Lecture 5

Introduction to Robotics
Faculty of Artificial Intelligence

Prepared by
Dr.\ Emad A. Elsheikh
Faculty of Electronic Engineering,
Menoufia University.
Robot Sensors
 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers
Electrical and Electronic systems need to sense and react with the real world either by:
➢ Reading (sensing) an input quantity, or:
➢ Activating (actuating) some form of output devices.

Sensor
Actuator
Transducer
Electrical Transducers

A microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the amplifier.
Also, a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.
Perception-Action loop
Perception-Action loop
 Robotic Sensors

Static Sensors Environmental Sensors

Force, Position, Motion, Force, Torque touch,
Velocity, Acceleration tactile

Non-Contact Sensors
Contact Sensors
Vision, optical, range,
Force, temperature, PH
Chemical
Types of Electrical Transducers:
There are many different types of sensors available in the marketplace.
The choice of which sensor to use depends upon the quantity to be measured.

Position and Displacement: Speed:

Potentiometers. Tacho-generators.
Encoders. Slotted optocoupler.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer Doppler Effect Sensors.
(LVDT). etc.
etc.
Force: Temperature:
strain gauge. Thermocouple.
Load cells. Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD).
etc. etc.
 Type of Signals

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Analog Sensors:
Analog sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the quantity being measured.
Physical quantities (such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, etc.) are all
analog or continuous in nature.
Analog signals are signals that are smooth and continuous in time (i.e. it is
continuous in both time and amplitude).
Digital Sensors:
Digital sensors produce a discrete digital output signal or voltage which is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured.
Digital sensors produces Binary output signal in the form of logic "High" or logic "Low".
The digital representation of the measured quantity could be sent to the controlling device
in serial (bit-by-bit) or in parallel (combination of bits) .
Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors:
Signal conditioning is defined as the operations done over an analog signal in such a way
that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing.

Smart Sensors
 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors

Displacement Sensors:

Position Sensors:

Proximity Sensors:
Displacement Sensors
Using
Resistance Transducers
Resistance Transducers ( i.e Based on Potentiometric Principle)
Potentiometric Principle: What?
A potentiometer is a transducer in which a rotation or displacement is
converted into a potential difference.
𝒓
𝑽𝒐 = . 𝑽𝒔
𝑹

Linear Pot.
Detect Linear-motion Rotary Pot.
Potentiometer as a position sensor.

Features

Linear potentiometers are often considered when an electrical

signal proportional to displacement is required, but also
where cost should be kept low and high accuracy is not critical.

Disadvantage

Slow dynamic performance, low resolution, and susceptibility

to vibration and noise.
 Strain Gauge
❑ The electrical resistance strain gauge (Figure) is a metal wire, metal foil strip or a
strip of semiconductor material which is wafer-like and can be stuck onto surfaces like
a postage stamp.
• Bonded strain gauge
Unbonded strain gauge
Strain gauges
resistance sensor whose electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or
compressed (mechanically strained)under the application of force.

𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨
❑ (strain is the ratio (change in length/original length) then)

∆𝑹
= 𝑮. 𝒆
𝑹
where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the gauge factor.
Example
consider an electrical resistance strain gauge with a resistance of 100 Ω and a
gauge factor of 2.0. What is the change in resistance of the gauge when it is
subject to a strain of 0.001?
The fractional change in resistance is equal to the gauge factor multiplied by the
∆𝑹
strain, thus = 𝑮. 𝒆
𝑹

change in resistance = 2.0 x 0.001 x 100 = 0.2 Ω

This change in resistance is then usually converted into voltage by connecting

one, two or four similar gauges as an arm of a Wheatstone bridge (known as
Strain Gauge Bridge) and applying excitation to the bridge.

The bridge output voltage is then a measure of strain, sensed by each strain gauge.
1- Quarter-bridge strain gauge circuit
Single strain gauge
Half bridge
Full bridge circuit.
Limitation: sensitive to temperature

Linearity error : about 1% of FSD

Measurement range : 1 to 30 mm
 Capacitive Sensors
It is used for measuring, linear displacement, velocity, force
etc…

Formula:

𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝑐=
𝑑
Capacitive sensors monitoring linear displacement may be of the

following type:

❑ Plate Separation Type

❑ Variable overlapping area type
❑ Moving dielectric type
By Varying the Area of Overlap
By Varying the Dielectric Constant:

d
By Changing the Distance between Two Plates:

Hence the change in capacitance ΔC as a fraction of the initial

capacitance is given by

There is thus a non-linear relationship between the change in capacitance

ΔC and the displacement x. This non-linearity can be overcome by using
what is termed a push–pull displacement sensor
• When C1 is in one arm of an a.c. bridge and C2 in the other, then the resulting out-of-balance
voltage is proportional to x.

• Such a sensor is typically used for monitoring displacements from a few millimeters to
hundreds of millimeters.

• Non-linearity and hysteresis are about ±0.01% of full range.

• The applied voltage must be equal to the capacitor rated voltage.

Vs > Vcapcitor
Ultra-high sensitivity capacitive sensors
Super-sensitive Pressure Sensor As A Force Sensor