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Sensors & Transducers Journal (ISSN 2306-8515) is a peer review international journal published monthly online by International Frequency Sensor
Association (IFSA). Available in both: print and electronic (printable pdf) formats. Copyright © 2013 by International Frequency Sensor Association.
All rights reserved.
 Sensors & Transducers Journal

Contents
Volume 150 www.sensorsportal.com ISSN 2306-8515
Issue 3 e-ISSN 1726-5479
March 2013

Research Articles

Review of RDC Soft Computing Techniques for Accurate Measurement

of Resolver Rotor Angle
Chandra Mohan Reddy Sivappagari, Nagabhushan Raju Konduru .......................................... 1

Flexible Tactile Sensor Based on Conductive Rubber and Sensing Mechanism

Shanhong Li, Yubing Wang, Huibin Cao, Junxiang Ding, Feng Shuang, Yunjian Ge............... 12

The Study of Decoupling Methods for a Novel Tactile Sensor Based

on BP Neural Network
Feilu Wang, Xuekun Zhuang, Xin Sun, Quangjun Song, Hongqing Pan, Yong Yu,
Feng Shuang.............................................................................................................................. 18

Improving the Accuracy of the Single Chip Impedance Analyzer

for Sensor Applications
Bohdan Stadnyk and Yuriy Khoma ............................................................................................ 27

Design and Development of a Pressure Transmitter Using Modified Inductance

Measuring Network and Bellow Sensor
Venkata Lakshmi Narayana K. and Bhujanga Rao A. ............................................................... 32

Study on Single Plane Ultrasonic and Electrical Capacitance Sensor

for Process Tomography System
Muhammad Jaysuman Pusppanathan, Nor Muzakkir Nor Ayob, Fazlul Rahman Yunus,
Shafishuhaza Sahlan, Khairul Hamimah Abas, Herlina Abdul Rahim, Ruzairi Abdul Rahim,
Fatin Aliah Phang 40

A Mixture Approach of Data Fusion and Reliability in Wireless Sensor Network

Dequan Yang 46

Temperature Distribution Measurement Based on ML-EM Method Using Enclosed

Acoustic CT System
Shinji Ohyama, Masato Mukouyama ......................................................................................... 51

Development of Noise Measurements. Part 1. Fluctuations and Thermodynamics,

Proper Noise and Thermometry
Svyatoslav Yatsyshyn, Bohdan Stadnyk, Zenoviy Kolodiy ........................................................ 59

Effect of Design Geometry on the Performance Characteristics of Linear Variable

Differential Transformers
Mohammad Kilani, Sinan Taifour and Lutfi AL-Sharif................................................................ 66

A Balancing Algorithm in Wireless Sensor Network Based on the Assistance

of Approaching Nodes
Chengpei Tang, Jiao Yin, Yu Dong............................................................................................ 72
 Experimental Videogrammetry and Accelerometry for the 2D Analysis
of Human Motion
Daniel Côrrea and Alexandre Balbinot....................................................................................... 79

Design of A Novel Gait Simulator for Rehabilitation Training

Yongjiu Liu, Quanjun Song, Buyun Wang, Yanyang Liu, Yuman Nie, Hui Wang
and Feng Shuang....................................................................................................................... 90

Simulation Study of Bubble Detection Using Dual-Mode Electrical Resistance

and Ultrasonic Transmission Tomography for Two-Phase Liquid and Gas
Fazlul Rahman Mohd Yunus, Noor Azida Noor Azlan, Nor Muzakkir Nor Ayob,
Muhammad Jaysuman Pusppanathan, Mohd Fahajumi Jumaah, C. L Goh,
Ruzairi Abdul Rahim, Anita Ahmad, Yusri Md Yunus, Herlina Abdul Rahim............................. 97

Monitoring and Control of Agriculture Parameters in a Greenhouse through Internet

Abhfeeth K. A., D. Ezhilarasi...................................................................................................... 106

Magnetic Induction Tomography Modeling In Biological Tissue Imaging Using Two-

Port Network Technique
Muhammad Saiful Badri Mansor, Mohd. Fahjumi Jumaah, Zulkarnay Zakaria,
Ruzairi Abdul Rahim, Nor Muzakkir Nor Ayob, Khairul Hamimah Abbas,
Siti Zarina Mohd Muji, Sazali Yaacob, Herlina Abdul Rahim, Leow Pei Ling ............................ 112

An Optical Fiber Read Out Method for a Reflective Microcantilever Biosensor

Feng Wen, Yuejin Zhao, Xiaomei Yu, Cheng Gong. ................................................................. 120

An Immunity-based Ant Colony Optimization Topology Control Algorithm

for 3D Wireless Sensor Networks
Dequan Yang ............................................................................................................................. 125

Authors are encouraged to submit article in MS Word (doc) and Acrobat (pdf) formats by e-mail: [email protected]
Please visit journal’s webpage with preparation instructions: http://www.sensorsportal.com/HTML/DIGEST/Submition.htm

International Frequency Sensor Association (IFSA).

 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

Sensors & Transducers

© 2013 by IFSA
http://www.sensorsportal.com

Effect of Design Geometry on the Performance

Characteristics of Linear Variable
Differential Transformers
1
Mohammad KILANI, 2 Sinan TAIFOUR and 3 Lutfi AL-SHARIF
1
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
Tel.: +962 6 5355000, ext. 23025
2
Technische Universität München, Arcisstrasse 21, 80333 Munich, Germany
Tel.: +49 157 785 62559
3
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
Tel.: +962 6 5355000, ext. 22993
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Received: 29 November 2012 /Accepted: 19 March 2013 /Published: 29 March 2013

Abstract: The effect of design geometry on the output voltage, linearity and sensitivity of linear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs) is presented. The effect of varying six geometric design parameters, including
primary coil length, secondary coil length, inner and outer coil radii, and the length and radius of the core, on the
transfer characteristics of LVDT is investigated using Finite element simulations. Output voltage vs. core
displacement figures are used to determine the effect of the parameters investigated on the stroke and sensitivity.
Copyright © 2013 IFSA.

Keywords: Linear variable differential transformer, Transducer, Sensor, Displacement, Sensitivity, Stroke,
Finite element modeling.

1. Introduction the induced voltage associated with one secondary

coil increases while the other decreases, with the
A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) difference between the two varying linearly with
is an inductive transducer whose input is the linear displacement. The range over which the output
displacement of a core and whose output is a pair of voltage varies linearly distance is known as the linear
ac voltages proportional to core displacement from a stroke of the LVDT, or simply the stroke, s.
null point [1]. A typical LVDT consists of a single Compared to potentiometric displacement
primary winding positioned between two identical transducers, LVDTs provide the advantages of
secondary windings wound on a tubular frictionless operation, infinite mechanical life,
ferromagnetic former. Fig. 1 shows a schematic excellent resolution and good repeatability [1]. Their
representation of an LVDT with the primary coil main disadvantage is that there response is dynamic
energized by an external harmonic reference source, and is influenced by the exciting frequency. In
and the two secondary coils connected in series practice a signal conditioning IC such as AD598 (by
opposition so that the induced output voltages oppose Analog Devices, Inc.) is used to convert the
each other. As the core moves inside the windings, sinusoidal differential to a dc voltage proportional to

66 Article number P_1158

 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

the armature displacement. LVDTs are often used as In use, the transducer body is clamped in position
secondary transducers whereby a primary transducer while the extension rod is attached to the component
converts the measured quantity (pressure, being measured. When the core is at the center
acceleration, or force) into displacement [2, 3]. position (null position) between the coils, the output
voltages from the two secondary windings cancel one
another. A displacement, x, of the core from the
Vs center position offsets the balance between the
windings and results in a non-zero differential
Displacement voltage, which is used to measure the displacement.
Electrical connections to the internal windings of the
transducer normally emerge through the side of the
Va Vb casing in a multi-core cable.

Vo cs cs
ls lp ls
Fig. 1. Operating principle of an LVDT [1]. ro

ri
LVDT design parameters include geometric lc 2rc
dimensions and material properties. This work
investigates the effect of geometric parameters on the
output voltage, sensitivity and stroke. The classical ws
method of analysis is based on approximate formulas
ws
which neglect end effects, and cross-coupling
Secondary Primary Secondary
between secondaries [4]. More novel methods for
analysis employ finite element methods [5, 6], and Fig. 2. A cross section through a representative LVDT
artificial neural networks [7, 8]. The dynamic showing relevant dimensions.
response of the LVDT is discussed in [9]. The LVDT
has also been integrated into linear actuators [10].
This work utilizes finite element simulations to 3. Methodology
investigate the effect of dimensional parameters on
the output voltage, stroke and sensitivity of an The effect of varying the six geometric design
LVDT. parameters on the output voltage, stroke and
sensitivity is investigated in this work using finite
element simulations. A finite element model for the
2. LVDT Construction and Design LVDT was constructed to simulate the effect of
Parameters varying each of the six geometric parameters on
transfer characteristics. Table 1 shows the default
Fig. 2 shows a cross-sectional view of a values and range of each of the investigated
representative LVDT illustrating its components and parameters.
geometric dimensions. It consists of a cylindrical
transformer, with a single primary coil of length lp
and two secondary coils of length ls each. All three Table 1. Default values and range of geometric
coils are wound onto a hollow cylindrical bobbin, parameter considered.
with a resulting inner coil radius ri and an outer coil
radius ro. A moveable core with length lc and radius Default Range
Parameter
value (mm) (mm)
rc is fitted concentrically within the bobbin, and is
Primary coil length, lp 80 26 – 133
free to move axially within the body. One end of the Secondary coil length, ls 75 36 – 125
core is normally fixed to an extension rod which Coils’ inner radius, ri 10 4.8 – 6.7
emerges through the end of the transducer. The Coils’ outer radius, ro 35 16.8 – 58.3
separation distance between the coils, cs, is Core length, lc 130 62 – 216
determined by the thickness of the former on which Core radius, rc 4.5 2.1 – 7.5
the coils are wound, and the center-to-center distance
between the wires in the coils, ws is determined by
the thickness of the wire insulation. The diameter of The Finite Element Method Magnetics (FEMM)
the coil wires determines the overall resistance of the software [11] was used to construct and simulate the
coil, and is not considered a geometric design FEM models. Since the problem is axially symmetric
parameter. The remaining six geometric dimensions, around the axis of the core, a 2D model for half of the
i.e., lp, ls, lc, ri, ro, and rc are free to be specified by LVDT’s cross section, as shown in Fig. 3, was
the designer. The effect of these parameters is sufficient to fully represent the 3D problem. The
investigated in this work. material of the core is assumed to be pure iron, with a

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 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

relative permeability μr = 14×103. A sinusoidal [12] code was used to control the calls to FEMM for
waveform with frequency f = 50 Hz was applied to value of x.
the primary coil to achieve a peak current of
I = 50 mA. The geometric parameters cs and ws were
assumed to be 5 mm and 0.3 mm, respectively. 4. Results and Discussion
To investigate the effect of a certain geometric
parameter, the parameter of interest was varied in the A large number of FEM simulations were carried
model through its range, while all other parameters out to investigate the effect of each geometric
kept constant at their default value. The dc output parameters of interest on the transfer characteristics
voltage Vo vs. core displacement x for each parameter of LVDTs. Fig. 4, Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show,
set was obtained by finding the total flux linkage respectively, the effect of these parameters on the
between the primary coil and each of the two output voltage Vo, stroke, s, and sensitivity, σ, for the
secondaries, Mps1 and Mps2, for the range of x using same values of primary coil current, frequency, and
the FEMM simulations. The amplitudes of the two LVDT magnetic material properties.
secondary ac voltages vs1 and vs2 for each x were then Fig. 4 shows a plot of Vo vs. core displacement, x,
calculated from Farady’s law as: from the center position (null position of the LVDT).
It can be seen that Vo (x) follows a generally
(1) sinusoidal profile with the axis of symmetry of the
sinusoidal waveform at the origin. Both the
amplitude and the period of the sinusoid changes
where si and Mpsi are, the total flux linkage and the with LVDT geometry, but the relative amount of
mutual inductance between the primary coil and each variation differs depending on the variable under
of the secondaries. It is assumed that the two ac investigation. Both s and σ are therefore influenced
signals from the two secondary coils are processed by by the geometry as discussed next.
a full wave rectifier, which smoothes the signals The stroke, s, of an LVDT is defined as the range
before subtracting them and hence the dc output of x over which Vo (x) changes linearly with x [1].
voltage Vo at a core displacement x is calculated as Since Vo (x) follows a generally sinusoidal profile, it
the difference between the peak ac voltages of the will inevitably deviate from a straight line, and a
two secondary coils: truly linear range does not exist. The definition of s,
therefore, needs to allow for a nominal deviation
(2) from a linear Vo(x). We define s as the range of x
around the origin over which the percentage non-
LVDT output voltage, Vo vs. core position x for linearity, ε(x) does not exceed 0.5%. The percentage
each parameter set was produced by carrying out a non-linearity at a certain core displacement x, ε(x) is
series of finite element simulations. A MATLAB defined as:

(a) (b)

Fig. 3. Determination of flux linkage between the coils using FEM (a) FEM model, and (b) sample results.

68
 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 4. Vo vs. x for different values of (a) lp, (b) ls, (c) ri, (d) ro, (e) lc, and (f) rc.

certain x lies within s if the following condition is

(3) satisfied:

where a is the slope of Vo (x) at the null point (x = 0)

(5)

(4)
Fig. 5 shows the effect of the investigated
geometric design parameters on s. The plots in Fig. 5
The definition of ε(x) in Eq. (3) assumes prior (a) show the effect of the core and coil lengths lp, ls,
knowledge of s, which is not available. However, lc. on, and show that s increases with each of these
since Vo(x) follows a sinusoidal profile, the deviation parameters. The plot of the s(lp) curve flattens at high
from linearity increases monotonically with x, and a values of lp while the s(ls) flattens at low value of ls.

69
 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

Fig. 5 (b) shows the effects of LVDT’s coil and core characteristics when the amplitude of the primary coil
radii s. The varying range for the variables in the excitation Vi = 1 Volts. It is thus related to a by:
horizontal axis in the different plots is due to the
different ranges considered for the variables (6)
investigated. Fig. 5 (b) shows that s increases with
each of ri and ro and rc, with a change in rc producing The effect of the geometric design parameters on
the most tangible effect on s followed by ri and σ is shown in Fig. (6). Fig. 6 (a) shows that σ
finally ro. increases with ls, and lc, and decreases with lp. The
The sensitivity σ of the LVDT is a measure of the figure also shows that a change in lp produces a
change in Vo (x) for a given change in x, for a given significantly larger change on σ than does a similar
input primary core excitation voltage, Vi. The units of change on ls or lc. Additionally, Fig. 6 (b) shows that
σ are mm-1, and are in many cases cited as σ increases with rc, and ro, and decreases with ri. The
mV/mm/V. The value of σ for an LVDT is the slope relative influence of these parameters is
of Vo (x) at the null point of the transfer approximately equal.

Stroke vs. coils and core lengths Stroke vs. coil radii and core radius
140 110
130
lp 105
120
100 ri
110 lc
Stroke (mm)

Stroke (mm)
95 ro
100
ls
90 90

80 85
rc
70
80
0 50 100 150 200
lp, ls, lc (mm) 0 20 40 60
ri, ro, rc (mm)

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Variation of s with (a) lp, ls, and lc, and (b) ri, ro, and rc.

Sensitivity vs. coils and core lengths

Sensitivity vs. coil radii and core radius
14
30
12
25 lp
sensitivity (mV/mm/V)

10
Sensitivity (mV/m/V)

20
8
15
6
ri
10
ls
4 ro
5 lc rc
2
0
0
0 50 100 150 200
0 20 40 60
lp, ls, lc (mm)
ri, ro, rc (mm)

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Variation of σ with (a) lp, ls, and lc, and (b) ri, ro, and rc.

5. Conclusions simulations. Variables were varied one at a time

while keeping other parameters fixed. Simulation
This work presented an investigation of the effect results show that Vo (x) follows a sinusoidal profile
of varying the six geometric design parameters lp, ls, with x, that s increases with each of lp, ls, lc, ri, ro and
lc, ri, ro and rc on Vo, s and σ of LVDTs using FEM rc, that σ increases with each of ls, lc, ro and rc , and

70
 Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 150, Issue 3, March 2013, pp. 66-71

decreases rapidly with lp with ri. Results also show References

that the s(lp) curve exhibits a flattening behavior at
high values of lp, while the s(ls) exhibits such a [1]. E. Herceg, Handbook of Measurement and Control:
behavior at low value of lp. Simulation results also An authoritative treatise on the theory and application
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example, increasing lp beyond its flattening value Design of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer,
produces little effect on s while adversely influencing in Proceedings of the International Conference on
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Variable Displacement Transducer, Procedia
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Design, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2003.
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ALJ grant through the project No. MC 06192. [11]. Finite Element Method Magnetics
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[12]. Matlab (http://www.mathworks.com).

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This journal is cited, indexed and abstracted by Chemical Abstracts, EBSCO Publishing, IndexCopernicus
Journals Master List, ProQuest Science Journals, CAS Source Index (CASSI), Ulrich's Periodicals Directory,
Scirus, Google Scholar, etc. Since 2011 Sensors & Transducers journal is covered and indexed by EI
Compendex index (including a Scopus, Embase, Engineering Village and Reaxys) in Elsevier products.

Instructions for Authors

Please visit the journal web page http://www.sensorsportal.com/HTML/DIGEST/Submission.htm Authors must

follow the instructions very carefully when submitting their manuscripts. Manuscript must be send electronically
in both: MS Word 2003 for Windows (doc) and Acrobat (pdf) formats by e-mail: [email protected]