Medical Terminology STUDY GUIDE J23

Study Guide
Medical Terminology
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CONTENTS
LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 5
LESSON 2: DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION,

AND HUMAN BODY TERMS 28
LESSON 3: MUSCULOSKELETAL, CIRCULATORY,

AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TERMS 44
LESSON 4: DIGESTIVE, URINARY,

AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM TERMS 69
LESSON 5: INTEGUMENTARY, NERVOUS,

AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM TERMS 96
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Contents
LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS
OF MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
For a layperson, learning medical language may seem difficult, but it becomes easier as
one gets to know the origin and meaning of medical terms. For healthcare professionals,
it’s already second nature. The majority of the medical terms are borrowed from Latin
and Greek, but it’s unnecessary for you to learn these languages to become experts in
the use of and understanding of medical terms. All you need to do is to study and learn
word parts.
SECTION 1.1: SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL

LANGUAGE
Read the following section, then read Chapter 1 in your textbook.
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to identify word parts and write medi-
cal terms properly.
SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL LANGUAGE

The building block for most medical terms is the word root, or the primary body of a word.
At times, a medical term can be made up of compound words. A compound word may
consist of two word roots, such as in the case of collarbone (collar + bone).
To facilitate the pronunciation of words, a combining vowel is placed in between word

roots. A significant number of medical terms use the vowel “o”. However, it’s good to note
that “o” isn’t the only vowel.
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The following table demonstrates examples of roots and combining forms.
Combining
Word Root Combining Vowel Form Meaning Use in a Word
acr + o acr/o extremity acrocyanosis
psych + o psych/o mind psychology
chol + e chol/e bile cholesterase
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Prefixes and suffixes may accompany a word root to alter its meaning. A prefix is
attached before the word, while a suffix is placed at the end of a word root. Sometimes, a
word may consist of a prefix and a suffix only.
Prefix + Combining form + Suffix

electro + cardi/o + gram
(electrocardiogram)
Prefix + Suffix
hyper + emia
(hyperemia)
By now, you’ve already learned word parts. Word roots, combining forms, prefixes, and
suffixes are all word parts.
WRITING MEDICAL TERMS

Building words follows certain guidelines. Table 2 presents some common rules in word
building.
Guidelines Examples
Linking combining In most instances, the com- leuk/o + cyte leukocyte
forms bining vowel is retained amid
combining forms. cardi/o + logy cardiology
Linking combining Use a combining vowel crani/o + tomy craniotomy
forms and suffixes if the suffix begins with a
consonant. derm/a + tology dermatology
Linking combining Omit the combining vowel appendic/o + itis appendicitis
forms and suffixes if the suffix begins with a
with initial vowels vowel. enter/o + ic enteric
Linking other word Usually, prefixes need not be dys + pepsia dyspepsia
parts and prefixes changed when linked with
other word parts. intra +dermal intradermal
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To better recognize the parts that make up a medical term, word division is commonly
used throughout this course. For instance, appendectomy may be written as append +
ectomy to highlight its component parts.
EPONYMS
Eponyms are names derived from a proper noun. They may originate from the name
of a person, place, or thing. In the medical field, diseases, organs, procedures, or
body functions can be eponyms; hence, they are frequently capitalized. Examples of
eponyms include Alzheimer’s disease, after Alois Alzheimer, and Babinski sign, after
Joseph Babinski.
ABBREVIATIONS AND PHARMACOLOGY

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Abbreviations can be in the
form of:
■ Letters: The abbreviation for chest x-ray is CXR.
■ Shortened words: The abbreviation “tab” is short for “tablet.”

■ Acronyms: The acronym CPR stands for cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Note: Abbreviations and symbols should be used cautiously, especially when med-
ications are involved. The Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) and The
Joint Commission (TJC) provide a list of unsafe abbreviations and symbols.
The branch of science that deals with the preparation, properties, uses, and actions of
drugs is known as pharmacology. Drugs, most commonly referred to as medicines, are
used in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Concepts related to drugs include
the following:
■ Route of administration: ways in which drugs can be given (usually via the mouth or
via an injection)
■ Generic name: nonproprietary name of the drug (for example, ibuprofen)

■ Trade name: company name, otherwise known as the brand name (for example,
Motrin)
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PLURALS
The plural form of many medical terms follows the rules used in common language.
Word endings Singular form Plural Form

Consonants other than s, h, contusion contusions
or y
s, ch, sh virus viruses
y allergy allergies
General Guidelines in Forming Plurals of Nouns with Special Endings

Singular Plural Ending Examples (Singular) Examples (Plural)
Ending
is es diagnosis, anastomosis diagnoses,
anastomoses
*Some words ending in is take on their plural form by omitting the is and adding ides, as in
arthritis and arthritides
um a atrium, ostium atria, ostia
us i bronchus, alveolus bronchi, alveoli
*Some words ending in us take on their plural form by omitting the us and adding era or ora, as
in viscus to viscera and corpus to corpora.
a ae cava, vertebra cavae, vertebrae
ix ices appendix, cervix appendices, cervices
ex ices apex apices
ax aces thorax thoraces
ma s or mata condyloma condylomas or condylomata
on a spermatozoon spermatozoa
*Some words ending in on take on their plural form by adding s, as in chorion to chorions
nx nges phalanx phalanges
After you’ve carefully read Chapter 1 in your textbook, complete Self-Check 1.1. When
you completely understand the material from Section 1.1, move on to Section 1.2.
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deals with the study of anesthesia or anesthetics. On the other hand, the suffix -logist
means “one who studies” or “specialist.” An anesthesiologist is a physician who special-
izes in anesthesia. It’s important not to confuse anesthesiologist with anesthetist. The
suffix -ist means “one who”; hence, an anesthetist is one who administers anesthesia. An
anesthetist can be a physician or a nurse, while an anesthesiologist is a medical doctor or
physician. Study the following suffixes and their meanings.
SUFFIXES: MEDICAL SPECIALISTS AND THEIR SPECIALTIES

Medical Specialists Medical Specialties
Suffix Meaning Example Suffix Meaning Example
-er, -ist one who internist -ac, -al, -ic, pertaining to obstetrical
ical
-iatrician practitioner pediatrician -logic, -logical pertaining to the psychological
study of
-logist one who stud- pulmonologist -iatrics, -iatry medical profes- pediatrics
ies, specialist sion or treatment
-logy study or science gynecology
of
The following table lists some of the most common combining forms associated with
medical specialties and specialists.
Combining Form Meaning Medical Specialty Medical Specialist

cardi/o heart cardiology cardiologist
dermat/o skin dermatology dermatologist
esthesi/o feeling or sensation anesthesiology anesthesiologist
gynec/o female gynecology gynecologist
immune/o immune immunology immunologist
ne/o, nat/o new, birth neonatology neonatologist
ophthalm/o eye ophthalmology ophthalmologist
path/o disease pathology pathologist
radi/o radiation or radius radiology radiologist
ur/o urinary tract or urine urology urologist
SURGICAL PROCEDURES
A significant number of medical terms refer to surgical procedures. Generally, the suf-
fixes used will give you an idea about the type of surgery or procedure performed. For
instance, the suffix -ectomy means surgical removal. Polypectomy and adrenalectomy
refer to the excision or removal of polyps and adrenal glands, respectively. Knowing a
familiar word related to the suffix makes it easier to analyze a medical term. This process
is known as word association. Take a look at the following table.
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SUFFIXES: SURGICAL PROCEDURES
Suffix Meaning Word Association
-centesis surgical puncture to aspirate or Paracentesis is a puncture of the perito-
remove fluid neal cavity to remove fluid for diagnostic
or therapeutic purposes.
-ectomy excision (surgical removal or Excision of the appendix is referred to
cutting out) as an appendectomy.
-lysis process of loosening, freeing, or This suffix can also mean dissolving or
destroying destruction, as in hydrolysis.
-pexy surgical fixation (securing in a Nephropexy is a surgical fixation of a
fixed position) kidney that descends when the patient
stands up.
-plasty surgical repair Rhinoplasty is a plastic surgery of the
nose and is done for several reasons.
-rrhaphy suture (fusing a wound by Herniorraphy is surgical repair of the
stitches) hernia with suture of the abdominal wall.
-scopy visual examination with the use Colonoscopy is a means of visualizing
of a lighted instrument the colon with the use of a fiber-optic
instrument.
-stomy creation of an opening Colostomy is a surgical procedure that
creates an opening for the colon or large
intestine through the abdomen.
-tome an instrument used for cutting A microtome is used to cut thin sections
of tissue.
-tomy incision (cutting into tissue) Sternotomy is an incision of the sternum
usually performed during heart surgery.
-tripsy surgical crushing, breaking, or Lithotripsy is the surgical crushing of a
pulverizing renal calculus or stone.
BODY STRUCTURES
Some of the combining forms for body structures have already been introduced when
naming medical specialists. In this section, you’ll be presented with additional combining
forms and the most frequent word associations used. Hepat/o is one of the most common
combining forms used in the medical field. Note that hepat/o means liver; hence, hepa-
titis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. More examples are presented in the
following table.
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COMBINING FORMS FOR A NUMBER OF BODY STRUCTURES
Combining Form Meaning Word Association
aden/o gland Adenopathy refers to the enlargement of
the glands.
angi/o vessel Angioplasty is a procedure used to rees-
tablish blood flow through partially or
fully blocked blood vessels.
bi/o life or living Biopsy is a procedure used to extract
cells or tissues for examination.
blephar/o eyelid Blepharitis is an infection of the eyelids.
cerebr/o, encephal/o brain Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless
fluid found in the brain and the spinal
cord.
Encephalopathy is a general term that

refers to a disorder or disease of the
brain.
col/o colon or large intestine Colitis is an inflammation of the colon’s
inner lining.
faci/o face Facial relates to the face.
hepat/o liver Hepatomegaly is enlargement of the
liver.
mamm/o, mast/o breast Mammogram is an x-ray of the breast.
Mastitis is an infection of the breast

tissue.
muscul/o, my/o muscle The musculoskeletal system is an organ
system responsible for movement and
activity.
Myosin is one of the muscle proteins.

myel/o bone marrow or spinal Myelogram is a means of examining the
cord spinal canal using a combination of dye
and x-ray.
oste/o bone Osteoporosis is a disease that weakens
the bones, thereby increasing the risk for
fractures.
pulm/o, pulmon/o, lungs Pulmonary refers to the lungs.
pneum/o, pneumon/o
Pneumatic refers to gas or air.
Pneumothorax is the accumulation of air

or gas in the chest.
tonsil/o tonsil Tonsillectomy is the surgical removal of
the tonsils.
trache/o trachea (windpipe) Tracheitis is an inflammation of the
trachea.
vas/o vessel Widening of the blood vessels is known
as vasodilation.
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SYMPTOMS OR DIAGNOSIS
Symptom and diagnosis are common terms used in the medical field. A symptom indi-
cates a disorder or disease in which changes in health status are perceived by the client.
For instance, a client says: “My stomach hurts.” Diagnosis, on the other hand, is the
scientific determination of a disease process or condition after evaluation. “Peptic ulcer
disease” is an example of a medical diagnosis.
SUFFIXES: SYMPTOMS OR DIAGNOSIS

-algia, -dynia pain Arthralgia is joint pain. Vulvodynia is a
chronic pain condition affecting a wom-
an’s external genitalia.
-cele hernia (results when organ Omphalocele is an abdominal wall defect
pushes through the organ in which the abdominal organs protrude
or muscle that contains it) through an opening at the base of the
umbilical cord.
-ectasia, -ectasis dilatation Telangiectasia is the dilation of the super-
ficial blood vessels.
Lymphangiectasis is the dilation of the

lymphatic vessels.
-edema swelling Edema denotes the presence of excess
fluid in the tissues, causing swelling.
Angioedema involves the precipitous

swelling of the tissues under the skin,
usually due to an allergic reaction.
-emesis vomiting Emesis denotes vomiting.
Hyperemesis means excessive vomiting.

-emia condition of the blood Anemia refers to a decrease in red blood
cells or hemoglobin in the blood.
-ia, -iasis condition Hysteria is a mental disorder attributed to
women in the nineteenth century.
Filariasis is a parasitic disease caused by

microscopic worms.
-itis inflammation Inflammation of the voice box or larynx is
known as laryngitis.
-ith stone or calculus Fecalith is a hard mass consisting of
feces.
-malacia soft, softening Chondromalacia patella is the softening
of the cartilage underneath the knee.
-mania excessive preoccupation Pyromania is a compulsion to set things
on fire.
-megaly enlargement Cardiomegaly is the enlargement of the
heart.
(Continued)
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SUFFIXES: SYMPTOMS OR DIAGNOSIS (continued)
-oid resembling Mucoid means similar to mucus.
-oma tumor Lymphoma refers to a group of blood
cancers originating from the lymphatic
system.
-osis condition (usually an abnor- Psychosis is a group of disorders affect-
mal condition, occasionally ing the mind.
refers to an increase)
-pathy disease Cardiomyopathy is a group of diseases
affecting the cardiac muscle.
-penia deficiency Neutropenia refers to abnormally low lev-
els of neutrophils, a type of white blood
cell.
-phobia abnormal fear Phobia refers to extremely strong fear
or dislike of something. Fear of being in
an enclosed space or area is known as
claustrophobia.
-ptosis prolapse (sagging) Drooping eyelids is ptosis.
-rrhage, -rrhagia excessive bleeding Hemorrhage means bleeding, which can
be external or internal.
-rrhea flow or discharge Amenorrhea is the absence of menstrual
flow.
-rrhexis rupture Rupture of the bowels is referred to as
enterorrhexis.
-spasm cramp, twitching Vasospasm is the spasm of the blood
vessels.
-stasis stopping, controlling Hemostasis is the normal bodily
response to stop bleeding or
hemorrhaging.
MISCELLANEOUS SUFFIXES
Aside from the suffixes categorized earlier, there are other various suffixes that are
widely utilized by healthcare professionals. As you go further into the course, you
should become more familiar with these suffixes. The following is a list of select
miscellaneous suffixes.
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MISCELLANEOUS SUFFIXES
Suffix Meaning Examples
-able, -ible capable of, able to injectable, edible
-ac, -al, -an, -ar, -ary, pertaining to iliac, dermal, median, ulnar, capil-
-eal, -ic, -ive, -tic lary, meningeal, hepatic, invasive,
cyanotic
-ase enzyme lipase, amylase
-eum, -ium membrane peritoneum, myocardium
-ia, -ism condition or theory paranoia, dwarfism
-iac one who suffers hemophiliac
-opia vision hyperopia
-ose sugar fructose
-ous pertaining to or character- cancerous
ized by
-y state or condition atrophy
MISCELLANEOUS WORD PARTS

These word parts aren’t categorized under a specific group, but note that they’re fre-
quently used in medical terminologies. The word microscope (word part= micro), for
example, is used not only by healthcare professionals but in customary language as well.
MISCELLANEOUS WORD PARTS

Word Part Meaning Word Association
adip/o, lip/o fat adipose, hyperlipidemia
amyl/o starch amylase
glyc/o sugar hyperglycemia
hemat/o blood hematology
lact/o milk lactation
litho/o stone lithotripsy
micro- small microscopy
muc/o mucus mucous
prote/o, protein/o protein proteolysis, proteinuria
pyr/o fire pyromania
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SECTION 1.3: ESSENTIAL PREFIXES
AND MORE
NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

The medical field, like any other group of professions, makes use of terms related to
numbers and quantities. The prefixes used in these medical terms are the same ones
we use in everyday language. For example, the prefix bi- is a prefix which means two.
Examples of words associated with this prefix include bicycle (a vehicle with two wheels)
and biannual (an event occurring twice a year). The prefix bi- has the same meaning
when used in medical language. Bicuspid means two cusps or valves, as in the case of
heart valves. Study the following table for more examples.
PREFIXES: NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

NUMBERS
Prefix Meaning Example Word Association
mono-, uni- one mononuclear, Mononuclear refers to a cell
unilateral made up of one nucleus.
Unilateral means one side.
bi-, di- two bicuspid, Bicuspid means having two
disaccharide cusps, as in the bicuspid
valves of the heart.
A disaccharide is a type of car-

bohydrate that is made up of
two simple sugars.
tri- three tricuspid Tricuspid means having three
cusps, as in the tricuspid valve
of the heart.
quad-, quadri-, four quadriplegia The paralysis of all four
tetra- extremities is known as
quadriplegia.
centi- one hundred, centigrade The centigrade or Celsius
one-hundredth scale is a unit of measure-
ment for temperature, which is
divided into 100 degrees.
(Continued)
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PREFIXES: NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES (continued)
NUMBERS
Prefix Meaning Example Word Association
milli- one-thousandth milliunit A milliunit is 1/1000 of a unit.
QUANTITIES
diplo- double diplopia Diplopia means double vision
or the perception of two
images of a single object.
hemi-, semi- half, partly hemiparesis, Hemiparesis refers to weak-
semi-fowler’s ness of one entire side of the
body.
Semi-fowler’s position is a
position assumed when a cli-
ent is supine on a bed with the
head of the bed elevated at
about 30–45 degrees.
hyper- excessive, more hyperglycemia Hyperglycemia is excessive
than normal blood sugar.
hypo- under, less than hypoglycemia Decreased blood sugar
normal in the blood is known as
hypoglycemia.
multi-, poly- many multigravid, Multigravid means multiple
pregnancies.
polyuria
Polyuria means excessive pro-
duction or passage of urine.
nulli- none nulliparous A woman who hasn’t
given birth is referred to as
nulliparous.
pan- all pancytopenia Pancytopenia occurs when all
blood cell types are decreased.
primi- first primigravida Primigravida refers to a woman
being pregnant for the first
time.
super-, ultra- excessive, superior, Superior vena cava is a
above or supraspinatus, large-diameter blood vessel
superior that drains blood from the
ultraviolet upper parts of the body.
Ultraviolet light is a form of

radiation.
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POSITION OR DIRECTION
Knowledge of the prefixes used in identifying positions or directions is essential in under-
standing medical terminologies. You might have heard the word postoperative. This term
refers to the period following surgery. Note that the prefix post- means after. Inversely,
pre- denotes before. Thus, the term preoperative refers to the period prior to surgery.
More positional or directional suffixes are outlined in the following table.
PREFIXES: POSITION OR DIRECTION

Prefix Meaning Word Association
ab- away from Abduction is movement of a body part
away from the midline.
ad- toward Adduction is movement of a body part
toward the midline.
ante-, pre- before in time or in place Antepartum refers to the period before
childbirth.
Preoperative refers to the period

before surgery.
circum-, peri- around The circular movement of a body part
is known as circumduction.
Periorbital edema is swelling around

the eyes.
contra- contralateral Contralateral pertains to the opposite
side.
dia- through Diaphoresis is the passage of moisture
through the pores of the skin.
ecto-, ex-, exo-, extra- outside, without, away Ectoderm is the outermost primary
from germ layer of the embryo.
Exocrine glands secrete substances

externally through a duct.
en-, end-, endo- inside Endolymph is the fluid found within the
membranous labyrinth of the ear.
epi- above, on The outermost layer of the sclera is
known as episclera.
hypo-, infr-, sub- beneath, under Hypodermis refers to the area below
the skin.
Infraclavicular pertains to the area

below the clavicle.
Subdural hematoma results from the

collection of blood beneath the skull.
inter- between Interphalangeal joints are formed
between the phalanges.
intra- within Intraosseous means within the bone.
(Continued)
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PREFIXES: POSITION OR DIRECTION (continued)
ipsi- same Ipsilateral pertains to the same side
meso-, mid- middle The middle tissue layer during embry-
onic development is the mesoderm.
para- near, beside, or Paralysis is the loss of motor function
abnormal in a body part.
per- through or by Percutaneous means through or via
the skin.
post- after, behind Postoperative means after surgery.
retro- behind, backward Retrograde means going back in posi-
tion or time.
super-, supra- above, beyond Superficial indicates being near or on
the surface, as in superficial veins.
Supraclavicular means above the

clavicle.
sym-, syn- joined, together The relationship between two dissimi-
lar organisms pertains to symbiosis.
Syndactyly is a condition where two or

more digits of the hands are fused.
trans- across Transference occurs when one’s feel-
ings are unconsciously redirected to
another.
MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES
Miscellaneous prefixes are easy to remember since most of them are being used
frequently, even in lay conversations. To promote organization of content, these miscella-
neous prefixes are categorized into the following: (1) related to description, (2) related to
time, (3) related to size, and (4) related to negation.
MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES
Description
anti-, contra- against Antidiuretics are medications that
decrease or inhibit urination.
Contraception refers to methods or

devices that prevent pregnancy.
brady- slow Bradypnea means decreased respira-
tory rate.
dys- bad, difficult Difficulty swallowing is referred to as
dysphagia.
(Continued)
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MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES (continued)
eu- good, normal Eupnea pertains to normal respirations.
mal- bad Malabsorption results from the inability
of the gastrointestinal tract to properly
absorb food nutrients.
pro- favoring, supporting Probiotics are live microorganisms that
are believed to be beneficial to one’s
health.
tachy- fast Tachypnea refers to abnormally fast
respirations.
Time
ante-, pre-, pro- before Antemortem means before death.
Premature births refer to neonates being

born before 37 weeks of gestation.
post- after or behind Postpartum pertains to the period imme-
diately after birth.
Size
macro-, mega-, large or great Macrocephaly refers to a condition
megalo- where the head is abnormally large.
Megaloblasts are abnormally large red

blood cells.
Large blood cells in the bone marrow

are referred to as megakaryocytes.
micro- small Microcephaly is a condition where the
head is abnormally small.
Negation
a-, an- no, not, without Apathy pertains to lack of or absence of
emotion.
Analgesia refers to absence of sensibil-

ity to pain.
in- not or inside (in) Indifferent pertains to having no interest.
Intubate means putting a tube inside an

airway.
COMBINING FORMS FOR COLORS

Medical terms also utilize combining forms for colors. Unlike the combining forms
discussed in the earlier chapters, these forms are not generally used in everyday conver-
sations. Most of these forms are used in the health sciences. The following table lists the
most common combining forms for colors and their meanings.
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COMBINING FORMS FOR COLORS
Combining
Form Meaning Examples Word Association
alb/o, albin/o, white albinism, Albinism is a genetic disorder resulting
leuk/o (leuc/o) in minimal or absence of skin, hair, or
leukocytosis eye pigmentation.
An increase in the white blood cell count

is known as leukocytosis.
chlor/o green chlorophyll Chlorophyll is the green coloring matter
found in leaves and plants.
cyano/o blue cyanosis Lack of oxygen in the blood can cause
a bluish discoloration of the skin
and mucous membranes known as
cyanosis.
erythr/o red erythema Erythema refers to the redness of the
skin or mucous membrane.
melan/o black melanin Melanin is a dark brown or black sub-
stance that forms a natural part of a
person’s hair, skin, and eyes.
xanth/o yellow xanthophyll The yellow pigment in plants is
xanthophyll.
Xanthophobia is the fear of the color

yellow.
COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED

SUFFIXES
Some combining forms are closely associated with suffixes that are commonly used to
write medical terms. These suffixes can be used to form nouns and adjectives. Note
that all the suffixes in the following list form nouns except for those ending in -ic and -tic,
which are used to form adjectives. For example, phagocytes (with the suffix -cyte) refer to
cells that ingest foreign matter. Phagocytic (with the suffix -tic), on the other hand, refers
to a cell capable of functioning as a phagocyte. More examples follow.
COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES

Combining
Form Suffixes Meaning Examples
cyt/o -cyte cell karyocyte
gen/o beginning, origin genetic
-genic produced by or in carcinogenic
-genesis producing or forming spermatogenesis
(Continued)
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COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES (continued)
Combining
Form Suffixes Meaning Examples
gram/o to record
-gram a record echocardiogram
-graph instrument for recording electrocardiograph
-graphy process of recording echocardiography

kinesi/o -kinesia movement, motion bradykinesia
-kinesis
leps/o -lepsy seizure epilepsy
lys/o destruction, dissolving lysozyme
-lysin that which destroys cytolysin
-lysis process of destroying hemolysis
-lytic capable of or producing hemolytic

destruction
malac/o soft, softening
-malacia abnormal softening osteomalacia

megalo/o -megalo large, enlarged, megaloblasts
enlargement
metr/o measure, uterine, tissue endometrium
-meter instrument used to goniometer

measure
-metry process of measuring densitometry

path/o -pathy disease coagulopathy
phag/o eat, ingest phagocytosis
-phagia, eating, swallowing dysphagia

-phagic, -phagy
phas/o -phasia speech aphasia
pleg/o -plegia paralysis hemiplegia
schis/o, schiz/o, -schisis split, cleft schizophrenia
schist/o
scler/o hard scleroderma
-sclerosis hardening atherosclerosis

scop/o to examine, to view
-scope instrument used for microscope

viewing
process of examining
-scopy visually bronchoscopy
troph/o -trophic, -trophy nutrition hypertrophy
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MISCELLANEOUS COMBINING FORMS
Miscellaneous combining forms are named as such because they can’t be classified
under a specific category, but are frequently used. Combining forms such as therm/o
(in thermometer) and carcin/o (in carcinogenic) are usual examples. Study the following
combining forms and their word associations.
MISCELLANEOUS COMBINING FORMS

aer/o air Aerobic microorganisms are those that need oxy-
gen in order to survive.
blast/o embryonic form Erythroblasts are immature red blood cells.
cancer/o, carcin/o cancer Carcinogenic means any substance or agent that
can cause cancer.
cephal/o head Cephalohematoma is the collection of blood
under the skull.
cry/o cold Cryosurgery utilizes extreme cold temperature to
destroy or remove diseased tissue.
crypto/o hidden Undescended or “hidden” testis is referred to as
cryptorchidism.
dips/o thirst Excessive thirst is polydipsia.
electr/o electricity Electrocardiography is a test that detects prob-
lems with the electrical activity of the heart.
fibr/o fiber Fibrous pertains to anything that contains,
resembles, or consists of fiber.
hist/o tissue Histology is the study of the microanatomy of
cells and tissues of plants and animals.
myc/o fungus The branch of botany that focuses on the study
of fungi is mycology.
narc/o stupor Narcotics may cause stupor or insensibility.
necr/o dead Necropsy or autopsy is the examination of a per-
son who has died.
optic/o, opt/o vision The optic nerve carries electrical impulses from
the eye to the brain.
Optometry is concerned with the diagnosis, treat-

ment, and prevention of eye and vision problems.
phon/o voice Bronchophony refers to the normal voice sounds
heard over the bronchus.
phot/o light Phototherapy or light therapy pertains to treat-
ment using a special kind of light.
py/o pus Pyogenesis refers to pus formation.
therm/o heat Thermometer is an instrument used to measure
temperature.
top/o position, place A topical medication is applied to the skin.
trache/o trachea A tracheostomy is a surgical procedure that
creates an opening in the trachea (windpipe) to
facilitate breathing.
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LESSON 2: DIAGNOSIS,
INTERVENTION, AND HUMAN
BODY TERMS
INTRODUCTION
By this time, you’re already accustomed to the basic components of medical word-build-
ing as presented in Chapters 1–3 of your textbook. Now, you’ll begin to learn about
diagnoses, interventions, and body structures. In Chapters 4 and 5 of your textbook,
you’ll study diagnostic procedures, therapeutic interventions, and anatomy and physiol-
ogy of the human body.
SECTION 2.1: DIAGNOSES AND

INTERVENTIONS
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to match diagnostic terms and thera-
peutic interventions with their meanings.
To better understand medical terms related to diagnoses and interventions, you need to
familiarize yourself with the definitions of the following terms:
■ Normal range: acceptable limit
■ Pathologic: pertains to a condition involving a disease process
■ Diagnosis: naming a disease or condition based on scientific evaluation
■ Prognosis: anticipated outcome of a disease
Before studying concepts related to pathology, you need to recognize the functions that
occur when the body is in a healthy state. To evaluate if bodily functions are normal,
several tests are usually performed. These tests may include clinical studies, laboratory
tests, and radiologic (radio + logic) studies. Apart from these tests, the healthcare prac-
titioner also needs to check for signs and symptoms of a disease. Signs are observable
characteristics that have been gathered through the use of the senses. For instance,
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when the examiner auscultates (listens) for breath sounds, and hears that the lung fields
are clear, it is documented as “clear breath sounds.” On the other hand, symptoms are
subjective data. These are statements made by the client or significant others based on
their perception. A “severe throbbing headache” is an example of a symptom. The results
of these studies help establish a diagnosis. When a client is diagnosed with a disease,
it’s often classified as either acute (occurs over a short duration) or chronic (exists over
an extended period of time).
BASIC EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

When a healthcare practitioner checks for signs of a disease, they usually perform two
basic functions: (1) measuring vital signs and (2) performing a physical examination.
Vital Signs
Vital signs are clinical measurements that indicate the state of a client’s life-sustaining
functions. There are three to six signs being measured, depending on the institution’s
protocol. The basic ones are pulse, respiration, and temperature. Some facilities include
blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and pain.
Vital Sign Points To Remember

Pulse ■ may be abbreviated as P
■ refers to recurrent expansion of an artery referred to as
heart beats
■ pulse rate (PR) is the number of heart beats per minute
Respiration ■ may be abbreviated as R
■ denotes the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
body
■ otherwise known as ventilation or breathing
■ measured by counting the rise and fall of the chest during
breathing
Temperature ■ defined as the balance between heat lost and heat
produced by the body
■ thermometer
■ therm/o = heat
■ -meter = instrument used to measure

■ different routes of measurement: oral, axilla, rectal,
tympanic
■ measured in Centigrade and Fahrenheit
(Continued)
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Vital Sign Points To Remember
Blood pressure ■ refers to the pressure of the circulating blood on the blood
vessel walls
■ millimeters of mm Hg (mercury) is the standard unit of
measure
■ expressed as fraction:
■ systolic: maximum arterial pressure (contraction)
■ diastolic: pressure during relaxation
Oxygen saturation ■ refers to the measure of the concentration of oxygen
■ measured using a pulse oximeter
Pain ■ an unpleasant feeling caused by intense or damaging
stimuli
Four Techniques in Physical Examination

Physical examination is a means of gathering clinical data from the client using the exam-
iner’s senses, namely the senses of sight, hearing, and touch.
Technique Sense Involved Skill Example

Inspection sight Eyes are used to Checking for skin color
observe.
Palpation touch Hands are used to feel Feeling for lumps
for the texture, size, con-
sistency, and location of
body parts.
Percussion hearing The fist or fingertips are Performing “kidney
used to tap the body part punch”
to determine the size,
borders, and consistency
of body organs.
Auscultation hearing A stethoscope is used to Listening for breath
listen for sounds within sounds
the body.
COMMON DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND

PROCEDURES
In Lesson 1, you’ve been introduced to the word parts commonly used in diagnostic tests
and procedures. Review the following word parts and their meanings:
Word Part Meaning Example

-gram a record echocardiogram
-graph instrument for recording radiograph
-graphy process of recording radiography
(Continued)
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-meter instrument used to measure thermometer
-metry process of measuring optometry
-scope instrument used in visual examination endoscope
-scopy visual examination with a lighted endoscopy
instrument
Endoscopy (endo = inside + scopy = visual examination using a lighted instrument) is

one of the most common visualization procedures used in healthcare. It makes use of an
endoscope (endo + scope) to view the internal body cavities or organs.
Catheters and cannulas are instruments inserted into a body cavity. Both instruments are
hollow and flexible and have several purposes, such as withdrawal and instillation of flu-
ids, or visualization of vessels or cavities.
Diagnostic Radiology
The domain of medicine related to the diagnosis of diseases with the use of x-rays, radio-
active substances, and radiant energy is known as radiology. The following table lists
word parts related to radiology.
Combining Form Meaning Example

ech/o, son/o sound echocardiogram, sonography
electr/o electricity electroconvulsive
fluor/o emitting or reflecting light fluoroscopy
radi/o radiant energy radiography
tom/o to cut tomography
ultra- (prefix) excessive ultrasonography
Diagnostic imaging modalities include:
a. Radiography
■ uses film images of internal structures (commonly referred to as x-ray)
■ radiopaque: substances that don’t allow x-rays to pass through
■ radiolucent: substances that allow the passage of x-rays

b. Computed tomography
■ ionizing radiation is used to produce a cross-section of a tissue
■ painless and noninvasive
c. Magnetic resonance imaging
■ radio wave pulses and magnetic field are used to produce a notable soft
tissue resolution, which differentiates adjoining structures
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d. Ultrasonography
■ otherwise known as ultrasound imaging or sonography

■ makes use of high-frequency sound waves to produce images of deep body
structures
e. Fluoroscopy
■ uses a fluoroscope to visually examine an internal organ
■ can produce continuous images of internal structures, even with movement
f. Contrast imaging
■ radiopaque materials are used to visualize internal structures on x-ray images
■ a contrast medium may be used to enhance visualization
g. Nuclear imaging
■ uses radiopharmaceuticals to form an image of an organ or system
■ radi/o = radiant energy + pharmaceut/i = drugs or medicine + al = pertaining to
Radiation and Other Therapeutic Interventions

As presented in the earlier part of this section, the use of radioactive materials and
x-rays is advantageous in disease identification. Apart from this purpose, radiation is
also useful in treating tumors or cancer cells. This method is known as radiotherapy
or radiation oncology. However, radiotherapy not only destroys cancer cells, but it also
leads to destruction of normal cells; hence, the client may present with side effects
such as hair loss, nausea and vomiting, bone marrow suppression, and drying of the
mucous membranes.
The word therapeutic pertains to therapy. The following table lists word parts related to
treatment.
Combining Form Meaning Example

algesi/o sensitivity to pain analgesic
chem/o chemical chemotherapy
pharmac/o, drugs or medicine pharmacokinetics
pharmaceuti/i
plast/o repair neoplastic
therapeut/o treatment thermotherapy
tox/o poison toxicology
-therapy (suffix) treatment cryotherapy
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SECTION 2.2: THE BODY AS A WHOLE
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to build and identify medical terms
related to body structures.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY

The human body is made up of structures that come together to make up a whole. These
structures start from the smallest unit, which is an atom, to the largest, most complex unit,
the human organism. The body is made up of many levels of structural organization: cells
make up tissues, tissues form organs, organs form body systems, and the body systems
make up an organism. Organism refers to an individual being with life.
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The basic unit of life is the cell. Cells divide until they mature. Some cells can divide with-
out limit. These are referred to as stem cells. These specialized cells are ample in a fetus
and in newborn cord blood. Cytology refers to the study of the formation, structure, and
function of cells.
A group of similar cells that work together and perform a specific function forms the
next level of organization, tissues. Histology is the study of the microscopic structure of
tissues. There are four types of tissues according to function: connective, epithelial, mus-
cular, and nervous.
Organs are formed when two or more tissue types work together to accomplish a particu-
lar function. The heart, lungs, and skin are examples of organs.
A set of organs that have a collective function make up a body system. Body systems will
be discussed in detail in the later sections. The major body systems are listed as follows:
■ Muscular system
■ Skeletal system
■ Cardiovascular system
■ Lymphatic system
■ Respiratory system
■ Digestive system
■ Urinary system
■ Reproductive system
■ Integumentary system
■ Nervous system
■ Endocrine system
The organism or the human body is the largest and the most complex level in the organi-
zational structure. It’s composed of different body systems.
There are instances when tissues or organs are abnormally formed. The prefix ana- and
suffix -plasia are commonly used to describe these abnormalities. Ana- means upward,
excessive, or again, while -plasia refers to development or formation of tissue. The follow-
ing word parts are frequently used to describe abnormal tissue development.
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a- without Aplasia denotes underdeveloped
organ or tissue.
-plasia formation Dysplasia refers to abnormal
dys- bad development of tissues.
hypo- below normal The underdevelopment of organ

or tissue is known as hypoplasia
(a less severe form of aplasia).
hyper- above normal An increase in the number of
cells is known as hyperplasia.
-trophy nutrition An increase in the size of cells is
referred to as hypertrophy.
REFERENCE PLANES
Directional terms and planes are used to depict the position and direction of different
body structures relative to the anatomic position. The anatomical position is defined as
the body standing erect, eyes directed forward, hands at the side, palms turned outward,
and lower limbs parallel with the toes pointing forward.
Directional Terms
Directional terms denote the position of a structure in relation to another structure. In
Chapter 5 of your textbook, you’ll find a list of directional terms. Here are additional terms
relating to direction:
■ Abduction: movement of body parts away from the midline
■ Adduction: movement of body parts toward the midline
■ Inversion: turning inward
■ Eversion: turning outward

■ Palmar: pertains to the palm of the hand
■ Plantar: pertains to the sole of the foot
■ Supination: turning upward
■ Pronation: turning downward
Planes
The orientation of the body can be described using terms such as plane and aspect.
Reference planes are imaginary flat surfaces that divide the body into portions or sides.
The three reference planes are:
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■ Frontal/coronal plane: splits the body into front and back portions
■ Transverse plane: splits the body into upper and lower portions
■ Sagittal plane: splits the body into right and left sides
These planes form aspects used to identify locations:
■ Anterior (front)
■ Posterior (behind)
■ Lateral (side)
■ Medial (middle)
■ Superior (uppermost)
■ Inferior (lowermost)
BODY CAVITIES
The hollow place or space within the body that houses internal organs is known as a
cavity. The two major body cavities are the dorsal (located near the posterior part of the
body) and ventral (located near the anterior part of the body) cavities. The dorsal cavity is
subdivided into the cranial and spinal cavities, while the ventral cavity is subdivided into
the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
See the following figure:
BODY CAVITY
DORSAL VENTRAL
CRANIAL SPINAL THORACIC ABDOMINOPELVIC
• Brain • Spinal cord • Stomach

• Lungs
• Some spinal • Liver
• Heart
nerves • Pancreas
• Trachea
• Gallbladder
• Spleen
• Kidneys
• Male/Female
reproductive
organs
FIGURE 1—Body Cavities
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BODY REGIONS
The body is divided into four major regions: head, neck, torso, and extremities. The list
below identifies the regions and the organs contained in each part.
■ Head: brain and the special sense organs
■ Neck
■ Torso: chest, abdomen, pelvis
■ Extremities
■ upper: arms, wrists, hands, fingers
■ lower: thighs, knees, legs, ankles, feet, toes
BODY FLUIDS
Approximately 60% of an average adult’s weight is fluids. Fluids are needed by the body
for transport of nutrients and removal of wastes. The two primary body fluids are blood
and lymph. Most body fluid is intracellular (found within the cell), but some is extracellu-
lar (outside the cell). The two types of extracellular fluid are interstitial fluid (fluid found
between the cells of the body) and plasma (fluid part of the blood). The following table
provides a list of frequently used word parts pertaining to body fluids.
Combining Form/
-crine secrete endocrine
lacrim/o tear, tearing, crying lacrimation
-emia condition of the blood anemia
hem/o blood hemoglobin
lymph/o lymph lymphatic
muc/o mucus mucolytic
-poiesis production erythropoiesis
-poietin substance that causes production erythropoietin
py/o pus pyorrhea
sial/o saliva sialography
ur/o urine urinary
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BLOOD
Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, vitamins, antibodies, and other substances to different
parts of the body. It also helps carry carbon dioxide and other wastes away. Select word
parts pertaining to blood are found in the following table:

coagul/o coagulation coagulopathy
cyt/o cell cytology
erythr/o red erythrocyte
hem/a, hemat/o blood hematology
immun/o immune immunization
leuk/o white leukocyte
thromb/o clot (thrombus) thrombocyte
Suffix
-cyte cell cytology
-osis increased or abnormal leukocytosis
-penia deficiency leukopenia
-poiesis production hematopoiesis
BODY DEFENSES AND IMMUNITY

Susceptibility and resistance are two essential terms related to body defenses.
Vulnerability to a disease or disorder is known as susceptibility, while resistance refers
to the body’s natural ability to fight microorganisms or toxins. The body has two defense
mechanisms, nonspecific resistance and specific (selective) resistance, otherwise known
as immunity.
Nonspecific resistance is the body’s first line of defense and is directed against all patho-
gens. Several body systems are involved in protecting the body. Immunity, on the other
hand, works against infectious microorganisms and can be classified into four categories.
See the following diagram:
BODY DEFENSES
Nonspecific Defenses Specific Defenses (Immunity)
■ Intact skin Natural Artificial
■ Tearing of the eyes ■ Active (contracting a ■ Active (antigens)
■ Urinary system disease) ■ Passive (antibodies)
■ Mucous membranes ■ Passive (maternal
■ Digestive system antibodies)
■ Respiratory system
■ Lymphatic system
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PATHOGENS
Any microorganism capable of producing a disease is known as a pathogen. Generally,
there are four types of pathogenic (the ability to produce disease) microorganisms:
■ Virus
■ Bacteria
■ Fungi
■ Protozoa
Acts of terrorism have been a growing concern worldwide. Terrorists make use of various
forms of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The following categories have been identi-
fied by several government agencies:
B Biological
N Nuclear
I Incendiary
C Chemical
E Explosive
Using pathogenic biological agents to cause panic, fear, and terror in a population is bio-
terrorism. Microorganisms are used as weapons of mass destruction because they can
easily be transmitted, have high chances of causing death, may lead to panic, and lastly,
would require extraordinary attention.
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LESSON 3: MUSCULOSKELETAL,
CIRCULATORY, AND
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TERMS
INTRODUCTION
In lesson 2, you were introduced to the different body systems. Now, you’ll begin to learn
more about body systems in detail. This section will discuss medical terminologies related
to the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and respiratory systems. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 of your
textbook will provide comprehensive discussion on these systems.
SECTION 3.1: THE MUSCULOSKELETAL

SYSTEM
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to build and identify medical terms
related to the musculoskeletal system.
Musculoskeletal refers to the muscles and the skeleton. The musculoskeletal system pro-
tects, supports, and aids in the movement of body parts. Apart from these functions, the
musculoskeletal system, particularly the bones, are essential in hematopoiesis or blood
production (hemat/o = blood, -poiesis = production). The bones also function to store fat
in the bone marrow and to store and release minerals.
STRUCTURES OF THE
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
The musculoskeletal system involves all the muscles, bones, joints, and other related
structures. The branch of medicine that aims to prevent and correct problems concerning
the bones and the muscles is known as orthopedics (orth/o = straight, ped/o = child, -ic =
pertaining to).
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MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY
The human body is made up of 206 bones. There are two main divisions of the human
skeleton: axial and appendicular.
■ Axial skeleton
■ consists of 80 bones, including the bones of the skull, hyoid bone, auditory
ossicles (bones of the ears), vertebral column, sternum, and ribs
■ functions include central weight-bearing, and protection and maintenance of
posture
■ Appendicular skeleton
■ consists of 126 bones, including the shoulder girdle (scapula and clavicle),
upper and lower extremities, and the pelvic bones
■ functions include balance, stability, movement, and manipulation
The following table lists the major bones of the body, the meanings of their names, and
word associations.
Bone Combining Form Common Name Word Association

Bones of the Axial Skeleton
cranium crani/o skull craniotomy
costa cost/o rib intercostal
sternum stern/o breastbone sternotomy
spine (vertebrae) rachi/o, spin/o backbone spondylosis
spondyl/o, vertebr/o
■ cervical cervic/o spinal bones cervicalgia
■ thoracic thorac/o spinal bones thoracolumbar
■ lumbar lumb/o spinal bones lumbosacral
■ sacrum sacr/o spinal bones sacroiliac
■ coccyx coccyg/o tailbone coccygeal
Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
clavicle claviculo/o collarbone clavicular
scapula scapul/o shoulder blade subscapular
Bones of the Upper Extremities
humerus humer/o upper arm bone humeral
radius radi/o radial
ulna uln/o ulnar
carpals carp/o wrist bones carpophalangeal
metacarpals metacarp/o bones of the hand
phalanges phalang/o bones of the fingers phalangitis
(Continued)
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Bone Combining Form Common Name Word Association
Bones of the Pelvis
ilium ili/o pelvic bones iliac
ischium ischi/o pelvic bones ischial
pubis pub/o pelvic bones pubic
Bones of the Lower Extremities
femur femor/o thigh bone femoral
patella patella/o kneecap patellar
fibula fibul/o bones of the lower leg fibulator
tibia tibi/o bones of the lower leg tibialis
tarsals tars/o ankle bones tarsus
calcaneus calcane/o heel bone calcaneal
metatarsals metatars/o bones of the feet metatarsalgia
phalanges phalang/o bones of the toes interphalanges
CARTILAGE
Cartilage is a dense, elastic connective tissue that covers and protects the ends of long
bones. The skeleton of the embryo is made up largely of cartilage. As one matures, the
cartilage is replaced with bones, except for some structures such as the external ear and
the nasal septum. The medical term chondral refers to cartilage.
MUSCLES, ARTICULATIONS, AND

ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES
Muscles consist of cells and fibers that contract and produce body movement. The three
types of muscles are:
■ Cardiac muscle
■ heart muscle
■ Smooth muscle
■ otherwise known as visceral or involuntary muscle

■ found in the internal organs such as the stomach
■ Skeletal muscle
■ the only muscle that can be controlled voluntarily

■ attached to the bones
Fascia is a fibrous tissue that’s responsible for covering, supporting, separating, and
allowing muscles to slide easily. Tendons, on the other hand, are tissue fibers that con-
nect the muscles to the bone.
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Articulation, commonly known as joint, is the connection made between bones.
Articulations that have cavities between adjoining bones are known as synovial joints.
Ligaments are bands of connective tissues responsible for connecting bones and carti-
lages and, at the same time, are essential in supporting and strengthening joints.
DISEASES, DISORDERS, AND

DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
Although the most common cause of musculoskeletal problems is injury, other pathol-
ogies—such as infections, malignancies, and connective tissue disorders, to name a
few—can also affect the muscles and the bones.
Fractures and dislocations are the most common traumatic injuries sustained by the
bones. For the muscles, sprain and strain are usual occurrences. An injury to the spinal
cord is life-threatening. Cord injury may cause paralysis or paresis below the injured part.
para = beside quadri-, tetra- = four plegia = paralysis paresis = weakness
■ Paraplegia: paralysis of both legs

■ Quadriplegia/tetraplegia: paralysis of upper and lower extremities
■ Paraparesis: weakness of the both legs
■ Quadriparesis/tetrapresis: weakness of all four extremities
In the previous sections, you learned that the suffix -itis means inflammation. Study the
following list of infections affecting the musculoskeletal system:
■ cellul/o (little cell) + itis = cellulitis
■ my/o (muscle) + itis = myocellulitis
■ oste/o (bone) + itis = osteitis
■ chondro/o (cartilage) + itis = osteochondritis
Several types of malignancies or tumors affect the muscles and the bones. They may be
classified as primary (starts from the bones) or secondary (starts from another tissue, but
metastasizes to the bone).
Sarcomas = tumors that originate from the connective tissues, such as muscles and
bones
■ Chondrosarcoma = chondro + sarcoma (masses of cartilage)

■ Fibrosarcoma = fibro + sarcoma (tumor with fibrous tissue)
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Alterations with metabolism can lead to bone destruction and problems with bone for-
mation. The following combining words are associated with bone disorders arising from
metabolic problems:
■ deformans (deformity/ disfiguring) : osteitis deformans
■ malacia (softening) : osteomalacia

■ -porosis (thinning) : osteoporosis
In some instances, clients are born with developmental defects that cause skeletal mal-
formation. Here are some examples:
■ Spina bifida bifida: divided into two parts
■ Scoliosis scoliosis: curvature

■ Kyphosis kyphos: hunchback
■ Muscular dystrophy dys (bad) + trophy (nutrition)
■ Craniocele crani/o (skull) + -cele (herniation)
■ Tarsoptosis tars/o (ankle) + -ptosis (prolapsed)
Any disease of the joint is known as arthropathy. Describe the following medical terms
based on the meanings you learned in the previous chapters. Remember that arthr/o
refers to the joint.
■ Arthroscopy
■ Arthroscope
■ Arthrotomy
■ Arthritis
Arthritis denotes any joint inflammation. There are several types of arthritis:
■ Osteoarthritis
■ Rheumatoid arthritis
■ Spondylarthritis
■ Polyarthritis
Other connective tissue disorders include the following:
■ Bursitis: inflammation of the bursa
■ Lupus erythematosus: autoimmune disease involving the connective tissues

■ Gout: acute form of arthritis caused by a metabolic disease
■ Ankylosis: stiffening of the joints
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SURGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC
INTERVENTIONS
Orthopedic surgeons perform surgical procedures to restore bones to their normal func-
tion. Recall the following suffixes introduced in the previous sections:
-plasty: repair
-ectomy: removal or excision
-otomy: creation of opening
-centesis: extraction of fluid from a body cavity
The following are common surgical procedures associated with the musculoskeletal
system:
vertebroplasty vertebro + plasty repair of the vertebrae

arthroplasty arthro + plasty repair or reconstruction of a joint
tendoplasty tendo + plasty repair of tendons
myoplasty myo + plasty repair of muscle
tendomyoplasty tendo + myo + plasty repair of the tendons and the muscles
cranioplasty cranio + plasty repair of the skull
bunionectomy bunion + ectomy excision of a bunion
ostectomy osteo + ectomy excision of a bone
costectomy cost + ectomy excision of a rib
craniectomy crani + ectomy excision of a skull segment
laminectomy lamina + ectomy removal of a lamina (portion of the
vertebra)
diskectomy disk + ectomy total excision of an intervertebral disk
chondrectomy chondro + ectomy excision of a cartilage
arthrocentesis arthro + centesis extraction of accumulated fluid in the
synovial joint
Anti-inflammatories and anti-arthritics are various forms of medications that treat arthritis
and other connective tissue disorders. Note that anti- is a prefix meaning against, thus:
■ Anti-inflammatories: drugs that reduce inflammation and pain

■ Anti-arthritis: drugs that provide relief from arthritic symptoms
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SECTION 3.2: THE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Objective
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to build, identify, and analyze medical
terms referring to the circulatory system.
The circulatory system is made up of the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic sys-
tem. This body system functions to maintain homeostasis by:
■ Transporting oxygen, nutrients, vitamins, antibodies, and other substances
■ Taking away waste and carbon dioxide
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Structures of the Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular (cardio + vascul + ar) system consists of the heart and the
blood vessels.
Heart
The heart is an organ in the chest that pumps blood through the veins and arteries. It has
four chambers:
■ Right and left atria (plural for atrium)
■ Right and left ventricles
Atrial and ventricular refer to the atrium and ventricle, respectively. Atrio + ventricular (AV)
valves are found between the atria and the ventricles. These valves are made up of cus-
pids (small flaps that make up the AV valves).
tricuspid tri (three) + cuspid valve on the right side of the heart
bicuspid bi (two) + cuspid valve on the left side of the heart,
otherwise known as mitral valve
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Semilunar valves regulate the flow of blood to and from the lungs:
■ Pulmonic valve: controls the flow of blood to the lungs

■ Aortic valve: controls the flow of blood into the aorta
The pericardium (peri + card + ium) is a double membrane that surrounds the heart and
the great vessels. The heart wall is made up of several layers:
■ Epicardium: outer layer
■ Myocardium: muscular middle layer
■ Endocardium: inner layer
Blood Vessels
The circulatory system is made up of five types of blood vessels that transport blood
throughout the entire body:
■ Arteries: carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the different body parts
■ Arterioles: small blood vessels that connect the arteries to the capillaries
■ Capillaries: smallest blood vessels where oxygenation and nutrients occur

■ Venules: small blood vessels that connect the capillaries to the veins
■ Veins: carry deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body to the heart
Note that the pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood and the
pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood.
The coronary arteries carry oxygenated and nutrient-filled blood to the myocardium
(heart muscle).
The following table lists the combining forms associated with the blood vessels.

angi/o, vas/o, vessel An angiogram is a radiologic test that views
vascul/o blood flow within the veins or arteries.
aort/o aorta An aortogram is an invasive procedure in which
a catheter is placed in the aorta and a contrast
material is injected.
arter/o, arteri/o artery Arteriosclerosis refers to the thickening, harden-
ing, and loss of elasticity of the arterial walls.
arteriol/o arteriole Arteriolopathy refers to any disease of the
arterioles.
ather/o yellow, fatty plaque The build-up of plaque in the arterial walls is
known as atherosclerosis.
phleb/o, ven/o vein Phlebitis or venitis is the inflammation of the
veins.
venul/o venule Venulitis is inflammation of the venules.
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Diseases, Disorders, and Diagnostic Terms
Cardiomyopathy is the general diagnostic term used to identify a disease of the heart
muscle. The following are examples of cardiomyopathy. Note the meaning of the
suffix -itis.
■ Myocarditis: inflammation of the myocardium (heart muscle)

■ Endocarditis: inflammation of the endocardium
■ Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium
There are several tests used to diagnose cardiac problems. Some of the most common
tests include:
■ Electrocardiogram electr/o + cardi/o + -gram
■ measures the electrical activity of the heart

■ electrocardiography: a noninvasive procedure used to record electrical activ-
ity of the heart
■ electrocardiograph: record of the heart’s electrical activity
■ Echocardiogram echo + cardi/o + -gram

■ record of the heart’s sonogram
■ echocardiography: the use of sound waves to produce live images of
the heart
■ Positron emission tomography
■ is useful in examining the flow of blood in the heart and blood vessels
■ a radioactive element is used
■ Cardiac catheterization
■ a procedure in which a catheter is moved through a blood vessel to the heart
to diagnose heart disorders
Study the following list of diseases and disorders affecting the heart:
■ Angina pectoris
■ Arrhythmia
■ Cardiomegaly
■ Congenital heart defects
■ Congestive heart failure
■ Coronary artery disease

■ Coronary heart disease
■ Fibrillation
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■ Heart murmur
■ Hyperlipidemia
■ Hypertension
■ Infarction
■ Myocardial ischemia
■ Septal defect
■ Shock
The distribution of blood to the various parts of the body is influenced by the diameter of
the blood vessels:
■ Vasoconstriction: decrease in the diameter of a blood vessel
■ vaso + constriction
■ Vasodilation: increase in the diameter of a blood vessel
■ vaso + dilation
Angiomas are benign tumors made up of blood vessels (hemangioma) or lymph vessels
(lymphangioma).
There are several radiologic studies involving the blood vessels. These include:
aortography aorto + x-ray of the aorta aortogram record

graphy with the use of a produced
contrast dye
arteriography arterio + x-ray of the arteries arteriogram image
graphy using a radiopaque produced
material
angiocardiography angio + x-ray of the heart
cardio + and great vessels
graphy using a dye
Surgical and Therapeutic Interventions

Healthcare technology has greatly improved in the past few decades, leading to major
advances in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiopulmonary pertains to the
heart and lungs.
■ Cardiopulmonary bypass: a technique that temporarily takes over the function of
the heart and the lungs during surgery
■ Cardioversion: a procedure in which an electric current is used to reset the heart’s
rhythm back to its normal pattern
■ Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a series of lifesaving actions that improve a client’s
chances of survival after a cardiac arrest
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Heart problems are corrected using several medications, including the following:
■ Digoxin: a cardiac glycoside used in the treatment of clients with congestive heart
failure and/or dysrhythmia
■ Nitroglycerin: a vasodilator often given to clients with angina pectoris
For blood vessel problems, these medications are frequently used:

■ Thrombolytics (thromb/o + lytic): medications that dissolve clots
■ Vasodilators: medications that dilate the blood vessels
■ Antihypertensives: medications that decrease blood pressure
■ Diuretics: medications that facilitate excretion of water by the kidneys
■ Antilipidemics: medications that decrease cholesterol levels
Vascular problems that cannot be corrected with medications may need to be treated
using some of these procedures:
angioplasty angio + plasty repair of the blood vessels

atherectomy ather/o + ectomy insertion of a specialized catheter to
remove plaque from the arterial lining
aortoplasty aort/o + plasty repair of the aorta
phlebectomy phleb + ectomy excision of a vein or a vein segment
hemorrhoidectomy hemorrhoid + ectomy excision of a hemorrhoid
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Otherwise known as “the lymphatics,” the lymphatic system performs the following
functions:
■ Return the fluid that escaped from the blood vessels back to circulation
■ Defend the body against disease
STRUCTURES OF THE LYMPHATIC

SYSTEM
■ Lymph: fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system
■ Lymph vessels: thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells
■ Lymph nodes: small round glands that filter lymph throughout the body
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■ Tonsils: collections of lymphoid tissue found in the pharynx
■ palatine tonsils: located at the back of the throat

■ pharyngeal tonsils: commonly referred to as “adenoids”
■ Thymus: gland in the upper chest cavity that processes lymphocytes
■ Spleen: produces antibodies and lymphocytes
The following table lists some word parts related to the lymphatic system:

adenoid/o adenoids Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of
the adenoids.
cervic/o neck or the uterus Cervicalgia means neck pain.
Inflammation of the cervix is known as

cervicitis.
home/o sameness Homeostasis refers to the ability of the
physiological system to maintain internal
stability.
lymphat/o lymphatics A disease or enlargement of the lymph
nodes is lymphadenopathy.
splen/o spleen Splenomegaly is the enlargement of the
spleen.
thromb/o thrombus, blood clot Thrombolysis is the breakdown of blood
clots.

Any disease involving the lymph nodes is referred to as lymphadenopathy. Study the fol-
lowing table for additional terms referring to pathological terms and diagnoses related to
the lymphatics.
lymphoma lymph + oma cancer that originates from the lym-

phatic system
lymphadenoma lymph + aden + oma tumor of the lymph node
lymphangitis lymph + ang + itis acute or chronic inflammation of the
lymphatic vessels
lymphadenitis lymph + aden + itis inflammation of the lymph nodes
lymphedema lymph + edema Accumulation of lymph in the tissue
that results in swelling.
Elephantiasis is a form of edema

caused by parasites.
lymphangiography lymph + angio + graphy radiologic study of the lymphatic ves-
sels and nodes using a contrast dye
lymphangiogram lymph + angio + gram x-ray of the lymphatic vessels and
nodes
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Antibiotics or anti-infective medications are the usual lines of treatment for infections of
the lymph nodes and lymph vessels.
In more severe problems of the lymphatic system such as cancer, excision of the affected
lymphatic structure may be necessary. Recall the meaning of the following terms:
■ Lymphadenectomy
■ Splenectomy
■ Tonsillectomy
■ Adenoidectomy
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Self-Check 3.2
3. The name of the record produced by recording the electrical currents of the heart
muscle is
a. echocardiogram. c. electrocardiogram.
b. echocardiography. d. electrocardiography.
4. Arterioles are small

a. arteries that carry blood to arteries.
b. arteries that receive blood from arteries.
c. blood vessels that carry blood to the inferior vena cava.
d. blood vessels that receive blood from veins.
5. Inflammation of the lining of the heart is

a. endocarditis. c. pericarditis.
b. myocarditis. d. polyarteritis.
6. An excessive quantity of fat in the blood is called

a. hyperkalemia. c. hypernatremia.
b. hyperlipidemia. d. hypertension.
7. Vasodilation is a/an
a. decrease in the diameter of a blood vessel.
b. drug that dilates the blood vessels.
c. synonym for vasoconstriction.
d. increase in the diameter of a blood vessel.
8. A 55-year-old man had which device implanted in his chest to detect sustained
ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation and deliver a low-energy shock to the heart,
restoring the normal rhythm?
a. Automated external defibrillator c. Electrocardiogram
b. Cardioverter-defibrillator d. Pacemaker
(Continued)
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Self-Check 3.2
9. A 74-year-old man underwent which operation when the blockages in his coronary
arteries were too severe for a percutaneous procedure to be effective?
a. Aortography
b. Atherectomy
c. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
d. Coronary artery bypass graft
10. A 3-month-old boy has a “hole” in his heart. This is better described as
a. a septal defect. c. myocardial infarction.
b. congestive heart failure. d. myocardial ischemia.
11. The mitral valve is also referred to as the valve.

a. bicuspid c. semilunar
b. sinoatrial d. tricuspid
Check your answers to the Practice Exercises with those in Appendix III of your
textbook. Check your answers to questions 1–11 with those at the end of this
study guide.
SECTION 3.3: THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
Objective
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to write, recognize, and analyze med-
ical terms pertaining to the respiratory system.
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Otherwise known as the pulmonary system, the respiratory system (spir/o = to breathe)
functions primarily to deliver oxygen to the body tissues and get rid of carbon dioxide.
This function is achieved through breathing or ventilation. There are two processes
involved in ventilation:
■ Inspiration/inhalation: movement of air into the lungs
■ Expiration/exhalation: movement of air out of the lungs
A pulmonologist (pulmon/o + -logist) is a specialist in the anatomy, physiology, and

pathology of the lungs, while a respiratory therapist evaluates and treats respiratory dis-
orders at the direction of a physician.
STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
The respiratory system consists of the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The follow-
ing diagram illustrates the movement of air into the respiratory tract with the associated
structures.
UPPER NOSE NASAL CAVITY NASOPHARYNX

RESPIRATORY
TRACT
LARYNX LARYNGOPHARYNX OROPHARYNX
ALVEOLI LUNG CAPILLARIES
LOWER
BRONCHIOLES BRONCHI TRACHEA RESPIRATORY
TRACT
FIGURE 2—Upper and Lower Respiratory Systems
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The following respiratory structures are important to note:
■ Diaphragm
■ serves as the main muscle of respiration
■ separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic (thora/o = chest) cavity
■ Pleura: membrane that surrounds the lungs

■ Lungs
■ a pair of large, spongy organs used for gas exchange
■ the right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two lobes
■ Sinuses
■ lighten the weight of the skull
■ Four sinuses: frontal, ethmoid, maxillary, sphenoid

■ para + nasal sinuses
■ (para = beside, nas/o = nose, -al = pertaining to)
■ the frontal and maxillary sinuses are air-filled paired cavities located
around the nose
■ Pharynx: throat
■ Larynx: voice box
Study the combining forms of the following respiratory structures along with the word
associations and their meanings.

alveol/o alveolus/alveoli Alveolar ventilation refers to the volume of
gas expired from the alveoli.
bronch/o, bronchus/bronchi A bronchodilator is a medication that opens
bronchi/o up the bronchioles.
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchial

tubes.
bronchiol/o bronchiole Inflammation of the bronchioles is known as
bronchioloitis.
epiglott/o epiglottis Epiglottitis is a life-threatening condition in
which the epiglottis swells.
laryng/o larynx (voice box) Laryngospasm is the uncontrolled and invol-
untary muscular contraction of the vocal
folds.
lob/o lobe The surgical removal of a lobe of an organ is
referred to as lobectomy.
nas/o, rhin/o nose The nasopharynx refers to the upper part of
the throat behind the nose.
(Continued)
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phren/o diaphragm The phrenic nerve supports the movement of
the diaphragm.
pleur/o pleura Pleuritis or pleurisy is the inflammation of the
pleura or the lining of the lungs.
pharyng/o pharynx (throat) Pharyngitis is the inflammation of the phar-
ynx, otherwise known as “sore throat.”
pneu/o, pneu- lung Pneumonia is the infection of one or both
mon/o, pulm/o, lungs.
pulmono/o
The medical specialty that deals with dis-
eases involving the respiratory tract is known
as pulmonology.
trache/o trachea Tracheostomy is a surgical procedure that
creates an opening in the trachea.
DISEASES, DISORDERS,
AND DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
Two of the most common noninvasive measurements used to collect data about a client’s
respiratory status are oximetry and spirometry.
■ Oximetry
■ measurement of the blood oxygen saturation in the arteries
■ oximeter: a device used to measure oxygen saturation of the blood
■ Spirometry (spiro + metry)
■ measurement of airflow taken in and exhaled from the lungs

■ spirometer: instrument used for measuring air inhaled to and exhaled out of
the lungs
The suffix –pnea denotes breathing. Study the following list for medical terms pertaining
to respirations.
eupnea eu- (normal) eu + pnea normal respirations

dyspnea dys- (bad) dys + pnea labored and difficult breathing
apnea a- (absence) a + pnea temporary absence of
breathing
orthopnea orth/o- (straight) ortho + pnea difficulty breathing in any posi-
tion other than upright or sitting
position
bradypnea brady- (slow) brady + pnea abnormal breathing, less than
12 breaths per minute
(Continued)
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tachypnea tachy- (fast) tachy + pnea respirations more than
20 breaths per minute
hyperpnea hyper- (more hyper + pnea abnormally deep or rapid
than normal) respiration
Aside from the previous list, the following terms are frequently used in relation to the
respiratory system:
■ hyperventilation (hyper + ventilation): excessive ventilation of the lungs

■ hypoventilation (hypo + ventilation): insufficient exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the lungs
■ hypoxia (hyp + ox + ia): diminished oxygenation to the tissues

■ anoxia (an + ox + ia): extreme form of hypoxia, severe lack of oxygen in the tissues
Similar to the circulatory system, the respiratory system can be afflicted with a number of
disorders. Review the definitions of the following respiratory disorders:
■ Adult respiratory distress syndrome
■ Asthma
■ Atelectasis
■ Bronchiectasis
■ Bronchography
■ Lung carcinoma
■ Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
■ Emphysema
■ Influenza
■ Nasal polyp
■ Pleuritis
■ Pneumoconiosis
■ Pulmonary embolism
■ Severe acute respiratory syndrome

■ Silicosis
■ Sudden infant death syndrome
■ Tuberculosis
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INTERVENTIONS
Asphyxia denotes a severe decrease in the supply of oxygen in the body secondary to
abnormal breathing. Methods used to address this problem may include the use of the
Heimlich maneuver or, in severe cases, endotracheal intubation.
■ Heimlich maneuver
■ otherwise known as abdominal thrust
■ first-aid procedure used to remove airway foreign body obstruction, such as in

the case of choking
■ Endotracheal intubation (endo = inside + trache/o + al): insertion of artificial airway
into the trachea
■ nasotracheal intubation (nas/o = nose)
■ insertion of an airway tube through the nose
■ orotracheal intubation (or/o = mouth)
■ insertion of an airway tube through the mouth

■ Ventilator
■ an apparatus used to administer artificial respiration in cases of respiratory

failure
In severe cases, respiratory disorders may need to be treated surgically. The follow-
ing table lists some of the most common surgical procedures related to the respiratory
system.
Surgical Procedure Word Parts Definition

tracheotomy trach/o + tomy creation of an opening in the trachea
tracheostomy trach/o + ostomy creation of artificial airway in the
trachea
biopsy bi + o + o/psy removal of small tissue for examination
percutaneous per + cutane/o puncturing the skin to obtain a sample

of the tissue
pneumonectomy pneumon/o + ectomy removal of all or part of the lungs
lobectomy lob/o + ectomy removal of a lobe of the lung
rhinoplasty rhin/o + plasty surgical repair of the nose
pneumocentesis pneum/o + centesis puncture of the lungs to remove fluid
thoracentesis thorac/o + centesis puncture of the chest cavity to drain
fluid
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LESSON 4: DIGESTIVE, URINARY,
AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TERMS
INTRODUCTION
In the previous section, you became familiar with medical terminologies related to the
musculoskeletal, circulatory, and respiratory systems. This section will focus on medical
vocabularies and jargons related to digestion, micturition or urination, and reproduc-
tion. Detailed discussion on these systems can be found in Chapters 9, 10, and 11 of
your textbook.
SECTION 4.1: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to distinguish and analyze medical
terms associated with the digestive system.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is responsible for the provision of water, nutrients, and minerals
to the body. Alimentation (alimentum = to nourish) is the term used for the process of
giving or receiving nutrition, while metabolism is used to describe all the body processes
involved in maintaining life.
There are four processes involved in digestion:
■ Ingestion: taking foods or fluids orally

■ Digestion: physical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that
can be absorbed in the bloodstream
■ Absorption: passage of food molecules from the small intestine into the blood and
lymph capillaries
■ Elimination: removal of food particles that were not digested through defecation
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Nutrients are classified into three major categories. They’re further broken down into
simpler substances known as enzymes. The following table summarizes nutrient classifi-
cations and their specific enzymes (-ase = enzyme).
Nutrient Classification Associated Enzyme/s Word Parts

carbohydrates lactase (breaks down lactose) lact + ase
amylase (breaks down starch) amyl + ase

proteins protease prote + ase
proteinase protein + ase

fats lipase lip + ase
Study the following word parts related to digestion and nutrition:

-ation action or process Defecation is the process of passing out stool
or feces via the anus.
bil/i, chol/e bile The biliary system consists of the liver, gall-
bladder, and the bile duct.
cirrh/o orange-yellow Liver cirrhosis refers to the chronic scarring
and damage to the liver.
de- down, from, reversing, or The removal of an amino group from a mole-
removing cule is known as deamination.
glycos/o sugar Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose for cel-
lular metabolism.
-orexia appetite Anorexia is the loss of appetite.
-pepsia digestion Dyspepsia is the term used to describe indi-
gestion or painful and upset stomach.
vag/o vagus nerve The vasovagal syncope is the sudden loss of
consciousness caused by affectation of the
vagus nerve.
viscer/o viscera Visceral pain is a pain that originates from
body organs.
Structures of the Digestive System

The structures of the digestive system can be divided into two categories: alimentary tract
and the accessory organs of digestion.
Alimentary Tract
The alimentary tract, otherwise known as the digestive tract, starts from the mouth and
continues down to the anus.
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■ Intestinal intestin/o = intestines + -al
■ Gastrointestinal gastr/o = stomach + -al
The alimentary canal consists of two parts, the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract.
Upper Digestive Word Part Word Association

Gastrointestinal Organs
Tract lips cheil/o cheilosis
teeth dent/i, dent/o, odont/o dentistry
gums gingiv/o gingivitis
tongue gloss/o, lingu/o glossitis
mouth or/o, stomat/o oropharynx
esophagus esophag/o esophagitis
stomach gastr/o gastroenterologist
Lower intestines intestin/o, enter/o intestinal, enteritis

Gastrointestinal duodenum duoden/o duodenal
Tract
jejunum jejun/o jejunostomy
ileum ile/o ileostomy
colon or large col/o, colon/o colonoscopy
intestine
appendix append/o, appendic/o appendectomy
cecum cec/o ileocecal
sigmoid colon sigmoid/o sigmoidectomy
anus or rectum proct/o proctologist
rectum rect/o rectal
anus an/o anal
Accessory Organs of Digestion

Proper digestion and absorption of nutrients is aided by the secretion of substances by
the accessory organs of digestion. These organs include the liver, gallbladder, pancreas,
and salivary glands. The following table lists the word parts related to the accessory
organs of digestion.

cholecyst/o gallbladder Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of
the gallbladder.
choledocho/o common bile duct The presence of gallstones in the common
bile duct is referred to as choledocholithiasis.
hepat/o liver Hepatitis refers to the inflammatory condition
of the liver.
pancreat/o pancreas Pancreatography is the radiographic examina-
tion of the pancreas.
sial/o salivary gland Sialorrhea refers to excessive salivation.
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Diseases and disorders of the digestive system are usually diagnosed through radiology
or endoscopy.
Radiologic studies of the digestive system (-graphy = process of recording):

■ Esophagography: esophagi/o + graphy
■ Sialography: sial/o + graphy
Endoscopic examinations (-scopy = visual examination):

■ Esophagoscopy: esophag/o + scopy
■ Gastroscopy: gastr/o + scopy
■ Colonoscopy: colon/o + scopy
■ Sigmoidoscopy: sigmoid/o + scopy
■ Proctoscopy: proct/o + scopy
The presence of stones in the digestive organs is a common occurrence (lith/o = stone).
The following are examples:
■ Cholelithiasis: chole + lith + iasis
■ Choledocholithiasis: choledocho + lith + iasis
■ Pancreatolithiasis: pancreato + lith + iasis
Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases that pertain to the body’s utilization of glucose.
Lack of insulin or insulin resistance results in hyper + glycemia (hyper = increased, glyc/o
= sugar, emia = blood). Hyperglycemia may lead to the following signs and symptoms
(poly = excessive):
■ Poly + phagia (eating)
■ Poly + uria (urination)
■ Poly + dipsia (thirst)
The prefix hyper is also used in the following disorders (hyper = excessive or increased):
■ Hyperlipidemia: hyper + lipid + emia

■ increased level of lipids in the blood, including cholesterol and triglycerides
■ Hyperemesis: hyper + emesis
■ excessive vomiting
Other health concerns related to the digestive system include:
■ Obesity
■ Emaciation
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■ Anorexia nervosa
■ Bulimia
■ Malabsorption
■ Malnutrition
■ Dehydration

Some clients may need to be fed via an enteral (enter/o = intestine) feeding tube. The
three most common types of feeding tubes are:
■ Nasogastric: naso + gastr/o + ic
■ Nasoduodenal: naso + duoden/o + al
■ Nasojejunal: naso + jejun/o + al
Selected surgical procedures include:
esophagostomy esophag/o + stomy

gastrostomy gastr/o + stomy
jejunostomy jejuno/o + stomy stomy = formation of an opening
colostomy col/o + stomy
ileostomy ile/o + stomy
vagotomy vag/o + tomy tomy = creation of incision
gastroplasty gastr/o + plasty plasty = repair
lithotripsy lith/o + tripsy tripsy = surgical crushing
appendectomy append/o + ectomy
cholecystectomy cholecyst/o + ectomy
gastrectomy gastr/o + ectomy ectomy = excision
hemorrhoidectomy hemorrhoid/o + ectomy
pancreatolithectomy pancreat/o + lith + ectomy
laparoscopy lapar/o + scopy scopy = visual examination
Some gastrointestinal problems may be treated with medications. These medications

include:
■ Antidiarrheal (anti + diarrheal)

■ relieves diarrhea
■ Antiemetic (anti + emetic)
■ relieves or prevents vomiting
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SECTION 4.2: URINARY SYSTEM
Objective
terms pertaining to the urinary system.
The urinary system, otherwise known as the renal system, serves many purposes. One
of these purposes is the elimination of waste products through urin + ation. Other func-
tions include:
■ Regulation of blood pressure, blood volume, and blood pH

■ Production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis = erythro + poiesis)
■ Synthesis of vitamin D
Urea: end product of waste excretion by the kidneys
Urology: branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of
the urinary tract and the urogenital system
Urologist: a physician who specializes in diseases of the urinary tract and the male repro-
ductive system
Study the following word parts pertaining to the urinary system.

albumin/o albumin Albuminuria is a pathologic condition
wherein an abnormal amount of albumin is
present in the urine.
-ation process Urination is the act of voiding.
-esis action, process, or Increased excretion of urine is known as
result of diuresis.
glycos/o sugar The presence of glucose in the urine is
glycosuria.
olig/o few, scanty Oliguria is the reduction of urine volume.
ur/o urine or urinary tract The formation of urinary stones is known
as urolithiasis.
urin/o urine Urinal is a fixture used for urination, espe-
cially by males.
-uria urine or urination The presence of blood in the urine is
referred to as hematuria.
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STRUCTURES OF THE URINARY TRACT
The major structures of the urinary system include:
■ Right and left kidneys: produce hormones, absorb minerals, filter blood, and pro-
duce urine
■ Right and left ureters: passageways of urine

■ Bladder: urine storage
■ Urethra: the tubular passage through which urine is expelled from the body
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. It has three functions, namely:
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
The following table lists the word parts associated with the urinary system.
Combining Form Name of Structure Word Association

cyst/o bladder Cystogram is an x-ray examination of the
urinary bladder.
glomerul/o glomerulus Inflammation of the glomeruli is known as
glomerulonephritis.
nephr/o, ren/o kidney A nephrologist is a physician who special-
izes in treating diseases of the kidneys.
Kidney failure is otherwise known as renal

failure.
pyel/o renal pelvis Pyelitis is the inflammation of the renal
pelvis.
ureter/o ureter Ureterectomy is the excision of the ureter.
urethr/o urethra Irritation and inflammation of the urethra is
known as urethritis.

DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
There are several tests used to diagnose diseases of the urinary system. One of the most
common tests is urinalysis (urin/o + analysis). This test needs a urine specimen, which
can either be a voided specimen or catheterized specimen.
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The presence of abnormal substances in the urine provides significant information about
the client’s health status. Several examples are listed as follows:
Glycosuria glyc/o + uria sugar in the urine

Proteinuria protein/o + uria protein in the urine
Hematuria hem/o + uria blood in the urine
Albuminuria albumin/o + uria albumin in the urine
Pyuria py/o + uria pus in the urine
Ketonuria keton/o + uria ketones in the urine
Radiography and ultrasonography are also used to aid in the diagnosis of disorders of the
urinary system. Some of these tests include:
■ Renal angiography
■ Nephrotomography
■ Intravenous urography
■ Nephrosonography
Visualization procedures may also be used, namely:
■ Cystoscopy
■ Urethroscopy
Since the urinary system is responsible for filtration of the blood and excretion of waste
products, stone (lith) formation isn’t uncommon.
■ Urolithiasis: presence of urinary stones
■ Cystolithiasis: presence of stones in the urinary bladder
■ Nephrolithiasis: presence of stones in the kidneys
Other pathological conditions related to the urinary system include the following:
Nephromalacia nephro + malacia softening of the kidneys

Nephromegaly nephron + megaly enlargement of the kidneys
Nephritis nephron/o + itis inflammation of the kidney
Dysuria dys + uria painful urination
Polyuria poly + uria excessive urination
Anuria an + uria absence of urination
Oliguria oligi + uria diminished urine formation
Uremia ur/o + emia uric acid in the blood
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INTERVENTIONS
Surgical procedures and medications have been used to treat disorders of the urinary
system.
Insertion of tubes or urinary diversion is a common procedure. Some examples include:
■ Urethral catheterization
■ Ureteral catheterization
■ Suprapubic catheterization
■ Percutaneous nephrostomy
In extreme cases, when the kidneys are unable to excrete waste products from the blood,
dialysis may be necessary.
dia = through lysis = freeing or destroying
Hemodialysis hemo + dia + lysis the use of a machine to filter blood

Peritoneal dialysis periton/o + eal the use of the peritoneum as a filter
A number of surgeries have been utilized to treat problems involving the urinary system.
Some of these include:
Word Parts Word Association

cyst/o = bladder -stomy Cystostomy is the surgical
creation of an opening into the
nephr/o = renal pelvis new opening bladder.
pyel/o = renal pelvis The creation of a new open-

ing into the renal pelvis of
lith/o = stone the kidney is referred to as
nephrostomy or pyelostomy.
-tripsy Lithotripsy is the surgical crush-
ing of a stone.
surgical crushing
-tomy Nephrotomy is an incision of the
kidney.
incision
-pexy Nephropexy is the term used to
describe surgical attachment of
surgical fixation a prolapsed kidney.
-plasty Surgical reconstruction of
the ureters is known as
surgical repair ureteroplasty.
Some substances affect the formation and excretion of urine. Diuretics promote urination,
while antidiuretics inhibit urination. Examples of diuretics include coffee, tea, alcohol,
and water.
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SECTION 4.3: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to build, recognize, and analyze med-
ical terminologies involving the male and female reproductive system.
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The reproductive system’s main function is production of offspring. Specific organs,
known as gonads and genitalia, serve to fulfill this function.
■ Gonads: internal reproductive organs
■ testes produce spermatozoa (sperm cells)
■ ovaries produce ova (egg cells)

■ Genitalia: external reproductive organs
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system functions to enable procreation and to support the devel-
opment and nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy and following childbirth.
STRUCTURES
Gynecology (gynec/o = female; -logy = study of) is the branch of medicine that deals with
the diseases and routine physical care of women’s reproductive systems, and the spe-
cialist responsible is referred to as a gynecologist.
Study the following word parts pertaining to the structures of the female reproductive
system.
WORD PARTS SPECIFIC TO THE FEMALE GENITALIA
Female Genitalia Meaning Word Association
cervic/o cervix Cervicitis is the inflammation and irritation
of the cervix.
colp/o vagin/o vagina Repair of the vaginal wall is colporrhaphy.
Vaginitis is the inflammation of the vagina.

gynec/o female The medical practice concerned with
the female reproductive system is
gynecology.
hyster/o, uter/o uterus Hysterectomy is the removal of the
uterus.
metro/o uterine tissue Irregular uterine bleeding in between
regular menstrual periods is known as
metrorhaggia.
oophor/o, ovar/o ovary Oophoritis or ovaritis is the inflammation
of the ovaries.
salping/o uterine/fallopian tube Salpingectomy is the surgical removal of
the Fallopian tubes.
vulv/o vulva/external genitalia Removal of the female external genitalia
is known as vulvectomy.
(Continued)
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WORD PARTS SPECIFIC TO THE FEMALE GENITALIA (continued)
Female Genitalia Meaning Word Association
Other Word Parts
-cidal killing Bactericidal agents kill bacteria.
cyst/o, vesic/o bladder, cyst, or sac A vesicovaginal fistula is an abnormal
opening between the vagina and the
bladder.
genit/o genitals The term genitourinary refers to the geni-
tal and urinary organs.
gonad/o genitals or reproduction Gonadotropins are hormones that
stimulate the gonads to perform their
reproductive and endocrine functions.
men/o month Menstruation refers to the monthly shed-
ding of the uterine lining.
-plasia development or formation Endometrial hyperplasia is the thickening
of the inner lining of the uterus.
rect/o rectum Rectovaginal fistulas are abnormal tracts
that connect the lower gastrointestinal
tract with the vagina.
urethr/o urethra Urethrocele refers to the prolapse of the
female urethra into the vagina.
urin/o urine The urogenital system refers to the organ
system consisting of the reproductive and
the urinary organs.
The female reproductive system consists of external and internal structures. The external
genitalia, otherwise known as the vulva, structures include:
■ Mons pubis
■ Labia (labium = lip)
■ majora
■ minora
■ Clitoris
■ Gland openings (Bartholin’s, Skene’s gland)
Internal structures include:
■ Right and left ovaries
■ Functions
■ ovulation
■ production of hormones
■ estrogen
■ progesterone
■ Right and left fallopian tubes
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■ Uterus
■ Three layers
■ endometrium endo + metr + ium (endo = inside)
■ myometrium myo + metr + ium (my/o = muscle)
■ perimetrium peri + metr + ium (per = around)
■ Vagina
■ Special glands
The capability to reproduce begins at puberty. For females, this stage is characterized by
the start of menstruation or menses (men/o = month). The term menopause, on the other
hand, is the time that marks the end of the menstrual cycle.

Examination of the female reproductive system may include physical assessment and
pelvic examination that can be done unaided or with the use of instruments.
Examination of the cervix and the walls of the vagina may be done with a vaginal specu-
lum. Collection of uterine and/or vaginal wall tissue for cytologic examination is known as
a Papanicolaou smear/test (abbreviated form = Pap smear).
Visual (-scopy) and radiologic examinations of the structures of the female reproductive
tract include:
Procedure Meaning Instrument Used

colposcopy Examination of the cervix using a special colposcope
magnifying device (microscope)
laparoscopy Surgical diagnostic procedure used to laparoscope
examine the abdominal structures
hysteroscopy Direct visualization of the cervical canal hysteroscope
and the uterine cavity
hysterosalpingog- X-ray examination of the uterus and
raphy fallopian tubes with the use of a radi-
opaque dye
Pain, bleeding, and abnormal vaginal discharge are usual gynecologic concerns that war-
rant a visit to a gynecologist. Aside from the gynecologic problems previously mentioned,
menstrual irregularities are also common. Examples of these irregularities include:
men/o = month amenorrhea Absence of menstruation

-rrhea = discharge dysmenorrhea Difficult or painful menstruation
-rrhagia = hemorrhage menorrhagia Abnormally heavy menstruation
metr/o = uterine tissue metrorrhagia Abnormal uterine bleeding
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Study the following list of diseases and disorders affecting the female reproductive
system.
■ Cervical polyp
■ Cervicocolpitis
■ Colpitis
■ Cystocele
■ Endometriosis
■ Endometritis
■ Fistula
■ vesicovaginal
■ rectovaginal
■ urethrovaginal
■ Hysteroptosis
■ Myoma
■ Oophoritis
■ Oophorosalpingitis
■ Ovarian carcinoma
■ Ovarian cyst
■ Pelvic inflammatory disease
■ Premenstrual syndrome
■ Salpingitis
■ Salpingocele
■ Uterine cancer
■ Uterine fibroid
■ Vulva

Gynecological concerns may be treated using several methods.
Common Gynecological Concerns Interventions

infertility in vitro fertilization
amenorrhea and menopause hormone replacement therapy
prevention of pregnancy and sexually trans- Contraception
mitted illness ■ natural
■ artificial
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Some gynecological problems may need to be treated with surgery. The following list out-
lines several surgeries related to the female reproductive system.
Word Part Surgical Procedure Meaning

-plasty = surgical repair colpoplasty surgical repair of the vagina
-rrhaphy = suture colporrhaphy suture of the vagina
salpingorrhaphy suture of the uterine tube
-ectomy = excision hysterectomy excision of the uterus
oophorectomy excision of one or both ovaries
salpingectomy excision of the fallopian tube
salpingo-oophorectomy excision of the ovary and its fallopian
tube
vulvectomy excision of the vulva
Pregnancy and Childbirth

The branch of medicine that deals with the care of women during pregnancy and child-
birth is obstetrics, and the specialist is an obstetrician.
Pregnancy, otherwise referred to as gestation, begins at conception and ends at child-

birth. Prior to conception, fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube and is followed by
implantation of the zygote in the endometrium. The implanted embryo is called a fetus
after eight weeks. The presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in the urine or
blood may be a presumptive sign of pregnancy. The average duration of gestation from
the fertilization date is 266 days, or about three trimesters. Ultrasonography is a useful
diagnostic tool in monitoring the fetus’ development throughout the pregnancy.
The suffix -natal refers to birth. Examples of relevant terms include:
Prenatal (pre + natal) period occurring before birth

Postnatal (post + natal) period occurring after birth
Perinatal (peri + natal) period occurring immediately before and after birth
Neonatal (neo + natal) period occurring from the birth of the child to one
month
Parturition pertains to childbirth:
Antepartum (ante + partum) before childbirth

Postpartum (post + partum) after childbirth
Gravidity pertains to the number of times a woman has been pregnant. Gravida may be
used to refer to a pregnant woman.
Primigravida (primi + gravida) a woman who is pregnant for the first time
Multigravida (multi + gravida) a woman who has been pregnant more than once
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Parity denotes the number of births a woman has had after 20 weeks of gestation. The
combining form -para is used to describe a woman who has given birth:
Unipara (uni + para) a woman who has given birth to one child
Multipara (multi + para) a woman who has had multiple births
Nullipara (null/o + para) a woman who has never given birth
Prior to giving birth, the pregnant woman goes through the labor process. The stages of
labor include:
1. Cervical dilation
2. Expulsion of the fetus
3. Expulsion of the placenta
Fetal presentation refers to the part of the fetus’ body that’s closest to the birth canal:
■ Cephalic presentation
■ Breech presentation
■ Shoulder presentation
The two types of delivery are:
■ Vaginal
■ Cesarean section (C-section)
The list below presents the most common obstetric terms:
■ Abruptio placentae
■ Amnion
■ Amniocentesis
■ Amniotomy
■ Cesarean section
■ Chorionic villus sampling
■ Down syndrome
■ Episiotomy
■ Erythroblastosis fetalis
■ Fetal monitoring
■ Placenta previa
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Female Breasts
The female breasts are paired mammary (mamm/o = breast) glands that are essential in
lactation (lact/o = milk + ation).
Common medical terminologies pertaining to the breasts are as follows:
Medical Term Word Parts Meaning

mammography mamm/o + graphy radiographic examination of the
breast
lumpectomy lump + ectomy removal of a breast lump or tumor
mastectomy mast/o + ectomy removal of the breast
mastalgia mast/o + algia pain in the breast
mastodynia mast/o + dynia
mammalgia mamm/o + algia painful breast

mastitis mast/o + itis inflammation of the breast
mastoptosis mast/o + ptosis sagging breasts
mastopexy mast/o + pexy surgical procedure to lift the
breasts
mammoplasty mamm/o + plasty surgical repair of the breasts
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system is essential in the production of male sex hormones and
the production, sustenance, and delivery of sperm for reproduction.
Structures
The male reproductive system also consists of internal and external organs.
External organs include:
■ Penis
■ Scrotum
Internal organs include:
■ Testis
■ Epididymis
■ Vas deferens or ductus deferens
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■ Accessory glands
■ seminal vesicles
■ prostate gland
■ bulbourethral glands
The following table pertains to the word parts and word associations related to the male
reproductive organs.

gon/o genitals or reproduction Gonads refer to the reproduc-
tive organs, namely the testes or
ovaries.
orchi/o, orchid/o, testes Orchitis is the inflammation of the
test/o, testicu/o testes.
Orchidopexy is the surgical fixation
of an undescended testis.
Testosterone is the primary male
hormone.
Testicular pertains to the testicles.
pen/o penis Penile pertains to the penis.
prostat/o prostate Prostatectomy is the surgical
removal of the prostate gland.
scrot/o scrotum, bag Scrotal pertains to the scrotum.
semin/o semen The semen is otherwise referred to
as seminal fluid.
ser/o serum Serology pertains to the scientific
study or diagnostic examination of
blood serum.
spermat/o spermatozoa (sperm) Spermatogenesis is defined as
the formation of mature functional
sperm.
urethr/o urethra Urethral pertains to the urethra.
vas/o vessel or duct The vas deferens carries sperm
from the testicle to the urethra.

The following list enumerates the most common disorders of the male reproductive sys-
tem. Refer to Chapter 11 of your textbook for the definition.
■ Anorchidism ■ an + orchid/o + ism

■ Aspermia ■ a + sperm + ia
■ Benign prostatic hyperplasia ■ prostat/o + ic hyper + plasia
■ Cryptorchidism ■ crypt/o + orchid/o + ism
(Continued)
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■ Hydrocele ■ hydr/o + cele
■ Intersexuality ■ inter + sex/o + al + ity
■ Orchitis ■ orchi/o + itis
■ Prostatic carcinoma ■ prostat/o + ic carcin/o + oma
■ Prostatitis ■ prostat/o + itis
■ Testicular cancer ■ testicul/o
■ Testicular torsion ■ testicul/o

Disorders of the male reproductive system may be treated with surgery. Several surgical
interventions are as follows:
Word Part Surgical Procedure Meaning

-ectomy = excision orchidectomy/ orchiectomy surgical removal of the testicle
prostatectomy removal of all or part of the
prostate
vasectomy removal of all or part of the vas
deferens
-plasty = surgical repair orchidoplasty plastic surgery of the testis
-pexy = surgical fixation orchiopexy surgical fixation of an unde-
scended testis
-ostomy = new opening vasovasostomy surgical means of reconnecting the
ends of severed ductus deferens
circum = around circumcision removal of the foreskin that covers
the head of the penis
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES OR

INFECTIONS
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or infections (STIs) are named as such because
these are disorders acquired through sexual contact. These disorders directly affect the
genitourinary system. Common symptoms of STDs or STIs include urethr + itis in males
and vagin + itis in females. Causative microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
fungi, or parasites.
Common STIs and their causative agents:
■ Bacteria
■ Gonorrhea
■ Syphilis
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LESSON 5: INTEGUMENTARY,
NERVOUS, AND ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM TERMS
INTRODUCTION
The preceding chapters have acquainted you with medical terms pertaining to the
digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. This section will help you recognize med-
ical terminologies related to the integument, brain, spinal cord, special senses, and the
glands. Comprehensive discussion on these structures is presented in Chapters 12–15 of
your textbook.
SECTION 5.1: THE INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM
Objective
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to identify and be familiar with medi-
cal terminologies pertaining to the integumentary system.
The skin, otherwise referred to as the integument, is the biggest organ of the body. The
other structures included under this system include the appendages of the skin, hair,
nails, and the sweat and sebaceous glands.
The skin has several functions including the following, which are presented as a
mnemonic:
■ D vitamin synthesis
■ Elimination of wastes
■ Regulation of body temperature
■ Makes information readily available

■ Acts as a barrier
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STRUCTURES OF THE INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
The skin has two layers:
■ Epidermis epi + dermis (epi = above, derma = skin)
■ thin, outer layer of the skin
■ primarily consists of keratin, a sclero + protein
■ composed of five layers (from the deepest to the most superficial)
■ stratum basale
■ stratum spinosum ■ stratum = layer
■ stratum granulosum ■ strata = plural form
■ stratum lucidum
■ stratum corneum
■ Dermis
■ thick layer under the epidermis
■ consists of connective tissue containing lymphatics, nerves, blood vessels,
hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands
■ Beneath the dermis is the subcutaneous adipose tissue.
sub (below) + cutane (skin) + ous + (pertaining to)

■ adip/o (fat)
■ stratum= layer
■ strata= plural form
The accessory skin structures are:
■ Hair: filament made up of protein that grows from follicles in the skin
■ Nail: a keratinized structure found at the end of toes and fingers
■ Sebaceous glands: glands that produce oil or waxy substance, called sebum
■ Sweat glands/sudoriferous glands: essential in temperature regulation and waste
elimination through perspiration
■ eccrine glands: open directly to the skin
■ apocrine glands: open into the hair follicles
The following table lists the word parts and word associations pertaining to the structures
of the integumentary system.
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Combining Forms/
Suffixes Meaning Word Association
adip/o, lip/o fat Adipocytes are fat cells.
axill/o axilla (armpit) Axillary pertains to the armpit or axilla.
cutane/o, derm/a, der- skin Cutaneous horns are hard conical projec-
m/o, dermat/o tions from the skin.
Dermatitis is a group of diseases that

results in skin inflammation.
Dermatology is the branch of medicine

that deals with the skin, nails, hair, and
their diseases.
erythemat/o erythema or redness Systemic lupus erythematosus or lupus
is a chronic inflammatory disease that
attacks the immune system.
follicul/o follicle Inflammation of the follicles is known as
folliculitis.
ichthy/o fish Ichthyosis is a group of skin disorders
typified by having dry, scaly, or thickened
skin.
kerat/o tissue containing Seborrheic keratosis is a common non-
keratin cancerous skin growth in older adults.
onych/o, ungu/o nail Onychia is the inflammation of the nail
folds.
Unguis incarnates refers to an ingrown

fingernail or toenail.
pil/o, trich/o hair The pilomotor muscles are responsible for
the erection of skin hair.
Trichology is the science that deals with

the structure, function, and diseases of
the skin.
seb/o sebum Seborrheic dermatitis is a skin condition
that frequently causes scaly patches and
red skin, commonly in the scalp.
sept/o infection/septum Septicemic or hemorrhagic rash refers
to a cluster of tiny blood spots similar to
pinpricks in the skin caused by infection in
the blood.
xer/o dry Simple dry skin is known as xeroderma.
-derm skin or germ layer Embryonic germ layers:
■ endoderm: innermost layer
■ mesoderm: middle layer
■ ectoderm: outermost layer
-static keeping stationary Fungistatic medications, commonly
prescribed in fungal skin infections, are
antifungal drugs that stop the growth of
fungus.
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DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
The skin, being the body’s physiological defense against the external environment, can
be exposed to numerous factors that can lead to disorders and diseases.
Skin Lesions
Visible abnormalities of the skin are collectively known as skin lesions. Lesions can be
primary or secondary.
■ Primary lesions are initial reactions to a problem that changes one of the compo-
nents of the skin.
Examples:
■ Macule: flat, circumscribed, and discolored area of the skin that is less than
1 cm in diameter
■ Papule: elevated, circumscribed, and discolored area of the skin with no visi-
ble fluid
■ Plaque: elevated and circumscribed patches greater than 1 cm in diameter

■ Wheal: irregularly shaped and elevated lesions commonly seen in allergic
reactions
■ Bulla: a fluid-filled, elevated skin lesion greater than 1 cm in diameter
■ Vesicle: a fluid-filled, elevated skin lesion less than 1 cm in diameter
■ Pustule: vesicles that are filled with pus or cloudy fluid
■ Secondary lesions result from modification of the primary lesion caused by trauma
or other external factors.
Examples:
■ Atrophy: thinning of the epidermis

■ Ulcer: skin erosions that are irregularly shaped and may extend up to the
bones, as in the case of pressure ulcers
■ Fissures: splits in the skin
■ Scales: dry fragments of epidermis that have been sloughed off
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Injuries to the Skin
Since the skin is exposed to several external factors, skin injuries such as wounds and
burns are common. A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin. There are several
types of wound, as indicated by the following terms:
■ Laceration: tearing of body tissue

■ Incision: a surgical cut or clean-cut wound
■ Puncture: a small hole caused by a small object
■ Abrasion: shallow wounds or scrapes that tear or rub off the epidermis
■ Contusion: rupture or damage to the blood vessels caused by trauma, but the skin
remains intact; otherwise known as a bruise
■ Burns: tissue injuries caused by extreme exposure to heat, chemicals, radiation,
electricity, and sunlight.
■ Types of burns include:
■ Superficial partial- thickness (1st degree): confined to the dermis only
■ Deep partial-thickness (2nd degree): involves the dermis

■ Full-thickness (3rd degree): involves the epidermis, dermis, and at times,
the subcutaneous tissue
■ Deep full-thickness (4th degree): both the epidermis and dermis have
been sloughed off and the damage extends to the muscles and bones
The extent of burns may be estimated using the Rule of Nines. See Figure 12-11 in your
textbook.
Note: The Rule of Nines is used to estimate the total body surface area affected by a
burn in an adult whose height and weight are proportional. Modifications are needed in
estimating the extent of burn injuries in children and infants.
Skin Disorders
The following are typical skin disorders. Review the definitions in Chapter 12 of your
textbook.
■ Abscess
■ Albinism
■ Cellulitis
■ Contact dermatitis
■ Cyanosis
■ Dermatitis
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■ Discus lupus erythematosus
■ Frostbite
■ Furuncle
■ Hypopigmentation
■ Ichthyosis
■ Lipoma
■ Lyme disease
■ Malignant melanoma
■ Mycodermatitis
■ Necrosis
■ Pediculosis
■ Petechiae
■ Psoriasis
Disorders of the Accessory Skin Structures

Additional disorders of the integumentary system, particularly the accessory structures,
are discussed in Chapter 12 of your textbook. Study the following disorders.
■ Acne vulgaris
■ Folliculitis
■ Hidradenitis
■ Onychomycosis
■ Onychopathy
■ Seborrhea
■ Seborrheic dermatitis
■ Trichosis

INTERVENTIONS
There are numerous types of interventions used to treat skin disorders and diseases.
Several forms of surgeries may be employed to treat these problems, including:
■ Suturing
■ joining the lips or edges of a wound by stitching
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■ Stapling
■ using surgical staples to close the edges of an open wound

■ Liposuction (lipo + suction)
■ otherwise known as suction-assisted lipectomy
■ surgical removal of adipose tissue

■ Biopsy
■ removal of a small amount of tissue for examination
■ Cryosurgery (cry/o + surgery)

■ otherwise referred to as cryotherapy
■ using extreme cold to destroy abnormal or deceased tissue
■ Curettage
■ surgical cleaning or scraping with the use of a curette
■ Debridement
■ removal of unhealthy tissue from a wound to enhance healing
■ Dermabrasion
■ a procedure used to resurface the skin with the use of a rotating device
■ Electrosurgery (electr/o + surgery)
■ refers to several modalities that use electricity to cause destruction of tissue
Aside from surgery, skin disorders may also be managed with medications. These medi-
cations may be given using different routes, which may include:
■ Oral: medications administered via the mouth
■ Topical: drugs administered directly on the skin

■ Transdermal: medications that are administered on the intact skin to be absorbed
and delivered via the circulatory system
The most common classifications of medications or drugs administered are:

■ Antimicrobials: prevent infection
■ Bacteriostatic: drugs that inhibit the growth of bacteria
■ Bactericidal: drugs that kill bacteria
■ Antiperspirants: substance s that counteract perspiration
Additional treatment options may include:
■ Collagen injections: used to smooth out wrinkles
■ Electrolysis (electr/o + lysis)
■ means of destroying hair follicles through electric current
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SECTION 5.2: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
AND PSYCHOLOGIC DISORDERS
Objective
terminologies and jargon related to the nervous system.
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The nervous system is a complex system that primarily serves as the body’s control cen-
ter, both physiologically and psychologically. More specific functions include:
■ Storage and processing of information
■ Stimulation of movement
■ Maintenance of homeostasis
■ Control of behavior, mood and thinking
Control of the nervous system can be categorized into:
■ Somatic nervous system

■ responsible for voluntary movements such as movement of the musculoskel-
etal system
■ Autonomic nervous system
■ controls involuntary movements such as breathing
Two types of nerve fibers that transmit impulses are:
■ Sensory or afferent
■ receptors that receive information from the sensory organs and transmit this
information to the central nervous system
■ Motor or efferent
■ neurons that transmit information from the central nervous system to the mus-
cles and glands
STRUCTURES OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Two types of cells make up the nervous system, the neurons and neuroglial cells.
■ Neurons (neur/o = nerve)
■ transmit impulses to and from the brain
■ structures of a typical neuron:
■ dendrites: responsible for transmitting impulses to the cell body

■ soma or cell body: contains the nucleus
■ axon: conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body
■ myelin sheath: aids in the conduction of nerve impulses
■ neurilemma: also called the sheath of Schwann, it’s the outermost
layer of the axon
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■ Glial or neuroglial cells
■ primarily functions to support the neurons
The following table presents the word parts and word associations related to the nervous
system and psychological disorders.
Combining
Forms Meaning Word Associations
aut/o self Autoimmune diseases refer to disorders in which the
body’s immune system destroys healthy cells.
cerebell/o cerebellum Cerebellar stroke is a result of interruption of blood
supply to the cerebellum.
cerebr/o, brain Cerebral edema is the accumulation of excessive
encephal/o fluid in the brain.
cervic/o neck Pain in the neck is generally referred to as
cervicalgia.
coccyg/o coccyx Persistent pain in the coccyx or tailbone is
coccydynia.
crani/o cranium Craniotomy is the surgical removal of a part of the
skull.
dendr/o tree Dendrites are small projections of a nerve cell that
are essential for nerve transmission.
dur/o dura mater The outermost layer of the meninges is the dura
mater.
gli/o neuroglia or sticky Glial cells function to support and insulate neurons.
substance
lumb/o lower back The lumbosacral region of the spine consists of five
lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum.
mening/o meninges Inflammation of the protective membranes of the
brain and spinal cord is known as meningitis.
ment/o, mind Mentation refers to mental activity or the process of
psych/o thinking.
Psychology is the science that deals with the study of

the mind and behavior.
myel/o bone marrow or A general term referring to inflammation of the spinal
spinal cord cord is referred to as myelitis.
nerv/o, neur/o nerve Neuritis is the inflammation of the peripheral nerves.
phren/o mind or The study of the skull’s structure relative to one’s
diaphragm character and mental faculties is phrenology.
physi/o nature Physiology is the branch of science that deals with
the natural and normal functions of living organisms.
sacr/o sacrum The sacrum is otherwise referred to as the sacral
area.
spin/o spine The term spinal pertains to the spine.
thorac/o thorax Thoracotomy is a surgical procedure used to open
the chest cavity.
ventricul/o ventricle A neurosurgical procedure that involves the creation
of an opening within the cerebral ventricle is known
as ventriculostomy.
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The nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Both of these struc-
tures are protected by:
■ Bones
■ the cranium or skull encases the brain
■ the spinal vertebrae protect the spinal cord
■ Cerebrospinal fluid: clear, colorless body fluid produced by the ventricles of the
brain
■ Meninges: membranes that line the skull and spinal cord
■ dura mater: outermost layer of the meninges
■ arachnoid: middle layer
■ pia mater: innermost layer
Brain
Parts and Functions of the Brain
■ Cerebrum: largest and uppermost part of the brain
■ frontal lobe: controls cognitive skills including problem solving, memory, lan-
guage, and judgment
■ parietal lobe: integrates sensory functions and processes language
■ occipital lobe: center of the visual perception system

■ temporal lobe: responsible for auditory perception
■ Diencephalon: upper end of the brain stem

■ thalamus: transmits sensory impulses from receptors in the different parts of
the body to the cerebral cortex
■ hypothalamus: produces hormones and regulates body temperature

■ Brainstem: posterior part of the brain that adjoins with the spinal cord
■ midbrain: associated with hearing, vision, alertness, wakefulness, and regula-
tion of temperature
■ pons: transmits information from the cortex and cerebellum
■ medulla oblongata: regulates breathing and heart and blood vessel function
■ Cerebellum: coordinates and regulates muscular activity
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Spinal Cord
■ Transmits information to the brain through the spinal tracts
■ A cylindrical structure found in the vertebral column
Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and
the spinal cord.
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves:
■ 8 cervical
■ 12 thoracic
■ 5 lumbar
■ 5 sacral
■ 1 coccygeal

DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
This section pertains to the diseases, disorders, and diagnostic terms pertaining to the
nervous system, including psychological problems.
Nervous System
Common diagnostic procedures involving the nervous system include:
■ Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid

■ chemical analysis and microscopic examination may help indicate the pres-
ence of infection
■ lumbar puncture or spinal tap
■ procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid
■ Electroencephalography (EEG): electro + encephalo + graphy
■ monitoring method to record electrical activity of the brain
■ Scans used to assess the structural changes of the spinal cord and the brain
■ computed tomography
■ magnetic resonance imaging
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Several disorders pertaining to the nervous system include:
■ Hematoma: collection of blood outside the blood vessels

■ epidural: accumulation of blood between the dura mater and the skull
■ subdural: buildup of blood below the dura mater
■ intracerebral: bleeding within the brain

■ Cerebrovascular accident (CVA): cerebro + vascul + ar
■ commonly referred to as stroke
■ disruption of the normal blood supply to the brain
■ transient ischemic attack (TIA)
■ brief interruption in cerebral blood flow
■ Hydrocephalus: accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the skull

■ Aneurysm: weakening and bulging of the cerebral artery
■ Spinal cord injuries
■ potential causes include:

■ excessive hyperflexion
■ hyperextension
■ vertical compression
Study these disorders related to the nervous system. Definitions are outlined in Chapter
13 of your textbook.
■ Akinesia
■ Anesthesia
■ Aphagia
■ Aphasia
■ Bradykinesia
■ Brain tumor
■ Cephalalgia
■ Cerebral concussion
■ Cerebral contusion
■ Cerebral hemorrhage
■ Cerebral palsy
■ Coma
■ Diplegia
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■ Dyslexia
■ Dysphagia
■ Dysphasia
■ Electromyography
■ Encephalitis
■ Encephalocele
■ Encephalomalacia
■ Encephalomeningitis
■ Encephalopathy
■ Epilepsy
■ Hemiplegia
■ Hyperkinesia
■ Meningitis
■ Meningocele
■ Multiple sclerosis
■ Myasthenia gravis
■ Myelitis
■ Myelography
■ Narcolepsy
■ Neuralgia
■ Neuritis
■ Neuropathy
■ Parkinson’s disease
■ Peripheral neuropathy
■ Shingles
Psychological Disorders
■ psych/o = mind
■ otherwise referred to as mental illness, mental disorders, or psychiatric disorder

■ patterns of thought or behavior that are outside the expected norms and impair the
individual’s ability to function in ordinary life
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Psychological disorders can be classified into:
■ Neurodevelopmental disorders: disabilities associated with the growth and develop-
ment of the brain or central nervous system
■ dementia
■ autism
■ attention deficit disorder
■ Anxiety disorders: disabilities characterized by significant feelings of worry, anxiety,

or fear
■ post-traumatic stress disorder
■ dissociative disorder
■ obsessive-compulsive disorder
■ phobias
■ agoraphobia
■ zoophobia
■ phobophobia
■ arachnophobia
■ acrophobia
■ claustrophobia
■ pyrophobia
■ Eating disorders: pertains to abnormal eating habits that negatively impact a per-
son’s health
■ anorexia nervosa
■ bulimia
■ Mood disorders: otherwise known as affective disorders, which collectively
describes all types of depression and bipolar disorders
■ clinical depression
■ mania
■ pyromania
■ kleptomania
■ bipolar disorder
■ Sexual disorders: diseases characterized by diminished or disturbance in sexual
desire that’s unrelated to a general medical condition
■ paraphilia
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■ Somatoform disorders (somat/o = body, form = shape): disorders that cause unex-
plained physical symptoms
■ somatic symptom disorder

■ illness anxiety disorder
■ neurasthenia (neur + asthenia)
■ pseudomania (pseudo + mania)

■ Personality disorders: maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that affect a
person’s ability to form normal and healthy relationships
■ paranoia
■ antisocial personality disorder

INTERVENTIONS
Surgery may be indicated for some disorders of the nervous system. Some of these sur-
geries are presented in the following table:
craniotomy crani/o + tomy surgical opening into the skull

craniectomy crani/o + ectomy removal or excision of a part of the skull
cranioplasty crani/o + plasty surgical repair of the skull
neuroplasty neur/o + plasty plastic surgery to repair a nerve
neurorraphy neur/o + rrhapy suturing of a cut nerve
neurolysis neuro + lysis breaking down or destruction of nervous
tissue
Additional interventions include the following:
■ Shunts: a small passage that allows movement of fluid from one body part to
another
■ ventriculoperitoneal shunt (ventricul/o = ventricle, periton/o = peritoneum, -eal

= pertaining to)
■ used in the treatment of hydrocephalus
■ shunts cerebrospinal fluid from the ventricles of the brain to the

peritoneum
■ transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (trans = across + cutane = skin + ous =
pertaining to)
■ using electric current to stimulate the nerves for therapeutic purposes
■ stereotactic radiosurgery
■ the use of ionizing radiation to treat functional abnormalities and small tumors
of the brain
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EYES
The organs of the visual system are the eyes. Aside from providing vision, they also
enable photo-response functions.
Eye Structures
The eyes are made up of these external structures:
■ Pupil: opening in the middle of the iris
■ Iris: colored circle that surrounds the pupil
■ Sclera: tough, white, outer covering of the eye
■ Conjunctiva: thin, mucous membrane that lines the eyelid
■ Lacrimal glands: produces lacrimal fluid (tears)

■ Lacrimal duct: a short tube in the inner corner of the eyelid that serves as a pas-
sageway of tears
■ Lacrimal sac: receives tears from the lacrimal duct

■ Nasolacrimal duct: transports tears from the lacrimal sac of the eye into the nasal
cavity
The eyeball is made up of several layers, namely:
■ Sclera
■ Cornea: the transparent, anterior part of the eye that refracts light
■ Choroid: vascular layer of the eye that supplies blood to the retina
Internal structures of the eye include:
■ Lens: transparent structure posterior to the iris that bends light rays
■ Anterior chamber: the compartment between the cornea and the iris that’s filled with
aqueous humor
■ Vitreous chamber: the compartment behind the lens and anterior to the optic nerve
that is filled with a gel-like substance known as the vitreous humor
■ Retina: thin layer of tissue that lines the posterior portion of the eye where stimula-
tion by light occurs, leading to the sensation of vision
■ Optic nerve: known as the second cranial nerve, it carries visual information from
the eye to the brain
■ Optic disc: the part of the eye where the optic nerve crosses the retina
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The following table lists the common word parts pertaining to the eyes.

choroid/o choroid Choroidal melanoma is a primary cancer of the
eye.
chrom/o color Chromotherapy or color therapy is the use of col-
ors to promote healing.
conjunctiv/o conjunctiva Inflammation of the conjunctiva is conjunctivitis or
pink eye.
corne/o, kerat/o cornea The presence of an open sore in the cornea is
known as a corneal ulcer.
Keratoconus is a condition in which the cornea

progressively thins.
dacry/o, lacrim/o tear The tear sac is also known as the dacrocyst.
Lacrimation is the secretion of tears.

ir/o, irid/o iris Iritis is the inflammation of the iris.
ocul/o, ophthalm/o eye The oculomotor nerve is responsible for the
movement of the eyeballs and the eyelids.
Ophthalmology is the science that deals with the

anatomy, functions, and disorders of the eyeball
and its orbit.
opt/o, optic/o vision Optometry is the practice responsible for exam-
ining visual defects of the eye and prescribing
corrective lenses.
An optician is responsible for designing, fitting,

and dispensing corrective lenses for correcting a
person’s vision.
presby/o old or old age Presbyopia is the gradual loss of one’s ability to
focus on objects that are nearby.
pupill/o pupil Pupillometry refers to the measurement of pupil
size.
retin/o retina Retinopathy refers to a disorder of the retina that
may result in visual loss.
ton/o tone or tension A tonometer is an instrument used to measure
the intraocular pressure in the eye.

Eye disorders are frequent occurrences. Common tests to check for the presence of
vision problems include:
■ Routine physical examination

■ Snellen chart: an eye chart used to measure visual acuity
■ visual fields assessment
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■ ophthalmoscopy: examination of the internal structures of the eyes using an
ophthalmoscope
■ tonometry: test used to measure intraocular pressure using a tonometer
The most common refractive disorders of the eyes are:
■ Myopia: nearsightedness
■ Hyperopia: farsightedness
■ Astigmatism: uneven focusing of the image resulting in blurred vision
Review the additional irregularities or abnormal conditions of the eye.
■ Amblyopia
■ Presbyopia
■ Blepharitis
■ Cataract
■ Color vision deficiencies
■ achromatic vision
■ achromatopsia
■ Daltonism
■ Conjunctivitis
■ Glaucoma
■ Hordeolum
■ Macular degeneration
■ Nyctalopia
■ Photophobia
■ Ptosis
■ Retinal detachment
■ Retinopathy

■ Blepharoplasty: surgical repair of droopy eyelids
■ Keratoplasty: otherwise known as corneal transplant, a surgical procedure to
replace part of the cornea with corneal tissue from a donor
■ Ophthalmic cryosurgery: using extreme cold for the excision of cataract
■ Cryoextraction: the surgical removal of a cataract with the use of a cryoprobe
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■ Intraocular lens transplant: a surgical procedure that involves placing an artificial
lens inside the eye
■ Laser retinal photocoagulation: using a laser to seal or destroy abnormal leaking
blood vessels in the retina
■ Laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK): a pain-free procedure that reshapes
the cornea to allow the light entering the eye to be focused on the retina
Eye medications frequently prescribed for therapy are:

■ Mydriatics: drugs that cause dilation of the pupils
■ Miotics: agents that cause constriction of the pupils
THE EARS
Aside from being the organs of hearing, the ears are also essential in maintaining a
sense of equilibrium.
Ear Structures
The human ear is made up of three general parts: external, middle, and inner.
■ External ear: outer, visible part of the ear

■ pinna/auricle
■ tympanic membrane: otherwise called the eardrum, receives sound waves
from the outer air
■ Middle ear: consists of three ossicles, which transmit sounds from the outer to the
inner ear
■ malleus
■ incus
■ stapes
■ Inner ear: contains the organs for hearing and balance
■ semicircular canals: organ of balance

■ cochlea: receives sounds in the form of vibrations
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The following table lists common word parts pertaining to the structures of the ears.
Combining Form/ Suffix Meaning Word Association

acoust/o, audi/o hearing The acoustic or vestibulocochlear nerve serves
the organs of equilibrium and hearing.
An audiometer is an instrument used to mea-

sure hearing acuity.
adenoid/o adenoids Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of the
adenoids.
aur/o, auricul/o, ot/o ear Aural pain refers to earache.
Auriculotherapy is a healthcare procedure in

which the auricle is stimulated to diagnose and
treat other health problems.
An otoscope is a device used to look into the

ears.
cerumin/o ear wax Ceruminolytics are substances used to soften
the cerumen.
cochle/o cochlea Cochlear implants are electronic medical
devices that are used to replace the function of
the impaired inner ear.
myring/o, tympan/o eardrum Myringitis is the inflammation of the tympanic
membrane.
Tympanoplasty is the surgical repair of the tym-

panic membrane.

Diagnosing ear disorders may be accomplished using several methods. Some of these
methods include:
■ Otoscopic examination or otoscopy: (oto + scop + ic), (oto + scopy)
■ test that involves looking into the ear with an otoscope or auriscope
■ Audiometer: (audio + meter)
■ electronic device used to measure hearing

■ audiologist: a medical professional trained to identify, diagnose, treat, and
monitor disorders of the auditory system
■ Tuning fork tests: assess hearing loss
■ Weber’s test: detects unilateral hearing loss

■ Rinne’s test: differentiates between conductive and sensorineural hearing
loss
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Otitis (oto + itis) is the general term used to describe inflammation of the ear.
■ Otitis externa: infection of the external ear

■ Otitis media: inflammation of the middle ear
■ myringitis (myring/o + itis): inflammation of the tympanic membrane
■ mastoiditis (mastoid/o + itis): inflammation or infection of the mastoid bone

■ Otitis interna: inflammation of the inner ear
Other ear disorders include:
■ Otosclerosis (oto + sclerosis)

■ abnormal bone growth in the middle ear, causing disruption of the sound to
travel from the middle to the inner ear
■ Tinnitus: hearing an external sound when there is no external sound present; can
be perceived as ringing, buzzing, or clicking sound
■ Vertigo: sensation of feeling off balance

Hearing aids are electronic devices commonly used for clients with partial hearing loss.
These devices amplify sounds, which help enhance hearing. For clients with complete
hearing loss, cochlear implants may be indicated.
Surgical procedures involving the ears include:
■ Otoplasty: (oto + plasty)
■ otherwise known as ear pinning
■ the ears are surgically moved closer to the head
■ Tympanostomy: (tympan/o + ostomy)
■ otherwise referred to as myringotomy
■ creation of incision or opening in the tympanic membrane to relieve the pres-

sure caused by buildup of fluid or pus
To treat bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed. Ceruminolytics (cerumin/o + lyt-

ics), on the other hand, are substances that are instilled into the eardrum to soften or
loosen the cerumen or ear wax.
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The Skin
The skin, being the largest organ of the body, contains receptors that respond to specific
stimuli:
Meaning sensory cells or organs

Types of Receptors Word Parts responsive to:
chemoreceptor chem/o chemical stimuli
mechanoreceptor mechan/o mechanical distortions such as touch
or pressure
nociceptor noc/i + receptor damaging or painful stimuli
thermoreceptor therm/o temperature changes
*photoreceptor phot/o light (only the eyes have these
receptors)
THE MOUTH AND NOSE

The taste buds, the organs of taste, have chemoreceptors that are found on the sur-
face of the mouth and the nose. The four basic taste sensations are sweet, sour, bitter,
and salty.
The organ for olfaction, the sense of smell, is the nose. Disorders pertaining to the sense
of smell include:
■ Anosmia: receptor loss of the sense of smell (an + (-osmia = sense of smell))
■ Hyperosmia: receptor abnormally increased sensitivity to odors (hyper + osmia)
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SECTION 5.4: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Objectives
When you complete this section, you’ll be able to identify, build, and analyze medical
terms related to the endocrine system.
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The endocrine (endo + crine) system, otherwise known as the hormonal system, is
essential in the regulation of body activities through the production and release of
chemical substances known as hormones. Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands
are ductless and secrete their hormones directly to the bloodstream. A dysfunction
(dys = bad) of the endocrine glands can lead to:
■ Hyposecretion: deficiency in hormone production

■ Hypersecretion: excess in hormone production
STRUCTURES OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands primarily affect a specific organ or structure,
referred to as the target organ.
The release of hormones by the endocrine glands can be achieved in two ways:
■ The nervous systems initiates the release of hormones.

■ The pituitary gland, or the master gland, stimulates the other glands to produce
hormones.
Major Glands of the Endocrine System Hormones Produced

pituitary or hypophysis antidiuretic hormone, growth hormone
pineal melatonin
thyroid thyroxine
parathyroid parathyroid hormone
islets of Langerhans insulin
adrenal glands adrenaline/epinephrine, cortisone
ovaries estrogen
testes androgen
The following table lists the word parts pertaining to the endocrine system.
Combining Forms Meaning Word Association

aden/o gland Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that starts
in the glands.
adren/o, adrenal/o adrenal glands Adrenalectomy is the surgical removal of one or
both adrenal glands.
andr/o male or masculine Aging-related hormonal changes in men is
referred to as andropause.
gigant/o giant Gigantism refers to abnormally large growth
secondary to excessive production of growth
hormone.
(Continued)
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Combining Forms Meaning Word Association
gonad/o gonad Gonadotropins are hormones that act on the
gonads.
insulin/o insulin An increase in the amount of circulating insulin
in the blood is known as hyperinsulinism.
iod/o iodine Iodized salt is a form of table salt in which iodine
was added.
myx/o mucus Myxedema is a condition where mucopolysac-
charides are deposited in the dermis, causing
swelling of the affected area.
pancreat/o pancreas Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas.
parathyroid/o parathyroid Parathyroidectomy is the surgical removal of
one or more parathyroid glands.
pituitar/o, pituitary gland Excessive production of growth hormone is
hypophys/o known as hyperpituitarism.
ren/o, nephr/o kidney Renal failure is otherwise known as kidney
failure.
Nephrology is the branch of medicine that is

concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of
diseases of the kidneys.
thyr/o, thyroid/o thyroid gland Thyroiditis is the inflammation of the thyroid
gland.
toxic/o poison Toxicology is the science concerned with the
study of the adverse effects of chemical sub-
stances to living organisms.

DIAGNOSTIC TERMS
Examination of the endocrine glands usually involves the use of invasive procedures,
such as extraction of blood to measure hormone levels. However, unlike most glands,
the testicles and the thyroid glands are accessible through routine physical examination.
A thyroid gland that has a normal function is referred to as euthyroid. Abnormal findings
include enlargement and the presence of masses. The following terms pertain to the thy-
roid gland:
■ Hyperthyroidism: (hyper + thyroid/o + ism)

■ a condition which involves over activity of the thyroid gland
■ exophthalmos (ex + ophthalmos)
■ protrusion of the eyeballs

■ classic finding with hyperthyroidism
■ goiter: enlarged thyroid gland
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■ Hypothyroidism: (hypo + thyroid/o + ism)
■ insufficient hormone production by the thyroid gland
Aside from health conditions affecting the thyroid gland, diabetes is also a common dis-
order affecting the endocrine system. Note the difference between diabetes insipidus and
diabetes mellitus.
■ Diabetes insipidus: deficiency of antidiuretic hormone leading to frequent urination
■ Diabetes mellitus: deficiency or improper use of insulin resulting in hyperglycemia
Classic Signs and Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

Signs and
Symptoms Word Parts Meaning
polyuria -uria (urination) frequent urination
poly +
polydipsia -dipsia (thirst) excessive drinking or thirst
polyphagia (many) -phagia (eating) excessive hunger or increased
appetite
hyperglycemia hyper (increased) glyc/o (sugar) abnormally high blood glucose
level
-emia (blood)
glycosuria glyc/o (sugar) -uria (urination) excretion of sugar in the urine
Other disorders of the endocrine system are outlined as follows.
■ Acromegaly
■ Adenoma
■ Cretinism
■ Dwarfism
■ Gigantism
■ Hyperinsulinism
■ Hyperparathyroidism
■ Hypoglycemia
■ Hypoparathyroidism
■ Hypopituitarism
■ Myxedema
■ Thyrotoxicosis
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INTERVENTIONS
The usual first line of treatment for endocrine disorders is medication therapy:
■ Antithyroid drugs: indicated for hyperthyroidism
■ Insulin: may be administered via injection or pump for clients with type 1 diabetes
■ Hypoglycemic medications or glucose-lowering agents: given for clients with type 2
diabetes
For other endocrine system disorders, surgery may be necessary.
Surgery/
Procedure Word Parts Meaning
hypophysectomy hypophys/o (pituitary) surgical removal of the
pituitary gland
thyroidectomy thyroid/o (thyroid) + ectomy excision of the thyroid
(excision/ gland
adrenalectomy adren/o (adrenal glands) removal) excision of an adrenal
gland
adenectomy aden/o (gland) surgical removal of a gland
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Medical Terminology STUDY GUIDE J23

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Study Guide

LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 5

LESSON 2: DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION,

LESSON 3: MUSCULOSKELETAL, CIRCULATORY,

LESSON 4: DIGESTIVE, URINARY,

LESSON 5: INTEGUMENTARY, NERVOUS,

© m. jimenez MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY PAGE III

SECTION 1.1: SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL

SIMPLIFIED MEDICAL LANGUAGE

To facilitate the pronunciation of words, a combining vowel is placed in between word

psych + o psych/o mind psychology

chol + e chol/e bile cholesterase

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Prefix + Combining form + Suffix

WRITING MEDICAL TERMS

ABBREVIATIONS AND PHARMACOLOGY

■ Letters: The abbreviation for chest x-ray is CXR.

■ Shortened words: The abbreviation “tab” is short for “tablet.”

■ Generic name: nonproprietary name of the drug (for example, ibuprofen)

Word endings Singular form Plural Form

General Guidelines in Forming Plurals of Nouns with Special Endings

SUFFIXES: MEDICAL SPECIALISTS AND THEIR SPECIALTIES

Combining Form Meaning Medical Specialty Medical Specialist

Encephalopathy is a general term that

Mastitis is an infection of the breast

Myosin is one of the muscle proteins.

Pneumothorax is the accumulation of air

SUFFIXES: SYMPTOMS OR DIAGNOSIS

Lymphangiectasis is the dilation of the

Angioedema involves the precipitous

Hyperemesis means excessive vomiting.

Filariasis is a parasitic disease caused by

MISCELLANEOUS WORD PARTS

MISCELLANEOUS WORD PARTS

NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

PREFIXES: NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

A disaccharide is a type of car-

Ultraviolet light is a form of

PREFIXES: POSITION OR DIRECTION

Preoperative refers to the period

Periorbital edema is swelling around

Exocrine glands secrete substances

Infraclavicular pertains to the area

Subdural hematoma results from the

Supraclavicular means above the

Syndactyly is a condition where two or

Contraception refers to methods or

Premature births refer to neonates being

Megaloblasts are abnormally large red

Large blood cells in the bone marrow

Analgesia refers to absence of sensibil-

Intubate means putting a tube inside an

COMBINING FORMS FOR COLORS

An increase in the white blood cell count

Xanthophobia is the fear of the color

COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED

COMBINING FORMS AND RELATED SUFFIXES

-genic produced by or in carcinogenic

-genesis producing or forming spermatogenesis

-gram a record echocardiogram