Unit 7

UNIT 7: PERLOCUTIONS AND ILLOCUTIONS
Entry test:
(1) Which of the following acts can be performed through the use of language?
kicking, asserting, warning, promising, running, referring, insulting
(2) Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) There are no acts which can be performed either linguistically (e.g. with an utterance) or non-
linguistically (e.g. with a gesture).
(b) There are no acts which cannot be performed linguistically.
(c) Some acts can be performed either linguistically or non-linguistically.
(3) Can the same sentence be uttered on different occasions to perform different acts?
(4) Is the sentence I hereby command you to teach first-year Semantics performative, constative, or
neither?
Practice:
(1) “Don’t come a step nearer!”
(2) “Get lost”
(3) “Why don’t you try looking in Woolworths?”
(4) “Do you think I’m an idiot?”
(5) What act is typically performed by uttering an interrogative sentence?
(6) What act is most typically carried out by an imperative utterance?
Sentence type Typical linguistic act performed by uttering a sentence of this type
declarative asserting
interrogative asking
imperative ordering
Practice:
Note the sentence type, whether declarative, interrogative, or imperative. Does the act carried out
by the utterance seem to be primarily one of asserting, asking, or ordering?
(1) Lady at ticket office in railway station: “I’d like a day return to Morecambe, please”
(2) Speaker at a meeting on a hot political issue: “Is it right to condone thuggery?”
(3) The Duke of Omnium, to his butler, who sees to his every need: “It’s cold in here, Hives”
(4) To companion on a country walk, while climbing a fence: “My skirt is caught on the barbed wire”
(5) Biology teacher: “Note that the female cell has two X-shaped chromosomes”
(6) Mother to child who is eating untidily: “Look at the mess you’ve made under your chair”
Definition: The PERLOCUTIONARY ACT (or just simply the PERLOCUTION) carried out by a speaker
making an utterance is the act of causing a certain effect on the hearer and others.
Example: If I say “There’s a hornet in your left ear”, it may well cause you to panic, scream and
scratch wildly at your ear. Causing these emotions and actions of yours is the perlocution of my
utterance, or the perlocutionary act I perform by making that utterance.
Definition:
The ILLOCUTIONARY ACT (or simply the ILLOCUTION) carried out by a speaker making an utterance is
the act viewed in terms of the utterance’s significance within a conventional system of social
interaction. One way to think about the illocutionary act is that it reflects the intention of the
speaker in making the utterance in the first place.
Illocutions are acts defined by social conventions, acts such as accosting, accusing, admitting,
apologizing, challenging, complaining, condoling, congratulating, declining, deploring, giving
permission, giving way, greeting, leavetaking, mocking, naming, offering, praising, promising,
proposing marriage, protesting, recommending, surrendering, thanking, toasting.
Example: Saying: “I’m very grateful to you for all you have done for me” performs the illocutionary
act of thanking.
Practice: Now state the illocution of each of those utterances. Describe at least two possible
perlocutionary effects of each of the utterances in the following situations.
(1) Neighbour to recently bereaved widow: “I was so sorry to hear about your loss”
(2) Lecturer to student: “You’ll find the book on Swahili infinitives quite fascinating”
(3) Child to playground supervisor: “Miss, Billy just swore at me. He told me
to piss off”
(4) One chess player to another: “I just made a bad move”
(5) Policeman to man in street: “Good evening, Sir. Do you live around here?”
(6) “Would you like a cup of coffee?”
(7) “After you” (said to someone wishing to go through the same door as the speaker)
(8) “I’m awfully sorry I wasn’t at the meeting this morning”
(9) “You can play outside for half an hour”
(10) “Good evening”
(11) “Good night”
Social encounters involve the exchange of illocutions.
Example:
speaker A: “Hello” (greeting)
speaker B: “Hello” (greeting)
speaker A: “You took the last biscuit” (accusation)
speaker B: “No, I didn’t” (denial)
Practice: Do each of the following pairs of illocutions seem appropriate sequences?
(1) greeting – greeting
(2) accusation – denial
(3) greeting – denial
(4) protest – apology
(5) congratulation – apology
(6) compliment – leavetaking
Comment: Generally speaking, the illocutionary act inherent in an utterance is intended by the
speaker, is under his full control, and if it is evident, it is so as the utterance is made, whereas the
perlocutionary act performed through an utterance is not always intended by the speaker, is not
under his full control, and is usually not evident until after the utterance is made.
It is much more usual to talk of a speaker “trying” to carry out a perlocutionary act (e.g. trying to
amuse, or shock, or annoy someone) than it is to talk of a speaker “trying” to carry out an
illocutionary act (e.g. trying to apologize, or to offer someone something, or to complain about
something). In the latter case, but not the former, there is the strong implication that one is being
actually prevented from speaking.
Examples: The act of addressing someone is illocutionary because it is something that a speaker can
decide for himself to do, and be sure of doing it when he decides to do it. The hearer (the addressee)
in a speech situation cannot decide whether to be addressed or not (although he may ignore the fact
that he is being addressed, or possibly not realize that he is being addressed).
The act of persuading someone of something, on the other hand, is perlocutionary, because the
speaker cannot be sure of persuading the hearer, no matter how hard he tries. The hearer can
decide whether to be persuaded or not.
Practice: Using the criteria just outlined, classify the following acts as either illocutionary or
perlocutionary.
(1) distracting someone
(2) claiming
(3) denying something
(4) hurting someone
(5) predicting something
(6) mocking someone
Definition:
The PHONIC ACT involved in an utterance is the physical act of making certain vocal sounds.
The PROPOSITIONAL ACT involved in an utterance consists in the mental acts of REFERRING (to
certain objects or people in the world) and of PREDICATING (i.e. coupling predicates to referring
expressions).
Practice: A parrot says “Fire”
(1) Is a phonic act involved?
(2) Is a propositional act involved?
(3) Is an illocutionary act involved?
(4) Is a perlocutionary act involved?

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UNIT 7: PERLOCUTIONS AND ILLOCUTIONS

kicking, asserting, warning, promising, running, referring, insulting

(2) Which of the following statements is correct?

(b) There are no acts which cannot be performed linguistically.

(c) Some acts can be performed either linguistically or non-linguistically.

(1) “Don’t come a step nearer!”

(2) “Get lost”

(3) “Why don’t you try looking in Woolworths?”

(4) “Do you think I’m an idiot?”

(5) What act is typically performed by uttering an interrogative sentence?

(6) What act is most typically carried out by an imperative utterance?

(4) One chess player to another: “I just made a bad move”

(6) “Would you like a cup of coﬀee?”

(9) “You can play outside for half an hour”

(10) “Good evening”

(11) “Good night”

Social encounters involve the exchange of illocutions.

speaker A: “Hello” (greeting)

speaker B: “Hello” (greeting)

speaker A: “You took the last biscuit” (accusation)

speaker B: “No, I didn’t” (denial)

Practice: Do each of the following pairs of illocutions seem appropriate sequences?

(1) greeting – greeting

(2) accusation – denial

(3) greeting – denial

(4) protest – apology

(5) congratulation – apology

(6) compliment – leavetaking

(1) distracting someone

(3) denying something

(4) hurting someone

(5) predicting something

(6) mocking someone

Practice: A parrot says “Fire”

(1) Is a phonic act involved?

(2) Is a propositional act involved?

(3) Is an illocutionary act involved?

(4) Is a perlocutionary act involved?

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