applied

sciences
Article
RT Engine: An Efficient Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing
Run Yan 1 , Libo Huang 1, *, Hui Guo 1 , Yashuai Lü 2 , Ling Yang 1 , Nong Xiao 1 , Yongwen Wang 1 , Li Shen 1
and Mengqiao Lan 1

1 School of Computer, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410005, China

2 Huawei 2012 Labs, Beijing 100089, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The reality of the ray tracing technology that leads to its rendering effect is becoming
increasingly apparent in computer vision and industrial applications. However, designing efficient
ray tracing hardware is challenging due to memory access issues, divergent branches, and daunting
computation intensity. This article presents a novel architecture, a RT engine (Ray Tracing engine),
that accelerates ray tracing. First, we set up multiple stacks to store information for each ray so that
the RT engine can process many rays parallel in the system. The information in these stacks can
effectively improve the performance of the system. Second, we choose the three-phase break method
during the triangle intersection test, which can make the loop break earlier. Third, the reciprocal
unit adopts the approximation method, which combines Parabolic Synthesis and Second-Degree
interpolation. Combined with these strategies, we implement our system at RTL level with agile chip
development. Simulation and experimental results show that our architecture achieves a performance
per area which is 2.4 × greater than the best reported results for ray tracing on dedicated hardware.

Keywords: machine vision; computer graphics; hardware architecture; rendering; ray tracing;
graphics accelerators

Citation: Yan, R.; Huang, L.; Guo, H.;

1. Introduction
Lü, Y.; Yang, L.; Xiao, N.; Wang, Y.;
Shen, L.; Lan, M. RT Engine: An As a central topic of computer graphics, rendering is the process of synthesizing
Efficient Hardware Architecture for an image from a 3D scene. The domain rendering algorithm falls into two branches:
Ray Tracing. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599. rasterization [1] and ray tracing [2]. The rasterization method maps geometry in the
https://doi.org/10.3390/ scene into pixels. This method is very effective in hardware acceleration. Currently, most
app12199599 graphics processing units (GPUs) generate 3D photos in the rasterization method. However,
Received: 30 August 2022
the image quality is limited because it only deals with local illumination. On the other
Accepted: 19 September 2022
hand, the ray tracing technique generates high-quality 3D photos. It produces 3D images
Published: 24 September 2022
by simulating the optical properties of light, such as reflection, refraction, and shadow.
Many modern graphics applications, high-end games [3], movie special effects [4], Virtual
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Reality (VR) [5], and computer-aided design require a high-quality visual experience that
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
is challenging for rasterization, but is straightforward for ray tracing.
published maps and institutional affil-
The essence of ray tracing is to find the closest objects that intersect with rays in 3D
iations.
scenes and then transmit the results of the intersection test to a shader for graph coloring.
Researchers proposed the acceleration structure (AS) to accelerate the testing speed. The
idea is to arrange the graphics primitives in hierarchical spatial structures. This way, the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
test of rays and scenes can quickly eliminate those unrelated spaces and identify the closest
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. primitives to the rays. The widely used acceleration structure is a tree structure. The leaf
This article is an open access article nodes of the tree include all scene primitives, and the internal nodes of the tree are used
distributed under the terms and to subdivide a sizeable spatial representation into multiple smaller spatial regions (KD-
conditions of the Creative Commons trees [6]) or decompose the objects in the scene into smaller object sets (Bounding Volume
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Hierarchy (BVH) [7]). Based on the spatial structures, ray tracing is divided into two main
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ parts: the ray traverse with acceleration structure and the intersection test between ray
4.0/). and primitives. The calculation of this part is one of the main bottlenecks in improving the

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199599 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 2 of 14

performance of ray tracing [8]. This test occupies nearly 70–80% of total calculation time.
Therefore, many studies are concerned about the ray traversal and intersection tests that
achieve higher performance.
In the past few decades, many researchers worldwide have carried out significant
research into ray tracing software and hardware acceleration. Various platforms are used
at the hardware acceleration level, including central processing units (CPUs), GPUs, and
dedicated hardware. Due to the hardware features, GPUs and dedicated hardware show
significant performance advantages. There is a lot of research on optimizing GPUs’ accel-
eration. Ray tracing was challenging to implement on GPUs because early GPUs did not
support general-purpose computation. Nathan A. Carr et al. [9] made the first attempt
to implement ray tracing on a GPU. However, they only implemented the intersection
test. This unit reconfigured the geometry engine into a ray engine that efficiently inter-
sects caches of rays for many host-based rendering tasks. Timo Aila et al. [10] studied the
mapping of elementary acceleration structure traversal and primitive intersection onto
wide Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)/Single Instruction Multiple Threads (SIMT)
machines. Yahshua Lü et al. [11] proposed the Dynamic Ray Shuffling (DRS) architecture
for GPUs to address ray tracing control flow divergences. The critical insight was that
the primary control flow divergences caused by inconsistent ray traversal states of a warp
could be eliminated by DRS. Experimental results show that, for an estimated 0.11% area
cost, DRS significantly improves the SIMD efficiency for the tested benchmarks from 41.06%
to 81.04% on average. Lufei Liu et al. [12] explored integrating the ray prediction strat-
egy into existing GPU pipelines and improving the predictor effectiveness by predicting
nodes higher in the tree and regrouping and scheduling traversal operations in a low-cost,
reasonable manner. They found that GPU platform optimization pays more attention to
the calculation part of the algorithm. Reducing the processing of branches and reducing
the redundant operation through the optimization strategy of architecture to maximize
the hardware characteristics has achieved good profits in academic research. In addition,
commercial GPUs have also introduced accelerated architectures for ray tracing. In 2018,
NVIDIA launched the first ray tracing GPU with the first-generation RT Core in Turing
architecture [13]. In 2021, the Ampere architecture with the second-generation RT Core
was established [14]. The RT Cores replace that software emulation, performing the tree
traversal and the ray/box and ray/triangle intersection tests. A ray query is sent from the
streaming multiprocessor (SM) to the RT Core. The RT Core uses dedicated evaluators to
test each ray against the box or, at the leaves of the tree, the triangles that make up the
scene. It does this repeatedly, optionally keeping track of the closest intersection found.
When the appropriate intersection point is determined, the result is returned to the SM for
further processing. In 2021, Imagination added the Ray Acceleration Cluster (RAC) of the
PowerVR Photon architecture to the C-series GPU to provide ray tracing IP technology
for the mobile phone market [15]. RAC uses a highly parallel Dual Triangle Tester Unit
to improve the efficiency of hardware computing. Its primary function is to perform the
intersecting test of the two triangles simultaneously and send the processing results to the
next stage. This series’ GPU is divided into single-core and multi-core models applied to
mobile and beyond mobile configurations.
In recent years, dedicated hardware has also been widely referenced in ray tracing
studies. SaarCOR [16] is a ray tracing pipeline consisting of a ray generation/shading unit,
a four-wide SIMD traversing unit, a list unit, a transformation, and an intersection test unit.
The T&I engine [17] is a hardware acceleration architecture of ray traversal and intersection
tests. This architecture adopts an order depth-first layout method to reduce memory band-
width. It proposes the three-phase ray-triangle intersection and a latency hiding architecture
defined as the ray accumulation unit. SGRT [18] is a real-time mobile ray tracing GPU.
It mainly includes two key features: (1) an area-efficient parallel pipelined traversal unit;
(2) flexible and high-performance kernels for shading and ray generation. RayCore [19]
mainly includes ray-tracing units (RTUs) based on a unified traversal and intersection
pipeline and a tree-building unit (TBU) for dynamic scenes. HART [20] utilizes hetero-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 3 of 14

geneous hardware resources: dedicated ray-tracing hardware for BVH update and ray
traversal and a CPU for BVH reconstruction. It also uses PrimAABB for traversal scheduling.
Lee et al. [21] optimized the SGRT [18] and proposed two-AABB traversal architecture
with two ray-AABB testing units. The experimental results showed that two-AABB was
up to 2.9 times faster than the single-pipeline architecture. Kopta et al. proposed STRaTA
(Streaming Treelet Ray Tracing Architecture) [22] to decrease energy consumption on mas-
sively parallel graphics processors. Viitanen et al. applied MBVH (Multi Bounding Volume
Hierarchy) [23] to a fixed-function ray tracing accelerator architecture. With primary rays,
energy efficiency improves by 15% and performance per area improves by 20%. Another
implementation approach is multiple streams, such as a different approach to hardware-
accelerated ray tracing, which begins by modifying the order of rendering operations,
proposed by Konstantin Shkurko et al. [24]. The dual steaming approach organizes the
memory access of ray tracing into two predictable data streams. E. Vasiou et al. [25] intro-
duced Mach-RT (Many Chip-Ray Tracing), a new hardware architecture used to accelerate
ray tracing. The primary approach combines a ray ordering scheme that minimizes access
to the scene data with a sizeable on-chip buffer acting as near-computer storage spread
over multiple chips.
From the perspective of existing academic research results and commercial GPUs, ray
tracing acceleration has gradually improved computing capabilities with the algorithm’s
progress and industrial technology’s development. Due to the different algorithms adopted
by different designs and the various purposes of the ray tracing hardware architecture,
many strategies have considerable differences in performance and hardware resource
overhead. However, they have some performance/area limitations, and we are focusing on
a more efficient hardware architecture for ray tracing.
Our main contributions to the literature are as follows:
(1) Three optimization methods for ray tracing memory access, branches, and functional
units, respectively;
(2) A new hardware architecture based on an area-efficient parallel pipelined ray traversal
and intersection unit;
(3) Implementation of the whole system at the RTL level and assess hardware resource
overhead.
The optimization methods are multiple stacks, three-phase break, and approximate
method of the reciprocal unit. Multiple stacks store information during ray traversal to
ensure system parallelism and reduce memory access. A three-phase break makes the
intersection of rays and primitives more efficient and allows an earlier exit from the loop.
The approximate method can significantly reduce the hardware overhead and can converge
faster. This paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, we describe the overall architecture
design and the data flow. Optimization and design methods for RT engine are discussed
in Section 3. In Section 4, we mainly evaluate and analyze the proposed architecture and
estimate the hardware consumption. The conclusion of the paper is presented in Section 5.

2. Overall System Architecture

In this section, we describe the overall architecture of the RT engine. We will illustrate
our basic design decisions, present the BVH ray tracing algorithm, introduce our system
architecture, and then describe the data flow of RT engine.

2.1. Basic Design Decision

There are many decisions to be made in our design, which we will describe next.
Domain-specific architectures: A more hardware-centric approach is to design ar-
chitectures tailored to a specific problem domain and offer significant performance (and
efficiency) gains for that domain. This design approach exploits more efficient parallelism
for the specific domain [26]. This design can speed up some applications compared to
running the entire application on a general-purpose CPU. DSAs can perform better because
they are better suited to the application’s needs. In addition, DSAs can make more effective
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 4 of 14

use of the memory hierarchy. Memory access has become much more costly than arithmetic
computations, as Horowitz [27] noted.
Acceleration structure: Many types of acceleration structure research focus on kd-tree
and BVH. In the last two decades, the bounding volume hierarchy (BVH) has become the
de facto standard acceleration structure for ray-tracing-based rendering algorithms [7]. The
BVH traversal algorithm usually occupies less memory bandwidth and has the characteris-
tics of a compact traversal state. NVIDIA [14] and Imagination [15] GPUs also choose BVH
as an acceleration structure in the industry. We choose binary-based BVH in our design. It
can effectively reduce hardware overhead and design costs compared to other kinds.
Per-ray traversal: There are two ways to determine ray-tracing traces. Packet traversal
means a group of rays following the same tree path. This is achieved by sharing the
traversal stack among the ray, which means that some rays will traverse those nodes
which will not intersect. The other is per-ray traversal, which allows each ray to traverse
independently, traversing the node’s children only when the node intersects with the ray.
Each ray requires a separate traversal stack to store the ray’s data. Our design chooses the
second way [7].
Primitive type: We use only triangles as the primitive type. This choice can improve
system performance and simplify designs because this method can eliminate branches
of different graphs. Therefore, other graphics before rendering should be converted into
triangles, just like rasterization-based GPU processing methods.
First-hit traversal: This approach is the most widely used and is indispensable for
computing the radiance at a shading point, which finds the nearest object in the direction of
a ray from its origin. In binary-based BVHs, this approach can efficiently push the farther
intersected node onto a stack and visit the closer one first [7].

2.2. Ray Tracing Algorithm

The BVH ray traversing algorithm can be described as the while–while loop [10] in
Algorithm 1. This algorithm’s initial value sets the node’s address to the root node of BVH,
and the initial value of the bottom of the stack is a mask. When a ray enters this loop, it
traverses from the root node. The outer while loop determines whether the current ray
has finished. When the node’s address is the mask of stacks, this indicates the current ray
has completed the traversal. The first inner while loop is a depth-first traversal of BVH.
The ray must intersect against the child nodes when the node is an internal node. If two
child nodes intersect against the ray, push the farther children into the stack, and the other
transfer to the next unit; if only one child node is intersected, traversal this child node; if no
child node is intersected, then pop the stack. The second inner while loop is the intersection
of leaf nodes. The primary purpose of this loop is to determine the intersection of rays
and primitives of the scene and calculate the intersection. The calculation results of this
loop can be used by the shader to render an image. After completing this part, the current
leaf node is complete. Then, it pops the stack. We adopt a multiple-stacks approach to
solve the parallelism of ray tracing. In addition, we also design two improved methods
to accelerate the speed of the triangle intersection test. We will introduce each of these
methods in detail next.
Algorithm 1 is a standard ray tracing algorithm for BVH. The current ray tracing algo-
rithm introduced stackless-based BVH Traversal, such as Hapala et al. [28]. This method
uses simple logic to sort each node’s parent pointer and minimize the stack’s use. How-
ever, it requires re-visiting internal nodes, which will cause some redundant operations.
Binder et al. [29] present a BVH backtracking algorithm in constant time with two tables.
The primary method is to prepare the bit trail and the current key for each level, which
causes BVH’s storage space to increase. In addition, two tables are needed to occupy ample
storage. The full-stack method will be easier and more efficient in dedicated hardware than
those implementation methods. In addition, many later works have also studied how to
use multi-branching wide BVH [23,30]. Compared with wide BVH, using binary-based
BVH can reduce the expenses of the operation and reduce redundant processes. So, we
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 5 of 14

finally chose this standard algorithm.

Algorithm 1: BVH Ray Tracing Algorithm

Input: ray, rootNode of the BVH
Output: intersection results
1 hit ← false
2 curNode ← rootNode
3 Stack ← φ
4 while curNode 6 = φ do
5 while curNode is a internal node do
6 for each child in curNode do
7 if curRay hits curNode.left and does not hit curNode.right then
8 Traverse(curRay, curNode.left)
9 if curRay hits curNode.right and does not hit curNode.left then
10 Traverse(curRay, curNode.right)
11 if curRay hits curNode.right and curNode.left then
12 if hit_distance_right ≤ hit_distance_left then
13 Traverse(curRay, curNode.right)
14 Stack.push(curNode.left)
15 if hit_distance_right > hit_distance_left then
16 Traverse(curRay, curNode.left)
17 Stack.push(curNode.right)

18 if curRay does not hit curNode.right or curNode.left then

19 curNode = Stack.pop

20 while curNode is a leaf node do

21 for triangles in the node do
22 hitnode← Intersection(ray,traiangle)
23 if hit then
24 return closest hit
25 break
26 curNode ← Stack.pop()

2.3. System Architecture

Figure 1 shows the overall design of the RT engine, which mainly includes memory
and five parts. These five parts are the Shader, Issue Ray, Ray Traversal, Stack Management,
and Triangle Intersection.
The Shader’s (SHD) purpose is to provide our system with rays, BVHs, and primitives
data. In addition, we can render our system results and generate expected rendering
images. This part is in conjunction with the CPU or GPU existing shader.
The Ray Traversal (TRV) unit is essential to the entire system design. This part
corresponds to the Traverse in Algorithm 1. The module completes the intersection between
rays and BVHs. Input is ray data and BVH data, and output results control what will
happen next. If the ray intersects the two child nodes of BVH, select the farther node, push
it to the stack, and choose the one nearer to the following stage. If the ray intersects only a
child node of BVH, it needs to be judged whether the node is a leaf node. If the ray does
not intersect with the two child nodes of the BVH, then pop the stack.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 6 of 14

Figure 1. Overall system architecture of RT engine.

The Stack Management unit is the key to ensuring multiple rays in the system parallel
processing. This part corresponds to the Stack.pop and Stack.push in Algorithm 1. Its primary
role is to operate the stack according to the results of the Ray Traversal unit and the Triangle
Intersection unit. To ensure the stacks’ accuracy and order, we added a LUT (Look Up
Table). This unit ensures that the data of rays and stacks can correspond.
The Triangle Intersection (IST) unit tests the intersection of the triangle and the ray
of the leaf node, which corresponds to the Intersection in Algorithm 1. For the design of
this part, we refer to the Woop algorithm [31]. This algorithm has three logical parts: the
ray-plane test, the barycentric test, and the final hit-point calculation. IST1 completes
the calculation of the ray-plane test. IST2 completes the barycentric test. IST3 completes
the final hit-point calculation. The design of this unit uses two optimization methods
to achieve a system performance improvement, which we will describe in detail in the
subsequent chapters.
Table 1 illustrates how rays move from unit to unit. The numbers in Table 1 correspond
to the numbers in Figure 1.

Table 1. Data flow.

No From→ To Purpose Next Process

1 SHD→MEM Generate data Input to MEM

2 DIS→ARB Dispatch new ray Determine priorities
3 LUT→ARB Inter from Stack Determine priorities
4 TRV→ARB Inter from TRV Determine priorities
5 ARB→MEM Input address Fetch data
6 MEM→TRV Input to TRV TRV with the BVH
7 TRV→MEM Node is a leaf Fetch leaf data
8 TRV→LUT Pop or push Stack process
9 LUT→MEM Leaf to MEM Fetch leaf
10 MEM→IST1 Stage1 of IST Triangle process
11 IST1→IST2 Stage2 of IST Triangle process
12 IST2→IST3 Stage3 of IST Triangle process
13 TRI→SHD hit to SHD Shader
14 TRI→LUT Break from IST Pop
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 7 of 14

3. Proposed RT Engine Architecture

3.1. Multiple Stacks
As shown in Algorithm 1, each ray is input to the TRV unit, and TRV will send the
information of nodes to the stack based on the results. If the ray intersects with two child
nodes, the farther node will be pushed to the stack, and closer nodes will be sent to the next
stage. If the ray does not interact with two child nodes, it will send a pop stack request. On
the other hand, when the triangle intersection test is completed, the IST will request the pop
stack. The stack features save the nodes and ensure the accuracy of the integrated process.
However, only one ray can be processed when there is only one stack in the system.
This design cannot achieve multiple ray parallel processing, resulting in a waste of hardware
resources. In this case, we consider setting a group of stacks to save the nodes’ information
of multiple rays. This kind of design allows multiple rays to process at the same time.
Stack Management is set in our system design to handle stack operations. To solve the
system’s accuracy when multiple stacks store nodes’ information, we set up the LUT unit
to manage stacks. The data stored in the stack are the nodes’ address, and the nodes may
be internal nodes or leaf nodes. As shown in Figure 2, the push request is from the TRV,
and the pop request is from TRV and IST. After the MUX selects the request, the current
corresponding ray’s address is compared to the ray’s address in the LUT. After matching
the ray’s address, the request will be sent into the corresponding stack. Such a design
guarantees the parallelism of the system while ensuring accuracy. Less hardware resource
overhead is used, achieving a relatively high performance improvement.
Compared with a single stack, the performance of multiple stacks by LUT can improve
by 9.99–20.78×.

Figure 2. Multiple stacks design.

3.2. Three-Phase Break for Intersection

Figure 3 shows the method from Woop [31], which is a fundamental algorithm for
triangle intersection tests. First, a ray-plane test depends on whether the ray and triangle
intersect within the t intervals. After this test, the next phase is used to perform a barycentric
test. This test phase checks the barycentric coordinates (u, v) to determine the point in the
hit within the triangle or outside. If the ray passes these two tests, the value of t, u, and v
can be calculated. The last phase comes from the intermediate value calculated by the first
two phases, determining Cramer’s rule.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 8 of 14

Figure 3. Triangle intersection test. (a) Ray-plane test, (b) barycentric test and (c) final hit point
calculation.

We set up IST1 to complete the ray-plane test. If it misses, it will break to LUT. This
unit calculated t value is first checked. The results mainly depend on whether the ray and
the triangle intersect at the t. The pop stack request is sent to the LUT if the test does not
pass. If the test passes, the t value will transmit to the IST2 unit to perform the following
process. The IST2 unit is for barycentric and obtains u. Then, we check u. A pop stack
request is issued to the LUT if the test is not passed. If the test passes, the obtained u value
will transmit to the IST3 for processing. The IST3 phase processes the v value, which can
determine if the ray intersects with a triangle and can return the value of t, u, and v. If we
can test it as early as possible, we can get stack operations to the LUT as soon as possible.
This design allows the triangle intersection test to get the output results earlier.
The simulation results show this method can effectively improve performance. For
the simulation results, see Table 2. IST1 break means it did not pass the ray-plane test, exit
Intersection, etc. For the test scene, see Figure 4.

Table 2. Three-phase break for intersection test results.

Test Scenes Conference Fairyforest Sibenik Sanmiguel

IST1 break 50.12% 34.86% 34.37% 28.96%
IST2 break 0 10.69% 21.66% 5.65%
IST3 break 49.88% 54.45% 43.97% 65.39%

Figure 4. Test scenes: Conference, Fairyforest, Sibenik and Sanmiguel with primary rays.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 9 of 14

3.3. Approximation Method for Reciprocal

In Algorithm 1, the Intersection needs reciprocal operation once. Our design uses the
approximation method for the reciprocal, which combines Parabolic Synthesis [32] and
Second-Degree interpolation [33]. Compared to other methods, this approach converges
faster and has a smaller chip area. Our floating-point calculation unit uses IEEE 754
standards. In the first step, we extracted the sign bit, the exponent bits, and the significand
bits of the divisor. The significand bits are issued to the inverter where the Harmonized
Parabolic Synthesis (approximation) is performed. In this block, the coefficients of the
synthesis method are stored in look-up tables.
To enable the entire process to handle the parallel processing, the processing of the
exponent is performed as follows:
removing the bias:
e0 = e − 127 (1)
inverting the sign and adding the bias:

e00 = 127 − e0 (2)

when equations 1 and 2 are combined:

e00 = 254 − e (3)

The schematic diagram of the entire process is in Figure 5. The reciprocal unit has been
tested for every possible input. The max error is 1.18358967 × 10−7 (≈ 2−23.01 ) which is
smaller than the machine epsilon (e) (upper bound for the error) that is commonly defined
as 2−23 (by ISO C, Matlab, etc.) for the single-precision floating-point format.

Figure 5. Block diagram of the reciprocal algorithm.

Reduced precision has many studies in ray tracing, such as Vaidyanathan et al. [34],
aiming to reduce the accuracy of BVH to improve performance. This method requires only
a few hardware resources to reduce traversal calculation complexity while maintaining
robust image quality. Our approach is different from the BVH accuracy. It is mainly
intended to maintain the accuracy of BVHs and find a novel way to reduce accuracy and
hardware resources in reciprocal operation.
To compare the reciprocal computing unit used by RT engine, we compare the area
overhead with the same functional units in other academic research. For comparison data,
see Table 3. The table lists several academic research studies about ray tracing on the
reciprocal area. The process of SGRT and HART is 65 nm, and the clock rate is 500 MHz.
We perform an approximate transformation to NAND2 under the same clock rate for a
better comparison.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 10 of 14

Table 3. Comparison of different reciprocal unit.

SGRT [18] HART [20] Ours

Clock rate (MHz) 500 500 500
Process (nm) 65 65 28
Area (µm2 ) 0.11 0.11 0.0059
NAND2 1 76,389 76,389 12,258
1 1 NAND2 ≈ 0.48 µm2 @28 nm; 1 NAND2 ≈ 1.44 µm2 @65 nm.

4. Simulation Results and Analysis

To achieve more accurate functional verification, we implement our system at the RTL
level with Verilog HDL (Hardware Description Language) by Chisel language [35]. We
create a simulator to cycle accurate simulations by Verilator and Scala, which can verify
the accuracy of the design. After simulation, the results provide the total number of cycles
used to generate a scene, hardware utilization, average steps, and hit results.
Our system uses BVHs with SAH [36]. Figure 4 shows the four test scenes: Confer-
ence (350K Tris), Fairyforest (186K Tris), Sibenik (97K Tris), and Sanmiguel (12.1M Tris),
respectively. We choose the primary ray to simulate the results. All scenes are rendered into
1920 × 1080 resolution. Finally, we use the synthesis tool to assess the hardware overhead.
The hardware setup is structured as follows. The RT engine has a total of 25 groups of
stacks. The depth of each stack is 64. Set three sets of FIFO with a depth of 25 in the ARB.
In addition, this paper focuses on the calculation of traversal and intersection tests, so no
cache is set.

4.1. Hardware Complexity and Area Estimation

In Table 4, we compare our architecture with other dedicated architectures. Our
architecture significantly reduces the number of floating-point units and has several features.
First, our algorithm is simpler and more efficient than other architectures. Second, we
use multiply–accumulate units to occupy less area than other architectures. Third, we use
fewer reciprocal units, as other architectural reciprocal units or divider units occupy a large
amount of chip area. Therefore, we can conclude that our architecture is more efficient than
previous researchers’ methods.

Table 4. Complexity of our design in terms of the number of floating-point units(RCP: reciprocal unit,
ADD: adder, MUL: multiplier, MAC: multiply accumulate, CMP: comparator, DIV: divider, SQR:
square root).

T&I [17] SGRT [18] RayCore [19] HART [20] RT Engine

FP CMP 108 49 71 211 26
FP ADD 86 36 73 107 13
FP MUL 92 34 110 107 16
FP MAC 0 0 0 0 17
FP RCP 2 1 0 4 1
FP DIV 0 0 11 0 0
FP SQR 0 0 4 0 0

Table 5 summarizes the area estimation of RT engine. Stacks, FIFOs, and functional
units require hardware resources. We estimated the area of this design to be 55.9% of the
total area for arithmetic units. Finally, we concluded that the RT engine occupies a 0.48 mm2
area with 28 nm process under an 850 MHz clock rate.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 11 of 14

Table 5. Area estimates of RT engine.

Functional Total Area Memory Total Area

Area (mm2 ) Area (mm2 )
Unit (mm2 ) Unit (mm2 )
FP CMP 0.00052 0.0135 Stacks 0.00431 0.108
FP ADD 0.00295 0.0384 FIFO 0.00379 0.011
FP MUL 0.00512 0.0819
FP MAC 0.00758 0.129
FP RCP 0.00606 0.00606
Total 0.48

4.2. Simulation Results

Table 6 shows our simulation results at the 850 MHz clock rate. It can be found from
the simulation results that different test scenes are different in resource utilization and stack
utilization rates. In general, the more complicated the test scenes, the higher the utilization
rate of the stack. IST will maintain a relatively low utilization rate, and the performance
will decrease. Under the configuration of a single core, our RT engine performance is from
16.59–92.74 MRPS (million rays per second).
Table 7 shows that our architecture performed better than existing ray tracing architec-
tures. To achieve performance comparison and assessment fairly, most of the performance
uses the same scene with our architecture. If there are none that are the same, we list the best
performance. The area data in Table 7 is the computing units of traversal and intersection
without cache, except that RayCore and Two-AABB did not mention the cache area.

Table 6. Performance comparison of the proposed ray-tracing hardware.

Utilization of Utilization of Utilization of Average Steps Average Step Performance

Scene
TRV IST Stacks (TRV) (IST) (MRPS)
Conference
99.9% 44.3% 68% 9.16 4.06 92.74
(350K Tris)
Fairyforest
99.9% 22.1% 84% 18.71 4.13 46.99
(186K Tris)
Sibenik
99.9% 45.9% 100% 26.26 13.36 28.43
(97.5K Tris)
Sanmiguel
99.9% 9.1% 100% 46.64 4.25 16.59
(12.1M Tris)

In Table 7, the performance/area of our architecture is 193.21 MRPS/mm2 , which

is 2.4 × higher than the best results of other academic research. It can be found that the
process (nm) significantly impacts the evaluation results. Our efficiency is also higher than
RayCore [19] and Two-AABB [21] under the same process. One of the main reasons is
that many architectures use SIMD or Multiple Instructions Stream Multiple Data Stream
(MIMD) architectures, which are inefficient due to branching and memory access issues.
Our single pipeline architecture is more efficient for ray tracing. Another key reason for the
difference in performance/area is that the design goals of these architectures are different.
For example, STRaTA [22], Dual Streaming [24], and Mach-RT [25] focus on the latency and
conflict of memory access, so the method of multiple Thread Multiprocessors (TMs) is used.
This design can effectively improve the overall performance, but there would be a lot of
redundant hardware resources. RayCore [19] mainly focuses on dynamic scenes, so it is not
dominant in this comparison. The focus of these designs is different from ours. RT engine’s
low hardware consumption comes from our careful design, algorithm improvement, and
fabrication technology innovations.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 12 of 14

Table 7. Performance comparison against previous approaches.

Performance/
Acceleration Performance
Clock Rate Area (mm2 ) Process (nm) Area (MRPS
Structure (MRPS)
/mm2 )
T&I engine
SIGGRAPH’11 500 MHz Kd-tree 198 9.04 65 21.90
[17]
SGRT
SIGGRAPH’13 500 MHz BVH 184 7.2 65 25.56
[18]
RayCore
500 MHz Kd-tree 193 18 28 10.72
TOG’14 [19]
Two-AABB
SIGGRAPH’14 500 MHz BVH 297.6 6.82 28 43.63
[21]
HART
500 MHz BVH 602 7.68 65 78.39
TVCG’15 [20]
STRaTA
1 GHz BVH 365.6 57.1 65 6.40
CGF’15 [22]
MBVH
SIGGRAPH’16 500 MHz BVH 88 3.12 45 28.21
[23]
Dual Streaming
1 GHz BVH 345.6 57.1 65 6.05
HPG’17 [24]
Mach-RT
2 GHz BVH 284.25 52 65 5.47
TVCG’20 [25]
RT engine 850 MHz BVH 92.74 0.48 28 193.21

MRPS/mm2 is a fair unit of measurement for ray tracing hardware because it is

relatively independent of the resolution of the scene rendering [37]. As can be seen from
the data in Table 7, our architecture is better than other researchers’ results in terms of
efficiency. This result is encouraging because these designs could potentially be used as a
co-processor for accelerating ray tracing performance on existing or future GPUs or CPUs.

5. Conclusions
In this article, we present an efficient ray tracing hardware architecture RT engine by
analyzing relevant literature, algorithms, and RTL level implementations. We adopt three
optimization strategies to improve the system efficiency for memory access, branching,
and significant computation in ray tracing. Multiple stacks are used to store ray traversal
information. The three-phase break method is used to perform the loop break earlier
and approximate the method for the reciprocal to achieve hardware optimization and
performance improvement. Based on these three optimization strategies, we use the chip
agile development method to implement the RTL level, verify the accuracy of system
functions and evaluate performance through simulation. We use the synthesis tool to assess
the chip area. The experimental results show that the performance/area (MRPS/mm2 )
of our architecture is about 2.4× higher than the best reported results of other academic
research. These results indicate that our architecture can achieve efficient ray tracing.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft, review and editing, R.Y.; Conceptualization, L.H.;
hardware, H.G.; software, Y.L.; investigation, L.Y. and N.X.; analysis, L.S. and Y.W.; validation, M.L.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9599 13 of 14

Funding: This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
61872374/62102433).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank everyone who contributed to the realization of
this research, either academically or through financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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