GE 8 FINAL REVIEWER experience, rather, the other way

around.
Duty Ethics Therefore: An act is good because it is
done out of good will and duty, rather
Consequentialist approach to morality than its perceived good effects or the
- takes into account how an act affects positive emotions of the moral agent.
something or someone
- usually a beneficial action is  For a particular act to be construed
considered good, otherwise bad, thus, as either good or otherwise, it
not worth pursuing. should conform to the good will
which according to Kant a mental
Kant state of every rational being-man.
- contemplated on several philosophical
problems that ensued from the Rational Nature of Man
common practice of basing morality  Morality flows from, or it is a
from common life-experience. necessary consequence of man’s
- he noticed how natural human possession of reason.
inclinations, apathy, anger, or love,  Man is endowed with reason which
could cloud the mind to arrive at a is concerned with two things:
disinterested or objective moral Theory about things and Practical
judgement. behavior (Ibana and Tugado,1998)
- he also criticized our tendency to  The interest of the mind in either
pursue good plans or actions thought to concerns is the universal principles
yield positive results. The problem with on which phenomena or behavior
this is whether anyone could ever fit in.
foretell what goodness such action  When reason is specifically aimed
would result to - in the future. at the discovery of moral principles,
- he revolutionized moral philosophy-a it is called practical reason (Stumpf
sort of Copernican revolution. and Fieser, 2008).
He proposed a radical shift in the  Thus, be reason for practical
ultimate source of morality. behavior, the mind is primarily
- Kant disagrees that an act becomes concerned with discovering
good because experience tells us that it principles of moral behavior that
result to positive consequences, or that are binding upon all people.
was performed out of positive psychic  It is the nature of the mind to seek
response of man. moral principles on which every
 The uniqueness of the duty ethics is rational being should base his
in Kant’s insistence that human existence.
experiences or deeds should fit into  Kant could offer no other
the mind in the determination of explanation why every human
morality; instead of the common being could not possibly live a life
understanding that the mind of the without having to pass on moral
moral principles should be based on judgement whether upon himself
the lived experience of the ,man. or others. In other words, having
- Kant’s proposal is centered upon the been endowed with reason, it is
idea that it should not be the will or the inherent in man to seek for ways to
motive that should abide by the exist morally.
 To be human, then is to be rational. others as a mere tool to achieve a
 Kant emphasized ration, being the particular purpose. When this
chief requirement for man to lead a happens, anybody who receives
moral life. such a treatment, ceases to be a
 Reason only makes man potentially person but is reduced to a mere
good in his action. object. This exemplified for
example in the lamentable
What makes a good act in duty ethics? experience of the farmers who do
 Kant proposes that nay act to be all the hard labor yet end up empty
worth of a moral status has to pass handed after they have sold all
the scrutiny of reason under the their produce. In such a condition,
key concept of duty ethics, namely, farmers are treated as mere tool of
man’s intrinsic value, good will, some individuals who prey on loose
duty, and the universal moral politico-economic system against
maxim. the former’s advantage.

Man’s Intrinsic value  Kant recognize that it is quite ideal

 Rational nature exists as an end-in- that no person is ever treated as a
itself. This is the way in which man means for someone else’s end.
necessarily conceives his own When this is inevitable, he
existence: it is therefore so far a proposes that that at least the
subjective principle of human individual who is tasked to carry
actions. out the other’s interest must also
 Act in such a way that you always be served concomitantly.
treat humanity, whether in your  being rational, man is ought to be
own person or in the person of any treated as a sole end for an action,
other, never simply as a means, but or an end at the same time as a
always at the same time as an end. means, but never as a means only.
(Kant, 1785)  Kant’s practical imperative is
dissected into three minor moral
Excerpt from The groundwork of the principles:
Metaphysics of Morals. 1. man is ought to be treated as an
 It encapsulates the central tenet of end;
the deontological ethics. Through 2. man is never to be treated as a
it, Kant explains that the practical means only;
reason or the moral principles on 3. when it is inevitable that man is to
which any treatment of man be be treated as a means, his ends should
based on should only be under the at least be served at the same time.
overarching umbrella of the highest
principle of the rationality of man. THE GOOD WILL
 From such, ensues vital points with  Duty ethics relies solely on the good
regards to lived-experience of will as the basis of the good act. In
himself and with other rational fact, the good is tantamount to the
beings around him. good will.
 It entails for example that it is  Kant reason out that we have no
morally objectionable for any control over what good act result to
person to make use of himself or of would.
 Kant puts it succinctly “The good  The only way for anyone of us to
will is good not because of what it remain steadfast in doing good is to
causes or accomplishes, not rely solely on the good will within.
because of its usefulness in the
attainment of some set of purpose, THE FORMULA OF THE CATEGORICAL
but alone because of willing, that is IMPERATIVE
to say, it is good of itself.”  For duty ethics, it is stated in “Act
 Another unique feature of a good only on that maxim through which
act in the deontological ethics is you can at the same time will that
that It is done out of one’s sense of it should become a universal law
duty. (Kant, 1785).
 The essence of Kantian ethics is  The basic elements of duty ethics:
captured in the term moral reason, good will, and human
imperative. intrinsic value
 Willing and thus, performing a good
act out of duty “is instantly applies BIO-ETHICS
to all rational beings, and it is  According to Plato, the body is a
imperative because it is the coffin to the soul or it constraints
principle on which we ought to the soul from what it can know.
act.” (Stumpf and Fiezer, 2008) (Pavo, 2010)
 Man is a rational animal.(Aristotle)
DUTY  St. Augustin treats the body as the
 Kant proposes that morality should locus of lust and sin.
be willed and done out of duty, for  “Cogito, ergo sum (I think,
it entails the exclusion of one’s therefore I am).” (Descartes)
inclinations or personal interest.  Aldo Leopold emphasizes that
 When something good is done out humans do not hold a special place
of duty, it is pursued regardless of in this planet, Biology and
what the moral agent feels or Psychology are in unison telling us
thinks about it. that the brain, although it regulates
 Kant’s declaration that “Nothing most of what takes place in the
can possibly be conceived in the body, is as vital as other organs.
world, or even out of it, which can  American socio-biologist, Edwar O.
be called ‘good’ without Wilson (1978) was prompted to say
qualification, except the good will” that “…the brain is a device for
captures the core of his moral survival and reproduction, and
philosophy. reason is just one of its
 Good will is good with or without techniques.”
those qualifications from effects or
positive emotions. THE BIOMEDICAL ETHICS
 When a good is intended or Respect for Autonomy
executed out of duty, questions  An acknowledgement that every
such as who benefit from it or why individual human being is entitled
should that person enjoy becomes to hold his own valuation of things.
immaterial. Thus, the moral agent is It means that he is free to have his
undeterred in his action according own understanding of anything.
to the categorical imperative.
 It is in this principle that in the  It also serves as the basic guiding
context of biomedicine, a patient principle in the distribution of
must be informed of his medical scarce medical resources.
condition. Abortion
Non-Maleficence  The expulsion of the developing
 This principle states that medical zygote, embryo, or fetus from the
practitioner has a duty to do no womb of the pregnant woman.
harm or allow harm to be caused to  When abortion happens with
a patient through neglect. human intervention, it is called
 The pain or in some cases induced (abortion). Whereas when
dismemberment that a patient it takes place unintentionally or due
necessarily undergo in some to natural causes, it is called
medical procedure does not count spontaneous - commonly referred
as harm, thus, does not violate the to as miscarriage.
principle of non-maleficence.  Life begins at the moment of
 The principle of non-maleficence is fertilization, thus, to terminate it
usually coupled with and by the deliberately is tantamount the
principles of double effects where violation of the fifth Mosaic law:
the ‘harm’ done to a patient is seen Though shall not kill. Maboloc
as a necessary means of the (2010) re-echoes this point: ‘Thus,
procedure or the unintended effect for pope John Paul II and the
of the same. Catholic, abortion is a direct killing
Beneficence or murder.’
 This principle refers to the  Mappes (1997) pointed out that
obligation of medical practitioners discussion of the ethical
to act for the benefit of those who acceptability of abortion often take
seek medical attention. This for granted important things that
includes, though indirectly, the would hopefully result to
medical practitioners’ effort to keep resolution, such as what has been
up with the best practices in their discussed. He drew his concern out
field of specialization for the of observation of the common
benefit of their patients. practice in the dissenting camps
 It is also with the principle of between pro and against abortion
beneficence that physician strictly where debaters plunge in armed
follow clinical guidelines. with their own moral perspectives.
 This principle encourages for the  The author things that before
holistic assessment of the patient’s anything else is said of the morality
circumstances as one effective of abortion, the following should be
treatment may not work for other considered:
patients. 1. An awareness of the various kinds of
Justice reasons that may be given for having an
 The principle of justice in medical abortion.
decisions is involved in providing 2. An acquaintance with the biological
patients with advanced medical development of human fetus.
attention regardless of their  In the case of the first point for
situation. example, before a christian
authority would hand down the
 moral verdict that abortion is evil, 1) Implantation - it happens within
as an extension of the 5 th Mosaic two weeks when the zygote or
law, he or she should ask the fertilized egg cell moves from the
mother why she decides on Fallopian tube to implant itself in
terminating the developing life in the uterine wall.
her womb.
2) Embryonic stage - on the second
The following reason for abortion is an second week of pregnancy the
excerpt from Mappes and Zembaty zygote becomes an embryo. At this
(1997) stage, the process of organogenesis
Why would a woman have abortion? occurs when vital human organs
a. In certain extreme case, if the fetus is begin to take shape.
allowed to develop normally and come
to term, the pregnant woman herself 3) Fetal stage - after the embryonic
will die. stage which lasts up to the end of
b. In other cases it is not the woman’s eight week, the embryo is called
life but her health, physical or mental, fetus.
that will be severely endangered if the
pregnancy is allowed to continue. 4) Quickening - this is the final phase
c. There also cases in which the of the development before birth.
pregnancy, or surely, produce a severe The mother feels the movement of
impaired child. the fetus. At this stage the fetus is
d. There are instances in which said to be capable of living outside
pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. the mother’s womb.
e. There are instances in which the
pregnant woman is unmarried, and  It contends that the fetus remains
there will be a social stigma of nonhuman even in its most
illegitimacy. advanced stages of development
f. There are other instances in which (Mappes and Zembaty, 1997)
having a child. Or having another child,  Human life begins at organogenesis
will be an unbearable financial burden. (from eight week) where most vital
g. Certainly common, and perhaps most human organs develop, implies that
common of all, are those instances in abortion before the eight week is
which having a child will interfere with tantamount to killing or murder.
the happiness of the woman, the joint
happiness of the parents, or even the Excerpt by Mappes and Zembaty
joint happiness of the family unit that Some abortions are justifiable; some are
already includes children. morally objectionable. In some
moderate views, the stage of fetal
THE BILOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A development is a relevant factor in
HUMAN FETUS assessing the moral acceptability of
abortion.
 Human life, between conception,
that is, when a spermatozoon THE INNER SELF
fertilizes an ovum and birth
undergoes the following stages:  In Rene Descartes’ Cogito Ergo
Sum, the self is understood as one’s
 consciousness or awareness of of ‘survival machines’ who also do
one’s existence. their own thing for survival.
 The concept of self from both  The frequent experience of trying
Descartes and Buddha is this: there to preserve oneself and protect
is someone in me that knows those that are vital for self-
about my body and the world preservation results to the
outside it. And this someone id consciousness of ‘me against the
self. world--this distinction between
 It is the self that tries to understand everything on the inside of a
what you’re reading right at this closed boundary and everything in
moment. the external world…’
 Although the se;f is not a ‘node or
THE ORIGIN OF SELVES module’ in the brain; rather, ‘it is
Dennett (1989)- The original distinction something abstract which amounts
between self and other is a deep just to the existence of an
biological principle; one might say it is organization which tends to
the deepest principle, for biology begins distinguish, control, and preserve
in self-preservation -- in the emergence portion of the world, an
of entities (the simplest replicators) organization that thereby creates
who resisted destruction and decay, and maintains boundaries.’
who combated, at least for a short time  A dead person does not have a self
the second law of thermodynamics, and because to have one requires the
passed on their capacity to do this to operation of the brain.
their descendants.
 Everything in any biological entity The Brain: Survival machine’s greatest
including man, revolves around the tool
business of self-preservation.
 Any self-preserving endeavor by life Dawkins (2006) - describes life in
forms takes place in a territory general this way: ‘We are survival
which generally serves as a machines, but ‘we’ does not mean just
resource that both sustains and people. It embraces all animals, plants,
supports life. bacteria, and viruses.’
 Dennett moves on saying that ‘As  In such an image of life forms,
soon as something gets into the Dawkins has the following in mind:
business of self-preservation, that life forms are designed; and
boundaries become important, for are designed to survive.
if you are setting out to preserve  Dawkins says, ‘A survival machine
yourself, you do not want to is a vehicle containing not just one
squander effort trying to preserve genes but many thousands.’
the whole world; you draw the  Biologically speaking, humans (our
line.’ body) and other life forms are
 The territory as a concept is capsules or shells designed to carry,
logically related to the animal’s protect, and pass on the essential
selfish nature. It should be stressed substance in us, our creator--the
out that in the territory, not only genes.
food, shelter, mates, and foraging  In The Selfish Genes (2006),
ground are found but also other Dawkins’ explains that, ‘The main
 way in which brains actually  To be good therefore in the inner
contribute to the success of the environment, is to be good to
survival machines is by controlling oneself.
and coordinating the contractions  It is challenging with as with the
of muscle.’ previous environments, or even
 Konrad Lorenz (1963) speculation more because in here we come
on instinct - the survival machines’ face-to-face with the ultimate
behaviors can be categorized cause and problem of morality --
according to their instinct or origin: the self.
namely, those that are under the  Buddha - Self is the lord of self,
instinct for feeding; instinct for who else could be the lord? With
reproduction; instinct for flight; self well subdued, a man finds a
and, instinct for aggression. lord such a few can find.
 The reason why the genes have to
build their vehicle a brain -- to take Images of the Mind
the day to day decisions (Dawkins,
The Selfish Genes, 2006, p. 58). The Garden
I cultivate a garden in my mind. There
The Nature of the Mind are flowers in it. There are weeds too. If
I do not tend to this garden, weeds will
1. Capacity to store memories, recall, grow taller and compete with flowers
and anticipate for both soil nutrients and sun light.
- Capacity to store memories. In relation The weeds will flourish but the flowers
to survival, the brain stores memories eventually die out.
of what facilitated and what did not.
- Anticipation is an imagination on what BUDDHISM
things or event might be when they
occur. - built upon the grand project of
alleviating the entire human race from
2. Controlling the clout of suffering.
- it pays off for the body to have a brain  This according to Buddha could be
which is keen on exercising control over done by setting up the goal (of
its environment. being freed from suffering) and to
work this plan out.
3. Watchful  The details of this spiritual direction
- the brain is the greatest tool for can be gleaned from the four noble
survival. truth and from the eight-fold paths.
- it is designed or developed for this  Before Buddha embarked into the
sole purpose: problem solving. world on unknown of human
- a discontented person is better than existence, he grappled with the
he who is contented with what he has. problem of human suffering which
according to tradition he observed
THE GREAT DILEMMA in the aged, the sick, and in the
deceased or dying.
Seneca - “Thus, it is that foresight, the
greatest blessing humanity has been
given, is transformed in to a curse.”
 The Four Noble Truth
3. NIRODHA
1. DUKKHA - The cessation of suffering.
- the first thing that draws our attention
about life is that it is about suffering. 4. MAGGA
- what was common among the aged, - The path to the cessation of suffering.
the sick and the dying that Buddha - consist of eight interrelated practices
himself saw with his own eyes, was known as the noble eight paths, that
suffering. adherents must submit themselves to.
 The ultimate end of of the paths is
2. SAMUDAYA Nirvana or the extinguishment of
- the ultimate cause of human suffering desire (negative) being the root-
- internal suffering that we inflict upon cause of suffering.
ourselves with a reaction to the  According to Buddhism, Nirvana is
external things that happen out of our not an abode or eternal bliss for the
control. soul of the departed., rather it is a
- a Pali term which has no exact state of being free from the clout of
translation in English or in Pilipino. negative desires.
- Samudaya then, or the origin of  The person whp has attained
human suffering is our desire -- for nirvana no longer experiences
things to fit exactly into our things such as anger, envy, or lust.
expectations. He still does but he is able to make
himself composed or untethered by
 TANHA any of those.
- Buddhist concept referring to desire or
craving. The Eight Fold Path
 CHANDA
- Buddhism does not rule out that all 1. Samma Ditthi or right
desires lead to suffering. understanding
- Chanda is the desire for noble things -refers to understanding Buddha’s
such as wisdom, knowledge, or making teaching.
others happy by any noble means 2. Right intention
possible. - includes a positive outlook in life.
- In relation to suffering, Buddha named - involve noble motives towards others
specifically three negative qualities such as love and compassion.
borne out of Tanha: greed, ignorance, 3. Right speech
and hatred. - adherent to speak only the truth
- Greed is a negative desire because it is - one has to make sure what he utters
about the insatiable accumulation of does not malign others.
wealth. Hatred can be about one’s  Meditation
obsession to get even with someone - state of being alone with oneself that
whom he harbors ill-feeling against, or adherents find the moment to deepen
about hate for oneself being lagged his understanding of life as taught by
behind others’ success. Buddha.
 One suffers because his desires is - it is such a vital part of monastic life as
much bigger than the object of its it leads to inner peace and wisdom.
satisfaction.
 It is a misconception to brand  The stoics thought of the universe
Buddhism as a contemplative as a kind of ‘an orderly
religion or philosophy. arrangement where people and
 Nirvana is never arrived without things behave according to
effort. principles of purpose.’ and the
4. Right Action master designer or the grand
5. Right Livelihood reason for all of these is god-- the
6. Right Effort ultimate reason of all in the
7. Right Mindfulness universe.
8. Right Concentration  Stoics used the term permeability
of nature (by god), to mean his
STOICISM presence in all things.
 In man, god manifests himself in
 Founded by Zeno of Cyprus in our rationality or the logos
Athens at around 300BCE. spermatikos.
 Coined form Stoa or a public  The presence of logos spermatikos
colonnade in Athens where Zeno or divine spark in us implies three
and his students met and discussed important things:
the new philosophy. 1. The understanding of how and why
 Once a famous philosophy not only the entire cosmos behaves the way
in Greece but its influence reached it does.
even as far as the city Rome. 2. The realization that to live morally
 Stoic- to mean someone who is is to abide by the god’s will.
indifferent or does not care about 3. By contemplating on the universe
the world around him. being ordained by god, we realize,
 Tradition has it that on his voyage there is not much that man can do
to from Phonicia to Piraeus, zeno’s when things begin to behave
boat sank along his wealth. Instead against our expectations.
of crying over it, Zeno developed
the attiturde of not being perturbed  For stoics, the only sensible thing to
by things that happened his do is to accept that that is just the
control. And so, technically, way things are.
stoicism was the first applied to  Seneca - ‘We suffer more often in
Zeno for he did not allow grief to imagination that in reality.’
take over his life.
 Ataraxia - a greek word for THE CARDINAL VIRTUES OF THE STOICS
tranquility of the mind.
 The first thing about Stoicism is the  A true stoic is described as
recognition that things happen as someone who does not seem to
they do. care about what is going on around.
 According to Epictetus, “we suffer  Of the preponderant, virtuous they
not from the events of our lives, especially cultivate are Wisdom,
but from our judgement of them.” Justice, Courage, and Temperance.
 The stoics believed god is the  Seneca once said, ‘no one can lead
ultimate law that designs a happy life, or even one that is
everything else in the universe. bearable, without the pursuit of
wisdom, and that the perfection of
 wisdom is what makes the happy
life, although even the beginnings
of wisdom make life bearable.’
 Wisdom is manifested in one’s skill
in being able to distinguish right
from wrong.
 Justice is another important stoic
virtue. It consists in doing what is
right as our duty to others.
 A just person shows fairness,
kindness, benevolence, and good
will in dealing with others.
 Seneca conclude that ‘ sometimes
even to live is an act of courage.’
 The stoics considered courage a
vital virtue of life.
 Akin to the virtue of courage is
temperance.
 In relation to the virtue of
temperance, Seneca says, ‘one’s life
should be a compromise between
the ideal and the popular morality.’

May pa review review

ka pang nalalaman.
Huwag ka ng mag
review at least kapag
mababa ang score mo,
hndi nakakadisapoint.

Love,

Adiii