CHAPTER 6

Parasitic Diseases and Pest

Definitions:
Sign
Diagnosis
Prevention
Disease
Objectives:
 Know diseases that is cause by parasites
 Understand how parasite affect the fish.
 Know the different methods in diagnosing diseases caused by parasites.
 Know the disease-prevention and control

Aquaculture environments that are suitable for growth and reproduction of cultured animals are also
hospitable to potential disease agents such as parasites. It is no wonder then that fish mortalities and
abnormalities associated with parasites as disease agents are well documented, indicating their importance
in aquaculture.
The study of parasites involves an understanding of certain existing relationships in a particular
population. Symbiosis or “living together” is a relationship that benefits one or both parties. In commensalism,
no party is harmed and both could live without the other. Mutualism is a relationship where both parties
benefit from each other, and neither could live without the other. Parasitism is a one-way relationship in which
one party (the parasite) depends upon, and benefits from, the other partner (the host), biochemically and
physiologically.
Disease Diagnosis
Disease diagnosis involves recognizing the occurrence of an abnormality and identifying its cause.
Diagnosis of fish disease is a relatively new service available only fairly recently and the range of laboratory
procedures is still limited. The eventual findings are not always very definitive, though the elimination of
certain possibilities may still prove useful. A meaningful diagnosis is most likely where the fish are under the
fish are under the closest supervision, and where the fish farmer is able to provide data on environmental
parameters and management practices employed.

Sign of Diseases
A sick fish often exhibits some disease signs before it dies. The first indication may be reduced
feeding. Abnormal changes in fish color and behavior are among the earliest signs seen in affected fish. The
fish may stay away from the school, or swim at the surface or along the tank sides. The fish may also exhibit
flashing, scraping on the bottom of projecting objects, darting, whirling or twisting, and final loss of equilibrium.
In addition to these changes, body surface abnormalities and lesions may be observed externally or internally.
Diagnosis
Fish disease follows a format similar to that applied to other animal species, with more importance
given to water quality parameters because of their direct effect on fish. A good history of the disease should
be supported by personal observations before performing post mortem examinations. Following a gross
appraisal, the most usual routine procedures are parasitological examinations, bacteriology, and
histopathology. The last two procedures may require laboratory support. The following lists of on-site and
laboratory procedures to investigate disease outbreaks are recommended by Anderson and Barney (1991):

On-site investigation:
  Examine fresh materials from healthy, moribund, and dead fish;
 Collect fish tissue samples;
 Measure environmental conditions (temperature. Oxygen, etc.)
 Investigate physical factors and rearing conditions; and
 Gather information on time-course of mortalities.
Deliver suitable samples with accompanying information to the diagnostic laboratory as soon as
possible.
Laboratory Procedures:
 Presumptive identification of pathogens (viral, bacterial, fungal, parasitic, etc.)
 Positive identification and confirmation:
 Test for drug sensitivity and effectiveness: and
 Evaluation of recommendation and reports of additional analysis (histopathology. Toxicology, etc.)
Correct diagnosis is essential in selecting the best management approach to correct the problem and the
best possible treatment for the disease. It will be useful as a reference for installing future disease-preventive
aquaculture procedures and practices.
I. Classification of Parasites

Parasites live in a variety of environments. Those that live on the external surfaces (skin, fins, and
gills) of the host are called ectoparasites, while those found in the internal organs are called endoprasites.

II. Life Cycle Patterns of Fish Parasites

Parasites may have a direct life cycle, that is, only one host is needed to complete the parasite’s life
cycle. Parasites may also have an indirect life cycle or they utilize more than one host to complete its life
cycle. An “intermediate host” is one where the larval stages of the parasite usually develop while the “final
host” is where the adult stage develops. The final host often feed on the intermediate host. A parasite may
also stay in another host, a “carrier or paratenic” host, but does not develop in this host. Some parasites are
hostspecific. This means that they can parasitize only one or a limited number of host species. Parasites that
are tissue/ organ-specific parasitize only a particular tissue or organ. An understanding of a parasite’s life
cycle patterns is useful in disease prevention, since the parasite may be eliminated at the weakest point of
its life cycle
Most protozoan fish parasites have a direct life cycle with no intermediate host. Myxosporean
parasites (Myxobolus cerebralis) and blood-parasitic flagellates and haemogregarines are also considered
to have a life cycle with a secondary blood-feeding leech as an intermediate host.

III. Common Fish Diseases Caused by Parasites

A. Protozoan
Protozoan are unicellular, microscopic organisms with specialized structures for locomotion, food
gathering, attachment, and protection. They can multiply on or within their hosts.
CILIATES
Have short, fine cytoplasmic outgrowths called cilia as the locomotors organelle. They are either
attached or motile. Ciliates are mainly ectoparasitic.
Causative Agent: Ichthyophthirius multifillis in freshwater and Cryptocaryon irritans in marine
and brackish water. The disease is known as Ichthyophthiriasis (“Ich”) or White spot disease

Species Affected: Catfish, carp, tilapia, seabass, grouper, and snapper

Gross Signs: The disease is called “white spot” because of the presence of a few to numerous
whitish or grayish spots on the skin and gills of affected fish which are actually nests of these parasites.
Diseased fish lose their appetite, are lethargic, with dull, opaque or hemorrhagic eyes. Heavily infested fish
produce a lot of mucus and they rub their body against the substrate or sides of tanks.
Effect on Host: This disease causes severe epizootic especially in intensive culture systems. The
parasite may destroy the skin and gills. Ulcers may develop in the skin of heavily infested fish and may be
the sites of secondary bacterial or fungal infection. Occurrence of this parasite is usually associated with a
drop in temperature to 28°C.
Diagnosis: Encysted organisms appear as white spots on the surface of fish and can be seen
by the naked eye. Microscopic examination of mucus from the body surface and gill filaments reveals round
or oval parasites, propelled by cilia and possessing a horseshoe-shaped macronucleus in the case of
Ichthyophthirius.
Causative Agents: Trichodina, Tripartiella

Species Affected: Carp, tilapia, milkfish, seabass, mullet, siganid, grouper, and snapper
Gross Signs: The parasites are attached mainly on the gills (Fig. 5-2b) and skin of the host.
Affected fish appear weak with excessive mucus production and with frayed fins.
Effect on Host: Excessive numbers of the parasite on the skin and gills of infested fish may interfere
with respiration. High mortality was observed among young fish. The adhesive disc can cause direct damage
to the branchial epithelium resulting in gill lesions.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of wet mounts of gill filaments and scrapings from skin
show saucer-shaped organisms, surrounded by cilia around its perimeter.
Prevention and Control:
 2-3% salt solution for 2-5 min for 3-4 d (carp fry)
 100% freshwater bath for 1 h for 3 d
 100 ppm formalin+10 ppm Acriflavin for 1 h for 3 d

Causative Agents: Brooklynella

Species Affected: Grouper, seabass, snapper
Gross Signs: The parasite attaches to the skin and gills of fish. Affected fish rub body
against objects causing extensive skin damage and subcutaneous hemorrhage .
Effect on Host: May result to respiratory difficulties; may develop secondary bacterial infection
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of mucus from body surface of affected fish and gill
filaments show bean-shaped protozoans with long parallel lines of cilia that beat in waves.
Prevention and Control:
 100% freshwater bath for 1 h for 3 days
 100 ppm formalin for 1 h for 2-3 days
Flagellates have one or longer, hair-like structures called flagella used as a locomotor organelle. They
occur on the skin, gills, intestinal organs, and blood of fish.
Causative Agents: Amyloodinium ocellatum

Species Affected: Mullet, siganid, grouper

Gross Signs: Heavily infested skin may have a dusty appearance (‘velvet disease’) with excessive
mucus production. The parasite also attaches to the gills of affected fish. Fish rub body against objects in
tanks. Affected fish exhibit abnormal surface swimming (spasmodic gasping and uncoordinated movements).
Effect on Host: This disease has been reported to cause morbidity and mortality in marine and
brackish water fishes. Heavy infestation can cause death within half a day. Histopathological changes include
disintegration of the affected tissues, severe gill epithelial hyperplasia and reduced or absence of mucus cell.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of gill filaments or skin scrapings will reveal pear or ovoid-
shaped tripoints with elongated red stigma near attachment site.
Prevention and Control:
 Use of sand filters; ultraviolet irradiation of rearing water
 Disinfection of culture facilities using lime
 Quarantine of new stocks
 Freshwater bath can cause parasite to drop off the gills
 0.75 ppm CuSO4for 5-6 days
 25 ppm formalin plus 0.1 ppm malachite green for 1 day100-300 ppm formalin, 10 min

Causative Agents: Trypanosoma, Cryptobia, Ichthyobodo

Species Affected: Snakehead, carps, mullet, milkfish (blood)

Gross Signs: Affected fish have greyish-white film on fins and body surface, with frayed or
destroyed fins. Fish rub their body against immersed objects or sides of the tank. Ichthyobodo is attached
mainly on dorsal fins and gills of the host. Trypanosoma and Cryptobia are parasitic on the blood of fish.
Effect on Host: Affected fish show sluggishness, pale gills, and emaciated body. Fish parasitized
by blood protozoans are usually anemic.
Diagnosis: For Ichthyobodo, microscopic examination of mucus from body surface and gill
filaments. For blood protozoans, blood smears fixed in methanol and stained with Giemsa are examined
under high power magnification (100x) of a compound microscope.
Prevention and Control:
 Drying of culture facilities
 Use of filters
 Elimination of the vector (leech) for blood protozoans
 Application of 10 ppt, 15-30 min or 2-5 ppm KMnO4

Myxosporeans – the spore (7-20 µm) is the infective stage, and is composed of 1 to 7-spore shell valves,
1 to 2-sporoplasms and 2 to 7-polar capsules. Myxosporeans are parasitic in organ cavities and tissues of
fish.

Causative Agents: Myxidium, Myxobolus, Henneguya, Kudoa, Myxosoma, Thelohanellus

Species Affected: Mullet, catfish, eel, carps, climbing perch, and snakehead
Gross Signs: White cysts are formed on skin, gills, muscle, brain, heart, ovaries, or other
internal organs of fish. Myxosporean cysts produce thick milky exudate
when ruptured.
Effect on Host: Heavy gill infections may lead to respiratory dysfunction. Several cysts
formed in the muscle may render the fish unmarketable. Heavy infection in
internal organs may result to loss of equilibrium, skeletal deformities, and
destruction of the host tissue.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of fresh smears of cysts containing many infective spores.
Prevention and Control:
 Isolate and destroy infected fish
 Disinfect rearing facilities with lime

Causative Agents: Sphaerospora

Species Affected: Grouper, seabass, marine catfish
Gross Signs: Affected fish exhibit swollen abdomen, exophthalmia and anemia.
Effect on Host: Spore stages are found in kidney, liver, gall bladder, and blood cells. Infected kidney
tubules display severe vacuolation of the epithelium.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of fresh preparations of kidney and blood smears stained
with Giemsa.
Prevention and Control:
 Ultraviolet treatment of inflow water can control the infective stage, but is usually impractical
 B. Monogenean

Monogeneans are ectoparasitic flatworms, <1-5 mm long, with posterior organ of attachment called
haptor armed with hooks and/or suckers.
Causative Agents: Gyrodactylus, Dactylogyrus, Pseudorhabdosynochus, Benedenia

Species Affected: Catfish, carp, tilapia, seabass, grouper, and snapper

Gross Signs: Parasite attaches on gills (Fig. 5-6f), fins and body surface of fish. Affected fish
have pale skin and gills with increased mucus production, frayed fins, and the cornea may become opaque.
Effect on Host: Heavy infestation may result to hyperplasia of the epithelial cells in the skin.
Extensive damage to the gill epithelium may affect normal respiration. Heavy infestations may result in
mortality. Conditions of low oxygen levels may increase mortality rates. Often associated with vibriosis.
Diagnosis: Gross and microscopic examination of gills and body surface of freshly sacrificed
fish.
Prevention and Control:
 Maintain optimum stocking density and adequate feeding
 5% salt solution for 5 minutes
 Freshwater bath for 1 h for 3 days
 100 ppm formalin for 1 h for 3 days
 150 ppm hydrogen peroxide for 30 min

C. Digenean
 Digeneans are endoparasitic flatworms measuring 1-2.6 x 0.2-0.8 mm with 2 sucker-like attachment
organs located at the anterior and ventral portion.
Causative Agents: Bucephalus, Lecithochirium, Pseudometadena, Transversotrema,
Stellantchasmus, Haplorchis, Procerovum, Prosorhynchus, Hemiurus
Species Affected: Bighead carp, grass carp, milkfish, seabass, grouper, siganid, and mullet
Gross Signs: Presence of small, white to yellow or brown to black cysts on the skin, fins, gills,
muscle, stomach or intestine. Affected fish have distended abdomen. Growth retardation has been observed
in some cases.
Effect on Host: Affects growth and survival or disfigures fish. Disrupts function of vital organs. It may
cause mild diarrhea to cardiac and visceral complications in humans (definitive host).
Diagnosis: Gross and microscopic examinations of the gills, muscle and internal organs for opaque or
creamy cysts containing motile metacercariae.
Prevention and Control: Elimination of intermediate host

D. Cestode

Cestodes are endoparasitic tapeworms, body is ribbon-like, segmented or unsegmented, 5-70 mm

long and with an anterior attachment organ called scolex armed with hooks or suckers.
Causative Agents: Botriocephalus
Species Affected: Carps, catfish, snakehead
Gross Signs: Affected fish are sluggish, with emaciated body because of non-feeding. This
parasite is commonly found in intestine of fish.
Effect on Host: The parasite may induce hemorrhagic enteritis due to destruction of the intestinal
epithelium. Adult stage of the parasite interferes with absorptive processes of the intestine and may reduce
food intake. Secondary microbial infection is possible. Some fish cestodes are important human parasites.
Diagnosis: Gross examination of the intestine of host fish.
Prevention and Control:
 Elimination of intermediate hosts
 Disinfection of culture facilities with quicklime to destroy cestode eggs

E. Nematode

Nematodes are unsegmented roundworms; female, 7-21 x 0.18- 0.8 mm; male, 3-9 x 0.1-0.5 mm

Causative Agents: Spirocamallanus, Raphidascaris, Contracaecum, Echinocephalus

Species Affected: Siganid, grouper, catfish, snakehead, and goby

Gross Signs: Parasitizes the stomach and intestine of host fish. Affected fish have emaciated,
discolored body surface and swollen intestine
Effect on Host: May impair feeding, resulting in emaciation, growth retardation, and mild
mortalities.
Diagnosis: Gross examination and dissection of the abdominal area reveals swollen intestine
filled with liquid and large worms.
Prevention and Control:
 Elimination of intermediate hosts
 Drying of pond bottom
 Disinfection of culture facilities with quicklime to destroy nematode eggs
 Filtration

F. Acanthocephalan
 Acanthocephalans are “thorny- or spiny-headed” elongated (10 mm long) cylindrical worms,
having an anterior refractile proboscis with hooks

Causative Agents: Acanthocephalus, Pallisentis

Species Affected: Snakehead, catfish, eel, tilapia, and milkfish
Gross Signs: The parasite is attached to intestinal mucosa of the host. Affected fish have
darkened, emaciated body.
Effect on Host: The parasite causes necrotic hemorrhagic ulcers in the intestine of the host.
Growth retardation and mortality have been reported.
Diagnosis: Gross examination of intestine reveals elongated and sac-like worms with
retractile proboscis armed with spines.
Prevention and Control:
Disinfect pond with quicklime
• Control of water supply and potential intermediate hosts
• Quarantine new and suspected stocks

G. Mollusc

Causative Agents: Glochidia is the larval stage of freshwater bivalve molluscs that may attach to fish.
The margins of their shells have sharp teeth
Species Affected: Freshwater fish
Gross Signs: The shell valves are attached to gills and outer surfaces of fish.
Effect on Host: The gill tissue is destroyed. The respiratory function of the gills during severe
infestations is disrupted. Secondary bacterial and fungal infections result when the parasite leaves the host.
Diagnosis: Gross macroscopic and microscopic examination of the host fish
Prevention and Control: Adequate filtration of intake water to prevent entry of larval glochidium

IV. Common Crustacean Diseases caused by Parasites

A. Protozoan

Causative Agents: Vorticella (10-150 µm), Zoothamnium (50-250 µm), Epistylis (160 µm) Acineta
(35-55 µm), Ephelota (250 µm)
Species Affected: Shrimps, crabs
Gross Signs: Heavily infested shrimp have fuzzy mat on gills and body surface.
Effect on Host: The parasites may cause respiratory and locomotor difficulties when present in
large numbers. Heavy infestation may result in mortalities, particularly at low oxygen levels.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of wet mounts of shell and gill scrapings.
Prevention and Control:
 Removal of organic detritus
 Rigid sanitary control of rearing water
 For adult shrimps, 50-100 ppm formalin, 30 min (for Zoothamnium) or
 30 ppm formalin (for Epistylis)

B. Sporozoans

Sporozoans produce simple resistant spores with a special apical complex used in the invasion of
the host cell. They can occur in the intestinal organs, muscle tissue and skin of fish.
Causative Agents: Gregarines
Species Affected: Penaeid shrimps
Gross Signs: Gregarines may be detected in the digestive tract microscopically
Effect on Host: Large numbers of the parasite attached to filter apparatus of shrimp may possibly
interfere with filtration of particles moving towards hepatopancreatic ducts or passing through the stomach.
There is a considerable growth retardation. Infection rate in pond-grown shrimps was reported to reach 94%.
Diagnosis: Microscopic or histological examination of the digestive tract of the host.
Prevention and Control:
 In the hatchery, filter or chlorinate seawater used for rearing
 In grow-out ponds, eliminate the molluscan intermediate host

C. Microsporeans

These are intracellular parasites with unicellular spores (3-10 µm) containing protoplasm and
coiled polar filament
Causative Agents: Nosema (Ameson), Agmasoma (Thelohania), Pleistophora, Glugea,
Ichthyosporidium
Species Affected: Penaeid shrimps
Gross Signs: Affected hosts are weakened and easily stressed. Infected areas (cephalothorax,
abdominal muscle, and ovary) turn opaque white because of the presence of spores and other stages of
the parasite, thus the term “cotton” or “milk” shrimp or “white ovary” disease Infection may result in sterility
of spawners with white ovaries.
Effect on Host: Penaeids with spores in the ovaries become sterile. In crabs, microsporidians
cause lysis of muscle tissues and increase vulnerability to stress.
Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of fresh squashes of Giemsa-stained smears from
infected areas will reveal spores. Histological sections also provide positive
identification.
Prevention and Control:
 Isolate and destroy infected individuals
 Avoid contact of infected brood stock with offspring
 Disinfect culture systems with chlorine or iodine