Introduction to Instrumentation

Purpose and performance of measurement systems

The observer is a person who needs this information from the process. This could be the car driver, the
plant operator or the nurse.

The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process, as shown in Figure. Here
the observer is presented with a number which is the current value of the information variable.

We can now refer to the information variable as a measured variable. The input to the measurement
system is the true value of the variable; the system output is the measured value of the variable. In an ideal
measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the true value. The accuracy of the system can be
defined as the closeness of the measured value to the true value. A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical ideal
and the accuracy of a real system is quantified using measurement system error E, where

E measured value - true value

E system output -system input

Thus if the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m 3/h and the true value is 11.2 m 3/h, then the
error E 0.2 m3/h. If the measured value of the rotational speed of an engine is 3140 rpm and the true value is
3133 rpm, then E 7 rpm. Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system.

Structure of measurement systems

 The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks. It is possible to identify
four types of element, although in a given system one type of element may be missing or may
occur more than once. The four types are shown in Figure and can be defined as follows.

Sensing element

This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in some way on the
variable to be measured. Examples are:

• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature

• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.

If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process is
termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements.

Signal conditioning element

This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for
further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal. Examples are:

• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change

• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency

voltage.

Signal processing element

This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation. Examples are:

• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital

 form for input to a computer

• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the

incoming digital data.

Typical calculations are:

• Computation of total mass of product gas from flow rate and density data

• Integration of chromatograph peaks to give the composition of a gas stream

• Correction for sensing element non-linearity.

Data presentation element

This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized by the
observer. Examples are:

• Simple pointer–scale indicator

• Chart recorder

• Alphanumeric display

• Visual display unit (VDU).

Units
The result of a measurement of a physical quantity must be defined both in kind and magnitude.
The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is called a unit.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Numerical ratio) X (Unit)
Absolute Units
An absolute system of units is defined as a system in which the various units are all expressed in
terms of a small number of fundamental units.
Fundamental and Derived Units
In Science and Technology two kinds of units are used
(i) Fundamental units (ii) Derived units

The fundamental units in mechanics are measures of length, mass and time. The sizes of
fundamental units, whether centimeter or meter or foot, gram, or kilogram or pound, second or
hour are quite arbitrary and can be selected to fit a certain set of circumstances. Since length,
mass and time are fundamental to most other physical quantities besides those in mechanics; they
are called the Primary fundamental units.
Measures of certain physical quantities in the thermal, electrical, illumination fields are also
represented by fundamental units. These units are used only where these particular disciplines
are involved and therefore they are called Auxiliary Fundamental Units
All other units which can be expressed in terms fundamental units with the help of physical
quantities are called Derived Units. Every derived unit originates from some physical law or
equation which defines that unit.
The volume V of a room is equal to the product of its length (l), width (b), and height (h)
therefore
V=lbh
If meter is chosen as the the unit of length, then the volume of a room 6m X 4m X
5m is 120 m3. The number of measures (6 X 4 X 5 =120) as well as units (m x m x m = m 3) are
multiplied. The derived unit for volume is thus m3.
Some fundamental units
S. No Name Unit Symbol
1 Length Metre M
2 Mass Kilogram kg
3 Time Second sec
4 Electric Current Ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Candler Cd

Supplementary Units
S. No Name Unit Symbol
1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian sr
Derived Units
S. No Name Unit
1 Area m2
2 Volume m3
3 Density kg/m3
4 Angular velocity rad/sec
5 Angular acceleration rad/sec2
6 Pressure, Stress kg/m2
7 Energy Joule(Nm)
8 Charge Coulomb
9 Electric Field Strength V/m
10 Capacitance (ASec/V)
11 Frequency Hz
12 Velocity m/sec
13 Acceleration m/sec2
14 Force Kg-m(N)
15 Power Watt (J/sec)
16 EMF Volt (W/A)

Standards and their Classification

A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term standard is
applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. They are used for
the purpose of obtaining the values of the physical properties of other equipment of by
comparison methods
The classification of standards is based on the function and the application of the standards.
(a) International Standards
International standards are defined on the basis of international agreement. They
represent the units of measurements which are closest to the possible accuracy attainable with
present day technological and scientific methods. International standards are checked and
evaluated regularly against absolute measurement in terms of the fundamental units. The
international standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and
are not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments for the purposes of calibration or
comparison
(b) Primary Standards.
Primary standards are absolute standards of such high accuracy that they can be used as
the ultimate reference standards. These standards are maintained by national standards
laboratories in different part of the world. The primary standards, which represent the
fundamental units and some of the derived electrical and mechanical units, are independently
calibrated by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories.
(c) Secondary Standards
The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories. The responsibility of maintenance and calibration of these standards lies with the
particular industry involved. These standards are checked locally against reference standards
available in the area. Secondary standards are normally sent periodically to the national standards
laboratories for calibration and comparison against primary standards.
(d) Working Standards
The working standards are the major tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards
are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for their accuracy and
performance. For example, a manufacturer of precision resistances may use a Standard
Resistance (which may be working standard) in the quality control department for checking the
values of resistors that are being manufactured. This way, he verifies that his measurement set up
perform within the limits of accuracy that are specified.
Measurements and Measuring Systems
Measurements
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison
between the quantity and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values
Methods of Measurement
 The methods of measurement may be broadly classified into two categories. (i) Direct
methods (ii) Indirect methods
(i) Direct Method
In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared
against a standard. The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. Direct methods are
quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time
(ii) Indirect methods
Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These
methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also
less sensitive. Hence direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
In engineering applications Measurement systems are used. These measurement systems
use indirect methods for measurement purposes.
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to
be measured in an analogous form. The analogous system is then processed by some
intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices which present the result of the
measurement.
Instrument
An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable.
Basic Types of Measuring instruments are

(i) Mechanical measuring instruments

(ii) Electrical measuring instruments (iii) Electronic
measuring instruments
Classification of Instruments
There are many way in which instruments can be classified. Broadly, instruments are classified
into two categories.
(i) Absolute Instruments
(ii) Secondary Instruments

(i) Absolute Instruments

 These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurements in terms of
physical constants of the instrument. The examples of this class of instruments are Tangent
Galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance
(ii) Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated
by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which has already
been calibrated against an absolute instrument. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer, and a pressure
gauge are typical examples of secondary instruments.
Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems
Instruments may be classified based on their function. Three main functions are (i)
Indicating Function (ii) Recording Function (iii) Controlling Function

(i) Indicating Function

These instruments provide information regarding the variable quantity under
measurement and most of the time this information are provided by the deflection of the pointer.
This kind of function is known as the indicating function of the instruments.

(ii) Recording Function

These instruments usually use the paper in order to record the output. This type of
function is known as the recording function of the instruments.

(iii) Controlling Function

This is function is widely used in industrial world. In this these instruments controls the
processes.

Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics

 Set of criteria defined for the measurements, which are used to measure the quantities, which
are slowly varying with time or almost constant, i.e., do not vary with time, are called Static
Characteristics.
 While when the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, the relation existing
between input and output are generally expressed with the help of differential equations and
are called “Dynamic Characteristics”.

Static Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Accuracy/ Precision Drift/ Hysteresis

Resolution/ Threshold Dead Zone
Sensitivity Static Error
Repeatability
 Dynamic Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Speed of Response Lag

Fidelity Dynamic Error

Calibration
 The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process
called “Calibration”.

 It is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an

instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard.

Some important definitions are

1. Static Error: It is the difference between the measured value and true value of the quantity
Mathematically
δA = Am − At ----------- eq (1.1)
δA: Absolute error or Static error
Where, Am: Measured value of the quantity
At : True value of the quantity

2. Static Correction: It is the difference b/w the true value & measured value of the quantity
mathematically
δC=(−δA)=(At−Am)
Limiting error or Relative error:
(εr) = δA/At
 εr=(Am − At)/At
Percentage relative error:
% εr = (δA/At) × 100
From relative percentage error, accuracy is expressed as
A = 1 − |εr|
Where A: relative accuracy
And a = A × 100%
Where a = Percentage accuracy
 Error can also be expressed as percentage of Full Scale Deflection (FSD) as,

A m− A t
X 100
F .S.D

Example: The expected value of voltage to be measured is 150 V. However, the measurement
gives a value of 149 V. Calculate (i) Absolute error (ii) Percentage error, (iii) Relative accuracy
(iv) Percentage accuracy (v) Error expressed as percentage of full scale reading if scale range is 0
– 200 V.

Solution: Expected value implies true value

At= 150 V
Am = 149 V
(i) Absolute error = Am − At = −1 V
(ii) % εr = (Am − At )/At ×100= 1/150 ×100=− 0.66%
(iii) A = 1 − |εr| = 1 − |−1/150|= 0.9933
(iv) % a = A × 100 = 99.33%
(v) F.S.D= [(Am − At )/F.S.D] × 100

= −1/200 ×100 = − 0.5 %

Example:
A Voltage has a true value of 1.50 V. An analog indicating instrument with a scale range of 0 –
2.50 V shows as a voltage of 1.46 V. What are the values of absolute error and correction.
Express the error as a fraction of the true value and the full scale deflection (f.s.d.).

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Absolute error δA = Am − At = 1.46 – 1.50 = − 0.04 V
Absolute correction δC = − δA = + 0.04 V
Relative error,εr= δA/At= (− 0.04 /1.50) ×100= −2.67 %
Relative error (expressed as a percentage of F.S.D.) = (− 0.04 / 2.5) ×100 =−1.60 %
Where F.S.D. is the Full Scale Deflection.

Example: A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43 V
Determine (a) The static error, (b) The static correction for this instrument

Solution:
From Eqn. 1.1, the error is
δA = Am − At= 127.50 – 127.43 = + 0.07 V
Static Correction δC = − δA = − 0.07 V

Example: A thermometer reads 95.45°C and the static correction given in the correction curve is
–0.08°C. Determine the true value of the temperature.

Solution:
True value of the temperature At= Am + δC = 95.45 – 0.08 = 95.37°C

3. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity.
  Accuracy is expressed in the following ways:
Accuracy as “Percentage of Full Scale Reading.
 In case of instruments having uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as percentage
of full scale reading.

Example: The accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units is expressed as
±0.1% of full scale reading.

Note: This form of notation indicates the accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of error.

 So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be ±0.05 units of error in any
measurement.

 So for a reading of 50 units, there will be a error of ±0.05 units i.e., ±0.1% while for a
reading of 25 units, there will be a error of ±0.05 units and i.e., ±0.2%.

 Thus as reading decreases, error in measurement is ±0.05 units but net percentage error is
more. Hence specification of accuracy in this manner is highly misleading.
 Accuracy as “Percentage of True Value”.
 This is the best method of specifying the accuracy. Here it is specified in terms of true
value of quantity being measured.

Example: Accuracy can be specified as ±0.1% of true value. This indicates that as readings gets
smaller, error also gets reduced.

 Accuracy as “Percentage of Scale Span”: For an instrument with a max , amin representing
full scale and lowest reading on scale, then (a max−amin) is called span of the instrument (or)
scale span.
 Accuracy of an instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span.

Example:
  For an instrument having scale span from 25 to 225 units, then accuracy can be specified
as ±0.2% of scale span i.e., ± [(225−25)× 0.2/100] which is ±0.4 units of error in every
measurement.

Point Accuracy: Here accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale.
 It does not give any information about accuracy at any other point on scale.

Example: A wattmeter having a range 1000 W has an error of ± 1% of full scale deflection. If
the true power is 100 W, what would be the range of readings? Suppose the error is specified as
percentage of true value, what would be the range of the readings?

Solution:
When the error is specified as a percentage of full scale deflection, the magnitude of
limiting error at full scale = ± 1/100 ×1000= ± 10 W

Thus the Wattmeter reading when the true reading is 100 W may be 100 ± 10 W
i.e., between 90 to 110 W
Relative error = ± 10/100 ×100= ± 10%

Now suppose the error is specified as percentage of true value.

The magnitude of error = ± 1/100 ×100= ± 1 W
Therefore the meter may read 100 ± 1 W or between 99 to 101 W
 Accuracy can also be defined in terms of static error.

4. Precision:It is the measure of degree of agreement within a group of measurements.

 High degree of precision does not guarantee accuracy.

Precision is composed of two characteristics

(i). Conformity
(ii). Number of significant figures
(i). Conformity

 Consider a resistor having value of 2385692 which is being measured by ohmmeter as

2.4M Ω consistently, due to non-availability of proper scale.

 The error created due to limitation of scale is called precision error.

(ii). Significant Figures

 Precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which
the reading is expressed.

 Significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and measurement
precision of the quantity.

Example: A resistance of 110 Ω, is specified may be closer to 109 Ω, and 111 Ω. Thus, there is
3 significant figures while if it is specified as 110. 0 Ω, then it may be closer to 110.1 Ω or 109.9
Ω. Thus, there are now 4 significant figures.

 Thus, more the significant figures the greater is the precision of measurement.

 Normally, large numbers with zeros are expressed in terms of powers of ten.

Example: Approximate population of a city is reported as 4,90,000 which actually is to be read

as the population lies between 4,80,000 to 5,00,000 but due to misconception it can also be
implied as population lies between 489,999 to 490,001.

 So it is expressed as 49× 104 or 4.9 × 105, which is 2 digit significant figure.

5. Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which
the instrument responds.
It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of
the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,
Infinitestimal Change in output
Sensitivity=
Infinitestimal Change in input
Δq o
Sensitivity=
Δq i

∆qo
Output
qo ∆qi

Input qi

6. Hysteresis
Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument may indicate one set of
output values, and for the decreasing values of input, the same instrument may indicate it
different set of output values. When these output values are plotted against the input the
following types of graphs are achieved. For the increasing and the decreasing inputs, the output
shows a maximum variations at half of full scale, for this reason hysteresis error is specified at
50% of the full scale.
7. Threshold
The smallest change in the input that gives a perceivable change on the output of an
instrument is called the resolution.
In most of the instruments, when the input is increased from zero value there is a small
dead band or dead zone for which no perceivable output is indicated by the instrument. Thus the
smallest input that gives some perceivable output is the threshold of the instrument. Then we can
say the resolution is the smallest change in input that can be measured and threshold is the
smallest input that can be measured. Then needless to say that the resolution has a meaning only
after the threshold input has been passed.

8. Repeatability
Repeatability is a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over
and over again.

Measurement of Errors
The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or actual value and
measured value
 The true value is the average of the finite number of measurement
 Measured value is the precise value
Types of Errors in Measurement
The error may arise from the different source and are usually classified into the following
types.
1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Error
3. Random Error

1. Gross Errors
Gross errors may occur because of the human mistakes. For example consider the person
using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect data. Such type of
error comes under the gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking the reading
carefully
Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
 The reading should be taken carefully.
 Two or more reading should be taken of the measurement quantity. The readings are
taken by the different experimenter and at a different point removing the error.
 These type of errors include the loading effect and the misuse of the instruments.
2. Systematic Error
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories
(i) Instrumental Errors (ii) Environmental Errors (iii) Observational Errors
(i)Instrumental Errors
 These errors may be due to wrong construction, wrong calibration of measuring
instruments.
 These types of error may arise due to friction or may be due to hysteresis.
(ii) Environmental Errors
 These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices.
 External condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include
magnetic field
(iii) Observational Errors
 Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading.

3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition, such as
type of error is called random error.

Effects of noise and interference on measurement circuits

The interconnection of two measurement system elements, e.g. a thermocouple and an amplifier,
or a differential pressure transmitter and a recorder, could be represented by an equivalent circuit
in which either a Thévenin voltage source or a Norton current source is connected to a load. In
industrial installations, source and load may be typically 100 metres apart and noise and/or
interference voltages may also be present.

Effects of interference on measurement circuit:

(a) Voltage transmission – series mode interference
(b) Current transmission – series mode interference
Figure (a) shows a voltage transmission system subject to series mode interference; here a
noise or interference voltage VSM is in series with the measurement signal voltage ETh. The
current i through the load is:
and the corresponding voltage across the load is:

Normally we make to obtain maximum voltage transfer to the load

This means that with a voltage transmission system all of VSM is across the load; this affects the
next element in the system and possibly results in a system measurementerror. We define signal-
to-noise or signal to interference ratio S/N in decibels by:

where ETh and VSM are the r.m.s. values of the voltages, and WS and WN are the

corresponding total signal and noise powers. Thus if ETh = 1 V and VSM = 0.1 V,

S/N = +20 dB.

Figure (b) shows a current transmission system subject to the same series mode

interference voltage VSM. The Norton source current iN divides into two parts, one part through
the source impedance ZN, the other part through ZL. Using the current divider rule, the current
through the load due to the source is:

In addition there is an interference current

through the load due to the interference voltage. The total voltage across the load is

therefore:

Normally we make to obtain maximum current transfer to the load

Since , this means that with a current transmission system only a small fraction of
VSM is across the load. Thus a current transmission system has far greater inherent immunity to
series mode interference than a voltage transmission system. In a thermocouple temperature
measurement system, therefore, it may be better to convert the thermocouple millivolt e.m.f. into
a current signal prior to transmission, rather than transmit the e.m.f. directly.