INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Anaximander of Miletus - The origin of things

must be an apeiron or boundless/infinite

CHAPTER 1: Ethics Defined
Anaximenes - Every water form will end up as
Philosophy - highest form of human knowledge. AIR. Hence, everything comes from air.
 considered as the scientia scientiarum Parmenides of Elea - philosophy focused on the
(the science of all sciences). PROBLEM OF THE ONE & THE MANY, i.e., on
 came from two GREEK words, “PHILEIN” the problem of change.
which means “to love” and “SOPHIA”
which means “wisdom.” - “love of  “There is no change. Change is only an
wisdom.” illusion. We are just being deceived by our
 search for meaning senses”
 good tool in understanding the human
person Heraclitus of Ephesus - believes that all things
 means towards the attainment of are in the state of flux (Everything is changing.)
happiness.  claimed that what makes things change is
 digs into the root causes of the people’s FIRE. Then FIRE is the URSTOFF.
problems and discovers new solutions and
remedies to human ills. Empedocles of Sicily - He said that water, air,
 gives us a clear understanding of the fire, and earth are the origin of everything.
human person and the reason for his
 He tried to put an end to the discussion as
existence.
regards where did everything come from by
Pilosopo - philosophy in order to ridicule, what simply acknowledging the idea of
he does is a negative philosophy everyone.
 reasons out in order to obtain wisdom, Pythagoras of Samos - everything can be
that is a positive philosophy numbered. Hence, the first principle of everything
must be numbers.
“My wisdom consists in accepting that I knew
nothing.” – Socrates  He was the one who coined the term
philosophy.
“What makes the human person unknowledgeable
is the fact that he know nothing and yet he did not Leucippus and Democritus of Abdera -
know that he knew nothing.” – Socrates Everything that exists is made up of ATOMS.
Hence, the first principle of everything must be
Sophist - claims that he knows everything and yet atoms.
ending up with knowing nothing
 “If God exists, then, He, too, must be made
Philosopher - claims that he does not know up of atoms.” – Democritus
anything and yet, ending up with knowing
everything. Historical Development of Philosophy
Historical Background of Philosophy A. Ancient Period
 “Where did everything come from?”
 Philosophy began when the human person  focused on the origin of the cosmos,
became aware of the things around them. ancient philosophy is, thereby,
 curiosity led them to ask the questions: considered to be COSMOCENTRIC
“Where did everything come from?” and B. Medieval Period
“What is the urstoff (the first principle) of  that the beginning of the universe must
everything?” be coming from an Infinite Being which
 Birthplace of philosophy was the seaport town they called (theos) or God.
of Miletus  considered to be THEOCENTRIC.
 RICH MILESIANS and IONIANS were C. Modern Period
considered to be the first philosophers  believed that God truly exists. But He
Thales of Miletus - human beings developed is existing only in the mind.
from the meeting of sperm and egg. Hence, the  “Is knowledge possible?”
beginning of the human person is in liquid  considered to be IDEOCENTRIC
content. D. Contemporary Period
 focused their attention on the dignity of
 Everything must have come from water the human person.
 considered as the Father of Philosophy.  “Is there a human dignity?”
  Considered to be 1. Metaphysics (the study of the origin of
ANTHROPOCENTRIC or things).
HOMOCENTRIC. 2. Theodicy (the philosophical study of
God).
The Problem of Philosophy 3. Cosmology (the philosophical study of
 rise of modern science brought the human the universe / environment).
person to set aside reasoning 4. Philosophy of Psychology (the
 Philosophy became a disinteresting philosophical study of man as
subject. composed of body and soul).
 People believed that philosophy does not 5. Social Philosophy (the philosophical
have a proper object. It appears to be not study of the society.)
anymore focusing on the true and real 6. Political Philosophy (philosophical
problems of life. study of the state and the social
 easier to resort to faith rather than on reason organization).
because faith does not require explanations. C. Philosophy of Morality
 Contemporary philosophy has become 1. Ethics (the study of right living)
inaccessible to the modern-day students. 2. Aesthetics (the study of the meaning of
Because of its highfalutin terms, people find it beauty).
impractical to talk about philosophy. 3. Philosophy of Person (the study about
the dignity of man, truth, freedom,
Necessity of the Study of Philosophy justice, love, death, and his relationship
with other human beings and with
 Philosophy is the only means that is capable of
God).
providing a common ground between believers
and non-believers. ETHICS IN GENERAL
 provides the students to help to think, read,
and write; and possibly speak more critically, The Concept of Good Life
carefully, and logically.  Philosophy is difficult only to those who do
 obtain a meaningful living. not aspire for knowledge.
Definition of Philosophy  people would not want anymore to
philosophize due to its impracticability
Philosophy is defined as “a human, and  considered speculative, it has lost its
consequently, a social activity which consists in groundedness on the life of the modern
man a perennial and a disinterested search for people due to the question of necessity.
the intelligible structure of the totality of being.”  What is concrete is proper and what is
abstract is oftentimes neglected because
 a human activity. It is only for the human
of its lack of groundedness in life.
person.
 People are always searching for a good life.
 a social activity. Because man is a social
 Good life became a problem when man started
being, philosophy became a social activity.
thinking
 a perennial search. It is a never-ending
search for truth. For as long as there is
 Eastern people were not aiming for the
man on earth, there will always be
attainment of material and intellectual
philosophy.
greatness. They were just aiming for the
 a disinterested search because people
perfection of the self.
believed that it does not provide practical
 In the east, metaphysical and
solutions to problems.
epistemological truths were not much of
 a search for the intelligible structure. It
their concern because knowledge on such
is using reason in order to acquire truth.
things could only make their existence
 deals with the totality of being. It deals
more difficult.
with the whole of creation. It also deals
 In the west, people were living in a diaspora.
with anything and everything that is under
 They did not only barter material goods.
and beyond the sun.
They were also bartering ideas or
Branches of Philosophy intellectual goods.
 People began to philosophize and think of the
A. Philosophy of Thought reason why there were lives are beautiful than
1. Epistemology (study of knowledge) that of others.
2. Logic (the science and art of  Material evolution led the people to
distinguishing correct from the incorrect discriminate others and look down on people
reasoning). whose lives were not as good as theirs
B. Philosophy of Reality
  when man becomes civilized, the more he what it requires of us—in Socrates’s words,
actually becomes uncivilized. of “how we ought to live,” and why
 Ethics is a practical and normative science,
Implication of Civilization based on reason, which studies human acts,
 Civilization has made man think in a spatio- and provides norms for their goodness and
temporal dimension. Human beings will badness
always look for the cause and effect in all their Kinds of Action
actions.
 goodness and beauty are always 1. Actus Humanus (Human Acts) – action
connected with their daily activities with both knowledge and will
 Man is the only creature who is capable of 2. Actus Hominis (Acts of Man) – action
asking about the meaning of his life. without either knowledge or will or both
 The ideal vision of man provides for him a
Man as a Person of Goodness and Truth sense of value.
1. John Locke - human person is a “thinking Value – what individual deems to be useful,
and intelligent being that has reason and desirable, or significant. It sets in man an idea of
reflection and can consider itself as itself. good that is inclined towards that which is
Every man will always search for the objectively the fulfillment of the being of man
good
2. Immanuel Kant - human person is an  Man is an imago Dei (an image of God)
autonomous self-regulating will who is  he is by nature good.
capable of making moral decisions by and  Man will find meaning in life if he will be
for himself. doing good deeds.
3. Viktor Frankl - human being is able to live  Because man has been endowed with reason,
and even to die for the sake of his ideals which is sometimes inclined towards his
and values. Man is a being who is always passion, there is always the possibility that he
in search for meaning. may choose to turn away from goodness
4. Erich Fromm - conscience enables the  Through ethics, man will be able to understand
person to know what ought to be done in that the goal of human being is not merely the
order to become his own self. acquisition of material goods.
5. St. Thomas Aquinas - what constitutes  His real fulfillment is in the development of
the human person as a moral subject is his moral quality, which places man above
conscience. The human person brute creations.
discovers the moral law because of his  Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning
conscience of life.
 Before civilization, man’s concept of goodness  Ethics provides the person with an idea of what
was related so much to the norm of morality right living is.
 With technological advancements, man’s  education should not focus only on teaching
concept of goodness becomes related to technological innovations and advancements.
physical pleasure.
 Man began looking at things as moral if it Ethics in General
provides pleasure for the human person and 1. General Ethics (Normative Ethics) - all
if it prevents him from suffering pain. the diverse ethical formulations of general
and universal concepts and principles
 Plato considered Ethics as the Supreme which serves as the foundation of morality.
Philosophy, the science par excellence. 2. Applied Ethics (Non-normative Ethics) -
 deals with the attainment of man’s highest cultural practices, which a particular society
good—happiness will accept as ethical
Definition of Ethics o focuses on particular situations in
life where the principles of general
Ethics – “ethos” means customs, usage, or ethics can be applied
character o further subdivided into professional
ethics, legal ethics, and bioethics.
 It is a set of rule of human behavior, which
has been influenced by the standards set Standard of Morality
by the society or by himself in relation to
his society Immanuel Kant held that there are three moral
 attempt to achieve a systematic bases that will help one upheld an ethical principle.
understanding of the nature of morality and 1. Human Freedom – man is capable of
deliberation to do a particular action
 meaning his personal choice. Freedom to  Ethical systems and cultural beliefs vary from
choose and do good one culture to another.
2. Immortality of the Soul – because he  All ethical systems are equal in validity and
does not want to detach from physical life, of relevance
he is hoping that there is an immortal soul  Moral standards are product of society. Laws
3. Existence of God – gives reward to those and moral rules are based upon convention.
who do good deeds and punish those who  No one can say that these laws by which
do evil deeds we can judge are true and the others are
wrong. (Moral relativism).
CHAPTER 2: The Moral Agent
Cultural relativists have the following claims:
FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY
1. Different societies have different moral codes;
The Moral Agent
2. The moral code of a society determines what
 An action can be considered moral or immoral is right within that society;
depending on the decision of the person acting
on it. 3. There is no objective standards that can be
used to judge one society’s code as better
Dilemma - cases when a particular situation will than another’s
produce two results: one good and one evil. But 4. The moral code of our own society has no
not to do any action on the said situation will also special status; it is but one among many.
produce an evil effect. 5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures.
 A person will be considered full of wisdom if We should always be tolerant of them.
he knows how to apply his knowledge on a  moral relativist argue that there exist no
situation where there is a DILEMMA. universal or absolute criteria by which they can
 A man of wisdom is the one who knows be criticized.
when to make moral decisions and when to Criticisms:
act on a situation.
 For some, what is beneficial to more people  contradict the common beliefs and some
is morally good and that what will cause traditional practices of the people in several
greater pain to more people is morally evil. ways.
 An action is considered to be morally  open to serious doubt and does not seem to be
acceptable not because it is accepted by the correct in all cases.
majority but on the goodness that such
action would entail to the other The Filipino Morality
 rule of majority does not apply to moral Ethnocentrism - view that one particular ethnic
standards. Moral standards, therefore, be group is somehow superior to all others
preferred to other values.
 Accountability will still depend on the moral  a particular ethnic group’s system of beliefs
formation and the cultural beliefs and practices and values is morally superior to all others.
that a person has.  Man-centered
 Cultural and moral behavior will affect
Theocentrism - view that God’s system of beliefs
one’s decision as regards the practicality
and values is morally superior to all others.
and morality of the act
 believe that God’s law is the absolute
Cultural and Moral Behavior
standard by which we are to judge
 Culture contributes to the moral upbringing of a everyone else’s system of beliefs and
person. values.
 Influences: Family, Community, work place,  God-centered
Religion, School, Pop culture (social media,  Both upheld the idea that there is an absolute
movies, fads) value system.
 Filipinos will definitely have a different moral  both contradict cultural relativism because
perspective and it is thereby difficult to come the latter denies universal moral standard.
up with a Filipino morality
Moral Recovery Program
Cultural Relativism
 events at EDSA not only ousted a dictator but
“There are no universal or absolute moral also demonstrated to the world and to us, our
principle. Standards of right or wrong are always great strengths as a people.
relative to a particular culture or society.” –  Today, we realize that most of our
Protagoras of Abdera problems as a nation still remain.
 Ousting a dictator is an easy part. The difficult 6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
part is the task of building a nation. 7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection.
 Self-interests and disregarding of common
good are becoming too ordinary. CHAPTER 3: Moral Character
 confronted with the lack of discipline and rigor, The Development of Moral Character
our colonial mentality, and our emphasis on
porma.  Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine and St.
 we are now passive once more, expecting our Thomas Aquinas had the conviction that
leaders to take all responsibility for solving our ethics is fundamentally related to what
many problems kind of persons we are.
 difficulty identifying the demarcation line  On the assumption that what kind of
between the “what is” and “what ought to person one is constituted by one’s
be.” character.
 The problem in the Filipino morality is the
Character - comes from the Ancient Greek term
consideration of the actual and the prevailing
Charakter, which initially referred to the mark
norms of right and wrong among Filipinos
impressed upon a coin.
 conflict between what they say as Christian
and what they do as Filipinos  any distinctive feature by which one thing is
 Building people means eliminating our distinguished from others.
weaknesses and developing our strengths  moral dimension of a person
 A human person who is acting excellently
The Philippines: A Nation of Misguided Morals
consistently is said to have a great moral
“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is character.
for good men to do nothing.” – Edmund Burke  Excellence - quality that makes an
individual a good member of its kind.
 Many Filipinos don’t only condition Excellence is connected to its function
themselves to NOT act against evil but to  We judge the moral character of the person
also NOT care about it when it is staring at based on consistency
them in the face.  Moral character is the force behind moral
What is GOOD? action.

 For religious people, being good is about Stages of Moral Development

following the standards put forth by God,  Regardless of our culture, we all develop in
Allah, Brahma or any other deity. our moral thinking through a series of set
 For Abrahamanics, there are the 10 stages
commandments.  Moral education should help children develop
 For the atheists, there is the idea of their moral thinking toward more advanced
Humanism. stages
 Moral Psychology studies what IS moral
 What matters to most Filipinos is not what you development.
are doing but how they figure in what you  Moral Philosophy considers what OUGHT TO
are doing. BE.
 Taking action is important if we want to put a  The IS of psychology and the OUGHT of
decisive end to evilness and corruption philosophy must be integrated before one
Strengths of Filipino Character can have a reasoned basis for moral
education.
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao (regard for others).
2. Family Orientation. Kohlberg’s theory of moral education is both
3. Joy and Humor. psychological and philosophical.
4. Flexibility, adaptability and creativity. 1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL (Self-Focused) —
5. Hard work and industry. concerned with concrete consequences to
6. Faith and religiosity. individuals, focusing on pursuing concrete
7. Ability to survive. interest, while avoiding sanctions.
Weakness of Filipino Character Stage 1: Punishment: Authority
orientation
1. Extreme Personalism o What is right is to obey the rules,
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness. avoid physical damage to persons
3. Lack of Discipline. and property.
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative.
5. Colonial Mentality Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation
 o What is right is one’s immediate  To distinguish the good and the bad, we
interest, and letting others act also have to consider reason alone.
in their own interest. Thus, each to  Philosophers during the time of Hume
his own. placed greater emphasis on reason over
2. CONVENTIONAL (Group-Focused) — feelings.
concerned with fulfilling role expectations,  an empirical approach to morality.
maintaining and supporting the social  Moral decisions are based not on
order, and identifying persons or groups judgments based on reason but on
involved in this order. feelings.
Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance  Subjectivity over objectivity
Orientation
o What is deemed right is what Critique
pleases or helps others; what is
 Morality must be absolute and universal. If it
approved by others; what reinforces
mutual relationships is based on feelings, then everything will
become subjective.
Stage 4: Legalistic Orientation  usefulness and the good effect of one’s action
can still be the basis in determining whether
o What is right is doing one’s duty;
such action is considered morally acceptable or
showing respect for laws, authority,
and society, and contributing to the not. (Utilitarianism)
maintenance of society and  Plato argued that the function of reason is to
institutions. rule the appetites and emotions.
3. POST-CONVENTIONAL (Moral
Reasoning) – prepared to act to defend  Mind or intellect (nous) is the immortal
the moral principles even if it means going part of the soul gives man the capacity
against the rest of society in the process for truth and wisdom.
and having to pay the consequences of
disapproval or even imprisonment  René Descartes held that reason has
Stage 5: Common Good prominence over church laws and religious
o with emphasis on equality and doctrines
mutual obligation within a  Stoics upheld that the human person must be
democratically established order. able to control his passions with reason in
o Good of the many—CONCENSUS order to live a moral life.
RATHER THAN MAJORITY
RULES  Decision must be founded on the right
reason (law) for this we have share in common
Stage 6: Universal Principles with the gods. Reason is the law.
o Principles of conscience that have  Moral decisions would always involve
logical comprehensiveness and feelings or emotions.
universality. Highest value placed
on human life, equality, and dignity.  Moral decisions/judgments are formed not
by reason alone but through feelings.
Moral Decision  One’s view regarding the goodness and
badness of an action is based on
CHAPTER 4: The Act passions, motives, volitions, and
Intellect – gives man the capacity to think thoughts.

Will – gives man the capacity to make decision  behavior is considered to be virtuous if it is
useful or agreeable to people who are affected
Feelings and Morality by the action being considered
 Western philosophers were reacting to the  Interest should not be for one’s own but for
position of the church scholars who asserted somebody else, that is, for the interest of those
that religion is a necessary foundation for which would be directly or indirectly affected by
morality. a particular action.
 Moral decisions must be founded on  If an action is useful or agreeable to others
religious laws and doctrines. and to one’s self, it is then considered to be
morally acceptable.
 David Hume believed that virtue is in
conformity to reason. Reason and Impartiality
Thomas Nagel – morality must be rooted not in  The founder of this philosophy is probably
feelings or emotions because that will make Aristippus of Cyrene
morality subjective. Morality must be objective.  “Hedone” - pleasure
 Pleasure is always good regardless of
 Morality should be rooted in reason
its source.
 Feelings may be irrational
 One’s moral decision may depend on the  Life is basically a search for pleasure.
effect of one’s action to the person involved Because pleasure is the natural goal of all
life, we should try to have as much
 discovering the truth can only be made possible intense sensual pleasure as we can.
if one is guided by reason.  Happy life is having the most possible
 Most philosophers would consider this as pleasure and the least possible pain.
the essence of morality. o Physical pleasure is the best of all
 The morally right is to do the action that is things because it makes life more
supported by rational arguments. exciting, dynamic, and worth living.
 Moral judgments must be backed up by  The pleasure of the present is much more
good reason. desirable than the pleasure of the future for
not every reason is good but they may still be tomorrow might not even come.
valid. o “Eat, drink, and be merry today
for tomorrow you may die.”
8 Steps to Moral Reasoning Process  Whatever pleases the person most at the
1. Gather the facts - What do we need to moment is the highest good.
 Man should be happy at all costs.
know in order to make an intelligent ethical
Epicureanism – goodness and happiness can be
decision. attained through mental or intellectual pleasure
2. Define the ethical issues - Issues can be
presented as ___ vs. ____. This will help  Epicurus of Samos held that philosophy
the person analyze the interests that are must be looked up not as a mere
contradicting one another. acquisition of knowledge but as a
3. Review relevant ethical guidelines - medicine of the soul.
Determine the different ethical guidelines o Philosophy frees an individual from
and determine which can be best applied ignorance and superstitions.
to the issue  Ideas can control and developone’s life.
4. Obtain consultation - consult persons  Epicureanism was often charged as a
who are more competent in terms of
godless philosophy.
morality.
5. List the alternative courses of action -  Epicureans claimed that there are gods,
identify various alternative courses of but they are different to the popular
action. conception of gods.
6. Compare the alternatives with the o Gods function mainly as ethical
principles - principles will eliminate all the ideals, whose lives we can strive
other alternatives except the one which will to emulate and, but whose wrath
uphold a moral value. we need not fear
7. Weigh the consequences - consider the o God does not have control over
consequences of an action. nature nor destiny, He would not,
8. Make a Decision – must have the least
therefore, be able to intrude in the
number of problems or negative
affairs of the people.
consequences, and not the one that is
devoid of problems.  Democritus, the atomist influenced Epicurus
THEORIES AND FRAMEWORKS  God was not the creator of anything,
CHAPTER 5: The Epicurean Ethics consequently, human behavior should not
be based upon obedience to the principle
 Man searched happiness coming from God.
 Can be attained by living an ethical life o Everyday occurrences are only
result of a purposeless and random
Hedonism – goodness and happiness can be event.
attained through physical pleasure.
  banish from people the fear of gods Self-centered Moral Philosophy
which prevents people from acquiring
 The height of pleasure is the freedom from
happiness.
all pains and getting rid of all the discomfort
o Man must not fear punishments of both the mind and the body.
from gods.
 If such freedom teaches man to rationally
The Duty of the Human Person manage his desires, then he has reached
the height of pleasure and the end of all
 Epicurean Philosophy is egoistic hedonism.
evil.
 Pleasure is the only important thing in life.
 Those who are liberated from the troubles of
 Rather than seek to have the most of anything, the mind are already living a good life.
including the longest lifespan, the wise and
 Pleasure can be obtained by mastery and
sophisticated Epicurean chooses to have the
control or limitation of desire as far as possible
finest.
to those that were strictly necessary.
 A thing is valuable because it gives man a
 Good life could not be found from one’s service
sense of pleasure.
to fellow human person.
 Epicurus’ view of pleasure is somehow
 Good life can be found only in a pleasant
sophisticated because he still recommends a
company of intellectually fascinating
virtuous and moderate ascetic life as the
friends.
best means of securing pleasure.
Basic Guide to Epicurean Living:
 The highest pleasures are intellectual and
the greatest good is peace of mind, not 1. Do not fear God
intense or exquisite physical pleasure 2. Do not worry about death
3. Do not fear pain
 Pleasure is the standard of goodness.
4. Live a simple life
 Pleasure serves as gauge in determining the 5. Pursue pleasure wisely
goodness of a human action. 6. Make friends and be a good friend
7. Be honest in your business and private life
 Since man always desires pleasure, then 8. Avoid fame and political ambition.
finding pleasure is good.

CHAPTER 6: The Ethics of Stoicism

STOICISM
Types of Pleasure
Cynicism the Origin of Stoic Philosophy
1. Natural and necessary – physiological
needs AKA food, water, shelter Cynicism - a school which revolted against the
2. Natural but unnecessary – secondary rigidly ordered philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.
needs AKA sex, masturbation
 Founded by Antisthenes and took Socrates as
3. Neither natural nor necessary – wants or
its model.
material things
 After the death of Socrates, Antisthenes
 Sensual pleasure will not lead to real
founded a school called the Cynosarges (the
happiness.
silver dog).
 Real happiness could be achieved by means
Diogenes of Sinope
of those activities that will free the human
being from troubles of the mind and from  Antisthenes was greatly influenced by the
physical pain. stinging attacks on such sophistic values as
power, prestige, wealth, and clever deception.
 What leads to a real pleasant life is the austere
reasoning that will aid man to the true  The Cynics believed that the very essence of
realization of the meaning of life and the civilization is corrupt. (Tragic fate of Socrates)
avoidance of the greatest disturbance of the
spirit brought about by mere opinions.  Happiness could not be obtained by means
of pleasure for luxury always brings
 Man should aspire for the things that will bring complications and, eventually, to great
happiness but only with a minimum desire. frustrations.
 HAPPINESS can come from self-discipline,  He was always reminded that what
rational control of all desires and appetites, and happened to him had no bearing on his
minimal contact with conventional society. own wishes or behavior.
 The only absolute control he has was over
 Few Cynics exhibited the moral or intellectual his own reaction to what was happening.
virtues of Antisthenes or Diogenes. For this  Man should control his attitude.
reason, Cynicism fell into disrepute.
 The Stoic Emperor, Marcus Aurelius -
 Later Cynics were hostile, arrogant refused to turn away from his incompetent
individuals, who despised everyone else stepbrother, choosing instead to carry out both
and hated the society which they lived. their duties.
Zeno of Citium - known founder of Stoicism.  He convinced the senate to pardon the
Stoicism – “portico or painted porch.” family of his traitorous general.
 Instead of taking a revenge against those
 According to history, in order to help Zeno, accused as his lover’s wife, he promoted
overcome his attachment to social convention, them as such will be for the good of Rome.
Crates would publicly embarrass Zeno by
smashing a pot he was carrying. Philosophy of the Stoics

 The Stoics have great admiration to the  The stoic philosophy centers on the Ethical
strong character of Socrates who faced living. Its ethical teaching is based on the two
death with courage and serenity. principles:
 the followers of Stoicism realized the  The universe is governed by absolute law
immoralities of the people of Athens, which admits no exception.
hence, they placed a tremendous  The essential nature of the human
emphasis on the morality of the human person is reason.
person.  LIVE ACCORDING TO NATURE!
 Stoicism had given importance to the three  human persons should conform themselves to
division of philosophy formulated by Aristotle: nature in the wider sense
namely, logic, physics, and ethics.
 human persons should conform their actions to
 Morality is life in accordance with nature nature in the narrower sense, i.e., to their own
and controlled by virtue. essential nature – reason
 both pain and pleasure, poverty and luxury,
sickness and health, were supposed to be  no possibility of disobeying the laws of nature
equally unimportant for we, like all else in the world, act out of
necessity.
 Stoicism was also aiming for happiness.
Virtue is a life according to reason.
 This happiness cannot be not found in
pleasure but in wisdom.  Morality is rational action. Morality is a
universal reason, which is to govern our lives,
 Stoics believed that excessive desires may not the caprice of the self-will of the individual.
lead a person to depression and therefore, to
unhappiness.  Life should be according to the life of
the whole universe.
 Wisdom - enable man to control what has been
within the human power and to accept with  the world was so arranged that everything on it
dignified resignation what had to be. was acting on the principle of purpose.

 happiness comes from self-discipline,  The world has a rational substance –

rational control of all desires and “Logos” (God or Absolute Reason)
appetites, and minimal contact with  God being reason, then the world is
conventional society. governed by reason
o There is a purpose in the world, and
Stoic Philosophers therefore, there is order, harmony,
 Epictetus, the Sage Slave - Controlling what beauty, and design.
we can and accepting what is beyond our o Reason being law, the universe is
control. subjected to absolute sway of law.
 Stoics believed in destiny and fate
  man should learn to control the  Passion and emotions are irrational
attitudes towards what might happen. elements and vices and must be eradicated in
 Stoics talked about choosing order to complete the domination of reason.
appropriate actions.
 Man has some degree of influence over his  If this complete domination of reason
own actions. cannot be retained, the stoic will have to
recourse to suicide, for it is better to flee
 For the Stoics, happiness means attainment of life than to lose the tranquility of the spirit.
wisdom.
 Stoic morality is focused on the absolute
renunciation of things, i.e., temporal things.
The Human Drama  Such renunciation is made for selfish
motive – not to lose the tranquility of the
 Stoicism sees the world as a stage where every soul.
person is an actor or actress.
 Stoics Morality is based on egoistic pride.
 Actors do not have control over the story,
however they can control their attitudes  Those who share law must also share justice,
and emotions. correspondingly, they are regarded as members
 There is a director (God) who selects of the same commonwealth
actors to play various roles. (COSMOPOLITANISM)
 Divine providence governs everything  Every human person is equal to one
that happens in the world. another.
 Stoics viewed the world not as a product of  Depriving others of their right is against the
chance but as a product of an ordering concept of cosmopolitanism, hence,
mind, or by reason – Divine Providence. morally unacceptable.
 Adopt realistic expectations and accept one’s  Stoicism regard self-control as the center of
limit. ethics and they view all of nature in
 Hardships and sufferings are not totally materialistic terms.
negative.  “While making reasonable efforts to get what
 The goal is not really to avoid trials and we want, it is wise to learn to be happy with
sufferings but to use them to become a what we get.”
good person.
 Knowing the role which an individual will
play, he/she acquires wisdom in dealing
with life. CHAPTER 7: ARISTOTLE’S VIRTUE ETHICS

 Moral virtue is the only good and wickedness Good is relative to specific culture. – Herodutus
is the only evil. “Man is the measure of all things.” – Protagoras
 The foundation of Stoic morality is a doctrine  Although Socrates was a relativists, he believed
that has its own basis in physics in standard/objective ethical standard.
 This doctrine is oikeiōsis which means  Good and evil and not pleasure or pain.
“orientation and appropriation.”
 People choose what they think will be good  A good deed is obtained when one is doing
for them and avoid what they think will be justice to others.
bad for them.
Justice - when the aspects of the soul (rational,
 Stoic ethics is based on selfish attitude. spirited, and appetitive) are balanced, good life is
granted to such individual, accordingly,
 Stoics held that people should learn to live in HAPPINESS.
accordance to nature = living according to
virtue. A well-ordered soul – doing good deeds.
 Virtue alone is necessary and sufficient  For Plato, good life means knowing and
for happiness. Virtue was not only the final fulfilling one’s own function.
end and the supreme good: it was also the
 Failure to recognize and fulfil one’s function
only real good.
would lead to CONFLICT. (INJUSTICE)
 Man is said to be virtuous if he wishes that
events will be in accordance to the will of  Ethical principles of Socrates and developed by
the Divine Providence. Plato influenced the ethical beliefs of Aristotle,
 who was then considered to be the most  In this case, Plato was talking of pre-
intelligent student of Plato. existence and immortality of the soul -
(Learning is a process of recollection)
Aristotle - He earned the reputation of being the
mind and the reader of the school (Plato’s  In contrary, for Aristotle, death could cause
Academy). the discontinuance in existence of both
body and soul - (Human mind is a tabula rasa
o For Plato, his Academy is consisted or blank slate)
of two parts: the body which is the
students, and the brain which is  Soul has two parts
Aristotle.
1. Rational - independent of the body
 built an altar in honor of Plato.
1.1 Phronesis - practical intellect and aims
 supposedly be replacing Plato as the head
to control the irrational part
of the Academy, the trustees of the school
1.2 Speculative Intellect - pure thought or
picked a native Athenian instead. And he
intellection, level of contemplation
opposed some of the doctrines of Plato.
2. Irrational
 Aristotle trained the Alexander the great,
2.1 vegetative part - nutrition, growth, and
son of King Philip of Macedon.
reproduction
 Founded his own school ‘Lyceum’ which 2.2 desiring part
he named after the god Apollo Lyceus. a. epithumia – unrualy and
o focused on mathematics and pure irrationsense desires and
understanding covetousness
o focused on anthropological b. thumos – spontaneous impulses
studies of barbarian cultures, c. boulesis – wishes and desires
chronologies, of various wars and Man has REASON – it makes man different from
games, the organs and living habits all other creatures.
of animals, the nature and location
of plants.  Man’s reason makes him resemble to the
 Methods of teaching is Supreme Reason (God)
‘paripatetics’(Hakim)  Speculative intellect is that which is closely
connected with reason.
Philosophy of Aristotle  Through contemplation, man will realize
that all things are leading to their proper
 Aristotle was suspicious of the idea that
ends (Teleological – purpose/end).
knowledge of the world cannot be accessed via
the senses (Plato’s rationalistic Idealism). Two Types of End
 He turned to the phenomena of changing Instrumental end - means for other ends
and the changeless. (material)
 Thing changes because of its nature
permits it. Intrinsic end – done for its own sake
(feelings/emotions)
 Things have principle of actuality (act) and
principle of potentiality (potency).  Aristotle tied the word GOOD to the special
function (purpose) of a thing.
 Matter(potency) and form(act) –
hylomorphic doctrine  Human person is good only when he is
functioning as a human person.
 function of man is an activity of the human
soul that implies a rational principle.
The Human Person for Aristotle
 An action is considered to be good (activity of
 A human being is composed of body and soul.
the soul), if is it done in accordance with the
 Body and Soul are not separate entities, rational principle (VIRTUOUS ACT).
rather they are correlative constituents of
 Within communal life of the Polis (fullest extent
one being.
of man’s activity according to reason) Act of
Soul “entelechy” – definite form of the body. Contemplation.

 For Plato, man is composed of two separate Aristotelian Ethics

entities, the body and the soul.
1. Eudemian Ethics
2. Nicomachean Ethics – focused on the
purpose of human life
 3. Magna Moralia goodness or badness of its effect on
others.
 Ethics is not only science (knowledge which
deals with absolute and eternal truths)  morally virtuous act consists of a measured
activity, following the rule of the (mesotes) or
 ART (art of living well-balance) just middle, i.e., "neither deficient nor
 follows a dialectic method (comparative excessive”
opinion regarding the good and the bad,
and arriving at a set of prudential directives  Any action that is coming from the just
of limited generality). middle is ruled by reason, which orders
 practical science and it concerns the the desires and passion into a harmonious
nature and purpose of human action. whole.
 Any action that is done or indulged
 In his teleological view, everything exists for excessively or insufficiently would go out
SOME PURPOSE of bounds and would become
 Man naturally seeks happiness (eudaimonia – unreasonable and improper to the
a person is really alive rather than just merely nature of human being.
existing). virtuous act - following the mandates of the
 The nature and purpose of human action rational part of the soul. Proceeds from the right
tend towards happiness. intention.
 A human person is fully aware, vital, and moral virtue - rationally measured activity
alert. following the rule of the just middle, motivated by
 It implies exhilaration – great suffering and right intention and proceeding from a permanent
great joy, as well as great passions. disposition acquired through habitual action.
 Happiness is not connected with pleasure.  In order for the human person to be sure that
 Pleasure is connected with irrational part of his action is done in permanent disposition,
the soul. such action should be done in the act of
 Pleasure is not the goal/end of life, same contemplation. Performing such activity is said
thing as the acquisition of wealth. to be related to the moral virtues.
 Whenever an action is performed based on
 Aristotle rejected fame and public success, for
he believed that these will not give him contemplation, such action is said to be
Eudamonia coming from (phronesis) or the practical
wisdom/intellect
 The self-sufficient we are, the happier we  provides the insight to the truth about the
will be; and the famous are less-sufficient. intrinsic worth and excellence and beauty
 An ordinary man has a greater peace of mind, or goodness or the (kalon) of the action
security, and satisfaction in knowing that he can done
provide for his own needs than there is in
Phronesis - practical intellect that properly
depending on others.
decides to act. It takes the appropriate means in
 The highest and fullest happiness comes from a the situation in view of the intended goal and takes
life of reason and contemplation—not a life of command of one's desire and passion.
inactivity or imbalance but a rationally ordered
life in which intellectual, physical, and social  (Practical wisdom) is the proper activity
needs are all met under the governance of and virtue of the practical intellect by which
reason and moderation (Soccio, 186). the human person, as the source of action,
is the union of desire and thought.
 According to Aristotle, a reasonable
 Aristotle viewed the communal life of the polis
person does not avoid life, rather, he
engages in it fully. as the proper place for the exercise of the
 Man can only live a full life if he would be moral virtue
living with the polis or the society. A rich  it is the very life of moral virtues and thus,
and full life is a social life. the polis constitutes one of the ends of the
human person.
 A human being is a political creature designed  Happiness is the product of our action based
by nature to live with the others on our distinctive nature(rational part of the
 all the actions of the human person can be soul).
adjudged as good or bad depending on the
  It is the fruit of a virtuous living, the  Albert the Great influenced St. Thomas’s
constant and proper exercise of reason love for philosophy
in all of man's actions and endeavors.  St. Thomas Aquinas – became involved in
 a virtuous act is acting according to our the controversy with the Averroist headed by
highest nature, that is, based on a Siger de Brabant who gave propositions such
contemplative activity. as the eternity of the world and the unity of the
intellect in all human beings.
 An action based on contemplation is the best
 Averroist made the Church authorities to
action because not only is the reason the best
disregards Aristotle’s metaphysics
thing for us, but the objects of reason are also  Thomas established an interpretation of
the best knowable objects. Aristotle that was moderate and acceptable
 Contemplation is the highest and most in Christian Schools
perfect type of reflection, the way it is in o Summa Contra Gentile & Summa
god. Theologiae
 For Plato, good signifies a transcendent,
otherworldly end of man. Philosophy of St. Thomas
 For Aristotle, the moral end is seen as  Begins with the immediate objects of sense
something immanent in human activity and experience and reason upward to more
achievable in this life. general conceptions, eventually to the
 Goodness can be obtained when one conception of God
performs his function in the community.  Theology begins with a faith in God and
 such action must be rooted from interpret all things as creation of God
contemplation and must proceed from the  Aquinas made philosophy and theology play
habitual action. their complementary roles the in a person’s
quest for truth. Despite the differences, they do
 A person who is performing his action according
not contradict each other
to his function (ergon) in the most excellent
 Human beings are incapable of knowing the
way (arête) and in a habitual fashion is a nature of God in his life because our
acting as a human person. (moral character). knowledge is limited by its origin in sense-
 If one does an action habitually, such habit experience
will eventually make up his character and  Divine reality is beyond man’s capability of
such character will determine his destiny. human understanding
 It is important to establish one’s character
based on his good deeds inasmuch as Five ways to prove God’s existence –
such character will establish the value of Quinquae Viae
the human person as a human person. 1. Unmoved mover
CHAPTER 8: NATURAL LAW ETHICS 2. Uncaused cause
3. Possibility and Necessity
 St. Thomas - cristianized the philosophy of 4. Gradation of Perfection
Aristootle 5. Governance of the World
 He transformed it by introducing two
fundamental notions: Nature of God
o God as the creator and source of  Quinquae Viae do not tell man the nature of
the beingness of man in the world God but adds something to the conception of
o Synderesis God
 Albert the Great – “universal teacher”. He 1. God is powerful
recognized the difference between Philosophy 2. God is eternal
and Theology. 3. God is pure actuality
 Thought that St. Anselm of Cantenbury 4. God has the perfect goodness
and Peter Abelard focused so much on 5. God is the supreme intelligence
competence of reason, not realizing that  Man is created in the image and likeness of
from the rigorous point of view, much of God
what they ascribed to reason was a matter  God is the ultimate cause of man
of faith  Goodness and wisdom must pre-exist
 Translated Aristotle’s works in Latin transcendentally in God
o Wanted to make the philosophy of  Good and Wise – similar in terms and yet
Aristotle clearly understandable to different in certain extent
the whole of Europe
 Considered Aristotle as the greatest Relationship of God with his Creature
Philosopher
 St. Thomas believed that there is Divine  Morality is not a set of arbitrary rules for
Creation behavior. It is found in the very nature of
 God is the first cause of everything who humanity
himself is uncaused.  Human nature is the proximate norm of
 God’s purpose in creation is for the morality
communication of his perfection (goodness Threefold Natural Inclination of the Human
by bringing into existence outside of Himself a Person
world which is best as a whole).
 There is a hierarchy of being in different 1. Self-preservation – putting one’s life in
degrees of goodness. danger and harming oneself is wrong
 Suffering and death occur not because God 2. Just dealing with others – treat other with
the same dignity and respect he accords to
wills these evils, but because of the privations
himself
inherent and unavoidable in creatures of
3. Propagation of species – union of
different grades of goodness. husband and wife. Any intervention to
 God created the universe ‘ex nihilo’ reproduce/procreate is immoral
 He believed that the world came into being
instantaneously. Happiness of the Human Person
 God does not have a relationship with his  Happiness is what man considerers good
creatures. (God is necessary being)  Ultimate happiness consists in
 Creatures have a real relation to Him contemplating God not in the goods of the
because were it not for the creative work of body
God, they would not have come into  Man’s action is always geared toward God
existence (contingent being).  Man should follow his nature
 Man’s happiness consists in wisdom based on
The Nature of the Human Person the consideration of divine things
 God – source and the ultimate end 9 final end0 Three determinants of moral action
of man
 Everything is a participation and imitation; 1. Object or end of an action (finis operas) –
from whom all things proceed, and all the act naturally tends before all else.
things return Nature purpose of the act
 Moral end of man is the good in which a o If the action is within the natural
person in his innermost being, yearns for and moral law, then the action is morally
made manifest to him in synderesis and good
conscience 2. Circumstances – when added to the moral
 Conscience – concrete particular judgement act it will affect its morality. May mitigate or
by which, in a given situation, a person knows aggravate the goodness of badness of a
what he ought to do particular action
 Synderesis – general intellectual habit or 3. Intention of the agent (finis operantis) –
disposition by which, in any given situation, is reason why the agent acts
in a possession of the fundamental prionciples o Good act with bad motive is bad
of morality; do good and avoid evil o Morality depends on end
 Innate principle in the moral consciousness o Human acts ares good if it
of every person which directs the agent to promotes the purpose of God and
good and restrains him from evil his honors. It is evil if it deviates
 God is the creator of the highest good (summa from the reason and divine moral
bonum) law
 Man should follow his nature as good in order  If a thing is serving its purpose based on the
to achieve the real purpose of his existence. reason of its creation, then the object is a good
Doing evil is against the real nature of man object.
 Meaning of one’s existence is when the human  If human being acts in accordance to its nature
person would be able to do good deeds and as a human person, then he is a moral person.
follow his nature. This is man’s moral law
 Because man is endowed with reason, then he
 Moral law – dictate of the voice reason. Good
must incline himself toward goodness – he
must be done, evil must be avoided
 the voice of conscience will serve as the should always follow his conscience (dictate of
natural guide in making a moral decision reason).
 Man is responsible for the effects of his
actions.
The Moral Principle as Basis of Human Action 4. Right to Physical Freedom and Personal
Liberty
1. Principle of double effect
5. Right to Worship
a. The action directly intended must be
6. Right to Work
good, or at least morally indifferent.
o it should always have a good effect Corresponding Duties of the Six Natural and
(Moral) Inalienable Rights
o if good effect is impossible, evil
1. Duty to Keep Healthy and to take care of
effect should not be intended.
oneself
b. the good effect must follow from the
2. Duty to take care of one’s property and
action or at least as immediately as
respect the property of others.
the evil effect, or the evil effect may
3. Duty to support one’s family
follow from the good effect.
4. Duty to Respect Private boundaries
c. The foreseen evil effect may not be
5. Duty for Religious tolerance
intended or approved but merely
6. Duty to perform at one’s best
permitted to occur.
d. There must be a proportionate or CHAPTER 9: KANTIAN ETHICS
sufficient reason for allowing the evil
effect to occur while performing the  Immanuel Kant – grew up in a religious family
and retained a high regard for religion and had
action
a deep moral sense but rejected the
2. The Principle of Totality – the right to cut puritanical pietism
off, mutilate, or remove any defective or  Collegium Fredericianum – first education
worn-out non-functioning part of his body if it  Entered university of Konigberg where he
is for the general well-being of the whole studied classics, physics and philosophy
body.  First served as a lecturer with the title of
o this forbids the donation of a Privatdozent – a lowly instructor
healthy organ for it will weaken the  Became a private tutor and promoted to the
donor. position of professor of logic and
3. The Principle of Stewardship – human life metaphysics
comes from God and no individual is the  lived during the age of englightenment –
success of modern experimental science
master of his own body.
and newton’s physics
4. The Principle of Inviolability of Life – life
o Time for Rationalists who held that
is God’s and has been loaned to us.
man access to knowledge by a
o Only God has the complete control sheer a priori reason –
or dominion over the person’s life. independent of experience
o No person has the right to take o Time for Empiricists who held that
away one’s life and other’s life. all knowledge come from a sense of
5. The Principle of Sexuality and experience – a posteriori
Procreation – underscores the two-fold  Kant disagreed with both but affirmed that
purpose of sexual union: unitas et human persons possess a faculty that can
procreation give knowledge without an appeal to an
o every person has a natural experience
o agreed to David Hume that all our
inclination towards propagation of
knowledge derived from experience
the species.
but disagreed that we cannot have
o It is natural for man to incline
knowledge of any reality beyond
himself towards sexual unity and to experience.
enjoy sexual union. o Not all our knowledge arises out of
o human beings are God’s co- experience
creators o Man have knowledge not from the
sense of experience but directly
Natural and Inalienable Rights of a Human from the faculty of rational
Person judgement, and therefore, a priori
1. Right to life Types of Judgement
2. Right to private Property
3. Right to Marry
 1. Analytic Judgement (analytic a priori) –  Duty is that which ought to be done despite
predicate is contained within the the inclination to do otherwise.
understanding of the subject  human person is acting morally if and only if
2. Synthetic Judgement (synthetic a he does whatever is obliged to do
posteriori) – predicate is not contained (fulfilling his duty).
within the understanding of the subject  Moral action is that which is done from a
3. Synthetic a priori Judgement – offshoot of sense of duty or obligation. In this sense,
the first two judgement you are a good person.
o Synthetic - predicate is not  In accord with duty - INTENTION is not for
contained in the subject. Analytic in the fulfilment of his DUTY.
the sense that one no longer needs  Amoral person - which stands in between
experience to arrive at the answer. of moral and immoral person.
 The subject (Man) is the one that legislates,  From a sense of duty - do your duty simply
sets the rules and boundaries, for the because it is your duty and not for another
emergence of the object. This is Kant’s reason.
transcendental method.  Universal precept or code of behavior
 TRANSCENDENTAL METHOD, a subject (universalizability) – determine that one is
(Man) tries to know the NOUMENON which acting from the sense of duty
we already know as unknowable. By
Categorical Imperative
saying trying, that is what transcend means
– trying to go beyond the conditions of  command or maxim that enjoins a person to do
possibility. a certain action without qualification inasmuch
 Knowledge – limited to the world we as doing such an act is the most universally
experience. Such as how faculties of accepted thing to do (universal rule)
perception and thinking organize data of
experience Types of Imperatives
 Noumenon “thing in itself” – reality which
 Imperative of skill - necessary measure or
exist independently of us. We can only
means of a person must take in view of the
know as it appears to us and organized by
end or goal which he wishes to pursue.
us
o Hypothetical or conditional
 There are two realities: phenomenal
 Imperative of prudence - necessary measure
(phenomenon) and noumenal
or means of a person out of tact or practicality
(noumenon)
to attain happiness.
o Phenomenon - things as they
o Hypothetical or conditional
present themselves to Man; things
 Imperative of morality - necessary measure
as objects of man’s experience
or means to obtain goodness. Intrinsic to the
o Noumenon - trying to go beyond
nature of action, independent from any ulterior
what we can experience
end or consequences.
 Man is an autonomous, self-regulating will,
o Unconditional or categorical (OUGHT TO DO)
conforming to the absolute but internal
demands immanent in him as a rational will. Three Formulations whether man’s action is
 task of moral philosophy is to discover how we based on the categorical imperative or not
can arrive at principles of behavior that are
binding upon all humanity (Universally 1. Act only on the maxim whereby they can,
Accepted Moral Principle). and at the same time will, that it will
 Human person is subject not to the external become universal law.
but to the internal condition of humanity o Act as if the maxim of your action
(GOOD WILL) were to become universal law of
 Will of man is considered to be good when it so nature
acts that it conforms itself to what duty 2. Act so as to treat humanity, whether in
demands your own person or in that of any other,
 Deontologism (deontos) - emphasis of every case as an end, never as means
duty or obligation only.
 morally right or wrong is solely a matter of o Kant’s principle of justice, every
intent, motive, and will. individual must be of equal value.
 The goodness and badness of an action 3. Act so as your will become the universal
depends on intuition which is the internal law
motive or intention. o basis of my action and my decision
 Kantian morality can be considered as form of should always be the universal law.
intuitionism or a form of motivist theory
 o thus, each subject must will maxims  Happiness of others serves as the basis of
that could be universally self- human goodness.
legislated.  Jeremy Bentham - Nature has placed
 Categorical Imperative is the guide to moral mankind under the governance of two
action (Voice of duty, a sense of sovereign masters, pain and pleasure
oughtness). o We must follow the principle of the Greatest
 Human person is an autonomous, self- Happiness, i.e., choose that action that
regulating will who is capable of making a leads to the greatest happiness for the
moral decision greatest number of people.
o Autonomy - as governing, o rejected all monarchies and established
regulating, restraining oneself, churches, claiming that “all government
including one’s own choice or is in itself one vast evil for not being
courses of action in accord with the able to provide its subordinates with the
most principles which are one’s own necessary happiness that each one
and which are binding on everyone. experiences.”
 Every person has worth and dignity inasmuch  Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
as he is an end in himself and capable of held the idea that the human person should
making his own moral decisions. perform an action that will bring happiness
 Every person’s must not be treated as means to the greatest number of people
for other person’s ends. o The rightness and wrongness of
 Mutual respect between persons in moral an action are determined by the
relation based on justice. goodness and badness of their
 Its violation would form injustice; hence such consequence.
action is considered morally unacceptable o Principle of utility
 Perfect duty - must always be observed  Utilitarianism – “Actions are good insofar
irrespective of time, place, or circumstance. as they tend to promote happiness, bad
 Imperfect Duty – which a person must observe as they tend to produce unhappiness.”
only on some occasion o Pleasure – is the determinant of an
Critique action as good.
 The morality of action as entirely
 For as long as one is doing an action based on dependent on consequence or results of
duty, the said action is morally good human well-being of OTHERS or more so
irrespective of its consequences. of the WHOLE SOCIETY.
 Kant failed to take into consideration a  Bentham and Mill tried to avoid any sense
situation wherein there are cases of of individualism or subjectivism.
conflicting duties. o they gave another alternative
formulation of the Principle of Utility-
CHAPTER 10: Utilitarian Ethics Principle of the Greatest Number
 Utilitarianism - maintains that everyone o An action Is good if it produces
desires happiness an pleasure. the greatest happiness for the
 an act is considered as morally good it is greatest number of people. And
producing the greatest amount of bad if it produces more harm than
happiness with everyone (greatest good benefit for the greatest number of
of the greatest number) the individual.
 The rightness and wrongness if an action is o Principle of Equity
determined by the goodness and badness
Hedonistic Calculus (Jeremy Bentham)
of their consequence (outcome)
 greatly influenced by Thomas Hobbes who put  Pleasure-pain calculus or hedonistic
an emphasis on the people’s selfish concern calculus - method of determining which of
for their own pleasure alternative actions would be preferable
 aware if the idea of David Hume, who believed because of the amount of pleasure to be
that people would never be able to know the anticipated.
universal law. 1. Intensity – how strong the pleasure
 Morality then is focused on the people’s 2. Duration – how long the pelasure
capacity for sympathy – tendency to 3. Certainty – how likely or unlikely the
consider the pleasure of others pleasure to occur
 John Locke claimed that the aptness in us to 4. Propinquity – how soon the pleasure
produce pleasure is good; and the desire to will last
produce pain is evil.
 5. Fecundity – how likely pleasure is  Pragmatism - derived from the Greek word
produced pragma, which means act or deed
6. Purity – absence of pain o Practice or practical
7. Extent of action – number of people o Introduced by Charles Sanders
affected Pierce. Popularized by William
 Bentham maintained an individual’s egoistic James’ essays
pleasure as a goal of a good action. o Methodically implemented into the
o This egoistic pleasure is shared daily affairs of American Institutions
because the pleasure and interests by John Dewey
of one person coincide with those of  These three were united by their conviction
others that there must be a close connection
 Calculate the amount of pleasure and pain between thinking and doing
that any act will bring.  The efficacy in practical application
 After calculating both, the amount of pain somehow provides a standard for the
should be subtracted from the amount of determination of truth in the cases of
pleasure to determine the balance. statement, rightness in the case of
actions, and value in the case of appraisal
Benevolent-Spectator Principle (John
 Pragmatism is more of a theory of
Stuart Mill)
knowledge, truth, and meaning than
 Stuart Mill disagreed with hedonistic morality
calculus that he modified Bentham’s o However, there appears moral
egoistic principle. interests and moral language in it
o impossible to calculate the o mediates the schools of thought
amount of pleasure and pain which empiricism and rationalism
can be obtained from a certain  ideas are clear and distinct only when we
action. can put them into action
o No means by which a human  If a word will not be tied up to any
person can determine which is observable practical results, it will be
more intense (pleasure) or more considered meaningless because its
acute (pain) meaning is the total of its practical
 Mill placed greater importance on the consequence
happiness of all rather than one’s own  Pierce agreed with the empiricist in its claim
happiness. that meaning is based on experience
o Happiness of all should always be and determined by experience
taken into consideration before  James’ concept of morality focused on
making a moral decision more apparent issues
 Need for us to choose acts that produce for  James looked for what he called the cash
us the greatest quantity of pleasure, help value statements, the practical pay-off
other achieve their own happiness in that o considered as epistemological
way we would be able to secure our own. -  The goodness of an action depends on its
(Greatest Happiness Principle) practicality
 Act Utilitarianism (Bentham) - the  A true and valid form of knowledge is one
rightness or wrongness of an act is which is practical, workable, beneficial
determined by its effect on the general and useful
happiness. o the goodness of an action depends
 Rule Utilitarianism (Mill) - people must on its consequences (outcome)
evaluate the moral correctness of an  Experimentalism – thru experimentation,
action with respect to the impact on the we can determine the truth of an idea
general happiness of the rule that the  Instrumentalism – if ideas are proven to be
action embodies. effective instruments, they are true
 Reconstructivism – ideas are instruments
Critique in reconstructing ideas
 sacrifice the few if it is for the betterment of  Progressivism – ideas are true if they help
the majority. This forgets the right of the an individual progress, grow and develop
minority.  Pragmatism believed that truth is the cash
 Evil motives is acceptable for as long as it value of an idea and can only be
produce desirable results to everybody. considered good depending upon the
monetary considerations that such
CHAPTER 11: Pragmatic Ethics judgment or statement will incur
  An act is good if it benefits the human  Through the influence of his mother’s friend,
society Johann Wolfgang van Geothe he advised
his readers that they should endeavor to
Critique transform tears into knowledge in order
 Provided an answer to Utilitarianism’s to at least have a more fulfilled and less
concept of justice troubled life
 Important to place one’s self first so that  Friedrich Nietzsche - Fulfillment is an
the person may become better in his illusion. Fulfillment was to be reached not
position to be of better service to the by avoiding pain, but by recognizing its role
society and be able to provide happiness as a natural, inevitable step on the way to
to the greatest number of people reaching anything good
 Performing one’s duty will become o people should not expect that there
meaningless if it will not produce practical would be happiness in life
results o Everyman has an inherent tendency
 Truth is the cash value of idea Overly to aspire for the will to power
materialistic to the detriment of the o Life is full of ups and downs
spiritual development of a person o searching for new means in order to
o lead to Selfishness since the focus arrive at humanism without any
of one’s action is not the happiness constraints of the past, which
of the greatest number but the according to him, has sorrowfully
practicality of one’s action to his brought man to his distressing
own self status today
o culture, particularly the German
CHAPTER 12: NIETZSCHE & POWER ETHICS Culture, the whole humanity is
 Friedrich Nietzsche – God is Dead, headed for a new barbarism, and
Superman, Will to Power, Master vs Slave some ways had to be found to
Morality divert his culture from the
o In the University of Leipzig, he met impending cataclysm
Professor Friedrich Ritschl  In order to prevent the modern culture from
kindled in him a passion for such upheaval, people should model their
philology(the study of classical way of living to Greek Culture
philosophy) and literature o Greek Culture has two elements
o Here, he discovered the Philosophy namely, Apollonian Culture and
of Arthur Schopenhauer through the Dionysian Culture
his book The world as will and o Apollonian – measure, restraint,
representation form, individuality to life-order
 Arthur Schopenhauer - Pessimism belief o Dionysian – unplanned, uncharted
that life is disappointing and that for every insertion into the stream of life
satisfied desire, ten new unsatisfied and without concern about where it
withdrawal might lead disorder
o Detachment and withdrawal  To ensure that there will be balance
o Life is nothing more than a between the Apollonian and Dionysian
constant will to survive Culture an Ubermensch Overman or
o Equally committed to an equally Superman is needed
meaningless existence Will to Power
o Pawns of life force, detach our self
from the cycle of wanting getting  Nietzsche called for the revaluation of
wanting more values (Value Theory)
o Life is an irrational, purposeless o Reject the traditional concept of
striving for a pointless existence sympathy and humility as the
o Live at all costs and curtail our proper foundation for moral values
desires o everyone should aspire for the will
o Free them from expectations, which to power for old values will only
inspire bitterness make man a feeble loser who is
o Happiness is not part of life motivated by resentment
o To avoid greater disappointment,  Reject the concept of equality
free yourselves from greater  This idea of Superman is related to the
expectations concept that any act of an individual that
o Turn pain into knowledge, reason will enhance and develop his will to
 power is good whereas any act that will  Represents the behavior, which is unsure of
hinder its growth is evil, and therefore itself, or an action that is borne out of
must be avoided resentment
1. Anything that prevents man to have a  Its values are humility, patience, and the like
power, be strong and make him weak is Judeo-Christian Values/Virtues
immoral
2. Anything that makes man powerful, The Death of God “God is Dead”
strong and exercise his will to power is  He did not mean that God existed before
moral. and now no longer does
 Freeman is the Superman (will to power) for o There is no intelligent plan to the
whom nothing is forbidden except that universal or rational order
which obstructs the will to power o Belief in God destroys the humanity
o This Superman should not fall and denies them their freedom
into the temptation to be a tyrant  Nietzsche proposed that everyone should
because this means Dionysian aspire to be SUPERMAN (will to
Culture outpowered the Apollonian power/survive/master morality)
Culture The superman will be the  God created everything but his role has
one who will ensure the balance already ended after the work creation
 Man should do the necessary measures just
to be a Superman Mistakes in god’s creation
o It has no concern for the
1. Creation of science – thou shall not know
weak/masses
2. Creation of woman – from woman comes
o The mark of a society is its power to
all the calamity of the world
exploit the weaker member for the
 Nietzsche’s philosophy as influence by
benefit and the interest of the strong
Schopenhauer and Goethe should not be
and the powerful few
taken as totally negative
 Absolute moral principle(e g Kant’s) must
o Nietzsche may have taken life to be
be rejected, destroys individual’s freedom
difficult, but it does not mean that
to act
people will not anymore find
o Universal morality is a tortuous
fulfillment
straightjacket which prevents the
 The art of living lies in finding meaning in
individual from asserting himself
our struggles
Master vs Slave Morality
Critique
 Rejected Judeo Christian Values; These
 Man’s inclination to power if not controlled
values/virtues make man weak
may lead to chaos
o It should be replaced by ETHICS
o Religion serves as means in order
OF POWER (will to power which is
to control man’s selfish aspirations
embodied by SUPERMAN)
so as to avoid chaotic community
o follows the belief that “MIGHT IS
 Failure to understand that every human
RIGHT” person is also naturally a spiritual being,
o Influenced by Darwin’s survival of believe in afterlife This means, if man does
the fittest not find fulfilment in this world, his reward
 Nietzsche advocated egoism and awaits in the life after death
individualism as the basis of morality  Man is a social being, he needs others in
Herren Moral (Master Morality) SUPERIOR order to survive even the weak

 Independence, self-approbation, and the CHAPTER 13: THE RIGHT AND THE GOOD
action that flows out of strength or power (ROSS)
 Its values are courage, self-reliance, high  William David Ross - tried to answer the
mindedness, candor, and creative conflicting duties (Immanuel Kant)
leadership  Moral rules serve as moral guidelines in
 Its greatest virtues are RUTHLESSNESS, such a way that they must be adjusted or
EXPLOITATION, and MASTERY OVER modified.
OTHERS o There are situations wherein rules
Herden Moral (Slave Morality) INFERIOR should be set aside depending on
the needs of the situation.
 Absolute rules are insensitive to the
consequence of the act.
 o Without rules, one would never be  In determining what is the actual duty from
able to determine which action, the prima facie duties, one should rely on
from the series of choices, should his moral intuitions as the ultimate guide in
consider good. particular cases. Here, one has the duty to:
 Considered UTILITARIANISM as ALSO a a. Learn and discern the facts in the
good basis for moral decisions. case.
o However, he was also aware of the b. Consider the possible
problem of utilitarian regarding the consequences of our actions.
concept of JUSTICE. c. Reflect on our prima facie duties.
 Ethical principle which is a combination of d. Decide the best course of action
the deontological ethics of Kant (conflict under the circumstances
of duties) and utilitarian ethics (problem  There are seven types of Prima Facie
of justice) Duties that everyone should consider.
o In situation wherein there is a 1. Duty of Fidelity
conflict of duty, what we should 2. Duty of Reparation
put in minds are the prima facie 3. Duty of Gratitude
obligations to act dutifully, though 4. Duty of Justice
such duties can be overridden by 5. Duty of Beneficence
other duties depending on 6. Duty of Self-Improvement
situations. 7. Duty of Non-Malefinence
 It is important to know the rightness and the Critique
goodness of an act before making moral
decision  Discern the facts and situation. It is
 There are two indispensable qualities of a difficult to determine what is really right and
moral act: RIGHT and GOOD wrong in certain situations.
o RIGHT belongs to the action, o In determining the rightness of
independent of motives action, we have to rely on our own
o GOODNESS belongs to the perception then our decision is
motives. subjective on our own perception
o Right action + Good intention = of a situation for it may vary
Moral action depending on one’s education and
 Other things to be considered in determining experience.
whether a certain act is moral or not.  Disguise of Ethical relativism
o In this event, one should ask certain
CHAPTER 14: JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF
questions like, why, who, what,
JUSTICE
when, and how in the performance
of one’s action.  John Rawls - Desired to provide an
alternative moral system to
Actual Duty vs. Prima Facie Duty
UTILITARIANISM (GREATEST
 Actual Duty - one’s real duty in each HAPPINESS OF THE GREATEST
situation NUMBER)
o It is the action that we ought to o Utilitarianism cannot provide a
choose from among many other satisfactory account of the basic
choices of actions. rights and the liberties of citizens as
 Prima Facie Duty - directs or commands free and equal persons.
what ought to perform when other relevant o Utilitarianism fails to uphold the
factors are considered. concept of JUSTICE.
o “at first glance” / “so far as it  Justice should be considered as the basis
appears” of moral decision and actions
 Ross offered two principles by which to o JUSTICE is FAIRNESS
resolve cases of conflicting duties:  It was an attempt to synthesis of the
1. Act in accordance with the stronger, strengths of utilitarianism and
more stringent, and more severe deontologism.
prima facie duty. o In these two ethical principles, he
2. Act in accordance with the prima facie
tried to avoid their weaknesses, for
duty that has greater balance of
utilitarianism, the lack of justice
rightness over wrongness compared
o He introduced that every human
to other prima facie duty.
being has DIGNITY regardless of
 their position or social status ion  The basis of justice will always be the FAIR
life. TREATMENT TO EVERYBODY.
 No matter how elegant and practical the
Different types and concepts of Justice
ethical system could be, it still must be
rejected if it is untrue and no matter how 1. Distributive Justice – economic justice
efficient and well-arranged the laws and o Persons who are not equal in
institutions could be, said laws and relevant matters must be treated
institutions must be reformed or abolished unequally based on their
if they are unjust. inequality
The Hypothetical Situation 2. Procedural Justice – rules are to be
implemented must be followed and
 Equality is fostered consistently applied
o man is put under the veil of 3. Retributive Justice – punishment and
ignorance penalties on those who do wrong
 Under the veil of ignorance, one does not 4. Restorative justice – restoration of the
know anything about social significant dignity of the victims
facts about himself and others such as 5. Compensatory Justice –
race, sex, religion, economic status, social
compensating someone for a past
standing, natural abilities and conception of
injustice or what he lost when wronged
good life
o By not knowing one’s position in the by others
society or one’s conception of the Theories of Distributive Justice
good, man is driven by this fiction
to an equal concern for the fate  With the idea of justice, Rawls held that
of everyone. In this case, people there must be an equal distribution of
will never be able to try to take opportunities and disadvantages to
advantage of each other everyone in the society.
1. Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism
Two Principles of Justice o People should be given equal
 Each person is to have an equal right to treatment.
the most extensive total system of equal o There should be no relevant
basic liberties compatible with a similar differences among people that
system of liberty for all (EQUALITY) can justify unequal treatment.
 Social and economic inequalities are to be o Everyone should be given exactly
arranged so that they are both: equal share of a societies or
a. To the greatest benefit of the least groups benefits and burdens
advantaged, consistent with the just o The less fortunate have no cause to
savings principle (EQUITY)
b. Attached to offices and positions consider themselves inferior.
open to all under conditions of fair a. Political Equality - equal
equality of opportunity. participation in and treatment by
 Fairness must rule out the DIFFERENCE the means of controlling and
PRINCIPLE that allow inequalities to directing the political system
produce differential rewards only up to the b. Economic Equality - equality
extent that this is going to be necessary for of income, wealth, and
the benefit of everyone, most especially the opportunity.
least fortunate. o man can be equal only to political
 A just society is not in which everyone is rights but there is legitimate
equal because this is unrealistic. A society economic inequality.
can only be just if there is equality and, if o Principle of equality
ever there will be inequalities, such (EGALITARIANISM) is difficult
inequalities must be demonstrated because it is impossible to have
legitimate. equality in all human beings
because everyone is different in
Categories of Justice and Fairness terms of abilities, intelligence,
 Justice is always connected to laws. virtues, needs, desires, and other
physical and mental characteristics.
2. Justice based on contribution: o maintained the idea of Nozick “from
Capitalist Justice each as they choose, to each as
o Benefits should be distributed they are chosen
according to the degree of
contribution that each person Critique
provides for the benefit of the o enshrining the value of freedom
society as a whole. from coercion at the expense of
o One’s contribution can be other’s right and values without
measured by the amount of work any explanation why this should be
that one rendered. The greater and done
harder one works, the greater are o may generate unjust treatment of
the share of benefits. the less privileged which contradicts
o Hard work leads to success the principle of equality
Critique Concept of Justice
o Ignores the needs of the people 1. Everyone is inviolable
o Insensitive to the disadvantaged o principle of inviolability is so sacred
group. that not even the general welfare of
o problem of objective measure on the society nor the happiness of the
the value of person’s product, greatest number can override or
especially in the fields of science, supersede it
arts, entertainment, athletics o Maximum total good may not be
o To answer the problem of pursued by any means if it will
insensitivity to the disadvantaged become unfair and
group, the capitalist upheld the disadvantageous to the minorities
principle of the market forces of and the unskilled.
supply and demand. The principle 2. An erroneous theory is tolerable in the
gives importance not on the intrinsic absence of a good one
value but on the extent to which it is o In a situation where there are two
both relatively scarce and viewed erroneous laws, Rawls held that
people should choose which of the
by buyers as desirable.
two would be considered better and
3. Justice-Based on Needs and
less erroneous.
Abilities: Socialism
3. Individual liberties should be restricted
o “From each according to his ability,
to maintain equality of opportunity.
to each according to his needs” o Liberties of equal citizenship are of
o Work burdens must be distributed
paramount importance in a just
to the ability of the people. Those society
who are gifted with greater abilities o the rights of every individual should
must also be given more
always be respected, and each
responsibilities
should be given an opportunity to
o work must be distributed based
uphold one’s own dignity
on the ability of the individual so
that work can be made more
beneficial to people and benefits of
work well distributed to promote Four types of duties
human happiness and well-being 1) Fairness in dealing with others.
o Benefits must be also distributed 2) Fidelity. Being faithful to one’s promises,
according to their needs vows, and responsibilities are giving justice
Critique to the person to whom the promises are to
be given.
o socialist principle does not provide 3) Respect to others.
incentives to workers who are given 4) Beneficience.
extra work.
Four natural duties
o unrealizable because human beings
are by nature self-centered and 1. Duty of Justice
competitive 2. Duty of Helping Others in Need
o man is by nature helpful. 3. Duty Not to Harm or Injure Others
4. Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism 4. Duty to Keep our Promises
Critique o too inadequate and insensitive to the
complexity of ever varying situation in
 The hypothetical situation under the veil of
ignorance would appear to be which one could find himself.
problematic 2. Antinomian Approach – frees the people
 Rawls considered UTILITARIANISM as from obligations of moral law
lacking in JUSTICE, however his concept o there should be no absolute precepts
of justice, ie., “liberties of individuals or moral principles that are enslaving
should be restricted provided that such people
restrictions are for the benefit of o the followers of this approach call for a
everyone” can be considered to be response to a particular situation
referring to the principle of greatest varying from one individual to another.
number, which is contradictory to his view
o absolute moral principles are
that every individual is inviolable.
considered as absolute nonsense
CHAPTER 15: SITUATION ETHICS (FLETCHER) o every man is endowed with reason;
 “The New Morality” - rooted from the and everyone has the capability of
classical tradition of Christian Morality. making moral decision regardless of
o semblance with the Thomistic Moral external rules
Philosophy (St. Thomas Natural Law o There are no valid universal
Ethics) and the Divine Command principles which can hold true at all
Theory. times.
o the difference is that the emphasis was o Moral principles will depend on how
on the personal decision rather than the human person can make use of
mere adherence to a pre-established them in their situation
code of conduct. 3. Situationist Approach - in-between legalist’s
 John Fletcher - was hoping that by being absolute norm and the antinomian’s lack of
active in the church, he would be able to
principles
uphold his philosophy on social justice,
o rightness of an act depends upon a
especially his principle on economic
democracy for workers. particular situation but whatever that
o In his bioethical principle, man should situation would be, one should
control and improve their natural always act in the name of Christian
condition by reasoned choice rather Love
than chance o Situation ethics took some principle of
 Natural Biological processes (e.g., natural law. It goes with the natural
methods of fertilization) are not better than law ethics in accepting reason as
artificial processes. the instrument of moral judgment,
o Man is, by nature an intelligent being however, it rejected the natural law
and artificial processes are products of ethics’ principle that the good is given
the intelligence in things objectively.
 Upon retiring from Episcopal Theological
o rejected all “revealed” norms or laws
School. He moved to Virginia where he
but it went with the Divine Command
became the first to receive the title
Theory in part by saying that one can
PROFESSOR OF MEDICAL ETHICS IN
follow a moral law or violate it
HUMAN BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY AT
according to love’s needs. Situationism
THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA.
would not plainly say, for example, that
Different Approaches to Morality “an act of charity is good.”
 One should say that “an act of charity is
1. Legalistic - upholds certain general moral good if…”
prescriptions, laws, or norms by which to  Helping others can be good or bad
judge, determine, and resolve moral issues, depending on a particular situation.
and decisions. o helping others may lead to the
o Decisions that are not based on the degradation of a person; or, on the
prescribed law are unacceptable. part of the helper, the act of helping
o Restrictive and Circumscribed may be done because he is aiming for
something in return. Hence, there is
no presence of love in this situation
 and, therefore, it cannot be o Everyone must therefore receive the
considered as morally good same kind of treatment and love; thus
 situation refers to a human condition or any Christian love must be the foundation
state of moral affairs and issues that of all actions.
demand a moral judgment or action 3. Love and justice are the same; for justice
o the only thing to serve is love is love distributed
depending on a situation o Love calls for justice and
responsibility because when someone
Three Kinds of Love
loves a person, he is also responsible
1. Erotic (eros) - the love that normally exists for his welfare.
between a man and a woman; but o When one would be doing a particular
sometime, between a man and a man or action, he should always bear in mind
between a woman and a woman. the good things that his action would
o it involves physical relations bring to others
4. Love wills the neighbor’s good, whether
2. Filial love (filius – “son) - love that exists
we like them or not.
between a parent and a child, and between
brothers and sisters o The call to Christian love is to love
o There are cases wherein it becomes others whether one possesses good
erotic in the case that a father, for qualities or not. One must learn to love
instance, falls sexually in love with a others whether he is likable or
daughter, or a brother to his own sister, unlikable.
or a mother to her son i.e., incest 5. Only the end justifies the means, nothing
else.
Both erotic and filial love cannot be o In Christian Ethics, a good does not
considered as the best form of love as justify the evil means because no
both were marked by preferences matter how good the consequence of
3. Agapeic (agape – universal love) - one’s the action could be, one should not
care and concern towards other perform an action through evil
irrespective of who they are. means
o best example of this is the CHRISTIAN o Fletcher claims that an evil means
LOVE does not always signify that the end
o the Charity, Respect, and will become evil as well. If the end will
Responsibility towards others. not justify the means, then what else
would justify the mean.
Six Formulation of Christian Love 6. Decisions are ought to be made
situationally, not prescriptively.
1. Only one thing is intrinsically good, o Situation ethics gives high regard to
namely love; nothing else
freedom and responsibility
o the greatest is love, an action or
o There is no general moral
decision that is rooted in love will
prescription that will serve as the
always be considered as morally good
basis of any moral decision.
o Whenever one would decide or action,
o the Christian love provides everyone
one should always be acting through
the proper decision under any
the agapeic love as it is never unjust
circumstances. Indeed, every decision
because it is always geared toward the
may vary depending on the situation.
good of others.
However, the situationists believed that
o Love shows care, respect, and protects
though situations change, such
the dignity of the other changes may be irrelevant if our
2. The ultimate norm of Christian Morality moral decision will be done in the
is LOVE, nothing else name of Christian love.
o Christianity is the religion of love.  Situation ethics believed that the demands
Therefore, all decision that are to be
of love would always be the basis of
made must be based on love
morality.
o One should not show any
o Situationists would have the following
preferences. This position seems to
uphold the same principle being upheld mathematical formula in order to
by John Rawls, who held that every determine what the norm should be:
individual is inviolable INDICATIVE + IMPERATIVE =
NORMATIVE
 o one has to look first at the situation
before making any moral decision. In
such situation, one must apply what the
duty demands. Such duty would
suggest that one must make moral
decision based on love
 AGAPEIC LOVE must be the normal of
making moral decision because it shows
no preferential treatment for either erotic or
filial consideration. It avoids favoritism,
friendship, camaraderie, utang na loob, at
pakikisama.
o one will be able to give proper and
equal treatment to everybody can also
be considered as a good basis of
morality.
Critiques
 because decision depend on particular
situations, the person making any moral
decision must base his decision on
particular situation.
 it is still difficult to make a proper decision
because every decision is still
dependent on one’s personal interest
and ulterior motives under the pretext of
love
 Our moral decision cannot always
guarantee an objective and impartial
judgment, when one consider situations,
one cannot help but be subjective in
making moral decision.