Spinal Cord (2015) 53, 574–580

& 2015 International Spinal Cord Society All rights reserved 1362-4393/15
www.nature.com/sc

REVIEW
Pathobiology of radiation myelopathy and strategies
to mitigate injury
CS Wong1, MG Fehlings2 and A Sahgal1,2

Study design: This is a narrative review of the literature.

Objectives: The objectives of this study were to review the current concepts underlying the pathobiology of radiation-induced spinal
cord injury; to discuss potential biologic strategies to mitigate spinal cord injury following radiation; and to provide an update on the
clinical guidelines to prevent injury in the era of image-guided stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT).
Setting: This study was conducted in Toronto, Canada.
Methods: A MEDLINE search was performed using the following terms: radiation injury; radiation myelopathy; CNS radiation injury;
brain necrosis, radiation; demyelination, radiation; blood–brain barrier, radiation; white matter necrosis; and SBRT.
Results and conclusion: The biologic response of the spinal cord after radiation is a continuously evolving process. Death of vascular
endothelial cells and disruption of the blood–spinal cord barrier leads to a complex injury response, resulting in demyelination and
tissue necrosis. At present, there is no evidence that the pathobiology of cord injury after SBRT is different from that after standard
fractionation. Although permanent myelopathy has become a rare complication following conventional fractionated radiation treatment,
cases of radiation myelopathy have re-emerged with the increasing role of spine stereotactic body radiation therapy and reirradiation.
Experimental biologic strategies targeting the injury response pathways hold promise in mitigating this dreaded late effect of radiation
treatment.
Spinal Cord (2015) 53, 574–580; doi:10.1038/sc.2015.43; published online 24 March 2015

INTRODUCTION differential dosing to the tumor and OARs, and represent a physical
Radiation therapy is an important cancer treatment modality for both strategy to mitigate radiation-induced toxicities including late effects.
primary and metastatic tumors. The dose of radiation that can be Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) has emerged for the treatment
delivered for tumor control is principally limited by late and generally of spinal and paraspinal tumors. SBRT refers to the delivery of a very
irreversible injury of the surrounding normal tissues and organs, also high dose of radiation with millimeter precision under image guidance
known as late effects. Myelopathy is a devastating late effect of to a spinal tumor, while differentially limiting the dose to the
radiation treatment, and the spinal cord is considered one of the surrounding OARs—for example, delivering 24 Gy in two fractions
most critical dose-limiting organs, also referred to as organs-at-risk to a spine metastasis while limiting the adjacent spinal cord OAR
(OARs). Owing to its anatomic location, the spinal cord is not only an maximum point volume to 17 Gy (Figure 1). SBRT challenges the
OAR in the radiation treatment of spine, spinal cord and paraspinal dogma of the benefits of conventional fractionation given the
tumors but also head and neck and lung neoplasms. emerging evidence supporting the efficacy of SBRT. Whether there
The total radiation dose in clinical radiation therapy is typically are additional biologic effects such as enhanced tumor endothelial cell
given in small daily dose fractions over several weeks. In addition to apoptosis or immunological response specific to high doses per
cells’ intrinsic radiosensitivity, their ability to repair sublethal damage, fraction remain an area of controversy.
to redistribute in the different phases of the cell cycle, to reoxygenate As patient survival improves as a result of advances in systemic
and to repopulate after radiation are the four key biologic factors that therapy; increasingly, tumors are being reirradiated within a volume
determine cellular response to fractionated radiation. Fractionation where tissues have been previously exposed to a near-tolerance
enhances the therapeutic ratio by exploiting the differential response dose. Preclinical data support the notion that the mammalian
of these four fundamental radiobiological effects in normal tissues and spinal cord has a large capacity to recover occult injury over time.2,3
tumors. Even if the cord has previously received a near-tolerance dose, patients
Largely based on clinical experience over many decades, it is well can be potentially reirradiated with SBRT. Unfortunately, there are
recognized that provided the spinal cord dose does not exceed a total emerging reports of radiation myelopathy following SBRT
of 45–50 Gy in 1.8–2 Gy daily fractions, the risk of permanent injury is retreatment.4
very low, estimated from 0.03 to 0.2%.1 Recent technologic advances Recent advances in SBRT challenge the conventional concepts of
in radiation planning and treatment delivery have allowed for cord tolerance to fractionated radiation therapy. Therefore, we

1
Department of Radiation Oncology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada and 2Division of Neurosurgery and Spine Program,
Department of Surgery, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Correspondence: Professor Dr CS Wong, Department of Radiation Oncology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, University of Toronto, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N
3M5, Canada.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 12 November 2014; revised 9 January 2015; accepted 4 February 2015; published online 24 March 2015
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Figure 1 On the left (a) represents a spinal metastasis as imaged on a T1-weighted axial MRI. The planning organ-at-risk volume is the thecal sac (green)
outlined with a 1.5 mm margin applied beyond the true cord (yellow). The disease involves the vertebral body, ipsilateral pedicle and lamina. The right panel
(b) is the spine stereotactic radiation dose distribution targeting the entire vertebral body and ipsilateral posterior elements and demonstrates the dose wrapping
around the spinal cord and the steep dose gradient. The prescription was 24 Gy in two fractions and the spinal cord spared to a point maximum of 17 Gy.

consider it timely to review the pathobiology of radiation myelopathy

and summarize the experimental and human data on cord tolerance in
the modern era of SBRT. Given the recent advances in neurosciences
and regenerative medicine, we also discuss novel biologic strategies to
mitigate cord damage.

Clinical observations
Spinal cord injury after irradiation occurs as three relatively distinct
clinical entities:
Early injury: After very high doses to the brain such as in nuclear
accidents, there is an acute central nervous system (CNS) syndrome
characterized by nausea, disorientation and loss of consciousness,
followed by death within a few days. There is no clinical equivalent of
acute CNS syndrome after large single doses to the cord. Any acute
clinical deterioration is generally related to increased tumor edema as
in the context of extradural cord compression.
Early delayed injury: Self-limiting, early delayed reaction known as
L’hermitte syndrome is well recognized. It occurs after a latent period
of 2 to 4 months and is characterized by paresthesiae in the back and Figure 2 MRI changes of radiation myelopathy. On the left (a) is a sagittal
extremities upon neck flexion typically, followed by complete clinical T1 postgadolinium MRI showing the area of enhancement within the cord
recovery after a few months. L’hermitte syndrome is observed after (arrow) and on the right (b) is the T2-weighted image showing edema in the
cord above and below the lesion (arrows). This patient developed a Brown–
doses well below the threshold of myelopathy, and it is not associated
Séquard syndrome following spine stereotactic radiation treatment and
with permanent myelopathy. Risk factors reported for represents a case of radiation myelopathy. A full color version of this figure
L’hermitte syndrome include younger age and a longer length of cord is available at the Spinal Cord journal online.
irradiated.5
Late injury: Late radiation myelopathy is typically irreversible. The
Imaging studies. MRI is currently the most commonly used imaging
symptoms range from minor motor and sensory deficits to a full-
tool in the diagnostic assessment of radiation myelopathy. As this is a
blown Brown–Séquard syndrome. In the largest series of radiation
rare complication, the MRI literature consists of mainly case reports
myelopathy reported, the median survival was 8 months after a generally without histopathologic correlation.7 Characteristic MRI
diagnosis of permanent myelopathy. The latent time to myelopathy changes include areas of low signals on T1-weighted images, high
was 18 months following a single course of treatment, and 11 months signals on T2 and focal contrast enhancement (Figure 2). In the rat
after reirradiation.6 Radiation myelopathy is a diagnosis of exclusion. spinal cord, high signal intensity on T2 is associated with edema and
Criteria used generally include the following: radiation therapy to the confluent necrosis, and enhancement postcontrast is owing to
cord, neurologic symptoms and signs consistent with the segment of disruption of the blood–spinal cord barrier (BSCB).8 Advanced
cord irradiated, lack of neoplastic disease involving the cord and a quantitative MRI techniques such as apparent diffusion coefficients,
clinical course compatible with radiation myelopathy.6 Currently, the magnetization transfer and diffusion tensor imaging may provide
diagnostic workup typically includes magnetic resonance imaging useful longitudinal structural and functional information in the
(MRI) of the spinal cord. assessment of cord injury after radiation.8 Positron emission

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tomography findings consist of increased 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose oxidative stress was observed in the irradiated CNS after single doses,
uptake in the segment of cord irradiated postulated to be related to similar to other CNS injury models.18 How altered gene profiles,
increased metabolic activity at the site of injury.9 oxidative stress and their interactions propagate the injury response
remains unclear.
Pathobiology Most studies regarding the injury response of the irradiated spinal
Histolopathology. Despite the extensive molecular perturbations in cord have been descriptive. Only a few studies have used genetic and/
the spinal cord within minutes after irradiation, histopathologic or pharmacologic approaches or specific radiation techniques to target
changes in the cord are generally not observed acutely. Histopatho- specific pathways or cell types to yield mechanistic insight on the
logic changes of late injury include reactive gliosis, demyelination and radiobiology of the spinal cord. These findings are summarized below.
necrosis confined to white matter, and varying degrees of vascular
changes in both white and gray matter.10 Human data have been Endothelial cell apoptosis and early disruption of BSCB. There is a
typically reported in patients with the most severe injury, and they are large body of data describing early disruption of the BSCB, the
limited by the heterogenous dose, fractionation and other treatment functional equivalent of the blood–brain barrier after radiation. There
parameters, as well as dosimetric uncertainties. Many other host, is evidence that apoptosis of BSCB endothelial cells mediates the early
treatment, tumor and unknown factors further confound the results.10 increase (within 24 h) in permeability of the BSCB after radiation.19
Following single or fractionated doses to the rat cervical spinal cord, Radiation-induced apoptosis of endothelial cells, which are enriched in
rats develop forelimb paralysis between 4 and 7 months owing to membrane acid sphingomyelinase, appears to be mediated by mem-
white matter necrosis. Over the past few decades, studies using the rat brane damage independent of p53. Membrane damage activates acid
model have generated a large body of clinically relevant data on the sphingomyelinase, resulting in the hydrolysis of membrane sphingo-
influence of dose, fractionation, time interval between fractions, lipids and ceramide generation, which in turn activates proapoptotic
overall treatment time, volume and other treatment parameters on pathways to trigger cell apoptosis. Mice deficient in acid sphingomye-
the tolerance of the spinal cord.11 Necrosis and demyelination of the linase display resistance to endothelial cell apoptosis after large single
white matter occurs generally in the absence of gross vascular doses of radiation and are protected against early BSCB disruption.
abnormalities. Functional deficits associated with vascular damage Administration of basic fibroblast growth factor, which protects
are variable, and they are observed much later and after lower doses in endothelial cells against apoptosis after radiation, also confers protec-
rodents and in human myelopathy. tion against BSCB disruption.19
Whether the oligodendrocyte or the vascular endothelial cell Whether endothelial apoptosis initiates an injury response that
represents the target cell in the white matter lesions observed after results in late effects after radiation remains a subject of debate. Recent
radiation was a matter of debate for several decades. With the data in mouse brain failed to support a causative association between
availability of molecular tools and new insight in neurobiology, the endothelial apoptosis and inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis in
damage response in the CNS is currently viewed as a continuous, mouse brain after radiation.20
dynamic and interactive process.11,12
Oligodendroglial progenitors and demyelination. Demyelination,
Only recently have animal studies investigated the influence of small
which is a hallmark of late radiation injury of the spinal cord,
volumes and inhomogeneous irradiation with steep dose gradients
implicates a role for oligodendrocytes, cells responsible for myelination
across the cord to simulate SBRT as practiced in the clinic. These
in the injury response (Figure 3a). Within hours after radiation,
animal data regarding cord tolerance are conflicting. In rat spinal cord,
oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) were
a significant volume effect after proton bean irradiation was
observed to undergo apoptosis in the rodent spinal cord, a response
observed.13 The rat study also demonstrated evidence for differential
mediated by p53.21 In vivo–in vitro survival assay demonstrated an
regional radiosensitivity across the spinal cord.14 However, no
initial loss of the clonogenic OPC pool in rat spinal cord after
significant volume dependence was observed in a swine model.15,16
radiation. This was followed by dose-dependent recovery and a second
Importantly, these partial cord irradiation studies described histo-
decline between 4 and 5 months after paralytic doses.22 At present,
pathologic changes identical to studies using homogeneous doses
there is no evidence of any causative association between acute
across the cord.
oligodendroglial apoptosis after radiation and the late demyelinating
Molecular and cellular mechanisms. Virtually all the studies regarding events observed.23
the radiobiology of the CNS including the spinal cord have been The respective role of the OPC versus the endothelial cell as the
conducted using large single homogeneous doses. Although it has been critical target cell in white matter lesions in spinal cord after radiation
questioned whether these findings are applicable in the context of was addressed in an experiment using boron neutron capture therapy
radiation delivered in a large number of small fraction doses, (BNCT). This study involved BNCT using sulfhydryl borane that does
experimental data did not support a significant difference in the not cross the BSCB to irradiate selectively the rat spinal cord
injury response at the cellular or molecular level between single versus vasculature only, and boronophenylalanine that crosses the BSCB to
fractionated radiation. For SBRT, which uses large single or a few large irradiate the entire cord parenchyma. Using doses isoeffective for
doses, molecular insight gained from these fundamental studies is white matter necrosis, an ex-vivo clonogenic survival assay revealed
likely to be just as relevant. higher OPC survival after BNCT with BSH compared with BNCT with
Dose- and time-dependent altered gene profiles represent a BPA, radiation using neutrons alone, or X-rays alone. These results
characteristic feature of the cellular response to ionizing radiation suggest that selective irradiation of the vasculature without ablation of
including the CNS. In the rodent CNS, genes associated with signal OPCs could result in white matter necrosis.24
transduction, structural proteins, energy/metabolism, cell growth and Neural stem cells exist in adult spinal cord. Ependymal cells lining
maintenance, as well as protein synthesis and translation, represent the the central canal have neural stem cell properties and are able to
main categories of genes modulated following single doses of generate astrocytes in response to injury.25 The radiation response of
radiation.17 An increase in reactive oxygen species and a state of multipotential neural progenitors cultured from the rat spinal cord has

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Figure 3 Molecular pathology of radiation myelopathy. Demyelination and focal to confluent necrosis represent the hallmark of radiation myelopathy, as
demonstrated by the absence of Luxol blue staining in rat spinal cord white matter at 20 weeks after 22 Gy (a, blue). White matter lesions are associated
with disruption of the blood–spinal cord barrier shown by albumin leakage (b, albumin immunohistochemistry), tissue hypoxia (c, nitroimidazole EF5
immunohistochemistry) and upregulation of HIFα and VEGF, as demonstrated by an increase in reactive glia immunopositive for HIFα (d) and VEGF (e).

been described using an in vivo–in vitro neurosphere assay.26 Whether Strategies to mitigate injury
neural stem cells have a role in late radiation injury response of the The data described suggest a model in which, in addition to cell death,
spinal cord remains unknown. microenvironmental changes and impacting cell fate and cell
interactions contribute to tissue injury after radiation. Death of
endothelial cells after radiation initiates BSCB breakdown. This leads
Late BSCB disruption. The BNCT study provided compelling evi- to vasogenic edema and HIF1α-mediated VEGF upregulation and
dence for an important role of the vascular endothelial cell in the late further increase in BSCB permeability, and a secondary hypoxia and
injury response of the spinal cord after radiation.24 Histopathologic inflammatory damage cascade resulting in demyelination and necrosis.
studies also consistently show that increased BSCB permeability This model suggests that targeting reversible secondary injury path-
accompanies or precedes demyelinating events.27 In an electron ways may represent opportunities for neuroprotection.
microscopy study, loss of endothelial cells in white matter was not Two general strategies for neuroprotection are the focus of this
associated with apparent ultrastructural abnormalities in endothelial discussion. The first is reduction of secondary damage based on the
junctions.27 Another immunohistological study described no change proposed model by targeting hypoxia and neuroinflammation. The
in the tight-junction proteins occludin and ZO1 after myelopathic second is a repair/regeneration strategy through transplantation of
doses.28 Whether the biology of junctional proteins and other stem cells, neural progenitors and stromal cells.
components of the BSCB have a role in barrier disruption after Targeting hypoxia, neuroinflammation and BSCB disruption. For
radiation requires further study. acute BSCB disruption, antibodies against intercellular adhesion
Hypoxia and upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor molecule-1 and TNF have been shown to reduce leukocyte adhesion
(VEGF) are implicated in white matter necrosis after radiation. and permeability in a rat cranial window model after radiation.34
Hypoxia is a key stimulus of VEGF, originally known as vascular Steroids are known to decrease the permeability of tumor vasculature
permeability factor. In rat spinal cord, there was dose-dependent to cranial radiation, and dexamethasone represents standard therapy
temporal and spatial upregulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α for radiation-induced edema in the treatment of brain tumors.
(HIF1α) and VEGF in reactive astrocytes in association with hypoxia Targeting endothelial apoptosis by basic fibroblast growth factor or
and BSCB disruption after radiation29,30 (Figures 3b–e). After acid sphingomyelinase inhibitors, however, may present an approach
thoracolumbar radiation in transgenic mice with differential VEGF with greater specificity.19
expression levels, VEGF-low mice were protected from hindlimb Despite the lack of clinical evidence, patients with radiation
paralysis compared with wild-type and VEGH-high mice.31 myelopathy invariably are offered a trial of steroids empirically. There
Upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 is associated with are anecdotal reports on the beneficial effects of hyperbaric oxygen in
a variety of CNS insults with blood–brain barrier disruption. In rat the management of tissue necrosis after radiation. However, studies of
spinal cord, there was parallel temporal and spatial intercellular hyperbaric oxygen in CNS radiation injury have not consistently
adhesion molecule-1 upregulation associated with BSCB disruption demonstrated a benefit, and improving tissue oxygenation may be
after radiation.32 However, the extent of blood–brain barrier disrup- counteracted by reoxygenation injury.35
tion and demyelination appeared to be identical in intercellular Targeting VEGF has a strong biological rationale, and promising
adhesion molecule-1-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice clinical data are emerging for the use of bevacizumab, a monoclonal
after cranial radiation.33 How VEGF mediates BSCB disruption and antibody against VEGF in the treatment of radiation-induced cerebral
the functional role of barrier-associated proteins in radiation-induced necrosis.36 Bevacizumab has also been reported to result in neurologic
BSCB disruption remains to be investigated. improvement in a patient with radiation myelopathy.37

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Erythropoietin (EPO) has been used extensively over the past endogenous stem cells or progenitors within the irradiated environ-
10 to 15 years for the treatment of anemia in cancer patients. ment may be of limited benefit, as clonogenic cell or mitotic-linked
Similar to its regulation in erythroid tissue, EPO within the CNS is death is the primary mode of cell death after radiation. The potential
inducible by hypoxia and is regulated by HIF1α. There is a large body role of enhancing the proliferation of host stem cells or progenitors
of data on the pleiotropic effects of EPO in the CNS, including outside of the irradiated volume remains to be investigated. Much
inhibition of apoptosis, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects work is needed in the understanding of the biology of neural and
and stimulation of angiogenesis. EPO has been shown to demonstrate vascular stem and progenitor cells in the irradiated spinal cord before
neuroprotective effects against a wide variety of CNS insults.38 The cell therapy can be translated into clinical practice.
increased risks of thromboembolic events and deaths in cancer
patients and the uncertain effects of EPO on tumor growth have Clinical guidelines for safe spinal cord constraints with SBRT
hampered the application of EPO as a potential neuroprotector in With conventional fractionated radiotherapy, a total dose of 45–50 Gy
oncology. in 1.8–2 Gy daily fractions (or its biological equivalents) results in
In rat spinal cord, melatonin administration was shown to reduce extremely low risks of permanent myelopathy.1 With the emergence of
VEGF upregulation after irradiation.39 Recently, fluoxetine and spine SBRT, there came significant unknowns with respect to
valproic acid have been shown to have neuroprotective properties. spinal cord tolerance given the high doses of radiation per fraction
Both drugs were shown to attenuate the disruption of BSCB in mouse delivered and relative lack of clinical experience. Furthermore, the
spinal cord after contusion injury. The improved functional recovery inherent inhomogeneity of the dose distribution and steep dose
appeared to be owing to inhibition of inflammatory mediator gradient directly adjacent to spinal cord (Figure 1) results in the
expression including matrix metalloprotease activity, which is known delivered cord dose being susceptible to significant dosimetric
to induce BSCB disruption.40,41 These approaches are attractive, as uncertainties.
they use established drugs in clinical practice. Some of the approaches taken with respect to spinal cord dose
Cell therapy. Recent advances in stem cell biology have led to an constraints specific to spine SBRT include the following: (1) limiting
improved understanding of the role and challenges of cell therapy for the spinal cord point maximum volume to a dose that is known to be
spinal cord injury. Cell-based therapies in animal models of spinal ‘safe’ on the basis of conventional fractionation (8–10 Gy); (2) limiting
cord injury have provided promising results.42 As stem cell renewal the ‘safe’ dose to a larger volume and/or percent volume of cord
and differentiation is regulated by the microenvironment or niche irradiated while allowing the maximum point dose within the cord to
factors, perturbation of the neural microenvironment after irradiation be higher than that previously thought to be tolerable; and (3) limiting
may limit the efficacy of transplantation.43 However, the benefits of the ‘safe’ spinal cord dose to the thecal sac or spinal cord plus an
cell therapy may not be simply replacing lost or dead target cells. uncertainty margin (1.5 mm beyond the cord) and not the ‘true’
Instead, transplanted cells may create a milieu including angiogenesis cord itself to reduce technical uncertainties in dose delivery. The
that enhances regeneration of endogenous cells, or provide trophic challenge with spine SBRT is to limit exposure to spinal cord tolerance
factors that target reversible damage pathways. and to maximize the dose delivered adjacent to the spinal cord
In an early study, immortalized neural stem cells injected into the (epidural space), as the most common pattern of failure is epidural
irradiated rat spinal cord resulted in an improvement of paralysis-free progression.
survival. Unfortunately, the fate of donor cells was not tracked.44 In a Recent multi-institutional efforts to report the known cases of
rat model of demyelination after radiation and ethidium bromide, radiation myelopathy following SBRT have generated useful guides for
transplanted neural stem cells primarily differentiated along the safe practice. In nine myelopathy patients treated with spine SBRT
oligodendroglial lineage but did demonstrate the ability to remyelinate with no prior radiation, dosimetric analysis demonstrated significant
host axons.45 Recently, enriched OPCs injected at 4 months into the differences between the cases and a cohort of controls in small spinal
rat spinal cord after 22 Gy were shown to survive, migrate and cord volumes only, and most significantly at the point maximum
differentiate into oligodendrocytes. Importantly, transplanted animals volume.50 It was concluded that small volumes irradiated remain
demonstrated improved forelimb function.46 crucial in the pathogenesis of the complication. For patients with prior
Olfactory ensheathing cells and Schwann cells have also been used radiation who received reirradiation by SBRT, dosimetric analysis of
as myelin-forming cells in transplantation studies. In contrast to five myelopathy cases also suggested the importance of the point
Schwann cells, transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells demonstrated maximum dose.4 A summary of these dose limits is provided in
migratory properties and were able to remyelinate lesions in the Table 1.
irradiated spinal cord.47 Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells
in irradiated rat brain resulted in decreased microglial activation.48 It is
unclear whether clinical improvement is due to trophic factors or
signals from transplanted cells that promote and maintain functional Table 1 SBRT point maximum dose limits to thecal sac
neural circuits.
1 fx SBRT 2 fx SBRT 3 fx SBRT 4 fx SBRT 5 fx SBRT
Stromal cells are able to differentiate into neural cells, and they may
Prior radiation Pmax limit Pmax limit Pmax limit Pmax limit Pmax limit
represent a source of endothelial progenitors capable of homing to the
CNS. Administration of mesenchymal stromal cells was shown to None 12.4 Gy 17 Gy 20.3 Gy 23 Gy 25.3 Gy
reduce inflammatory cytokines and increase blood flow in the 20 Gy in 5 fx to 9 Gy 12.2 Gy 14.5 Gy 16.2 Gy 18 Gy
irradiated spinal cord.49 Similar to other radiation-injured tissues, 45 Gy in 25 fx
suppression of inflammatory response rather than cell replacement 50 Gy in 25 fx N/A 11 Gy 12.5 Gy 14 Gy 15.5 Gy
may be the underlying mechanism of the therapeutic effects. 450 Gy in 25 fx N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Cell replacement may be achieved through stimulation of prolifera- Abbreviations: fx, fractions; N/A, not applicable, insufficient data to make SBRT dose limit
tion of host stem cells or progenitors. Stimulation of proliferation of recommendations; Pmax, point maximum volume.

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These multi-institutional analyses were based on dosimetric data 16 Medin PM, Foster RD, van der Kogel AJ, Sayre JW, McBride WH, Solberg TD. Spinal
cord tolerance to single-session uniform irradiation in pigs: implications for a dose–
collected on the thecal sac and not the true spinal cord itself. The
volume effect. Radiother Oncol 2013; 106: 101–105.
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18 Limoli CL, Giedzinski E, Baure J, Doctrow SR, Rola R, Fike JR. Using superoxide
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proposed in Table 1 are applicable to the thecal sac and not the true precursor cells. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 2006; 122: 228–236.
19 Li YQ, Chen P, Haimovitz-Friedman A, Reilly RM, Wong CS. Endothelial apoptosis
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In conclusion, although radiation-induced permanent myelopathy has 21 Chow BM, Li YQ, Wong CS. Radiation-induced apoptosis in the adult central nervous
system is p53-dependent. Cell Death Differ 2000; 7: 712–720.
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radiation treatment, cases have re-emerged with the increasing role rat glial progenitor cells determined by an in vitro clonogenic assay after in vitro or
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24 Coderre JA, Morris GM, Micca PL, Hopewell JW, Verhagen I, Kleiboer BJ et al. Late
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25 Hawryluk GW, Fehlings MG. The center of the spinal cord may be central to its repair.
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27 Stewart PA, Vinters HV, Wong CS. Blood–spinal cord barrier function and morphometry
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CONFLICT OF INTEREST
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spinal cord barrier breakdown. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 3348–3354.
31 Nordal RA, Nagy A, Pintilie M, Wong CS. Hypoxia and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 target
genes in central nervous system radiation injury: a role for vascular endothelial
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