consists of an assembly of the cross-slide, tool post, and apron. The
cutting tool is mounted on the tool post usually with a compound rest that swivels for tool
positioning and adjustment. The cross-slide moves radially in and out, thus controlling
the radial position of the cutting tool, as in facing operations. This motion provides depth
of cut when turning a cylinder. The apron is equipped with mechanism for both manual
and mechanized movement of the carriage and the cross-slide by means of the lead
screw.
5. Feed Rod: The feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the headstock. It rotates
during operation of the lathe and provides movement to the carriage and cross-slide
by means of gears, a friction clutch and a keyway along the length of rod.
6. Lead Screw: The lead screw is used for cutting threads. The motion from the spindle
motor is transmitted to the carriage through a lead screw. Engagement of the lead
screw with the carriage is through the use of a half nut. Though the lead screw can
be used for feeding the cutting tool in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation,
many a times, a separate feed rod is provided for this function. The main reason is
that the lead screw is more accurate and is sparingly used only for thread cutting,
such that it maintains its accuracy.
4. Mandrels: Mandrels are placed inside hollow work pieces and are used to hold
workpieces that require machining on both end and on their cylindrical surfaces.
This is an accurately ground cylindrical bar, made in various diameters and lengths
as shown in Fig. 11.4. A mandrel of suitable diameter can be driven with sufficient
force into the bore of the work to withstand the cutting action without slipping when
the mandrel is mounted in between lathes centres. The accuracy of the work depends
on the mandrel running true between the lathe centre.
Fig. 11.4 Various types of mandrels to hold Work pieces for turning. These mandrels
are usually mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a) both the
cylindrical as well as the end faces of the work piece can be machined,
whereas in (b) and (c) only the cylindrical surfaces can be machined.
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5. Carrier: When a square bar is revolving between the centres, a carrier must be
clamped on it and engaged with a projecting dog on the catch plate. Three types of
lathe carriers are shown in Fig. 11.5. There are several types of carrier, which are
being made by drop forging with various sizes of holes to accommodate different bar
diameters. Hardened steel screws with square heads are provided to tighten on to
the bar as shown in Fig. 11.5. It has a wide range of features to prevent vibration,
while on intermittent cutting and also available to prevent shock and inaccurate
work.
Fig. 11.5 Types of lathe carriers. These are generally drop-forgings with holes
of varying sizes to take bars of different diameters
6. Collet: A collet is basically a longitudinally split taper bushing. The work piece is
placed inside the collet, and the collet is pulled or pushed into the spindle by mechanical
means as shown in Fig. 11.6. Collets are used for round workpieces as well as other
shapes such as square, hexagonal, etc. The advantage of using a collet over a three
jaw chuck or four jaw chuck is that the collet grips nearly all the circumference of
the part, and is particularly suited for parts with small cross-section.
Fig. 11.6 (a) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The Work piece is placed
in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces the collet are forced inward by
pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (b) A push-out type collet
The following are the most common types of operation performed on the drilling machine:
1. Drilling: Drilling is the operation of making circular holes in the workpiece.
2. Boring: Boring is the operation of increasing the diameter of a hole previously formed
in some way not necessarily by drilling.
3. Reaming: Reaming is an operation used to make an existing hole dimensionally
more accurate than can be obtained by drilling alone and to improve its surface
finish.
4. Tapping: Internal threads in workpieces can be produced by tapping. Tapping may
be done by hand or in drilling machine or lathes, using tapping heads to hold the
tap.
5. Counter boring: Enlarging the entry of a drilled hole. In other words, counter
boring produce depressions on the surface to accommodate the heads of screws and
bolts. Countersinking produces inclined sides of depression for screw heads.
Fig. 11.9 shows different operations on drilling machine. The cutting end of the drill
is shown on larger scale in the same figure.
11.4 PLANER
The planer is also called a planning machine. Planning is a relatively simple cutting process
by which flat surfaces, as well as various cross-sections with grooves and notches, are
produced along the length of the workpiece.
Planer is a large machine tool used for machining flat surfaces by means of single point
cutting tools, on large size work pieces. In a planer, the workpiece is mounted on table that
reciprocates along a straight path. A horizontal cross-rail, which can be moved vertically
along the ways in the column, is equipped with one or more tool heads. The cutting tools
are attached to the heads and machining is done along a straight path. Because of the
reciprocating motion of the workpiece, elapsed non-cutting time during the return stroke is
significant in planning. Fig. 11.10 shows the arrangement of planning machine. The
principal parts of a planer are: bed, table, housing or columns, cross-rail, tool heads, etc.
Planers may be used in medium and heavy engineering plants for single piece and small
lot production and also in repair shops.
3. Pit planner.
4. Edge or plate planner.
5. Divided table planner.
The double housing planner is commonly used in engineering industries.
11.5 SHAPER
The shaper is also known as shaping machine. Shaping differ from planning in that it is
carried out on small areas. Metal cutting by shaping is basically the same as in planning.
In a horizontal shaper the tool travels along a straight path and workpiece is stationary.
It contrasts with planner in that the job in planer reciprocates and tool remains
stationary.
Shaper is mainly used for producing plane surface by means of a single point tools. In
shaping, a tool is given a reciprocating motion. The flat surfaces may be horizontal, inclined
or vertical. A shaper is shown in Fig. 11.11.
The shaper and planner operations differ as shown in Fig. 11.12. The shaper and
planner use single point tools. The tool is carried on the rigid arm or “ram” moving horizontally
and located within the body. A rocker ram furnishes a constant thrust during cutting.
Regulation of the stroke during operation is perfectly feasible. The tool-box is secured on
the ram, and can be set to angular graduations up to 45 deg. each side of the vertical. The
table is furnished with slots to secure the parts to be shaped.
The ram motion gives the cutting movement. The table is movable vertically according
to the type of work, or transversely to provide the feed movement and ram is especially set
to give the desired cut, but, for vertical surfaces, a vertical-feed movement is given to the
tool. Surfaces at an angle can also be shaped if the tool is correctly adjusted to the proper
angle. The stroke of the ram is governed by the length of the surface to be shaped. The
center of the stroke is controlled by a connecting rod moving in a slot in the ram. The stroke
length may be modified if required. The shaper begins to cut and finishes cutting more
slowly than in between, so that the cutting tool is not too severely stressed when entering
the work.
The bed also carries a saddle-supported work table raised or lowered to suit the height
of the work. Drive is by belt, hydraulic cylinder or electric motor. The table can be moved
laterally, either manually or automatically, along the saddle at regular intervals for shaping.
A quick return motion mechanism (Fig. 11.13) gives shaper ram a reciprocating motion.
The tool cuts only in forward motion, starting slowly and ending the cut slowly. In between
the tool moves faster. The return stroke is faster than cutting stroke. It saves time. A circular
disc, A (normally a gear) rotates uniformly about centre C and carrier an eccentric point E
which carries a rectangular block. This block slides in a slot in arm BD. The arm is connected
to pin at D which is on ram. As the arm swings between extreme positions BD and BF, the
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOLS 237
ram and hence tool reciprocate. From D to F, tool has return stroke taking less time than for
forward motion from F to D. As the pin rotates in a circle, the arm BD oscillates between BD
and BF. The forward or cutting stroke takes time of rotation of disc over angle 360º–angle
GCH. This angle is greater than angle GCH. The return stroke, in which tool does not cut
takes time for disc to rotate through angle GCH. Thus return strokes is faster. The cutting
force is obtained from force exerted by arm BD at D.
Fig. 11.13 The diagram shows the principle of the Whit Worth quick-return motor for
shaping machines.
11.6 SLOTTER
A slotter is a heavy duty shaping machine in which the cutting tool moves vertically. It is
also known as slotting machine. The machine operates in similar to the shaper, however,
the tool moves vertically rather than in a horizontal direction. The job is held stationary.
The slotter has a vertical ram, mounted on an independent bearing, the upper part of
which is pivoted, to shift the ram in any angular position. A slotter performs a variety of
operation, such as the finishing of external and internal plain surface as shown in
Fig. 11.14.
The main parts of slotter are; bed, column, cross-slide, table and ram, etc.
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOLS 239
11.6.1 Specification
1. Maximum stroke.
2. Diameter of circular table.
3. Transverse movement of table.
4. Longitudinal movement of table.
5. Swing of ram.
6. Number of speeds.
7. Maximum drawing force.
8. Motor for drive of machine.
9. Floor space required by machine.
10. Width and spacing of T-slots.
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11.7 MILLING
Milling is a method of giving a specific shape or form to metal by cutting them with relatively
slowly revolving tools, commonly known as milling cutters. The milling operation is quicker
and more accurate in forming surface than shaping and planning. Of course milling
operations are many more than surfacing.
Basically milling machine is a machine tool in which metal is removed by means of a
revolving cutter. A milling cutter has a series of cutting edge on its circumference. Each
edge acts as an individual cutter during the cycle of rotation. The work may be fed to the
cutter, longitudinally, transversely, or vertically. The cutter is set to a certain depth of cut
by raising the table. The milling machine itself can be roughly described as a machine in
which the work to be milled is affixed to a movable table and passed under a revolving
cutter. In this way both plain and irregular surface can be formed by milling machine as
shown in Fig. 11.15. It was invented by Eli Whitney in 1818. Milling machine is employed
for machining flat surfaces, surface of revolution, external and internal threads and helical
surfaces of various cross-sections.
Some milling operations are shown in Fig. 11.16.
The same figure shows the geometry of cutter. A face milling cutter can cut both vertical
and horizontal surfaces. An end milling cutter can produce large recess or a slot.
This machine is suitable in tool room work due to its variety of operations and better
surface finish. The milling machines are of various types and can be grouped under four
main headings:
1. Universal milling machine,
2. Plain milling machine,
3. Vertical milling machine,
4. Manufacturing millers.
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Fig. 11.17 Turning, facing, boring, and related processes typically done on a
lathe. The arrows indicate the motion of the tool relative to the work
The basic lathe machining processes are: turning (plain and taper); facing, shoulder,
contour and form turning; parting and necking; boring and drilling, taper boring and
internal forming on internal cylindrical surface; external and internal threading and
knurling on outside surface. These are shown in Fig. 11.17.
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1. Facing: Facing is the producing of a flat surface as the result of the tool being fed
across the end of the rotating workpiece. The cutting speed should be determined
from the largest diameter of the surface to be faced. Facing may be done either from
the outside to centre or from the centre to outward. The cutting force tends to push
the tool away from the work, it is usually desirable to clamp the carriage to the lathe
bed during each facing cut to prevent it from moving slightly and thus producing a
surface that is not flat. In facing, the tool feeds perpendicular to the axis of the
rotating workpiece as shown in Fig. 11.18(a)
Fig. 11.18
2. Turning: Turning constitutes the majority of lathe work. Turning is the process of
machining external cylindrical and conical surfaces. In turning processes, the
workpiece is rotated about machine axis and a single point tool is fed along the axis.
If good finish and accurate size are desired, one or more roughing cuts usually are
followed by one or more finishing cut. Roughing cut may be as heavy as the machine
may permit.
Finishing cuts are light, usually being less than 0.375 mm indepth with the feed as
fine as necessary to give the desired finish. Sometimes a special finishing tool is
used, but often the same tool is used for both roughing and finishing cuts. In turning
the primary cutting motion is rotational with the tool feeding parallel to the axis of
rotation as shown in Fig. 11.8(b). The length of cut is the distance traveled parallel
to the axis, plus some allowance.
If the tool is fed at an angle to the axis of rotation, an external conical surface
results that is known as taper turning. Such motion of tool is obtained through
cross-slide.
3. Boring: Boring involves the enlarging of an existing hole, which may have been
made by a drill. Essentially, boring is internal turning. Boring can use single-point
cutting tools to produce internal cylindrical or conical surfaces. It does not create the
hole but rather machines or enlarges the hole to a specific size. Boring can be done
on most machine tools that can do turning.
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When boring is done in a lathe, the work usually is held in chuck or on a face plate.
Holes may be bored straight or tapered. Fig. 11.18(c) shows that an internal hole of
diameter D2 is being enlarged to hole of diameter D1. The cutting tool in form of a bit
is carried at the end of a cylindrical bar which does not rotate. The top of the tool bit
is at a radius of D1/2 and diameter of bar is less than the diameter D1. The boring
bar may be carried in tail stock or in tool post.
Fig. 11.18
Fig. 11.18(e) Examples of diagonal knurling and serrating. The burring action of tool A
produces a series of fine grooves in the material: it can also
produce straight serrations along the axis on the surface.
Lathe provided the first method for cutting threads by machining. Although most
threads are now produced by other methods, lathe still provides the most versatile
and fundamentally simple method. Consequently, lathe is used for cutting threads
on special workpieces where the configuration or nonstandard size does not permit
them to be made by less costly method.
External threads can be cut with the work mounted either between centres or held
in check. For internal threads, the work must be held in a chuck. The cutting tool
usually is checked for shape and alignment by means of a threa template.
If the tool is fed radially, cutting takes place simultaneously on both sides of the V-
shaped tool. Proper speed ratio between the spindle and lead screw is set by means
of the gear box. Modern lathes have ranges of ratios available so that nearly all
standard threads can be cut merely by setting the proper leverson the quick change
gear box.
Thread cutting on lathe is shown in Fig. 11.19. The arrangement shows the cylindrical
job held between centres and a V-tool supported in tool holder perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the job. The head stock spindle is connected to the lead screw
through a gear train in which middle gear is idle. For each rotation of spindle the
lead screw has a fixed number of rotation and causes the carriage and hence tool to
move through a fixed distance. The tool is given a transverse feed equal to the depth
of the thread and thus the thread is cut as job rotates.
The thread is a standard feature defined by pitch (or number of threads per mm),
the angle of V and depth of V. The tool is ground to required angle and checked on
thread gauge.
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A cutting tool may be single point or multipoint. Single point cutting tool has a
wedge like action, wedging between workpiece surface and chip and is used in turning,
shaping, boring, slotting etc. A multipoint cutting tool having two or more cutting points is
used in such cutting processes as milling, broaching etc.
Two basic cutting processes are identified as orthogonal (or two dimensional) and
oblique (or three dimensional).
In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is at right angle to its motion. In
oblique cutting the edge of the tool is inclined to the direction of relative motion at angles
less than 90º. Fig. 11.20 illustrates two types of cutting.
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The orthogonal cutting is confined to such operations as turning, broaching and slotting.
Bulk of machining involves, oblique cutting.
Tool angles
A – front rake angle
B – lip angle
C – front clearance angle
D – side rake angle
E – side clearance angle
F – side cutting edge angle
G – end cutting edge angle
H – nose angle
11.9.2 Chips
The removal of material in metal cutting process is in form of chips. Chip is a form of
material to be discarded (waste) but since volume may be large, they can be collected and
disposed off in a useful way. Chips can be collected by allowing gravity to drop them on a
steel conveyor belt, dragging the chips from a settling tank, using magnetic conveyors (for
ferrous chips), or using vacuum methods of removal. It should be noted that there is a
considerable amount of cutting fluid mixed in with the chips produced, and proper filtration
or draining is important. These systems usually require considerable floor space;
consequently, modern machine tools are designed with automated chip handling features.
The collected chips may be dumped (provided they are free of harmful chemical
components or fluids) or they may be recycled. Prior to their being hauled away from a
manufacturing plant, the large volume of chips can be reduced to as little as one-fifth of
the loose volume by compaction (crushing). Dry chips are more valuable for recycling in
foundries. The final method of chip disposal depends on economics as well as meeting local,
state, and federal regulations.
Three types of chips are obtained from metal cutting process i.e. when a cutting tool
cuts through the surface of metallic workpiece. These are:
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with built up edge
1. Discontinuous Chip: The chips are small individual segments which may adhere
loosely to each other. These segments are regularly formed due to the rapture of the
metal ahead of the tool. The repture of metal takes place when the metal directly
above the cutting edge gets compressed as shown in Fig. 11.22(a). The metals like
cast iron and brass casting produce discontinuous chips. The factors responsible for
the formation of discontinuous chips are:
(i) Brittle and non-ductile metals.
(ii) Low cutting speed.
(iii) Small rake angle.
2. Continuous Chip: Such chips are ribbon like in the form of long coils having the
same thickness throughout the length of the coil. The chips are produced due to
continuous plastic deformation of the metal along the shear plane without rupture.
Continuous chips are obtained at high speeds when the surface finish improves. A
continuous chip is shown in Fig. 11.18(b). The factors responsible for continuous
chips are given below:
(i) Ductile material
(ii) High cutting speed
(iii) Large rake angle
(iv) Sharp cutting edge
(v) Low friction at tool chips interface
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Low carbon steel copper, brass and alloys of Al produce continuous chips. These
chips continuously rub against tool causing heat generation and power loss. The
tool is also damaged.
3. Continuous Chip with Built up Edge: Such chips also appear in the form of
long coils, but they are not as smooth as in continuous chip formation. On closely
observing the cutting edge of the tool a small lump of metal welded to the chip tool
contact area can be located at cutting edge. Some material also remains welded to
workpiece surface resulting in poor finish. This kind of chips are formed due to high
pressure at the cutting edge. The lump of metal is known as built-up edge. Factor
responsible for continuous chips with built up edge are:
(i) Ductile material
(ii) Coarse feed
(iii) Small rake angle
(iv) Low cutting speed
(v) Insufficient coolant
Continuous chips have to be broken from time to time. Their continuous formation is
clumsy and rubbing with tool wastes power and causes damage to tool.
QUESTIONS
1. What is turning operation? On what machine turning is performed? Describe leading
parts of the machine used for turning.
2. What function does a chuck perform in lathe machine? Sketch a 3-jaw chuck holding a
cylindrical workpiece being cut by a tool.
3. Sketch a tailstock and explain its function. What is a live centre and when do you use it in
turning?
4. What are mandrels? Describe solid, gang and cone mandrels?
5. Figure below shows turning operation on a lathe. Identify the parts marked from 1 to 10.
What other operations can be performed on lathe.
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOLS 253
9. Sketch a planer and explain how does a planer differ from a shaper. Make a list of
specifications of a planer and another list of operations.
10. Two views (elevation and side view) of a metal cutting machine are shown in figure below.
Identify the machine and parts marked. The arrow on part two indicates reciprocating
motion. How is this motion obtained. Sketch the mechanism name it and describe it.
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11. Differentiate between a slotter and a shaper. Give specification of both machines. Which
will be preferred for making a keyway?
12. Sketch a milling machine and show leading parts.
What operations are carried out on milling machine?
What is the difference between a milling cutter and a lathe tool?
Which tool is similar to that used on shaper and planer?
13. Describe types of cutting and show them on sketch. What are the characteristics of single
point tool?
14. Three figures (a) (b) and (c) show metal cutting operations. On which machine they are
performed? Identify the operations?