Note 3 - Mechanics of Hard Tissues For Class

BIOMECHANICS II
BME 403
3. MECHANICS OF HARD TISSUES
DR. O.A. ADELEY E

MECHANICS, STRESS & STRAIN
• Mechanics is a branch of physical science that

deals with Energy and Forces and their effects on
bodies
• There are four (4) types of Forces

• Normal Force (N) is perpendicular to the surface
• Shear Force (V) is parallel to the surface
• Torsional Moment (𝑴𝒛 ) is about the axis normal
(perpendicular) to the surface
• Bending Moment (𝑴𝑩 ) is about the axis parallel to the
surface
STRESS
The force per unit area, called stress, is a measure of the

capacity of the material to carry loads, and all designs
are based on the criterion that the materials used have
the capacity to carry the working loads of the system.
STRESS
STRESS - COMPRESSION
STRESS - BENDING
STRESS - BENDING
STRESS - TORSION
STRESS – STRENGTH
STRAIN
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. In a fall a ligament has 2500 N of tensile force

exerted on it. If the cross-sectional area of the
ligament is 2𝑐𝑚2 what is the tensile stress on the
ligament?
2. If the force rises to 3000 N and 10% of the collagen
fibers fail (break), what would the new tensile
stress be?
3. What may happen to the ligament in this
situation? Relate your answer to the stress strain
curve for human ligament tissue?
STRESS STRAIN – STRAIN CURVE FOR A
LIGAMENT
VISCOELASTICITY
VISCOELASTICITY
• Viscoelasticity is made up of two words: viscosity

and elasticity.
• Viscosity is a fluid property and is a measure of
resistance to flow.
• Elasticity, on the other hand, is a solid material
property. Therefore,
• A viscoelastic material is one that possesses both
fluid and solid properties.
VISCOELASTICITY
VISCOELASTICITY
VISCOELASTICITY
VISCOELASTIC MODELS
• For viscoelastic materials, the relationship between

stress and strain can be expressed as:
(1)
• Equation (1) states that stress, 𝜎, is not only a function

of strain, e, but is also a function of the strain rate, 𝜀 =
𝑑𝜀 𝑑𝑡, where t is time. A more general form of Eq. (1)
can be obtained by including higher order time
derivatives of strain.
VISCOELASTICITY
• Equation (1) indicates
that the stress–strain
diagram of a
viscoelastic material is
not unique but is
dependent upon the
rate at which the strain
is developed in the
Fig. 1 Strain rate (𝜀 )
material Fig. 1
dependent viscoelastic
behavior
ANALOGIES BASED ON SPRINGS
AND DASHPOTS
• The elastic modulus E for
a linearly elastic material
relates stresses and
strains, whereas the
constant k for a linear
spring relates applied
forces and
corresponding
deformations (Fig. 2).
Both E and k are
measures of stiffness.
Fig. 2 Analogy between a
linear spring and an elastic
solid
AND DASHPOTS
• If the stresses and strain rates in a fluid are linearly

proportional, then the fluid is called a linearly
viscous fluid or a Newtonian fluid. Examples of
linearly viscous fluids include water and blood
plasma. For a linearly viscous fluid.
(2)
• In Eq. (2), η (eta) is the constant of

proportionality between the stress s and the
strain rate 𝜀, and is called the coefficient of
viscosity of the fluid.
AND DASHPOTS
• As illustrated in Fig. 3, the coefficient of

viscosity is the slope of the 𝜎 − 𝜀 graph
of a Newtonian fluid.
• The spring is one of the two basic

Fig. 3 Stress–strain
mechanical elements used to simulate rate diagram for a
the mechanical behavior of materials. linearly viscous
fluid
AND DASHPOTS
• The second basic mechanical

element is called the dashpot,
which is used to simulate fluid
behavior.
• As illustrated in Fig. 4, a dashpot

is a simple piston–cylinder or a
syringe type of arrangement.
Fig. 4 A linear dashpot and its

force–displacement rate
diagram
EMPIRICAL MODELS OF
VISCOELASTICITY
• Springs and dashpots
constitute the building
blocks of model analyses in
viscoelasticity.
• Springs are used to

account for the elastic solid
behavior and
• Dashpots are used to Fig. 5 Spring represents elastic and

describe the viscous fluid dashpot represents viscous material
behaviors
behavior (Fig. 15.6).
EMPIRICAL MODELS OF
VISCOELASTICITY
• It is assumed that a constantly applied force (stress)

produces a constant deformation (strain) in a spring
and a constant rate of deformation (strain rate) in a
dashpot.
• The deformation in a spring is completely recoverable

upon release of applied forces, whereas the
deformation that the dashpot undergoes is permanent.
KELVIN–VOIGHT MODEL
• The simplest forms of

empirical models are
obtained by connecting a
spring and a dashpot
together in parallel and in
series configurations.
• As illustrated in Fig. 6, the Fig. 6 Kelvin–Voight model

Kelvin–Voight model is a
system consisting of a
spring and a dashpot
connected in a parallel
arrangement.
• The stress 𝜎 applied to the entire system will produce

stresses 𝜎𝑠 and 𝜎𝑑 in the spring and the dashpot
respectively. And written as
(3)
• Where the subscripts “s” and “d” denote the spring and
dashpot, respectively,
As the stress s is applied, the spring and dashpot will

deform by an equal amount because of their parallel
arrangement.
Therefore, the strain e of the system will be equal to the

strains 𝜀𝑠 and 𝜀𝑑 occurring in the spring and the dashpot:
(4)
The stress–strain relationship for the spring and the stress–
strain rate relationship for the dashpot are:
(5)
• Substituting Eqs. (5) into Eq. (3) will yield:
(6)
• Note that the strain rate 𝜀 can alternatively be written as
Consequently,
(7)
• Equation (7) relates stress to strain and the strain rate for the
Kelvin–Voight model, which is a two-parameter (E and η)
viscoelastic model.
• Eq. (7) is a first order, linear ordinary differential equation.
• For a given stress 𝜎, Eq. (7) can be solved for the corresponding
strain e. For prescribed strain 𝜀, it can be solved for stress 𝜎.
MAXWELL MODEL
• The Maxwell model is
constructed by connecting
a spring and a dashpot in a
series. (See Fig.7)
Fig. 7 Maxwell model
• In this case, the applied
stress s is applied equally on (8)
the spring and the dashpot
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑑 ,
• And the resulting strain e is For a given stress (or strain),
the sum of the strains in the Eq. (8) can be solved for
spring and the dashpot the corresponding strain
𝜀 = 𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑑 (or stress).
MAXWELL MODEL
• Notice that springs are used to represent the elastic

solid behavior, and there is a limit to how much a
spring can deform.
• On the other hand, dashpots are used to represent

fluid behavior and are assumed to deform
continuously (flow) as long as there is a force to deform
them.
• For example, in the case of a Maxwell model, a force

applied will cause both the spring and the dashpot to
deform. The deformation of the spring will be finite.
MAXWELL MODEL
• The dashpot will keep deforming as long as the force is

maintained. Therefore, the overall behavior of the
Maxwell model is more like a fluid than a solid, and is
known to be a viscoelastic fluid model.
• The deformation of a dashpot connected in parallel to

a spring, as in the Kelvin–Voight model, is restricted by
the response of the spring to the applied loads. The
dashpot in the Kelvin–Voight model cannot undergo
continuous deformations.
• Therefore, the Kelvin–Voight model represents a

viscoelastic solid behavior.
STANDARD SOLID MODEL
• The Kelvin–Voight solid and Maxwell fluid Models are

the basic viscoelastic models constructed by
connecting a spring and a dashpot together.
• In addition, both models can be combined and be

used to construct more complex viscoelastic models,
such as the standard solid model.
• The standard solid model is a three-parameter

𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 model and is used to describe the
viscoelastic behavior.
STANDARD SOLID MODEL
• As illustrated in Fig. 8, the
Standard solid model is
composed of a spring and a
Kelvin–Voight solid connected
in a series.
• It is used to describe the
viscoelastic behavior of a
number of biological materials Fig. 8 Standard solid model
such as the cartilage and the
white blood cell membrane.
• The material function relating
the stress, strain, and their rates
for this model is:
(9)
HOMEWORK
1. Derive the Maxwell Fluid Viscoelastic Model and

state the biological materials which it can be used
to describe.
2. Derive the Standard Solid Viscoelastic Model and
state at least four (4) biological materials which it
can be used to describe

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BIOMECHANICS II

3. MECHANICS OF HARD TISSUES

DR. O.A. ADELEY E

• Mechanics is a branch of physical science that

• There are four (4) types of Forces

The force per unit area, called stress, is a measure of the

1. In a fall a ligament has 2500 N of tensile force

• Viscoelasticity is made up of two words: viscosity

• For viscoelastic materials, the relationship between

• Equation (1) states that stress, 𝜎, is not only a function

• If the stresses and strain rates in a fluid are linearly

• In Eq. (2), η (eta) is the constant of

• As illustrated in Fig. 3, the coefficient of

• The spring is one of the two basic

• The second basic mechanical

• As illustrated in Fig. 4, a dashpot

Fig. 4 A linear dashpot and its

• Springs are used to

• Dashpots are used to Fig. 5 Spring represents elastic and

• It is assumed that a constantly applied force (stress)

• The deformation in a spring is completely recoverable

• The simplest forms of

• As illustrated in Fig. 6, the Fig. 6 Kelvin–Voight model

• The stress 𝜎 applied to the entire system will produce

As the stress s is applied, the spring and dashpot will

Therefore, the strain e of the system will be equal to the

• Notice that springs are used to represent the elastic

• On the other hand, dashpots are used to represent

• For example, in the case of a Maxwell model, a force

• The dashpot will keep deforming as long as the force is

• The deformation of a dashpot connected in parallel to

• Therefore, the Kelvin–Voight model represents a

• The Kelvin–Voight solid and Maxwell fluid Models are

• In addition, both models can be combined and be

• The standard solid model is a three-parameter

1. Derive the Maxwell Fluid Viscoelastic Model and

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