CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In the fast-paced realm of electronics, the need for a reliable, adaptable power supply is
paramount. The "0-24 Volt DC Power Supply" project emerges from a recognition of
this essential requirement, seeking to equip electronics enthusiasts and aspiring
engineers with the expertise to design and construct a regulated power supply
encompassing a versatile voltage range.
At its core, this project addresses the evolving landscape of electronic devices and
projects that demand flexible power solutions. The background of this endeavor is
rooted in the understanding that a well-designed power supply is not merely a
supporting actor but a pivotal element influencing the performance and stability of
electronic circuits.
As technology advances, electronic components become more sophisticated, requiring
precise and stable power sources. This project, therefore, delves into the intricacies of
power system design, offering participants a holistic view of the considerations
involved in creating a power supply that can cater to the dynamic needs of modern
electronics.
The background exploration commences with an examination of the fundamental
concepts of voltage regulation, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a steady
voltage output for optimal performance. The project acknowledges the significance of
transformer selection, a critical component influencing the overall efficiency and
capabilities of the power supply.
Furthermore, the background narrative unfolds into the realm of rectification and
filtering, elucidating the role of these processes in converting alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC) with minimal ripple. Participants will delve into the nuances of
choosing suitable filter capacitors and understanding the impact of ripple on electronic
circuits.
A key aspect of this project's background is its commitment to hands-on learning. As
participants progress, they will gain practical insights into soldering techniques, circuit

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assembly, and troubleshooting—a trifecta of skills essential for any electronics
enthusiast.
The project's historical underpinning lies in the evolution of power supply technology.
From the early days of unregulated linear power supplies to the contemporary era of
efficient switching regulators, the background narrative incorporates the advancements
that have shaped the landscape of power electronics.
In essence, the Design and Construction of a 0-24 Volt DC Power Supply project not
only provides a roadmap for building a functional power supply but also serves as a
gateway to understanding the intricate dance between theory and application in the
ever-evolving field of electronics. As we embark on this journey, participants are
invited to explore the rich tapestry of power supply evolution, bridging the past, present,
and future of electronic power systems.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Most of the electronic components operate with D.C power instead of A.C. and the

sources of power we do use in the laboratory and other places as well are A.C so there

is a need to convert the A.C to D.C to be able to use it especially in building electronic

circuit or troubleshooting so circuit. The proposed project design works for the range of

0-24V.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study

The aim of this project work is to design, construct simple 0-24V Variable D.C Power

Supply. The specifics objectives are as follows:

1. Educational Empowerment: Provide a comprehensive educational resource to

empower learners, hobbyists, and electronics enthusiasts with the knowledge and skills
required for understanding, designing, and constructing a versatile 0-24 volt DC power
supply.

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2. Practical Skill Development: Facilitate the development of hands-on skills in
soldering, circuit assembly, and troubleshooting, fostering a practical understanding of
power supply components and their interconnections.

1.4 Significance of the study

A 0-24V Variable D.C Power Supply is a simple circuit that comprises of different

component that are soldered together on a circuit board to give or produce a require

function. Therefore, the importance of this project work is to aid both technicians and

students on how to construct a simple Variable D.C Power Supply circuit and how it

works. It is hoped that after the construction of this Variable D.C Power Supply circuit,

it will be kept on the laboratory to be used for practical and other academic functions.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This project work is limited to the construction and demonstration of a simple 0-24V

Variable D.C Power Supply. The circuit input voltage is 230Volts from the A.C supply

mains which will be stepped down by a step-down transformer to 25Volts. The 25Volts

A.C is rectified through a bridge rectifier and filtered through capacitor connected in

parallel from the positive terminal of the bridge rectifier. The output voltage is fed to

electronic circuit. The project is limited to 0-24V. It is not advisable to use outside 24V.

1.6 Limitation of the Study

During the project work, the researcher encountered the following problems which in

one way or the other have prevented him from completing the work at the stipulated

time. These include: financial problems, time factor and unavailability of material

which the researcher have to move from far distance area in search of electronics

vendors to buy components and other important materials.

1.7 Report Organization

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This project work is organized in the following order.

Chapter one: Chapter one is introduction to the research/project. This chapter is all

about the problems which the project intends to solve and the means through which it

can be solved. The relevance of the project, the scope of the project and finally it’s

limitations.

Chapter two: This chapter is the literature review. It reviews the relevant works other

researchers have done in the field of overhead protection and the problems they are

having in those researchers. It also reviews the available technology through which the

project can be realized and also the characteristics of the components used.

Chapter three: This chapter deals with the methodology and design of the system. The

most important aspect of this chapter is the block diagram of the system. The

mathematical analysis was also carried out here to determine the components on each

block.

Chapter four: This chapter is all about the system implementation and results of texts

carried out on the system. The bill of engineering measurement and evaluation (BEME)

was also carried out here.

Chapter five: Chapter five is the conclusion and recommendations. It summarizes the

research which was done, the result gotten.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of the Components Used

The various components employed in the construction of the uninterruptable automatic
battery charger are as listed below:
 Transformer

 Resistor

 Capacitor

 Voltage regulator

 Diode

 Zener diode

2.2.1 Transformer
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of equipment by which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
A transformer is used either for raising or lowering the voltage of an AC supply with a
corresponding decrease or increase in current. It can change the magnitude of
alternating voltage or current from one value to another.

The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, a transformer consists of two inductive
coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance. Transformers have no moving parts; they are rugged and durable in
construction.
The circuit symbol of a step down transformer which is the type used in this project is
as shown below.

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 Fig. 2.1: Circuit symbol of a transformer
2.2.1.1 Construction of a Transformer
Transformer essentially consists of two windings, the primary and secondary windings,
wound on a common lamination magnetic core. The windings are electrically separated
but magnetically coupled. The winding connected to the source voltage is called the
primary winding and the other winding connected to the load is called the secondary
winding. Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N 1) and the secondary
(N2), an alternating e.m.f (E2) induced in the secondary causes a secondary current (I 2)
to flow in the secondary circuit. Consequently, terminal voltage (V 2) will appear across
the load. If V2>V1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer and if V 2<V1,
then the transformer is called a step-down transformer.

Fig. 2.2: Constructional feature of a transformer

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Function
Is a step down transformer for reducing the high AC voltage to low AC voltage ie from
220volt to approximately 25V.

2.2.2 The Resistor

A resistor is an electronic component or device that possesses a unique resistance or
opposition to the free flow of electric current. Resistors restrict the flow of electrons in a
circuit thereby limiting excessive or unwanted current in the circuit.
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω) and rated in watts (w). They have different
resistance values of which can be read or determined by their codes as each color band
on a resistor represents or depicts a value. This method of reading the value of a resistor
through the color band is known as ’’Resistor Color Code”.

Fig 2.3: Fixed Resistors

2.2.2.1The Resistor Color Code

As explained above, the resistor color code is the method of reading the different values
of resistors through their individual color bands.
As resistance is being measured in ohms, (the symbol for ohm is an omega (Ω) cut out
of the German Physicist George Simon Ohm) resistance values are more referred to in k
Ω because 1 Ω is quite small.

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 Fig. 2.4:
Resistor values are normally shown using the colour bands for reading and usage. Most
resistors have four bands: The first band gives the first digit
The second band gives the second digit
The third band indicates the number of zeros
The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be
required for almost all circuits.

Table 2.1: Resistor Colour Code (their values)

COLOUR NUMBER MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Black 0 0 -
Brown 1 1 ±1
Red 2 2 ±2
Orange 3 3 ±0.05
Yellow 4 4 -
Green 5 5 ±0.5
Blue 6 6 ±0.25
Violet 7 7 ±0.1
Grey 8 8 -
White 9 9 -

In the resistor above, the first band is orange (3), followed by black (0), the third being
red (2 zero’s) and the fourth being the silver band. The value is calculated thus: 1 st Band
– 3; 2nd Band – 0; 3rd Band – 2 (zero multiplier); 4th Band – No value= 3000Ω = 3k Ω

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2.2.2.2 Types of Resistors
The various types of resistors are as follows:
i. Fixed and Variable Resistors
ii. Wire-wound Resistors
iii. The Film Resistor
iv. Carbon/Adjustable Resistor
v. Mounded Resistor
vi. Heating Element Resistor

 Fixed and Variable Resistor

Fixed resistors are those resistors that have a definite and fixed value of resistance
assigned to them during production. These types of resistors cannot have their ohmic
resistance value changed. The variable resistors on the other hand are those resistors
with a band of different ohmic values to be chosen from at any point in time selecting it.

Fig. 2.5 precept resistor

 Carbon Resistor
Carbon resistors consist of finely grounded particles of carbon mixed with an insulating
material; the encapsulation has a set of coloured stripes. Carbon resistors are compact,
robust and relatively cheap to manufacture and are widely used in electronics where the
resistance value is not critical.
Adjustable carbon composition resistor may be found on an insulating base or molded
at a high temperature into a molded plastic of powder.
2.2.2.3 Application of Resistors

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Resistors are often used to control the flow of current in a circuit; they are also widely
used to convert electrical energy into heat or other forms of energy, such devices
include light bulbs, electric stoves and ovens, electric heaters etc.

2.2.2.4 Power Ratings of Resistors

Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits, the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher
power is required, it is clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low
value resistors (less than about 300 Ω) or high voltages (more than 15v). The power p,
developed in a resistor is given by: P = V2/R or P = I2 x R where:

P = Power developed in the resistor in watts (w)

I = Current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = Resistance of the resistor in ohms (Ω)
V = Voltage across the resistor in volts (v)
A resistor is a passive element in which voltage V, across it is directly proportional to
the current through it. This shows that a resistor is a device that obeys ohm’s law.
Below are some symbols of resistors as used in Electrical Engineering.

Fixed Resistor Variable Resistor

Potentiometer
Fig. 2.6: symbols of Resistor

2.2.3 Capacitors
Capacitors store electric charges. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because
it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

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Fig. 2.7: Various Capacitors
2.2.3.1 Capacitance
Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charges can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F,
however, F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes
(multipliers) are used, µ (micro), ñ (nano) and þ (pico).
µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1 000 000 µF = 1F
ñ means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1 000 ñF = 1µF
þ means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1 000 þF = 1ñF

2.2.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round,
at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
It is quite easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly
printed with their capacitance and voltage ratings. They usually possess low voltage
ratings.
Electrolyte capacitor: A capacitor is a two terminal passive component which is made

from two conductive plates with an insulator between them. The main function of a

capacitor is that it stores electrical energy when an electrical charge is forced unto the

terminal from a power source. It maintains the charge even after getting disconnected

from the power source. A capacitor can also used as a filter to allow AC signals and

block DC signals.

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Fig. 2.8 Electrolytic capacitor
2.2.3.3 Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Fig. 2.9 Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large
capacitance is needed in a small size.
Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed out with their capacitance, voltage and
polarity in full. However, older ones use a color-code system which has two stripes (for
the two digits) and a spot of color for the number of zeros to give the value in µF. The
standard color code is used, but the spot, grey is used to mean x0.01 and white means
x0.1 so that the values of less than 10µF can be shown.
A third color stripe near the leads shown the voltage (yellow 6.3v, black 10v, green 16v,
blue 20v, grey 25v, white 30v, pink 35v). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the
spot is facing you; when the spot is in sight, the positive is to right.
Small value capacitors are un-polarized and may be connected either way round. They
are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene).
They have high voltage ratings of at least 50v, usually 250v or so. It can be difficult to

12
find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and
several different labeling systems.
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you
need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be. For example, 0.1
means 0.1 µF = 100ñF. Sometimes, the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
for example – 4ñ7 means 4.7ñF.

2.2.3.4 Capacitor Number Code

Fig. 2.10: Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
The first number is the 1st digit; the second number is the 2 nd digit; the third number is
the number of zeros to give the capacitance in nF.
For example: 102 means 1 000nF = 1ñF (not 102nF); also, 472J means 4700nF = 4.7ñF
(J means 5% tolerance).
2.2.3.5 Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes
called ‘tuning capacitors’. They have very small capacitance values, typically between
100þF and 500þF (100þF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built
in (for making small adjustments) as well as the main variable capacitors.

Fig 2.11: Variable Capacitor

Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is
too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead,

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timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the
time period.

2.2.3.5 Trimmer Capacitors

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to
be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.

Fig. 2.12: Trimmer Capacitor

Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than
100nF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitances to zero, so they are usually specified
by their minimum and maximum values; for example 2 nF – 10nF.
Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.
2.2.4 Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is a device designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage
level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include
negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or
electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies
where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators
control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage
regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all
customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the
line.

2.2.4.1 Types of Voltage Regulators

Electronic Voltage Regulators: A simple voltage regulator can be made from a resistor
in series with a diode (or series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I

14
curves, the voltage across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current
drawn. When precise voltage control is not important, this design may work fine.
Electromechanical Regulators: In electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is
easily accomplished by coiling the sensing wire to make an electromagnet. The
magnetic field produced by the current attracts a moving ferrous core held back under
spring tension or gravitational pull. As voltage increases, so does the current,
strengthening the magnetic field produced by the coil and pulling the core towards the
field.
Coil Rotation Regulators: This is an older type of regulator used in the 1920s that uses
the principle of a fixed-position field coil and a second field coil that can be rotated on
an axis in parallel with the fixed coil.

Fig.2.13: Voltage regulators

huge firmly to the tank or reservoir at the predetermined level to be controlled.
The selection of a probe depends on the type of fluid it is to be used for naturally; the
probe to be used should be one, which would resist corrosion for that particular fluid.
2.2.5.1 Diodes (Rectifying Diodes)
A diode is a two terminal device consisting of a PN junction formed in either crystal
gemination or silicon.
Circuit Symbol

+ -

Diode: It is a device made from semiconductor material that allow the flow current in

one direction and blocks the current which tries to go against the flow in a circuit.

15
 Fig. 2.14 diode

LED: (Light emitting diode): The Led is the alternative of diode, when current is

applied to a LED it emit light at a particular frequency. LED is used in numerous

applications like key board, hard disk, TV remote control and this device are very useful

as indicators in computers as well as battery operated electronics transistors.

2.2.5.2Types of Diode
The diode exist in 3 different form base on current rating as follows:
1. High current diode (As power diodes)
2. Medium current diode
3. Low current diode
More:-Here we are using power diode because of The wide range of current i.e. high
working temperature and high breakdown voltage.
2.2.5.3 Application
i. Use as power is rectifier diode for converting a.c current into d.c for power
supply of electronic urs.
ii. As signal diode in communication circuit for modulation and demodulation
of small signal.
iii. Zener diode in voltage stabilize
iv. In logic circuits used in computer.
v. As varacter diode for voltage control curing circuit found in radius and Tr
receives

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2.2.5.3 Zener Diode
1r is a reverse biased heavily doped PN junction diode which is operated in the
breakdown region where current is limited by both external resistance and power
dissipation of the diode.
Y2 = Zener breakdown voltage
I2 mins = Minimum current to sustain breakdown
12 max = Maximum zener current limited by maximum power
dissipation

Zener Voltage
At a reverse voltage of less than 6r, zener effects occur while ac reverse voltage
above 6v avalanche effect occurs.
Biasing
For proper working of a zener diode in a circuit It must be
1. Reverse biased
2. It must have voltage across It greater than v
3. Be in a circuit where current is less than I2 min.
Uses
1. As voltage regulator
2. As a fixed reference voltage is a network for biasing and comparison
purpose and for calibrating voltmeter.
3. as peak clippers or voltage limiters
4. for meter protection agents damage from accidental application of excessive
voltage
5. For reshaping a waveform.

2.2.6 Transistor
A transistor is a three-terminal device in which current flowing between two
terminals can be controlled by a signal on the third terminal. This means that a
transistor has properties that enable is to be used in an electronic switch or an amplifier.
There are many types of transistor but can be effectively group under two
families.

17
a. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
b. Unipolar or field effect transistor (FET)
We shall consider only the (BJT) as use in the circuit.
A bipolar junction transistor is a current operated device.
The bipolar transistor is a three layer semi conductor device that has three
electrodes, the base, the collector and the emitter. The names of the electrodes come
from the part they play in the operation of the device.
The emitter emits electrons
The collector collects the electrons while
The base controls the flow of electron from emitter to collector
It is a random of doped semi conductor material much that when the failing is of
the n-type material the bread is of the p-type and when the filing is of p-type material
the bread is n – type.
The type of transistor with n-type material as filling is called PNP transistor
while that with p-type material as the filing is called NPN transistor. We get there
names from the arrangement of the material p-type – n – type – p – type give PNP and n
– type – p – type – n – type give NPN. These show that there are two charge carriers
involved hence the name bipolar structure circuit symbol and part name.
Configuration
There are three basic configuration of the transistor.
1. Common base
2. Common Emitter
3. Common Collector
We are concern the common base as use in our circuit.
BC547 transistor: the transistor is an electronic device which consists of three

terminals made of semiconductor material which controls the flow of voltage or current

and act as a switch to electronic signals. The BC547 is a unipoller transistor with two

charge carrier PNP (Positive negative positive) i.e. base, collector, emitter where the

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base terminal is responsible for activating the transistor emitter is negative lead and

collector terminal.

. fig. 2.15 Transistor

2.2.7 Heat sink: this is an electronic device made of aluminum which is used to

absorb thermal emission of heat in a semiconductor material.

Fig. 2.16 Heat sink

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2.2.8 Switch: it is used to break the circuit, interrupting the current and to supply the

current from one conductor to another.

Fig 2.17 Switch

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This is a detailed information gather during practical at the lab. it entails the method

used in the implementation of the 0-24v D.C Variable D.C Power Supply.

3.2 Materials Used

1. LM317 regulator

2. Variable resistor

3. Electrolyte capacitor

4. Fixed resistor

5. Paper capacitor

6. BC547 transistor

7. 24V transformer

8. Heat sink

9. Diode

10. LED

11. Switch

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3.3 System Block Diagram
Before carrying out any project, the block diagram must be drawn and fully understood.
Block diagram gives a pictorial understanding of any work. The block diagram of the
system is as below:

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of DC Regulated Power Supply

• The Transformer: The purpose of the transformer is to bring the ac voltage down to
a safe level.
• The Rectifier Circuit: The rectifier circuit converts ac voltage to dc voltage because
battery is a dc component and it needs dc voltage to charge it.
• Voltage Regulator voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator provides the constant
voltage to charge the battery.

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3.4 System Circuit Diagram

Fig.3.2 the circuit digram

3.5 Circuit Description

This Variable D.C Power Supply design mainly involves two sections – power supply
section and load comparison section.
The main supply voltage 230V, 50Hz is connected to the primary winding of the center
tapped transformer to step down the voltage to 24V.
The output of the transformer is connected to the Diodes D1, D2. Here diodes D1, D2
are used to convert low AC voltage to pulsating DC voltage. This process is also called
as rectification. The pulsating DC voltage is applied to the 2200uF capacitor to remove
the AC ripples. Thus the output of the capacitor unregulated Dc voltage. This
unregulated DC voltage is now applied to the LM317 variable voltage regulator to
provide regulated DC voltage. The output voltage of this voltage regulator is variable
from 1.2V to 24V and the maximum output current from this is 1.5A. The output
voltage of this voltage regulator is varied by varying the pot 10k which is connected to
the adjust pin of LM317 (www.electronicshub.org).
3.6 Equipment/Tools used for the Construction
The following Materials/Tools used for the construction is as listed below.

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  Soldering lead: Used for attaching components to the vero board when
supplied with heat from the soldering iron.
 Jumper wires: These are short wires used in connecting components to
each other.
 Vero board: This is a flat rectangular board where the components are
mounted and soldered into.
 Breadboard: A board where the components used for the construction of
the project are mounted on for testing. After testing and found to be
working, the components are then removed and soldered into the vero
board.
 Electronic components: Comprises all components discussed in chapter
two for the construction of the circuit. They are transformer, LEDs,
capacitors, voltage regulators, 12V battery, resistor, relay, bridge rectifier,
and a USB ports.

The tools/equipment used for this project are as follows:

 Screwdriver set: for driving screws into their various points on the
casing.

 Soldering iron: supplies heat necessary to solder the components of the

circuit into place.
 Lead sucker: this equipment is used to de-solder a joint.
 Multimeter: this meter is used for checking the voltage and current at
each stage of the circuit as well as the ratings of capacitors and resistors
during construction.
 Pliers: for cutting wires.
 Cable stripper: used for the removal of insulators from wires.
 Tape rule: for proper measurement to suit required size.
3.7 Breadboard
The breadboard is a plastic solder less circuit board and electronic connections
inside that is used for constructing circuits on, mainly for testing the circuits. It
is a small rectangular platform with wire insertion holes arranged line by line.

24
 Holes on same line are connected electrically together in series, and are
electrically parallel with holes on the other lines.

Fig. 3.3: breadboard

3.8 Veroboard

The veroboard is the circuit board used for construction of this project. A
Veroboard is expertly constructed using strips of copper clad on a top quality
board featuring a grid pattern of holes spaced 0.1" (or 2.54mm) apart. This design
allows you to solder almost any non-surface mount ICs, resistors, capacitors onto
the Veroboard. The components are placed in the holes of the board and
electrically joined to each other using soldering and lead or connecting wires.

Fig. 3.4 veroboard

25
3.9 Soldering Tools
The soldering iron is a tool that provides heat for melting. It is mostly used for
melting soldering lead to join components together, or to remove already
soldered components with the aid of the lead sucker.
The soldering lead is a metallic lead alloy that can easily be melted and used for
electrical connections.
The lead sucker is a tool for sucking out lead from circuit constructions. The
lead first had to be heated to liquid form before sucking.

Fig. 3.5: soldering tools

3.10 Connecting Wires

The connecting wires are just pieces of conducting wires for joining the
components together. the wire used for this project are of the same thickness
with the terminals of the components to ensure proper flow of current.

fig. 3.6: connecting wires

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3.11 Digital Multimeter
The digital multimeter is an electronic device that can measure the magnitude of
current, voltage and resistance in a circuit/component and also test the continuity
between two points. It consists of two metallic probes for contacting the object
to be measured, a regulator to select which quantity and magnitude it should
measure, and a digital display which displays results in numerical values.

Fig. 3.7: digital multimeter

27
 CHAPTER FOUR
TEST, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Construction Procedure and Testing Analysis

The procedures taken to construct the car battery charger are as follows;

1. First, I created a working circuit diagram and then simulated it graphically

using the proteus software on the computer system. With this, I was sure that the

operation of my circuit to be constructed will be functional. Now knowing which

circuit diagram to use, I purchased the components required for the circuit and

prepared the tools to be used for the construction.

2. I then constructed the circuit on a breadboard for testing.

3. The resistors, transformer, capacitors, bridge rectifier and voltage regulators

were soldered in their respective positions in the circuit. The jumper connection which

is marked by a dashed line on the component side, was soldered onto the board.

28
 Fig. 4.1 soldered circuit
4. I then carried out a test using my multimeter to ensure that the circuit is

receiving ground (zero potential) in places where ground is needed. I also ensured that

the components are well connected.

5. I tested the voltage coming from the rectifier circuit to be 24volts DC, which

6. Finally, I then tested the output voltage and I read from the digital multimeter

that was 0-24 volts DC. After which I then cased the project.

4.2 Construction of Casing and Packaging

The casing selected is a medium size plastic box, with good insulation and mechanical
properties. Two holes were carefully made at the four sides of the box, using the
soldering iron and razor blade. The size of the hole was carefully adjusted for the DC
voltmeter to fit into it tightly. After this, the positive and negative terminals of the
charger was fitted into one of the hole. The casing was sealed using screws.

5cm 15cm

8 cm

15cm

8 cm

Fig 4.2 : Construction of casing

4.3 Assembling of Sections

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Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections of this
system, the assembling into the casing was done.
The sections were properly laid out and assembled into the casing where the general
coupling and linkages into the peripheral devices took place.
4.4 Result and Discussions
After assembled the system, test was carried out using Digital Multimeter which I
was able to read the output voltage at different level by varying the Potentiometer so as
to increased and decreased the output voltages. The out read from 1.2V to 24.7V which
shows that the aim of the Project was successfully achieved.
4.5 Problems Encountered and Solution
In the construction of any electrical device, issues and problems are often encountered
of which most of them are being solved and recorded. The challenges encountered
during the construction of this project are:
 Appropriate and Working Circuit Diagram: From the beginning of this project, I
had difficult times sourcing for the right circuit diagram for the construction of this
device.

 Short Circuits: As a result of improper soldering of the components, I

experienced a lot of short circuits during construction.

 Leakage of Current During Construction: I experienced the highest difficulty

during the final stage of my construction because the ‘bond substance’ that I used to
hold the cables onto the veroboard (apart from soldering) in order to avoid ‘pulling out
of wires’ in the circuit turned out to serve as a sort of ‘current discharging agent’ when
the device is turned on.

4.6 Experience Gained

Some of the major experiences which was gained in the course of the project work are
as follows;
Ability to draw circuit diagram with the help of the proteus software. It also aided my
understanding on the working principle of simple basic circuit and component unit.

30
 The project also created an avenue for demonstrating class room theory work in
practical form and created a proper acquaintance with various component types as well
as the use of basic equipment such as multimeter for measurement.

Table.4.1: Bill of engineering material.

S/N DESCRIPTION QUANTITY UNIT PRICE TOTAL
(NGN) PRICE
(NGN)
1 Diode 8 50.00 400
2 Resistors 4 20.00 80
3 Capacitors 4 60 240
4 Transformer 1 2500 2500
5 Vero board 2 700 700

7 Connecting Wire (Cat six 4 Yard 200 800

Cable)
8 Power cord 1 300 300

9 Soldering iron 1 2500 2500

10 Project Casing 1 2600 2600
11 LED 2 10 20
12 Lead 3 yard 200 600
13 Switch 1 300 300
14 Jumper wire 500 500
15 Display 1 3500 3500
16 Crocodile clip 2 300 600
17 Potentiometer 2 100 200
18 Bread board 1 900 900
19 Electric gum 1 1500 1500
20 Digital multimeter 1 3500 3500
21 Miscellaneous - - 5000

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 22 Regulator (LM317) 2 200 400
TOTAL 27,140.00

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary
Having carefully selected the entire component that are required for the construction of
the charger and built according to the circuit diagram 1 was able to design and construct
a workable Varible D.C. power supply.
As with any equipment it must be housed in a clean environment and operations should
be by well trained individual.
1.2 Conclusion
In conclusion, the "Design and Construction of a 0-24 Volt DC Power Supply"
project has not only met its educational objectives but has also paved the way for future
initiatives in electronics education and collaborative learning. The synthesis of
theoretical knowledge with hands-on experience, coupled with community engagement,
exemplifies a holistic approach to learning. The recommendations provided serve as a
roadmap for educators, institutions, and community platforms to foster similar
impactful learning experiences in the field of electronics.
The journey of this project is not just a conclusion but a springboard for continued
exploration, collaboration, and innovation within the vibrant landscape of electronics
education and project based learning.

5.3 Recommendation
At the end of this project work, the following were recommended:
 One important fact about this device is that it is portable and consumes little
power and so, it will be applicable to both industries and domestic.
 It is also recommended that the project should be improved on repeated
(Upgrade). There is still further improvement demanded from use, mostly in the area of
building a work complex and high range.

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