Agriculture

agriculture, including permaculture and organic agricul-

ture.
Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of
the human population labored in agriculture. Pre-
industrial agriculture was typically subsistence agricul-
ture/self-sufficiency in which farmers raised most of their
crops for their own consumption instead of cash crops for
trade. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has oc-
curred over the past century in response to new technolo-
gies, and the development of world markets. This also has
led to technological improvements in agricultural tech-
niques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing
Fields in Záhorie (Slovakia) - a typical Central European agri- ammonium nitrate which made the traditional practice of
cultural region. recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure
less important.
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such
as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improve-
ments have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but
at the same time have caused widespread ecological dam-
age and negative human health effects. Selective breed-
ing and modern practices in animal husbandry have sim-
ilarly increased the output of meat, but have raised con-
cerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the
antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals com-
monly used in industrial meat production. Genetically
modified organisms are an increasing component of agri-
Domestic sheep and a cow (heifer) pastured together in South
culture, although they are banned in several countries.
Africa.
Agricultural food production and water management are
increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering de-
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, bate on a number of fronts. Significant degradation
and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal of land and water resources, including the depletion of
and other products used to sustain and enhance human aquifers, has been observed in recent decades, and the ef-
life.[1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise fects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture
of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of on global warming are still not fully understood.
domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured
the development of civilization. The study of agriculture The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped
is known as agricultural science. The history of agricul- into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods
ture dates back thousands of years, and its development include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meats and
has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, spices. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax.
cultures, and technologies. However, all farming gener- Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Other use-
ally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands ful materials are produced by plants, such as resins, dyes,
that are suitable for raising domesticated species. For drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such
plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, al- as cut flowers and nursery plants. Over one third of the
though there are methods of dryland farming. Livestock world’s workers are employed in agriculture, second only
are raised in a combination of grassland-based and land- to the services’ sector, although the percentages of agri-
less systems, in an industry that covers almost one-third cultural workers in developed countries has decreased
of the world’s ice- and water-free area. In the devel- significantly over the past several centuries.
oped world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale
monoculture has become the dominant system of modern
farming, although there is growing support for sustainable

1
2 2 HISTORY

1 Etymology and terminology others in their society were free to devote themselves to
projects other than food acquisition. Historians and an-
The word agriculture is a late Middle English adapta- thropologists have long argued that the development of
tion of Latin agricultūra, from ager, “field”, and cultūra, agriculture made civilization possible. According to ge-
"cultivation" or “growing”.[2] Agriculture usually refers to ographer Jared Diamond, the costs of agriculture were:
human activities, although it is also observed in certain “the average daily number of work hours increased, nu-
species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle.[3] To prac- trition deteriorated, infectious disease and body wear in-
tice agriculture means to use natural resources to “pro- creased, and lifespan shortened.”[7]
duce commodities which maintain life, including food,
fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their re-
lated services.”[4] This definition includes arable farming 2.1 Prehistoric origins
or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the grow-
ing of plants, animal husbandry and forestry.[4] A dis- Forest gardening, a plant-based food production system,
tinction is sometimes made between forestry and agricul- is thought to be the world’s oldest agroecosystem.[8] For-
ture, based on the former’s longer management rotations, est gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-
extensive versus intensive management practices and de- clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon
velopment mainly by nature, rather than by man. Even regions. In the gradual process of a family improving
then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species
knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture (the were identified, protected and improved whilst undesir-
management of forests) and agriculture.[5] In traditional able species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign
farming, the two are often combined even on small land- species were selected and incorporated into the family’s
holdings, leading to the term agroforestry.[6] garden.[9]

2.2 Neolithic
2 History
Further information: Neolithic Revolution
Main article: History of agriculture The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia first saw the do-
See also: Timeline of agriculture and food technology
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rota-

Threshing of grain in ancient Egypt

mestication of animals, starting the Neolithic Revolution.

Between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago, the ancestors of
modern cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were domesticated in
A Sumerian harvester’s sickle made from baked clay (ca. 3000 this area. The gradual transition from wild harvesting to
BC).
deliberate cultivation happened independently in several
tion, application of fertilizers and pesticides, and the areas around the globe.[10] Agriculture allowed for the
domestication of livestock were developed long ago, but support of an increased population, leading to larger soci-
have made great progress in the past century. The history eties and eventually the development of cities. It also cre-
of agriculture has played a major role in human his- ated the need for greater organization of political power
tory, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in (and the creation of social stratification), as decisions had
worldwide socio-economic change. Division of labour in to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and ac-
agricultural societies made commonplace specializations cess rights to water and land. Agriculture bred immobil-
rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures, which allowed the ity, as populations settled down for long periods of time,
growth of towns and cities, and the complex societies which led to the accumulation of material goods.[11]
we call civilizations. When farmers became capable of Early Neolithic villages show evidence of the ability to
producing food beyond the needs of their own families, process grain, and the Near East is the ancient home of
2.3 Bronze and Iron Ages 3

the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas. There is evi- 2.3 Bronze and Iron Ages
dence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as
long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal (grain) production
in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same Beginning around 3000 BC, nomadic pastoralism, with
period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, societies focused on the care of livestock for subsistence,
using man-made floods and fires as part of their cultiva- appeared independently in several areas in Europe and
tion regimen.[10] Fiber crops were domesticated as early Asia. The main region was the steppes stretching from
as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton be- the Great Hungarian Plain to the Northeast China Plain,
ing developed independently in Africa and South Amer- where cattle, sheep, horses, and to a lesser extent yaks and
ica, and the Near East domesticating flax.[12] The use bactrian camels provided sustenance. The second was in
of soil amendments, including manure, fish, compost Arabia, where one-humped camels were the main animal,
and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed with sheep, goats and horses also seen. The third area
independently in several areas of the world, including was a band of societies in areas of eastern and central
Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and Eastern Asia.[13] Africa with a tropical savannah climate. Cattle and goats
were found most often in this area, with smaller numbers
of sheep, horses and camels. A fourth area, more minor
than the others, was found in northern Europe and Asia
and was focused on reindeer herding.[20]
Between 2500 and 2000 BC, the simplest form of the
plough, called the ard, spread throughout Europe, replac-
ing the hoe. This change in equipment significantly in-
creased cultivation ability, and affected the demand for
Roman harvesting machine
land, as well as ideas about property, inheritance and fam-
ily rights.[21] Before this period, simple digging sticks or
hoes were used. These tools would have also been easier
Squash was grown in Mexico nearly 10,000 years ago, to transport, which was a benefit as people only stayed
while maize-like plants, derived from the wild teosinte, until the soil’s nutrients were depleted. However, as the
began to be seen at around 9,000 years ago. The deriva- continuous cultivating of smaller pieces of land became a
tion of teosinte into modern corn was slow, however, and sustaining practice throughout the world, ards were much
it took until 5,500[10] to 6,000 years ago to turn into what more efficient than digging sticks.[22] As humanity be-
we know today as maize. It then gradually spread across came more stationary, empires, such as the New King-
North America and was the major crop of Native Amer- dom of Egypt and the Ancient Romans, arose, depen-
icans at the time of European exploration.[14] Beans were dent upon agriculture to feed their growing populations,
domesticated around the same time, and together these and slavery, which was used to provide the labor needed
three plants formed the Three Sisters nutritional foun- for continually intensifying agricultural processes. Agri-
dation of many native populations in North and Central cultural technology continued to improve, allowing the
America. Combined with peppers, these crops provided expansion of available crop varieties, including a wide
a balanced diet for much of the continent.[15] Grapes were range of fruits, vegetables, oil crops, spices and other
first grown for wine approximately 8,000 years ago, in the products.[23][24] China was also an important center for
Southern Caucasus, and by 3000 BC had spread to the agricultural technology development during this period.
Fertile Crescent, the Jordan Valley and Egypt.[16] During the Zhou dynasty (1666–221 BC), the first canals
Agriculture advanced to Europe slightly later, reaching were built, and irrigation was used extensively. The later
the northeast of the continent from the east around 4000 Three Kingdoms and Northern and Southern dynasties
BC. The idea that agriculture spread to Europe, rather (221–581 AD) brought the first biological pest control,
than independently developing there, has led to two main extensive writings on agricultural topics and technologi-
hypotheses. The first is a “wave of advance”, which holds cal innovations such as steel and the wheelbarrow.[25]
that agriculture traveled slowly and steadily across the In the ancient world, fresh products, such as meats, dairy
continent, while the second, “population pulse” theory, products and fresh fruits and vegetables, were likely con-
holds that it moved in jumps.[17] Also around 6000 years sumed relatively close to where they were produced. Less
ago, horses first began to be domesticated in the Eurasian perishable products, such as grains, preserved foods, olive
steppes. Initially used for food, it was quickly discovered oil and wine, were often traded over an extensive net-
that they were useful for field work and carrying goods work of land and sea routes. The ancient trade in agricul-
and people.[18] Around 5,000 years ago, sunflowers were tural goods was well established, with wine traded in the
first cultivated in North America, while South America’s Mediterranean region in the 6th century BC and Rome re-
Andes region was developing the potato.[10] A minor cen- ceiving extensive shipments of grain as tax payments by
ter of domestication, the indigenous peoples of the east- the 2nd century BC. Huge amounts of grain were trans-
ern United States appear to have domesticated numerous ported, mainly by sea, and it was during this period that
crops, including tobacco.[19] the subsidization of grain farming began, for the preven-
4 2 HISTORY

tion of famine. Ancient Rome was a major center for over both their land and its laborers, in the form of peas-
agricultural trade. Trade routes stretched from Britain ants or serfs.[29] During the medieval period, the Arab
and Scandinavia in the west to India and China in the east, world was critical in the exchange of crops and tech-
and included major crops, such as grain, wine and olive nology between the European, Asia and African con-
oil (also a fuel for oil lamps), as well as additional prod- tinents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they in-
ucts, including spices, fabrics and drugs.[26] troduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe
In Ancient Greece and Rome, many scholars documented and developed the beginnings of the plantation system
farming techniques, including the use of fertilizers.[13] of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for in-
tensive cultivation.[30] Population continued to increase
Much of what was believed about farming and plant nu-
trition at this time was later found to be incorrect, but along with land use. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, methane
emissions, produced by domesticated animals and rice
their theories provided the scientific foundation for the
development of agricultural theories through the Middle growing, increased substantially.[31]
Ages. Ideas about soil fertility and fertilization remained By 900 AD in Europe, developments in iron smelting
much the same from the time of Greco-Roman schol- allowed for increased production, leading to develop-
ars until the 19th century, with correspondingly low crop ments in the production of agricultural implements such
yields.[13] By the time of Alexander the Great's conquests as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The plough was
(330–323 BC), the role of horses had developed, and they significantly improved, developing into the mouldboard
played a huge role in warfare and agriculture. Innovations plough, capable of turning over the heavy, wet soils of
continued to be developed which allowed them to work northern Europe. This led to the clearing of forests in that
longer, harder and more efficiently. By medieval times area and a significant increase in agricultural production,
they became the primary source of power for agriculture, which in turn led to an increase in population.[32] A simi-
transport and warfare, a position they held until the devel- lar plough, which may have developed independently, was
opment of the steam and internal combustion engines.[18] also found in China as early as the 9th century.[33] At the
The Mayan culture developed several innovations in agri- same time, farmers in Europe moved from a two field
culture during its peak, which ranged from 400 BC to 900 crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one
AD and was heavily dependent upon agriculture to sup- field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted
port its population. The Mayans used extensive canal and in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change
raised field systems to farm the large portions of swamp- in rotations led to different crops being planted, includ-
land on the Yucatán Peninsula.[27][28] ing legumes such as peas, lentils and beans. Inventions
such as improved horse harnesses and the whippletree
also changed methods of cultivation.[32] Watermills were
2.4 Middle Ages initially developed by the Romans, but were improved
throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and
used to grind grains into flour, cut wood and process flax
and wool, among other uses.[34]

Ancient methods of planting are still widespread in many coun-

Agricultural calendar from a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi. tries. Here, two members of the Brao ethnic group plant seeds on
their land in Laos
The Middle Ages saw significant improvements in the
agricultural techniques and technology. During this time Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas,
period, monasteries spread throughout Europe and be- beans, and vetches became common from the 13th cen-
came important centers for the collection of knowledge tury onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for
related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system, their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields
which existed under different names throughout Europe peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady
and Asia, allowed large landowners significant control until the 18th century.[35] Though the limitations of me-
2.6 Modern developments 5

dieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceil- ety to the European diet. The nutrition boost caused by
ing for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent increased potato consumption resulted in lower disease
studies[36][37] have shown that the technology of medieval rates, higher birth rates and lower mortality rates, caus-
agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the peo- ing a population boom throughout the British Empire, the
ple under normal circumstances, and that it was only dur- US and Europe.[41] The introduction of the potato also
ing exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the
of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not form of guano imported to Europe from Peru, and the
be met.[38] The Medieval Warm Period, between 900– first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic com-
1300 AD, brought generally warmer global temperatures, pound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the
leading to increased harvests throughout Europe and a adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence
greater northern range for subtropical crops such as figs on grain caused repetitive regional and national famines
and olives. Greenland and Iceland were settled by Euro- when the crops failed: 17 major famines in England alone
peans during this period, and supported agricultural activ- between 1523 and 1623. Although initially almost elimi-
ities. The long-term warming period is generally thought nating the danger of famine, the resulting dependence on
to have occurred mainly in Europe, but other areas of the potato eventually caused the European Potato Fail-
the world experienced shorter warming periods at differ- ure, a disastrous crop failure from disease resulting in
ent times during this period, including China in the 11th widespread famine, and the death of over one million peo-
and 12th centuries, with similar effects on agriculture. ple in Ireland alone.[42]
The climate variations found in Europe during the Me-
dieval Warm Period returned to more moderate levels in
the 15th century, and terminated in the Little Ice Age of 2.6 Modern developments
the 16th-mid 19th centuries.[39]
Further information: British Agricultural Revolution
See also: List of agricultural machinery, Industrial agri-
2.5 Global exchange culture and Mechanized agriculture
The British Agricultural Revolution, with its massive in-

The Harvesters. Pieter Bruegel – 1565

After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops

and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this
exchange included maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and
manioc traveling from the New World to the Old, and
several varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips going
from the Old World to the New. There were very few
livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle,
sheep and goats being completely unknown before their
arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both
directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population
growth around the world, and had a lasting effect on many
cultures.[40]
After its introduction from South America to Spain in the
late 1500s, the potato became an important staple crop
throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed Plans for Jethro Tull’s seed drill, from 1752.
farmers to produce more food, and initially added vari-
6 2 HISTORY

creases in agricultural productivity and net output, is a plough, for example, was a heavy implement with wheels
topic of ongoing debate among historians and agricul- in the 1500s. By the 1600s it was lighter, and by 1730, the
tural scholars. The changes in agriculture in Britain be- Rotherham plough dramatically changed farming with no
tween the 16th and 19th centuries would subsequently af- wheels, interchangeable parts, stronger construction and
fect agriculture around the world. Major points of de- less weight. During the early 1800s, cast iron replaced
velopment included enclosure, mechanization, crop rota- wood for many parts, leading to longer-lasting imple-
tion and selective breeding. Prior to the 1960s, historians ments. Seed drills had been under development since the
viewed the British Agricultural Revolution of having been early 1500s, but it was Jethro Tull's 1731 invention of
“largely facilitated by a small number of key innovators,” a horse-drawn seed drill and horse hoe (a small plough
including Robert Bakewell,[43] Thomas Coke and Charles to hoe between crop rows) that would eventually revolu-
Townshend. However, modern historians disperse much tionize planting in Britain, although they would not be-
of the importance surrounding these individual men, and come popular until the early 1800s.[52] Andrew Meikle
instead point to them holding a smaller position within a patented the first practical threshing machine in 1784.[53]
major societal shift regarding agriculture in Britain. The Industrial Revolution caused a boom in international
The agricultural changes, along with industrialization and trade and shipping. Increased production caused a rise
migration, allowed the population of Britain, as well as in the need for raw materials, with European merchants
other countries who followed its model, such as the US, purchasing the majority of the goods. The value of goods
Germany and Belgium, to escape from the Malthusian traded worldwide increased by five times between 1750
trap and increase both their population and their standard and 1914, with annual shipping tonnages increasing from
of living. It is estimated that the productivity of wheat in 4 million to 30 million tons between 1800 and 1900.
England went up from about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 In the second half of the 19th century, trade also ex-
to 21–22 bushels by the middle of the century and finally panded in the food (including grain and meat) and wool
stabilized at around 30 bushels by 1840.[44][45][46] markets, and England (with the repeal of the Corn Laws
Premodern agriculture across Europe was characterized in 1846) began to trade quantities of industrial products
by the feudal open field system, where farmers worked for wheat from around the world. The vast expansion
on strips of land in fields that were held in common; of railroads that followed the invention of the steam en-
this was inefficient and reduced the incentive to improve gine further revolutionized world trade, especially in the
productivity.[47] Many farms began to be enclosed by Americas and East Asia, as goods could now be more
yeomen who improved the use of their land. This process easily traded across vast land distances.[54] The devel-
opments of heat processing and refrigeration in the 19th
of land reform accelerated in the 18th century with spe-
cial acts of Parliament to expedite the legal process.[48] century led to a similar revolution in the meat industry,
as they allowed meat to be shipped long distances without
The consolidation of large, privately owned holdings, en-
couraged the improvement of productivity through exper- spoiling. Countries in tropical locations, such as Australia
and South America, were at the forefront of this effort.[55]
imentation by enterprising landowners. By the 1750s, the
market for agriculture was substantially commercialized
- crop surpluses were routinely sold by the producers on
the market or exported elsewhere.[48][49]
These social changes were coupled with technical im-
provements. New methods of crop rotation and land
use resulted in large additions to the amount of arable
land. The four-field crop rotation was popularized by
Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system
(wheat, turnips, barley and clover), opened up a fodder
crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-
round. Yields of cereal crops increased as farmers uti-
lized nitrogen-rich manure and nitrogen fixing-crops such
as clover, increasing the available nitrogen in the soil and
removing the limiting factor on cereal productions that Early 20th century image of a tractor ploughing an alfalfa field.
had existed prior to the early 19th century. This improved
production per farmer led to an increase in population In the mid-1800s, horse drawn machinery, such as the
and in the available workforce, creating the labor force McCormick reaper, revolutionized harvesting, while in-
needed for the Industrial Revolution.[50] ventions such as the cotton gin made possible the pro-
The development of agriculture into its modern form cessing of large amounts of crops. During this same
was made possible through a continuing process of period, farmers began to use steam-powered threshers
mechanization.[51] Prior to this, basic agricultural tools and tractors, although they were found to be expensive,
had slowly been improved over centuries of use. The dangerous and a fire hazard. The first gasoline-powered
tractors were successfully developed around 1900, and in
 7

1923, the International Harvester Farmall tractor became markedly in the late 1960s. It involved the develop-
the first all-purpose tractor, and marked a major point ment of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expan-
in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) sion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of man-
with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechan- agement techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds,
ical harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.[60] The ini-
other equipment have been developed, further revolu- tiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the “Father of the Green
tionizing agriculture.[51] These inventions allowed farm- Revolution”, are credited with saving hundreds of mil-
ing tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously lions of people from starvation.[61] Demographer Thomas
impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater Malthus in 1798 famously predicted that the Earth would
volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.[56] not be able to support its growing population, but tech-
nologies such as those promoted by the Green Revolu-
The scientific investigation of fertilization began at the
Rothamsted Experimental Station in 1843 by John Ben- tion have[62] thus far allowed the world to produce a surplus
of food.
net Lawes. He developed the first commercial process
for fertilizer production - the obtaining of phosphate Although the Green Revolution significantly increased
from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.[57] In rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in
1909 the revolutionary Haber-Bosch method to synthe- the past 15–20 years. The genetic yield potential has in-
size ammonium nitrate was first demonstrated; it repre- creased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not
sented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize
overcome previous constraints. In the years after World has “barely increased in 35 years”.[63] It takes a decade or
War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects
sync with the increasing world population.[58] become resistant to insecticides within about a decade.
Crop rotation helps to prevent resistances.[63]
The cereals rice, corn, and wheat provide 60% of hu-
2.6.1 Recent
man food supply.[64] Between 1700 and 1980, “the to-
tal area of cultivated land worldwide increased 466%"
See also: Green Revolution
and yields increased dramatically, particularly because of
selectively bred high-yielding varieties, fertilizers, pesti-
Despite the tremendous gains in agricultural productivity, cides, irrigation, and machinery.[64] However, concerns
famines continued to sweep the globe through the 20th have been raised over the sustainability of intensive agri-
century. Through the effects of climatic events, govern- culture. Intensive agriculture has become associated with
ment policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died decreased soil quality in India and Asia, and there has
in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the been increased concern over the effects of fertilizers and
1990s.[59] pesticides on the environment, particularly as population
increases and food demand expands. The monocultures
typically used in intensive agriculture increase the num-
ber of pests, which are controlled through pesticides.
Integrated pest management (IPM), which “has been pro-
moted for decades and has had some notable successes”
has not significantly affected the use of pesticides be-
cause policies encourage the use of pesticides and IPM is
knowledge-intensive.[64] In the 21st century, plants have
been used to grow biofuels, pharmaceuticals (including
biopharmaceuticals),[65] and bioplastics.[66]

3 Contemporary agriculture
In the past century agriculture has been characterized
by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic
Norman Borlaug, father of the Green Revolution, is often cred- fertilizers and pesticides for labor, water pollution, and
ited with saving hundreds of millions of people worldwide from farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash
starvation. against the external environmental effects of conventional
agriculture, resulting in the organic and sustainable agri-
The Green Revolution refers to a series of research, de- culture movements.[67][68] One of the major forces be-
velopment, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring hind this movement has been the European Union, which
between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of
agriculture production around the world, beginning most its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase
8 4 WORKFORCE

20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. Some

of these shortages resulted in food riots and even deadly
stampedes.[74][75][76] The International Fund for Agricul-
tural Development posits that an increase in smallholder
agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about
food prices and overall food security. They in part base
this on the experience of Vietnam, which went from a
food importer to large food exporter and saw a signifi-
cant drop in poverty, due mainly to the development of
smallholder agriculture in the country.[77]
Disease and land degradation are two of the major con-
cerns in agriculture today. For example, an epidemic of
stem rust on wheat caused by the Ug99 lineage is currently
spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing ma-
jor concerns due to crop losses of 70% or more under
some conditions.[78] Approximately 40% of the world’s
agricultural land is seriously degraded.[79] In Africa, if
current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent
Satellite image of farming in Minnesota might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025,
according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural
Resources in Africa.[80]
Agrarian structure is a long-term structure in the
Braudelian understanding of the concept. On a larger
scale the agrarian structure is more dependent on the re-
gional, social, cultural and historical factors than on the
state’s undertaken activities. Like in Poland, where de-
spite running an intense agrarian policy for many years,
the agrarian structure in 2002 has much in common with
that found in 1921 soon after the partitions period.[81]
In 2009, the agricultural output of China was the largest
in the world, followed by the European Union, India and
the United States, according to the International Mone-
tary Fund (see below). Economists measure the total fac-
tor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agri-
culture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more pro-
ductive than it was in 1948.[82]

Infrared image of the above farms. Various colors indicate

healthy crops (red), flooding (black) and unwanted pesticides 4 Workforce
(brown).
As of 2011, the International Labour Organization states
that approximately one billion people, or over 1/3 of the
out commodity-linked farm subsidies,[69] also known as available work force, are employed in the global agricul-
decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed tural sector. Agriculture constitutes approximately 70%
research in alternative technologies such as integrated of the global employment of children, and in many coun-
pest management and selective breeding. Recent main- tries employs the largest percentage of women of any
stream technological developments include genetically industry.[83] The service sector only overtook the agricul-
modified food. tural sector as the largest global employer in 2007. Be-
In 2007, higher incentives for farmers to grow non-food tween 1997 and 2007, the percentage of people employed
biofuel crops[70] combined with other factors, such as in agriculture fell by over four percentage points, a trend
overdevelopment of former farm lands, rising transporta- that is expected to continue.[84] The number of people
tion costs, climate change, growing consumer demand in employed in agriculture varies widely on a per-country
China and India, and population growth,[71] caused food basis, ranging from less than 2% in countries like the US
shortages in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Mexico, and Canada to over 80% in many African nations.[85] In
as well as rising food prices around the globe.[72][73] As developed countries, these figures are significantly lower
of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and than in previous centuries. During the 16th century in
5.1 Crop cultivation systems 9

Europe, for example, between 55 and 75 percent of the 5.1 Crop cultivation systems
population was engaged in agriculture, depending on the
country. By the 19th century in Europe, this had dropped
to between 35 and 65 percent.[86] In the same countries
today, the figure is less than 10%.[85]

4.1 Safety

Rice cultivation at a paddy field in Bihar state of India

Rollover protection bar on a Fordson tractor

The Banaue Rice Terraces in Ifugao, Philippines

Agriculture remains a hazardous industry, and farmers
worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries,
lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the
as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and available resources and constraints; geography and cli-
prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, in- mate of the farm; government policy; economic, social
juries frequently involve the use of agricultural machin- and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of
ery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the farmer.[91][92]
developed countries is tractor rollovers.[87] Pesticides and
Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in
other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cul-
to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may tivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period
experience illness or have children with birth defects.[88]of several years.[93] Then the plot is left fallow to regrow
As an industry in which families commonly share in work forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning
and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at riskafter many more years (10–20). This fallow period is
for injuries, illness, and death.[89] Common causes of fa- shortened if population density grows, requiring the in-
tal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, put of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual
machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents.[89] pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of in-
The International Labour Organization considers agri- tensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires
culture “one of the most hazardous of all economic even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
sectors.”[83] It estimates that the annual work-related Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures,
death toll among agricultural employees is at least when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Be-
170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In ad- cause of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and
dition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of
agricultural activities often go unreported.[90] The orga- pesticides and fertilizers.[92] Multiple cropping, in which
nization has developed the Safety and Health in Agricul- several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and
ture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same
the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known
and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in as polycultures.[93]
agriculture should play.[83]
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and
extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either
not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or re-
5 Agricultural production systems quiring irrigation. In all of these environments peren-
nial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are
10 5 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environ-

ments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland
or prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dom-
inant farming system.[93]

5.1.1 Crop statistics

See also: List of most important agricultural crops

worldwide

Important categories of crops include cereals and

pseudocereals, pulses (legumes), forage, and fruits and
vegetables. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct
growing regions throughout the world. In millions of met- Oxen driven ploughs in India
ric tons, based on FAO estimate.

Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for

5.2 Livestock production systems
human consumption in confined operations, is one of the
fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an
Main article: Livestock
average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.[97]
See also: List of domesticated animals
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, During the second half of the 20th century, producers
using selective breeding focused on creating livestock
breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while
mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diver-
sity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in
genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds,
leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance
and local adaptations previously found among traditional
breeds.[98]
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant
material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for
feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may
be used, however manure is returned directly to the grass-
land as a major nutrient source. This system is particu-
Ploughing rice paddies with water buffalo, in Indonesia larly important in areas where crop production is not fea-
sible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 mil-
camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, are often lion pastoralists.[93] Mixed production systems use grass-
used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other land, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ru-
animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal minant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens
husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed
animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, systems as a fertilizer for crops.[95]
eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breed- Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm,
ing and care of species for work and companionship. representing the de-linking of crop and livestock produc-
Livestock production systems can be defined based on tion found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic
feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.[95] Co-operation and Development(OECD) member coun-
As of 2010, 30% of Earth’s ice- and water-free area tries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon
was used for producing livestock, with the sector em- for crop production and manure utilization becomes a
ploying approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the challenge as well as a source for pollution.[95] Industri-
1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase alized countries use these operations to produce much of
in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists esti-
weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the lat- mate that 75% of the growth in livestock production be-
ter of which had production increased by almost a factor tween 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feed-
of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg- ing operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much
producing chickens, also showed significant production of this growth is happening in developing countries in
increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.[96]
expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.[96] Some of the practices used in commercial livestock pro-
 11

duction, including the usage of growth hormones, are Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the
controversial.[99] greatest impact on food production if adopted in combi-
nation with each other; using a model that assessed how
eleven technologies could impact agricultural productiv-
6 Production practices ity, food security and trade by 2050, the International
Food Policy Research Institute found that the number
of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as
much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost
half.[108]
"Payment for ecosystem services (PES) can further in-
centivise efforts to green the agriculture sector. This is
an approach that verifies values and rewards the bene-
fits of ecosystem services provided by green agricultural
practices.”[109] “Innovative PES measures could include
reforestation payments made by cities to upstream com-
munities in rural areas of shared watersheds for improved
quantities and quality of fresh water for municipal users.
Road leading across the farm allows machinery access to the
Ecoservice payments by farmers to upstream forest stew-
farm for production practices.
ards for properly managing the flow of soil nutrients, and
methods to monetise the carbon sequestration and emis-
Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for
sion reduction credit benefits of green agriculture prac-
planting or for nutrient incorporation or for pest control.
tices in order to compensate farmers for their efforts to
Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It
restore and build SOM and employ other practices.” [109]
may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorpo-
rating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders
soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of
organic matter releasing CO2 , and reduces the abundance 7 Crop alteration and biotechnol-
and diversity of soil organisms.[100][101]
ogy
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects,
mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological
(biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices Main article: Plant breeding
are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for
cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and
resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use
all of these methods to keep pest populations below the
number which would cause economic loss, and recom-
mends pesticides as a last resort.[102]
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient
inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method
of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutri-
ent inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure,
green manure, compost and mined minerals.[103] Crop
nutrient use may also be managed using cultural tech-
niques such as crop rotation or a fallow period.[104][105]
Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed
crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational Tractor and chaser bin
grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations
of manure on cropland or pastures. thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization.
Altering crops through breeding practices changes the ge-
Water management is needed where rainfall is insuffi- netic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more bene-
cient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most re- ficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits
gions of the world.[93] Some farmers use irrigation to sup- or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Signif-
plement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains icant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work
in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to con- of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and
serve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the fol- recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for al-
lowing year.[106] Agriculture represents 70% of freshwa- most 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding
ter use worldwide.[107] of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding in-
According to a report by the International Food Policy cludes techniques such as plant selection with desirable
12 8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecu- Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its
lar techniques that genetically modify the organism.[110] genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased herbicides, including glyphosates. These seeds allow
yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with
eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value herbicides to control weeds without harming the resis-
of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had tant crop. Herbicide-tolerant
[119]
crops are used by farm-
enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. ers worldwide. With the increasing use of herbicide-
Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s im- tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-
based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate
proved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Ex-
tensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to
switch to other herbicides.[120][121] Some studies also
(i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s pro-
duced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in
some crops, which is both a crop production and a nu-
wheat, corn (maize) and barley.[111][112]
tritional quality concern, with potential economic and
The Green Revolution popularized the use of conven- health implications.[122]
tional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating
“high-yielding varieties”. For example, average yields of Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-
corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium
tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin spe-
about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, cific to insects.[123] These crops protect plants from dam-
worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less age by insects. Some believe that similar or better
than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional
American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can
under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with
with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in wild species. In some cases, wild species are the pri-
countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in mary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars
yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so
and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fer- through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.[124]
tilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid
lodging).[113][114][115]
8 Environmental impact
7.1 Genetic engineering Main article: Environmental issues with agriculture

Main article: Genetic engineering Agriculture imposes external costs upon society through
See also: Genetically modified food, Genetically modi-
pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, loss
fied crops, Regulation of the release of genetic modified of natural environment and assorted other problems. A
organisms and Genetically modified food controversies 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined to-
tal external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms per hectare.[125] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the
whose genetic material has been altered by genetic en- USA concluded that cropland imposes approximately
gineering techniques generally known as recombinant $5 to 16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while live-
DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the stock production imposes $714 million.[126] Both stud-
genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired ies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, con-
germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional cluded that more should be done to internalize external
content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide toler- costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but
ance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agri-
genetic engineering.[116] For some, GMO crops cause culture to society.[125][126] In 2010, the International Re-
food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous coun- source Panel of the United Nations Environment Pro-
tries have placed restrictions on the production, import gramme published a report assessing the environmen-
or use of GMO foods and crops, which have been put tal impacts of consumption and production. The study
in place due to concerns over potential health issues, de- found that agriculture and food consumption are two of
clining agricultural diversity and contamination of non- the most important drivers of environmental pressures,
GMO crops.[117] Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and
Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongo- toxic emissions.[127] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy re-
ing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from port states that "[a]gricultural operations, excluding land
GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO use changes, produce approximately 13 per cent of an-
foods to be labeled, the US does not.[118] thropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs
8.2 Land and water issues 13

expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation;

in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is
now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for
feedcrops.[129] Through deforestation and land degrada-
tion, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity.
Furthermore, the UNEP states that “methane emissions
from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per
cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption
patterns.” [109]

8.2 Land and water issues

See also: Environmental impact of irrigation

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and

services, is the most substantial way humans alter the
Earth’s ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in
the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land
transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.[130] Land
degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function
and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24%
Water pollution in a rural stream due to runoff from farming
of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.[131]
activity in New Zealand.
The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driv-
ing factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 bil-
emitted by the use of inorganic fertilisers agro-chemical lion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation
pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, min-
production of these inputs are included in industrial emis- eral depletion, or chemical degradation (acidification and
sions); and fossil fuel-energy inputs.[109] “On average we salinization).[93]
find that the total amount of fresh residues from agricul- Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems
tural and forestry production for second- generation bio- resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills,
fuel production amounts to 3.8 billion tonnes per year be- loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drink-
tween 2011 and 2050 (with an average annual growth rate ing and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and
of 11 per cent throughout the period analysed, account- manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock
ing for higher growth during early years, 48 per cent for stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and
2011-2020 and an average 2 per cent annual expansion phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land.
after 2020).” [109] These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contribut-
ing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.[132]
Agriculture accounts for 70% of withdrawals of fresh-
8.1 Livestock issues water resources.[133] Agriculture is a major draw on wa-
ter from aquifers, and currently draws from those under-
A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detail- ground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long
ing this problem, Henning Steinfeld, said “Livestock are known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China,
one of the most significant contributors to today’s most the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted,
serious environmental problems”.[128] Livestock produc- and new research extends these problems to aquifers in
tion occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.[134] Increasing pressure
30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the is being placed on water resources by industry and urban
largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agri-
of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in culture is facing the challenge of producing more food
CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits for the world’s growing population with reduced water
13.5% of the CO2 . It produces 65% of human-related resources.[135] Agricultural water usage can also cause
nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warm- major environmental problems, including the destruction
ing potential of CO₂,) and 37% of all human-induced of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases,
methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2 .) It and land degradation through salinization and waterlog-
also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock ging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.[136]
14 8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

8.3 Pesticides smart agriculture will be important, as will better use of

scientific information on climate for assessing risks and
Main article: Environmental impact of pesticides vulnerability. Planners and policy-makers will need to
help create suitable policies that encourage funding for
such agricultural transformation.[146]
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million
tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has re- Agriculture can both mitigate or worsen global warm-
mained relatively constant.[137] The World Health Orga- ing. Some of the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere
nization estimated in 1992 that 3 million pesticide poi- comes from the decomposition of organic matter in the
sonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.[138] Pes- soil, and much of the methane emitted into the atmo-
ticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest popula- sphere is caused by the decomposition of organic matter
tion, leading to a condition termed the 'pesticide tread- in wet soils such as rice paddies,[147] as well as the nor-
mill' in which pest resistance warrants the development mal digestive activities of farm animals. Further, wet or
of a new pesticide.[139] anaerobic soils also lose nitrogen through denitrification,
releasing the greenhouse gases nitric oxide and nitrous
An alternative argument is that the way to 'save the en-
oxide.[148] Changes in management can reduce the re-
vironment' and prevent famine is by using pesticides
lease of these greenhouse gases, and soil can further be
and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified
used to sequester some of the CO2 in the atmosphere.[147]
by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Is-
Informed by the UNEP, "[a]griculture also produces
sues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land
about 58 per cent of global nitrous oxide emissions and
for nature'.[140][141] However, critics argue that a trade-
about 47 per cent of global methane emissions. Both of
off between the environment and a need for food is
these gases have a far greater global warming potential per
not inevitable,[142] and that pesticides simply replace
tonne than CO2 (298 times and 25 times respectively).”
good agronomic practices such as crop rotation.[139] The [109]
UNEP introduces the Push–pull agricultural pest man-
agement technique which involves intercropping that uses There are several factors within the field of agriculture
plant aromas to repel or push away pests while pulling that contribute to the large amount of CO2 emissions.
in or attracting the right insects. “The implementation The diversity of the sources ranges from the production of
of push-pull in eastern Africa has significantly increased farming tools to the transport of harvested produce. Ap-
maize yields and the combined cultivation of N-fixing proximately 8% of the national carbon footprint is due
forage crops has enriched the soil and has also provided to agricultural sources. Of that, 75% is of the carbon
farmers with feed for livestock. With increased livestock emissions released from the production of crop assisting
operations, the farmers are able to produce meat, milk chemicals.[149] Factories producing insecticides, herbi-
and other dairy products and they use the manure as or- cides, fungicides, and fertilizers are a major culprit of the
ganic fertiliser that returns nutrients to the fields.” [109] greenhouse gas. Productivity on the farm itself and the
use of machinery is another source of the carbon emis-
sion. Almost all the industrial machines used in modern
8.4 Climate change farming are powered by fossil fuels. These instruments
are burning fossil fuels from the beginning of the pro-
See also: Climate change and agriculture cess to the end. Tractors are the root of this source. The
tractor is going to burn fuel and release CO2 just to run.
The amount of emissions from the machinery increase
Climate change has the potential to affect agriculture with the attachment of different units and need for more
through changes in temperature, rainfall (timing and power. During the soil preparation stage tillers and plows
quantity), CO2 , solar radiation and the interaction of will be used to disrupt the soil. During growth watering
these elements.[93] Extreme events, such as droughts and pumps and sprayers are used to keep the crops hydrated.
floods, are forecast to increase as climate change takes And when the crops are ready for picking a forage or com-
hold.[143] Agriculture is among sectors most vulnerable bine harvester is used. These types of machinery all re-
to the impacts of climate change; water supply for ex- quire additional energy which leads to increased carbon
ample, will be critical to sustain agricultural production dioxide emissions from the basic tractors.[150] The final
and provide the increase in food output required to sus- major contribution to CO2 emissions in agriculture is in
tain the world’s growing population. Fluctuations in the the final transport of produce. Local farming suffered a
flow of rivers are likely to increase in the twenty-first cen- decline over the past century due to large amounts of farm
tury. Based on the experience of countries in the Nile subsidies. The majority of crops are shipped hundreds of
river basin (Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan) and other devel- miles to various processing plants before ending up in the
oping countries, depletion of water resources during sea- grocery store. These shipments are made using fossil fuel
sons crucial for agriculture can lead to a decline in yield burning modes of transportation. Inevitably these trans-
by up to 50%.[144] Transformational approaches will be port adds to carbon dioxide emissions.[151]
needed to manage natural resources in the future.[145] For
example, policies, practices and tools promoting climate-
 15

8.5 Sustainability the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed
to food processing, distribution, and agricultural market-
See also: List of sustainable agriculture topics ing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen
while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This
is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined
Some major organizations are hailing farming within
with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more
agroecosystems as the way forward for mainstream
highly processed products) provided by the supply chain.
agriculture. Current farming methods have resulted
Market concentration has increased in the sector as well,
in over-stretched water resources, high levels of ero-
and although the total effect of the increased market
sion and reduced soil fertility. According to a report
concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes
by the International Water Management Institute and
redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers)
UNEP,[152] there is not enough water to continue farm-
and consumers, and may have negative implications for
ing using current practices; therefore how critical wa-
rural communities.[160]
ter, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop
yields must be reconsidered. The report suggested assign- National government policies can significantly change
ing value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and the economic marketplace for agricultural products,
livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety in the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other
of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures.[161] Since at least the 1960s, a combination
measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such of import/export restrictions, exchange rate policies and
as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clear- subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing
ing of land to make way for more productive farmland, and developed world. In the 1980s, it was clear that non-
or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing subsidized farmers in developing countries were experi-
rights.[153] encing adverse affects from national policies that created
artificially low global prices for farm products. Between
Technological advancements help provide farmers
the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international
with tools and resources to make farming more
[154] agreements were put into place that limited agricultural
sustainable. New technologies have given rise to
tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.[162]
innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process
which helps prevent land loss to erosion, water pollution However, as of 2009, there was still a significant amount
and enhances carbon sequestration.[155] of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product
prices. The three agricultural products with the great-
According to a report by the International Food Pol-
est amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice,
icy Research Institute (IFPRI),[108] agricultural technolo-
mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had
gies will have the greatest impact on food production if
the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains
adopted in combination with each other; using a model
and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than live-
that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agri-
stock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions
cultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IF-
have seen a greater decrease among livestock products
PRI found that the number of people at risk from hunger
than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural
could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices
policy.[163] Despite this progress, certain crops, such as
could be reduced by almost half.
cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artifi-
cially deflating global prices, causing hardship in devel-
oping countries with non-subsidized farmers.[164] Unpro-
9 Agricultural economics cessed commodities (i.e. corn, soybeans, cows) are gen-
erally graded to indicate quality. The quality affects the
Main article: Agricultural economics price the producer receives. Commodities are generally
See also: Agricultural subsidy and Rural economics reported by production quantities, such as volume, num-
ber or weight.[165]

Agricultural economics refers to economics as it relates

to the “production, distribution and consumption of [agri-
cultural] goods and services”.[156] Combining agricultural
production with general theories of marketing and busi- 10 List of countries by agricultural
ness as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s,
and grew significantly through the 20th century.[157] Al-
output
though the study of agricultural economics is relatively
recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly af- Main article: List of countries by GDP sector composi-
fected national and international economies throughout tion
history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in See also: List of most important agricultural crops
the post-American Civil War Southern United States[158] worldwide
to the European feudal system of manorialism.[159] In
16 12 POLICY

11 Energy and agriculture 14

Production (10 9 bbls/yr)

proven reserves
12
250x10 9 bbls
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased 10
dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-
8
intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The
6 cumulative Future discoveries
vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel production 910x10 9 bbls
[166] 9
sources. Between the 1960–65 measuring cycle and 4 90x10 bbls

the cycle from 1986 to 1990, the Green Revolution trans- 2

formed agriculture around the globe, with world grain 0
production increasing significantly (between 70% and 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200
390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depend- Year
ing on geographic area)[167] as world population doubled.
Modern agriculture’s heavy reliance on petrochemicals M. King Hubbert's prediction of world petroleum produc-
and mechanization has raised concerns that oil shortages tion rates. Modern agriculture is totally reliant on petroleum
could increase costs and reduce agricultural output, caus- energy.[174]
ing food shortages.[168]
Modern or industrialized agriculture is dependent on fos-
sil fuels in two fundamental ways: 1. direct consumption tive than conventional practices that use petroleum-based
on the farm and 2. indirect consumption to manufacture pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. Some studies using
inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as
use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and high as those available from conventional farming.[175] In
machinery; and use of gasoline, liquid propane, and elec- the aftermath of the fall of the Soviet Union, with short-
tricity to power dryers, pumps, lights, heaters, and cool- ages of conventional petroleum-based inputs, Cuba made
ers. American farms directly consumed about 1.2 exa- use of mostly organic practices, including biopesticides,
joules (1.1 quadrillion BTU) in 2002, or just over 1% of plant-based pesticides and sustainable cropping prac-
the nation’s total energy.[168] tices, to feed its populace.[176] However, organic farm-
ing may be more labor-intensive and would require a
Indirect consumption is mainly oil and natural gas used to shift of the workforce from urban to rural areas.[177]
manufacture fertilizers and pesticides, which accounted The reconditioning of soil to restore nutrients lost during
for 0.6 exajoules (0.6 quadrillion BTU) in 2002.[168] the use of monoculture agriculture techniques also takes
The natural gas and coal consumed by the production of time.[175]
nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of the agri-
cultural energy usage. China utilizes mostly coal in the It has been suggested that rural communities might ob-
production of nitrogen fertilizer, while most of Europe tain fuel from the biochar and synfuel process, which uses
uses large amounts of natural gas and small amounts of agricultural waste to provide charcoal fertilizer, some fuel
coal. According to a 2010 report published by The Royal and food, instead of the normal food vs. fuel debate. As
Society, agriculture is increasingly dependent on the di- the synfuel would be used on-site, the process would be
rect and indirect input of fossil fuels. Overall, the fuels more efficient and might just provide
[178][179]
enough fuel for a
used in agriculture vary based on several factors, includ- new organic-agriculture fusion.
ing crop, production system and location.[173] The energy It has been suggested that some transgenic plants may
used to manufacture farm machinery is also a form of some day be developed which would allow for main-
indirect agricultural energy consumption. Together, di- taining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil-
rect and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for fuel-derived inputs than conventional crops.[180] The pos-
about 2% of the nation’s energy use. Direct and indi- sibility of success of these programs is questioned by
rect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable
and has gradually declined over the past 30 years.[168] GMO practices such as terminator seeds.[181][182] While
Food systems encompass not just agricultural produc- there has been some research on sustainability using
tion, but also off-farm processing, packaging, transport- GMO crops, at least one prominent multi-year attempt
ing, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and by Monsanto Company has been unsuccessful, though
food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than during the same period traditional breeding techniques
one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.[170][171] yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop.[183]

11.1 Mitigation of effects of petroleum

shortages 12 Policy

In the event of a petroleum shortage (see peak oil for Main article: Agricultural policy
global concerns), organic agriculture can be more attrac-
 17

industry that would have provided incentives for improv-

ing standards for health, and environmental regulations,
such as the number of animals an area of land can support
without long-term damage, were successfully defeated
due to large food company pressure.[187]

13 See also
Main article: Outline of agriculture

• Aeroponics

• Agricultural engineering

• Agricultural value chain

• Agroecology
From a Congressional Budget Office report
• Building-integrated agriculture
Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions • Contract farming
and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports
of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually • Corporate farming
implement agricultural policies with the goal of achiev-
ing a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural prod- • Crofting
uct markets. Some overarching themes include risk
• Ecoagriculture
management and adjustment (including policies related
to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), • Feed additive
economic stability (including policies related to taxes),
natural resources and environmental sustainability (es- • Hill farming
pecially water policy), research and development, and
market access for domestic commodities (including rela- • List of documentary films about agriculture
tions with global organizations and agreements with other
• Pharming (genetics)
countries).[184] Agricultural policy can also touch on food
quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent • Remote sensing
and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food
supply meets the population’s needs, and conservation. • Subsistence economy
Policy programs can range from financial programs, such
as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in volun- • Vertical farming
tary quality assurance programs.[185]
There are many influences on the creation of agricultural
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doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0172.
• Alvarez, Robert A (2007). “The March of
[174] “World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, Empire: Mangos, Avocados, and the Politics
warn scientists”. The Independent. 14 June 2007. of Transfer”. Gastronomica 7 (3): 28–33.
doi:10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28.
[175] “Can Sustainable Agriculture Really Feed the World?".
University of Minnesota. August 2010. Retrieved 15 • Bolens, L. (1997). “Agriculture” in Selin,
April 2013. Helaine (ed.), Encyclopedia of the History of Sci-
ence, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western
[176] “Cuban Organic Farming Experiment”. Harvard School Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-
of Public Health. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
drecht/Boston/London, pp. 20–22.
[177] Strochlic, R.; Sierra, L. (2007). “Conventional, Mixed, • Collinson, M. (ed.) A History of Farming Systems
and “Deregistered” Organic Farmers: Entry Barriers and Research. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 978-0-
Reasons for Exiting Organic Production in California”
85199-405-5
(PDF). California Institute for Rural Studies. Retrieved
15 April 2013. • Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short his-
tory of everybody for the last 13,000 years, 1997.
[178] P. Read (2005). “Carbon cycle management with in-
creased photo-synthesis and long-term sinks” (PDF). Geo- • Mazoyer, Marcel; Roudart, Laurence (2006). A his-
physical Research Abstracts 7: 11082. tory of world agriculture: from the Neolithic Age to
the current crisis. Monthly Review Press, New York.
[179] Greene, Nathanael (December 2004). “How biofuels can
ISBN 978-1-58367-121-4
help end America’s energy dependence”. Biotechnology
Industry Organization. • Watson, A.M. (1983). Agricultural Innovation in the
Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press.
[180] Srinivas (June 2008). “Reviewing The Methodologies For
Sustainable Living” 7. The Electronic Journal of Environ-
mental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
16 External links
[181] R. Pillarisetti and Kylie Radel (June 2004). “Economic
and Environmental Issues in International Trade and Pro- • Official website of the Food and Agriculture Orga-
duction of Genetically Modified Foods and Crops and the
nization (FAO) of the United Nations
WTO” 19 (2). Journal of Economic Integration. pp. 332–
352. • Official website of the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA)
[182] Conway, G. (2000). “Genetically modified crops: risks
and promise”. 4(1): 2. Conservation Ecology. • Official website of the USDA’s Agricultural
Research Service
[183] “Monsanto failure”. New Scientist 181 (2433) (London).
7 February 2004. Retrieved 18 April 2008. • Agriculture Research Guide from the Government
Information Library of the University of Colorado,
[184] Lindsay Hogan and Paul Morris (October 2010). Boulder
“Agricultural and food policy choices in Australia”
(PDF). Sustainable agriculture and food policy in the 21st • Agriculture material from the World Bank Group
century: challenges and solutions (Australian Bureau of
Agricultural and Resource Economics – Bureau of Rural • Agriculture collected news and commentary at The
Sciences): 13. Retrieved 22 April 2013. New York Times

[185] “Agriculture: Not Just Farming ...”. European Union. Re- • Agriculture collected news and commentary at The
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[186] Ikerd, John (2010). “Corporatization of Agricultural Pol-

icy”. Small Farm Today Magazine.
24 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Silberštejn, Weetoddid, Parfwa, Melissae on a quest ..., Jhfortier, A little insignificant, DivineAlpha, HamburgerRadio, Atlantia, Citation
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IceTi, 10metreh, Onthegogo, Calmer Waters, Wikitanvir, SpaceFlight89, BoromirFaramir, Kevintampa5, RandomStringOfCharacters,
Latingurlargentina, Therentedhat, Merlion444, Heyheyhaha, Jean.caron, Wikididact, Tim1357, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk,
‫کاشف عقیل‬, SchreyP, Marjolaine11, Orangesodakid, Callanecc, LSUniverse, Dinamik-bot, Arunshank, Vrenator, DragonofFire, Gben-
nell, Katieabrams, Mrobson70, Jrstinkerbell, NicholasCarlough, Mahuna2, Stalwart111, Cisco92, Stegop, Diannaa, Tbhotch, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Mitchell93lucas, Tryanocars, JohnPRussell, RjwilmsiBot, Japheth the Warlock, Valentin Zahrnt, Casperwy1,
Aircorn, WarHero153, DASHBot, , EmausBot, Darshi19, Oliverlyc, Immunize, Mordgier, ScottyBerg, Flanagan123456789, Gra-
hamSmithe, GoingBatty, Runt2468, RA0808, Minimac’s Clone, L235, Sp33dyphil, Radelet, Solarra, Passionless, Slightsmile, Good888,
Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, AsceticRose, Thecheesykid, Italia2006, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Fæ, Ogemah, Hazard-SJ, Mobius Bot, Bat-
toe19, Nemoinfinite, SporkBot, Zap Rowsdower, Person 1243, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Agrónomos, Loveuforevers, Jesanj,
Δ, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Heliumsingh5000, Nickk1954, Noodleki, Donner60, Epicstonemason, Sailsbystars, Kenny
Michaels, Puffin, Monteitho, Agman2010, Subrata Roy, Tijfo098, ChuispastonBot, HandsomeFella, Reznako, Datizyou, Wakebrdkid,
Rolomagic616, Sven Manguard, SchmoeShmucker, Harryalex, FeatherPluma, Rocketrod1960, Tarr10, ClueBot NG, Aaron Booth, Andy-
hoz, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Ulflund, Raulthomas, Arunankapilan, MelbourneStar, Gog101, Cheddlemsic, SusikMkr, Rainbowwrasse,
Skoot13, Snotbot, Monsoon Waves, O.Koslowski, Jamesbailie123, Leticia41, Widr, Karl 334, Ryan Vesey, Anupmehra, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Thisthat2011, Trolld, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, Gob Lofa, Udkadam, Lowercase sigmabot, Onewithbow, Krenair, The Banner Turbo,
MKar, Hunterchristlieb, TCN7JM, Iselilja, Callumgifkins, Northamerica1000, McZusatz, Frze, Seergenius, Palak.mining, IraChesterfield,
Sophieammy, Joydeep, Mythpage88, Altaïr, Lkahnmd, Manjrekar, Leonen Dunbarrow, Snow Blizzard, Gwickwire, Chas5499, Erianne,
Genitalmunchinggypsy, Ashwinsingh82, Imjustmakingthisforfun, Greenworldbvi, Marcjarod, Ffrc, Shaun, Rutebega, FARTS123456789,
Fylbecatulous, BattyBot, Needafarmer, Darylgolden, Riley Huntley, HueSatLum, Alex56458, Mdann52, Crichardson102891, Andoorn-
borg, E prosser, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Farmtechnocratsforum, Rsmary, EuroCarGT, Miguel raul, JYBot, 4454b2, Dexbot, Han-
rysingh, Cerabot~enwiki, Mxheil, Lugia2453, SFK2, Anisha27990203, Sriharsh1234, Hsavfhgqwev, Evilresider0129, Maria.tomassetti,
Epicgenius, Cyzhou, I am One of Many, Kcheng20, Poolala1, HistoryTimP, Habibibibalani, Eyesnore, EvergreenFir, Dalmatinaa, Back-
endgaming, Geraldatyrrell, DavidLeighEllis, MaskedHero, Dylanhunt53, Jsmith.buss, Pokemontroller, 1Halpo1, Ugog Nizdast, Klugh,
BigBrotherMouse, Patmichaelis, AioftheStorm, Ginsuloft, Keepsgames, Acalycine, Jackmcbarn, Climate123, Mami Ub, Anrnusna, Oma-
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Mayainnanajah, Clennon1230, Jnthigpen, SFcyclone, Amazin45, JoeHebda, HK9900, Bangbanggoesthegun, Mrawesome63, Oliverlan-
ning, Kyle1234543, Kromegroup, EoRdE6, 468SM, Apenuta, Schesank, Abgreen3434, Jodielavery, Jbitz743, Tacopanda, Madizee11,
CJohnsAFA, Joseph2302, Anand2202, H2o987, Arosekat, KasparBot, Briklo89, Jaksman, Tblakely600, MesaWind, Yomama2134 and
Anonymous: 1569

17.2 Images
• File:Agriculture_(Plowing)_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Agriculture_
%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 300 ppi scan of Collier’s New Encyclopedia, Volume 1
(1921), opposite page 58, panel H. Original artist: Ewing Galloway
• File:Brao_Couple_Planting_Food.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Brao_Couple_Planting_Food.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BigBrotherMouse
• File:Chvojnica_hills_near_Unin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Chvojnica_hills_near_Unin.jpg
License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stanislav Doronenko
26 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/ClaySumerianSickle.jpg License: CC BY

2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Corn_01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Corn_01.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Transferred from ml.wikipedia by Sreejith K (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Sreejithk2000' title='User talk:
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• File:Crescenzi_calendar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://ecole.orange.fr/college.saintebarbe/moyenage/travaux.htm#Saison Original artist: Maître du Boccace de
Genève
• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics by
Dbenbenn)
• File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
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inal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
• File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006

• File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
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nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-
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• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
17.2 Images 27

• File:Ford_Tractor_with_ROPS_bar_fitted.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Ford_Tractor_with_

ROPS_bar_fitted.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia.org [1]: 2008-06-01 17:49 . . BulldozerD11 . .
3072×2304 (1825102 bytes) . . I created this image entirely by myself. Original artist: BulldozerD11
• File:Hubbert_peak_oil_plot.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Hubbert_peak_oil_plot.svg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfered to Commons by User:Pline using CommonsHelper. Original artist:
Original uploader was Hankwang at en.wikipedia
• File:Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_(1762).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_
%281762%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Horse-hoeing husbandry by Jethro Tull 4th edition, from 1762, plate IV Original
artist: Jethro Tull
• File:KerbauJawa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/KerbauJawa.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Merbabu
• File:Leaf_1_web.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: PdPhoto Original artist: Jon Sullivan
• File:Mt_Uluguru_and_Sisal_plantations.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Mt_Uluguru_and_
Sisal_plantations.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Muhammad Mahdi Karim (www.micro2macro.net)
Facebook Youtube
• File:Norman_Borlaug.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
• File:Paddy_fields_in_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Paddy_fields_in_India.jpg License:
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• File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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Original artist: ?
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using Landsat data provided by the United States Geological Survey. Instrument: Landsat 5 - TM.) Original artist: NASA Earth
Observatory, Jesse Allen
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386905main_moorhead_tm5_2009253.jpg (linked from “Snapshots From Space Cultivate Fans Among Midwest Farmers”) and
moorhead_tm5_2009253_lrg.jpg (linked from “Precision Farming in Minnesota”)
Original artist: NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen
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main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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utors: McCouch S: Diversifying Selection in Plant Breeding. PLoS Biol 2/10/2004: e347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020347
Original artist: Unknown
• File:Roman_harvester,_Trier.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Roman_harvester%2C_Trier.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Sheep_and_cow_in_South_Africa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Sheep_and_cow_in_
South_Africa.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Who did you call a sheep?? Original artist: Lollie-Pop from Cape Town, South Africa
• File:Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/
Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/anand_bdr/
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• File:Trilla_del_trigo_en_el_Antiguo_Egipto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Trilla_del_trigo_en_
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• File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Ueberladewagen_%28jha%29.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: Original Ueberladewagen.jpg: Own work (Hinrich) Original artist: Hinrich
• File:United_States_farm_subsidies_(source_Congressional_Budget_Office).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/58/United_States_farm_subsidies_%28source_Congressional_Budget_Office%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Arichnad
• File:Veranotrigo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/soilscience/2513807337/ Original artist: Soil-Science.info
• File:Water_pollution_in_the_Wairarapa.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Water_pollution_in_
the_Wairarapa.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan Liefting
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
28 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

17.3 Content license

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