MAricultura Artigo Internacional 2021

Ocean and Coastal Management 213 (2021) 105889
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Ocean and Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
Mariculture in a densely urbanized portion of the Brazilian coast: Current

diagnosis and directions for sustainable development
Felipe Schwahofer Landuci a, *, Marina Fernandes Bez a, Paula Dugarte Ritter a, Sandro Costa a,
Fausto Silvestri a, Guilherme Burigo Zanette a, b, Beatriz Castelar c, Paulo Márcio Santos Costa a
a
Fundação Instituto de Pesca Do Estado Do Rio de Janeiro, FIPERJ – Diretoria de Pesquisa e Produção, Praça Fonseca Ramos, S/n, Niterói, RJ, 24030-020, Brazil
b
Instituto de Estudos Do Mar Almirante Paulo Moreira, Departamento de Biotecnologia Marinha, Programa de Pós Graduação Em Biotecnologia Marinha, Marinha Do
Brasil –na 253, Rua Kioto, Arraial Do Cabo, RJ, 28930000, Brazil
c
Università Degli Studi di Torino, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Lgo Paolo Braccini,nº 2, Grugliasco, TO, 10095, Italy
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Rio de Janeiro State (RJ) is a densely urbanized area in southern Brazil of great economic importance. It has
mariculture developed and consolidated mariculture in the last three decades as a successful commercial activity of high local
Socioeconomic and regional relevance. We present here an overview of the mariculture sector in RJ, examine its trends and
Strategic planning
changes, provide insights, and discuss the implementation of local public policies aimed at its sustainable
Public policies
Regional development
development. We surveyed 20 mariculture farmers through a closed questionnaire and semi-structured in
terviews. Using articulations and analyses of measures of central tendencies, Person’s correlation, comprehen
sion, interpretation, ordering, classification, as well as primary and secondary comparisons of qualitative data, it
was possible to register and describe mariculture production in RJ. We also indicate measures that are needed to
achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs), especially those directly related to mariculture. Our results
indicated a shift in socioeconomic profiles reflecting transition to a system with greater control of production
methods and diversification of cultivated species. Scallop farming continues to be the main activity in terms of
production totals and number of farmers, although emerging activities such as marine fish farming and seaweed
farming have been observed in recent years. The lack of any organized structure uniting representatives of the
organized sectors of the production chain, dependable provisions of seed, the absence of formal sanitary and
environmental monitoring programs, the slow pace of defining and legalizing aquaculture area leasing, the
difficulty in obtaining financial credit for production, the need for improvements in technical assistance services,
the scarcity of investmnent in Research & Development, and the lack of producer training were identified as the
main obstacles to regional development. A strategic plan based on national policies for marine resources is
suggested to strengthen mariculture production in RJ and achieve the SDGs of the United Nations 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development.
1. Introduction girls; and the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources
(FAO, 2017a). Those goals also seek to create conditions for sustainable,
A set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were introduced by inclusive, and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent
the United Nations (UN) and its 189 nation members as a complement to work for all, by taking into account different levels of national devel
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) designed to address com opment and capacities. The SDGs encompass a new vision of develop
plex global challenges. Those goals are quite broad in scope and ambi ment for the world as a whole, and strive to compensate for gaps
tion, and encompass: the eradication of poverty and hunger; improved attributed to the MDGs (Mainali et al., 2018).
health and nutrition; the reduction of inequality; the building of As stated in the SDGs from the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
peaceful, just, and inclusive societies; the protection of human rights; Development, there is a global concern focused on eradicating malnu
the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women and trition, mitigating poverty, and achieving food security and planetary
* Corresponding author. Fisheries Institute of Rio de Janeiro, FIPERJ, Praça Fonseca Ramos, s/n, Centro, Niterói, RJ, 24030-020, Brazil.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F.S. Landuci).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105889
Received 23 June 2020; Received in revised form 3 September 2021; Accepted 4 September 2021
Available online 16 September 2021
0964-5691/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F.S. Landuci et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 213 (2021) 105889
health. SDGs seek to increase resilience to climate change, weather and aquaculture over the last three decades as a productive economic ac
natural disasters, market volatility, and political instability and reduce tivity with high local and regional relevance. Initially, due to its social
the pressure of human economic activities on the natural environment and inclusive roles, especially for traditional populations, mariculture
by stressing the need not just for habitat and ecosystem protection, but was supported and fostered as an alternative source of income
also for increased resource use-efficiency and sustainable production (Moschen, 2007). Both public and private investments have since
and consumption – thereby spreading responsibility for delivering sus intensified, and new challenges and concerns have now emerged, calling
tainability among all economic players. for strategic plans to ensure good governance (FAO, 2017b) and
Food security is a global concern due to alarming rates of population sustainability.
growth as well as to food production systems that deplete natural re The principal bivalve mollusks produced in Rio de Janeiro State are:
sources and cause environmental degradation. the native scallop (N. nodosus – with RJ as the national leader), the
The fishing sector, an industry that includes wild capture fishing and brown mussel (P. perna), and the pacific oyster (C. gigas) (Abelin et al.,
aquaculture, is vital to ensure global food security. World fish produc 2016). RJ has also experienced a significant increase in the production
tion reached 179 million tons in 2018, with a total first sale value esti of cobia (R. canadum) (Landuci et al., 2019), and leads in the national
mated at USD 401 billion; aquaculture alone accounts for 52.6% of that production of seaweed (K. alvarezii) (Hayashi et al., 2017).
total (excluding non-food uses such as fish meal and fish oil) (FAO, Those production sites are strategically located between the two
2020). Almost all the SDGs, and many associated targets (more than 34), richest consumer markets in the country, the states of São Paulo and Rio
are relevant to aquaculture development (FAO, 2017a). de Janeiro. The high demand for high-quality seafood and other aqua
Brazil is the largest country in South and Latin America, with a total culture byproducts, combined with low availability in the region, have
area of 8,516,000 km2; it has a population greater than 210 million, and raised prices, such as that of cobia which has inflated to more than US$
has a continuous coastline of 7652 km as well as an economic zone that 15 kg− 1 (Palmer, 2015). Brazil’s industrial dependence on imported
extends for two hundred nautical miles into the Atlantic Ocean. Tilapia carrageenan, as well as a growing food market, has encouraged and
is the leading fish-farmed species in Brazil, with 323,314 tons produced attracted more interest in mariculture activities (Valenti et al., 2021).
in 2019 (Valenti et al., 2021). Coastal aquaculture, however, has not yet The present study presents an overview of the mariculture sector in
reached its full potential (Kapetsky et al., 2013). Rio de Janeiro State, examines trends and changes, provides insight, and
Coastal aquaculture plays an important role in the economic devel discusses the implementation of public policies aimed at its sustainable
opment of coastal communities in many developing countries (FAO, development. We describe mariculture production in Rio de Janeiro
2020). The major producers of coastal aquiculture products in Latin State, the socioeconomic aspects of farming, the diversity of farmed
America are Chile (1266 thousand tons, excluding algae; with 6435 km species, the technologies employed, legal frameworks, the volumes and
of coastline) and Peru (89.8 thousand tons; with 2414 Km of coastline) values of the products, access to public policies and services by farmers,
(FAO, 2020; Kluger et al., 2019). the measures needed to assure sustainability and achieve the UN SDGs
Peru’s production of Argopecten purpuratus scallops has grown (especially those directly related to the mariculture productive chain),
dramatically in the last decade, favored by beneficial environmental and and discuss examples from the major marine aquaculture producers in
socio-economic conditions that result in lower production costs than Latin American countries.
those of Chile. A single site in that country (Sechura Bay) accounts for
50% of all Latin American production (Kluger et al., 2019). Aquaculture 2. Material and methods
productions of Atlantic salmon, coho salmon, and rainbow trout in Chile
have grown into modern multibillion dollar industries, making it second 2.1. Study area
only to Norway in total global aquaculture production, and third in
bivalve mollusk harvesting (FAO, 2020). Despite being the third smallest Brazilian state, Rio de Janeiro (RJ)
While all the coastal states of Brazil produce mollusks through concentrates 8.2% of its entire population (2020) and had the second-
farming, production is concentrated in the southern region of the largest gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018 (Brazilian real - R$ 758
country. Official statistics (IBGE, 2020) reported the production of 15, billion) (IBGE, 2021). Its coastal zone extends for approximately 1160
200 tons of mollusks in 2019, with the southern region being responsible km, and approximately 80% of the state’s population lives in or near
for over 95% of that total. The brown mussel (Perna perna) is the main coastal areas, specially the city of RJ (INEA, 2015a). Mariculture has
species cultivated, at an annual volume of nearly 13,000 t. Pacific oys been practiced commercially for over 30 years there, mainly in “Costa
ters (Crassostrea gigas) comes in second, with nearly 2000 t. There is also Verde” – Green Coast (CV) in the western portion of the state, although
a small but increasing production of scallops (Nodipecten nodosus), the eastern “Baixadas Litorâneas” – Coastal Lowlands (BL) and the
mainly in the states of Rio de Janeiro (RJ), São Paulo (SP), and Santa central “Metropolitana” – Metropolitan region (MP) areas also harbor a
Catarina (SC) (Valenti et al., 2021). somewhat limited, although continuous, production. (Fig. 1).
Despite Research & Development initiatives, the commercial pro The Costa Verde region (Fig. 1A) covers four municipalities (Itaguaí,
duction of marine fish is currently restricted to small net-cage farms in Mangaratiba, Angra dos Reis, and Paraty) and has very suitable
SP, RJ, and Espírito Santo (ES). The annual production of cobia geographic and oceanographic environmental characteristics for the
(Rachycentron canadum) in this region is estimated to have increased development of mariculture due to its very irregular and rugged, rocky
from 25 tons in 2015 to 100 tons in 2019, and once some shortcomings coastline with many sheltered areas (Creed et al., 2007). Mariculture has
are resolved, a huge potential may be realized (Valenti et al., 2021). been practiced there since 1994, and fishing and tourism activities are
Studies have indicated the technical feasibility of macroalgae culti intensely exploited, making essential contributions to local economies
vation systems along the Brazilian coast, although that activity is still in and coexisting with industrial and port activities linked to strategic
its early development stages, with only a few commercial-scale enter sectors for national development, such as the oil industry (CEPERJ,
prises in operation (Valenti et al., 2021). The main native species 2017).
cultivated are members of the genera Gracilaria, Porphyra, and Hypnea in The “Baixada Litorânea" region (Fig. 1B) includes coastal plains,
the northeastern region of Brazil; the exotic species Kappaphyccus sandy beaches, sand dunes, flooded areas, coastal lagoons, and coastal
alvarezzi is restricted to the coasts of RJ, SP (from Sepetiba Bay to islands, as well as areas of low-lying hills and continental hills over 500
Ilhabela), and SC (Pereira et al., 2020b). m. Although the regional economy is largely based on tourism, the
RJ is the second most important state in the country in terms of service sector, industry, agriculture, and fishing also contribute (Pinto
number of inhabitants, demographic density, and gross domestic prod et al., 2011). The eastern portion of the coastal region experiences up
uct (IBGE, 2021). The state has developed and consolidated marine welling, which favors high marine biodiversity and abundant fishery
2
Fig. 1. “Costa Verde” - Green Coast (A), “Baixadas litorâneas” – Coastal Lowlands (B), and “Metropolitana” – Metropolitan Region (C). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
resources (Coelho-Souza et al., 2012). A Consent Form was prepared, setting out the study’s objectives and
The metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro (Fig. 1C), the most research methods, and ensuring the confidentiality of the interviewees’
populous area in the state, includes 22 cities around Guanabara Bay, the identities. When allowed, the interviews were recorded on audio.
second-largest industrial center in Brazil. Impacts from those multiple Two types of questionnaires were developed: i) with closed ques
human activities, including pollution and competition for both space tions, and ii) with open questions, of the semi-structured type (A full
and resources with other productive sectors (such as industrial and copy of the applied questionnaire is available as supplemental material).
recreational fishing and the oil industry), put pressure on coastal com The closed questionnaire had structured questions distributed over a
munities and impact small-scale fisheries (Loto et al., 2018). set of themes: socioeconomic; farming activities, their aspects and
challenges; monitoring practices; licensing and regulatory processes;
production and marketing; legal access to services such as financing and
2.2. Data collection and analysis
loans; and public policies.
The semi-structured interview, which followed a set of previously
Data collection and analysis were carried out during the second half
defined questions, facilitated the acquisition of records, analyses, and
of 2018 and the first half of 2019 in the Costa Verde and Baixada
categorizations, combining closed and open questions, and gave the
Litorânea regions. Although small-scale mussel farming (based on har
interviewer the possibility of interacting with the interviewees and
vesting) exists in the metropolitan region (Ritter, 2013), there are no
discussing the proposed theme it was possible to record some historical
official records concerning who and how many people are involved, or
aspects of the activity, individual and collective perspectives on mari
their production volumes. None of those workers possess official regis
culture, and some of their demands (Becker, 2017). The topics addressed
tries, and are therefore in disconformity with legal procedures. Addi
were: the responders’ insertion in the activity – their motivations and
tionally, organized criminal groups exploiting mussel-culture long lines,
expectations; individual experience, and their ideas about the activity;
together with actual mussel farmers, make cautious approaches very
historical aspects of the activity; motivational expectations; technical
necessary. We therefore did not include this region in our study, but
knowledge and demands.
recognize its importance to overall strategic planning for the activity.
The sample included 80% of all identified farmers. All respondents
Sea farmers (hereafter referred to as ‘farmers’) were initially identified
(n = 20) who completed the closed questionnaire also completed the
and georeferenced using the database of the regional State Fisheries
semi-structured interview ordinary. We calculated the means, medians,
Office - FIPERJ as well as information from other groups and persons
standard deviations, minimums and maximums from the quantitative
directly involved in the activity. The farmers themselves were subse
variables. The qualitative data were sorted and classified in groups.
quently invited to take part in this study and respond to a questionnaire.
3
Ratios was calculated to both data. In some cases, Person, and Spearman were received from the Metropolitan region. Table 1 presents social,
correlation’s were used for ordinary values and qualitative data economic and environmental indicators.
respectively.
We also estimated the social, economic and environmental in 3.1. Socioeconomic characteristics
dicators: Use of Local Workers (Lw); Participation in Outside Commu
nity Activities (PCA); Investment to create direct employment (ICDE); Figs. 2–4 summarize the major socioeconomic characteristics of the
Required Work per Unity of Production (WP); Required Work per Unit of farmers interviewed in this study. The interviewed farmers were mostly
Occupied Area (WA); Safety at Workplace (SW); Local Consumption of men (94%), with an average age of 49 (minimum of 29 and maximum of
Production (LC); Ratio between Net Income and Initial Investment (RII); 68). Half of them (50%) came from different regions than where their
Risk Rate (RR); Diversity of products (DP); Diversity of Markets (DM); maricultures were established. The activity, as a whole, cannot be
Risk of Farmed Species (RFS); and Use of Space (S) both based on pro considered inclusive. Woman participation is not reasonable (6%), and
posed by Valenti et al. (2018) where the mathematical formulae relevant Age Inclusion is limited. Middled-aged (40–60) and elders (>60) are the
to the computation of each indicator are described and detailed most representative age groups, remaining little participation of the
explained; thus, they were not repeated in the present article. Gender young (16–21) and adults (21–40).
Inclusion (GI), Age Inclusion (AI) and Access to Social Services (ASS) Low levels of formal education among farmers had previously been
was calculated by the proportion of woman in charge, a specific age reported (Moschen, 2007). Currently, two of the principal groups have
group, and the number of producers whom accessed any social services been identified: a) those with incomplete or complete elementary edu
respectively, against the number of total respondents. cation (40%) and b) those with complete technological or higher edu
cation (40%).
2.3. Volumes and values of the products Most of the farmers (85%) declared themselves owners of the mari
culture enterprise and, of those, 55% had one or more partners. More
Production volumes were estimated based on sale volumes during than half (60%) of the mariculture farmers declared it as their principal
2018 (referring to the 2017–2018 production cycle). We estimated the source of income. For those who exercised other activities, the most
total production capacity according to the number of farms/production representative were commerce (21%), fishing (17%), and tourism
sites and the infrastructures in each, considering the average survival (17%).
informed by local farmers. The stocking densities were based on data Although large differences were reported in terms of net incomes (US
already published for the region, as the farmers do not standardize their $ 400–4000) among those who cited mariculture as their only occupa
stocking densities: for scallops, 180 units distributed in a standard 10- tion, their net incomes were ≥US$ 2000 – a good income as compared to
level Japanese-type lantern (Carvalho-Filho, 2006); for oysters, 300 the monthly minimum wage in Brazil for rural workers, fishermen,
units in a 5-level Japanese-type lantern (Manzoni and Schmitt, 2006); housekeepers, or laborers (US$ 326–447; (Salário, 2021)).
for mussels, 17 kg m− 1 (Ferreira and Magalhães, 2004); for cobia, 5 kg. Normally, farmers (74%) hire up to three seasonal workers, on a
m− 3 (Landuci et al., 2019); and for seaweed, 40g dry base m− 2. day− 1 daily wage system. The Use of Local Workers (Lw) is high (100%). Labor
(de Góes and Reis, 2011). is totally recruited in the local community.
When necessary, mollusks dozen was converted to kg (dozen = 0.96 In terms of levels of financial investments in mariculture, distinct
Kg) based on information given by rural extension technicians (Cepa, groups could be identified: those who invested between US$
2019).The total value of the production chain was calculated as the sum 2000.00–10,000.00 (37%), investments over US$ 20,000.00 (37%),
total of the production volumes of each cultured organism and their investments < US$2500.00 (10%), and investments of 12,500.00 to
respective mean prices (as informed by the interviewees), later con 25,000.00 (16%). There was a strong correlation (ρ 0.747) between
verted to integer number in US dollars (US$ 1.00 = R$ 5.00), based on investments and net income, with those who declared more investments
the annual mean of 2020 (US$ 1.00 = R$ 5.24), as informed by the usually declaring higher net incomes.
Brazilian Central Bank. The investment to create direct employment (ICDE) was high
(5833.33 US$. job − 1) in comparison with other aquaculture systems
3. Results (Pereira et al., 2021). The drawback is a small number of jobs and direct
employment, considering the amount invested in the venture, in the
Fourteen of 19 (74%) farmers contacted in CV completed the survey, same way as evidenced by Valenti et al. (2018). The Required Work per
as well as all of those located in BL. As mentioned earlier, no responses Unity of Production (WP) and Required Work per Unit of Occupied Area
(WA) was 0.955 MH kg− 1 and 0.031 MHY.m2 respectively.
Table 1 The vast majority of farmers (85%) are affiliated with an association
Sustainability indicators of the marine farming in Rio de Janeiro State. (US or similar groups, participated actively in assemblies, and remained
$1.00 = R$ 5). MH = Men-hours; MHY = Men-hours by year. associated because of its collective strengthening of the Colony.
Indicator Value Unit All of the farmers have a support dinghy equipped with an outboard
motor, and most utilize handling rafts (87%). Most farmers (67%) have
Social
Gender inclusion (GI) 6 % not fully occupied their licensed production areas, although a majority
Use of Local Workers (Lw) 100 % (75%) would still like to expand – but only 38% have the necessary funds
Participation in Outside Community Activities (PCA) 89 % at their disposal to do so. Of those, half were interested in farming other
Investment to create direct employment (ICDE) 5833.33 US$.job− 1 aquatic organisms, with cobia (54%) being their species of choice.
Required Work per Unity of Production (WP) 0.955 MH.kg− 1
Required Work per Unit of Occupied Area (WA) 0.031 MHY.m2
The challenges faced by farmers (Fig. 5) include: the lack of mech
SW 52 % anization (22%); the acquisition of seed and juveniles (20%); and theft
Local Consumption of Production (LC) 9 % (18%). The most representative factors identified (40%) include the
Economic available workforce (10%) and environmental problems (10%). Other
Ratio between Net Income and Initial Investment (RII) 96 %
competing activities included vessel operations (32%), artisanal and
Risk Rate (RR) 54 %
Diversity of products (DP) 5 unit industrial fishing (31%), and tourism (25%). Injuries and occupational
Diversity of Markets (DM) 4 unit health problems can also be hindrances to farmers, largely consisting of
Environmental muscular and skeletal disorders (40%). The safety of workers during
Use of Space (S) 38 m2. kg− 1
their tasks is limited (52%).
Risk of Farmed Species (RFS) 5
A low ratio (25%) of access to social benefits was registered. Of these,
4
Fig. 2. Synthesis of the socioeconomic characteristics of mariculture farmers in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, their education level, employment regime, property
regime, and social organization.
Fig. 3. Investment levels and monthly liquid incomes of mariculture farmers.
Fig. 4. Current situation of mariculture initiatives in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.
5
Fig. 5. Production challenges, conflicts & synergies, and health issues faced by mariculture farmers in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.
many did it through PRONAF Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da was 96%. By the end of 2019, most mariculture farms were producing
Agricultura Familiar (PRONAF) "The national program for the (68%). Most farms have a commercial character, and most (77%)
strengthening of family farming”. In contrast, Participation in Outside employ management techniques and control production aspects. Addi
Community Activities is high (89%). tionally, some of them (14%) share their production facilities with
Technical Assistance and Rural Advisory Services (ATER) to farmers educational institutions and collaborate in research activities. Fig. 5
are generally provided by public sector entities, and their existence and shows the statuses of the farms. Among those that are inactive, the main
availability is well disseminated among farmers (64%). Although some reason is the lack of the scallop seed needed to initiate a new production
farmers were not receiving technical assistance at the time of the cycle, or as a consequence of recent mortalities incurred in the
interview, all of them declared that they had previously counted on 2018–2019 ongrowing season (90%).
assistance. The main issues for which farmers required technical assis These mortality outbreaks have been occurring over the last three
tance were, in order of importance: production (38%); legal compliance years in adults’ scallops under rearing conditions and juveniles recently
(24%); training in Best Management Practices and aquaculture routines transferred to the sea. The episodes start and cease without any clear
(24%); marketing (10%); and environmental monitoring (5%). reason being identified. The most notable characteristics of the animals
The Nota Fiscal Rural (NFR) is a rural invoice that guarantees the affected are noticeable lethargy on valve opening and, in some cases,
legality of all those involved in the processes of buying or selling rural browning of the muscle in the adult. Seeds acquired in Santa Catarina, so
products. Sixty-one percent of the farmers are able to provide that in far healthy, are also susceptible to these outbreaks when placed in the
voice, and the vast majority of those farmers (81%) obtained permission culture structures. In different research institutions, several research
to furnish NFRs through the offices of rural advisory services. projects are currently underway, addressing environmental, biological,
Only a small proportion (21%) of farmers resorted to seeking and hygienic sanitary aspects of the organisms and the culture sites.
financial credit to operate their businesses, but of those, 75% did so (Landuci, 2021), but so far there are not any published information.
through public financial institutions, via federal credit programs. Fig. 6 The Risk Rate (RR) was estimated in 54% driven by administrative
presents the ATER and credit scenario. deficiency, inappropriate site, lack of technical support to solve prob
The vast majority (94%) of farmers participate, or have participated, lems and institutional instability. The diversity of products (DP = 5) and
in professional and trade meetings, including training, workshops, and Markets (DM = 4) are high.
seminars. All of them responded that they had subsequently applied the The most important mariculture products produced are: bivalve
knowledge acquired in their day-to-day businesses. Universities and mollusks (81%), seaweed (9.5%), and fish (9.5%).
research institutes (43%), private non-profit entities (43%), and public- There are distinct buyer profiles in the region, with the most
private companies (14%) are the main knowledge providers. important being: intermediaries, retail consumers, hotels and inns, and
tourists. Only 9% of the consumption of the products is local.
Intermediaries are those who buy in large volumes and at a lower
3.2. Production and market
price for resale directly to restaurants in the cities of São Paulo and Rio
de Janeiro (which are the first and second wealthiest markets in the
The Ratio between Net Income and Initial Investment (RII) registered
Fig. 6. Technical assistance access, issues, credit borrowing, and lenders.
6
country respectively). Those intermediaries also facilitate commercial (Castelar et al., 2009). According to producers, the average time re
interactions by traveling to the farm and taking responsibility for all of ported between sowing and harvest (Table 2) varies between 10 and 45
the logistics and structures necessary for product transport. days. The seaweed is sold in dehydrated form, mainly to industry (66%),
Retail consumers usually purchase lesser volumes of products, at a at a US$ 0.46 kg− 1. Since the amount of dry algae sold during a year was
higher price, with the farmers themselves being responsible for delivery. unknown, an estimate was carried out based on the number of structures
Digital sales channels and social media are currently responsible for in production during the study period.
reaching new markets and costumers in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Marine fish farming is exclusively based on cobia (R. canadum)
Local hotels and inns also represent a significant consumer market for growing in circular high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sea cages
mariculture products (Landuci et al., 2020). anchored near the coast. Juveniles are acquired from commercial cobia
Tourists are occasional consumers who visit the farms using their hatcheries in São Paulo state and more recently produced in a small-
own transportation, and consume the products at the farm itself, either scale local hatchery created by an agreement between the Angra dos
as prepared dishes or in natura. Those consumers do not mind paying Reis City Hall and the Federal Government. Ongrowing juveniles are fed
higher prices, appreciating the experience associated with consumption, with commercial feed up to an average size of 400g, after which they are
although sales of this type depend on good weather conditions for fed fresh fish from the surplus of sardine seine net fisheries (Rombenso
visiting. et al., 2014).
The culture systems of the main product, native scallops (N. nodosus), The ongrowing period (Table 2) can last from 12 to 18 months, ac
can be of the surface (67%) or submerged type (33%), with most of the cording to market demand. The produced fish are sold in a fresh, gutted
production volume coming from submerged systems (73%); the average and cooled form. The main consumers are middlemen (67%) and res
mortality rates estimated by the farmers for those production systems taurants (33%), who pay an average price of US$ 9.4 ± 2.1. kg− 1.
are 34% and 12% respectively. Fig. 7 presents production volumes, production capacity, and current
The total number of scallops produced during the 2018/2019 season values of mariculture products cultivated in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.
was 336,000 units. The source of all of scallop seed was the local mollusk The potential installed production capacity for oysters, 152 tons, was
seed production laboratory – the Ilha Grande Bay Ecodevelopment estimated by taking into account the existing lantern nets used for
Institute (IEDBIG) – which is of clear strategic importance to the pro scallop farming. This scenario would only be possible, however, if all
duction chain as it is the only seed production laboratory in the entire shellfish aquaculture in the state transitioned to oysters instead of
southeastern region of the country. scallops.
The interval between seeding and harvesting was reported to be ≥ 18 Aquaculture products have been well accepted, and the Brazilian
months among 47% the farmers interviewed; the average shell size sold market is able to absorb the present supply. Some farmers (13%),
was 7.5–8.5 cm for 81% of the farmers (Table 2). however, have reported difficulties in selling their produce, especially
The major buyers are: intermediaries (42%); retailers (41%); and Kappaphyccus farmers (50%), attributing those difficulties to an unfa
seafood restaurants, tourists, and hotels (17%). The average overall vorable currency exchange rate, the lack of local processing facilities,
price per dozen was US$ 8.8 ± 2, but varied according to the buyer, with and/or the seasonality of demand.
an average US$ 6.6 ± 1.2 for intermediaries, and US$ 12.4 ± 0.9 for end
consumers. The most common form of presentation of the product is
fresh in the shell. Other presentation forms cited were processed forms
including frozen, shelled and cooked, which, on the average, added 54%
to the price.
Brown mussel (P. perna) farming is based mostly on the harvesting of
naturally settled seeds on the scallop longlines (82%) and secondly on
seed collection from natural stocks (18%). The time interval between
seeding and harvest is 8–10 months, but there are reports of 5-month
periods, which will depend on the initial seed size and the final selling
size (Table 2). Their production is targeted to tourists (33%), retail
(33%), restaurants (23%), and intermediaries (11%). The most common
form of sale is fresh, with an average price of US$ 4.6 ± 1.4 kg− 1.
In general, Pacific oysters are grown in a complementary manner,
with adults or seeds acquired from Santa Catarina State and then raised
on marine farms in RJ for up to 8 months and then sold fresh (Table 2).
Tourists are the main consumers, accounting for 50% of all sales, fol
lowed by retail and restaurants (40%), and intermediaries (10%). The
product, in its natural form, is sold for an average price of US$ 9.4 ± 2
dozen− 1.
K. alvarezzi, a seaweed, is cultivated in floating rafts. The strains
currently employed are clones of stock introduced in the 1990s, from Fig. 7. Production volumes, production capacities, and present values of or
Venezuela which in turn originally were imported from the Philippines ganisms cultivated in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.
Table 2
Production and market information of mariculture products.
Product Growing period (months) Destination Type Price (US$)
Intermediaries retail Intermediaries retail
scallops (dz) 18 42% 58% fresh 6.6 12.4

mussel (kg) 5 to 10 11% 89% fresh 4.6
oyster (dz) 1 to 6 10% 90% fresh 9 12
seaweed (kg) 0.3 to 1.5 100% dry 0.46
cobia (kg) 12 to 18 67% 33% gutted 8 10.9
7
3.3. Environment and monitoring remainder declared that they had applied, but did not yet possess one, or
had not yet been informed that the license had been granted. Environ
The median value of the Use of space indicator (38 m2. kg− 1) re mental Licenses are of broad scopes, and all mariculturists possess one.
flected the use of natural space to produce. The value of the Risk of Most of the licenses were issued (75%) for shellfish cultivation only,
Farmed Species indicator (5) was boosted by Kappaphycus presence, an followed by finfish farming (17%), and seaweed culture (8%). Only 15%
exotic species. of the farmers had Aquatic Area Leases, whereas 65% were waiting for
Environmental monitoring (especially in areas subject to anthropic ongoing judicial processes to obtain one; 20% did not have such a li
impacts) is a key factor critical to the sustainability of aquaculture, as cense, or did not know how to respond. Among farmers, the mean time
well as a requirement (depending on the size, species or structure of elapsed since the beginning of the judicial process was 8 years, although
aquaculture areas) for environmental licenses issued to producers by the some waits have exceeded 20 years.
Environmental Institute of Rio de Janeiro State – INEA (INEA, 2015b). Bureaucracy and delay in obtaining permits and licenses were cited
Harmful algae and water pollution are major threats to bivalve cultures. as the main obstacles to becoming compliant (66%). However, unfa
Accidental spills of crude oil along the Brazilian coast have also caused miliarity with the judicial procedures (19%) and the absence of a an
substantial losses of bivalve production and commercialization in past easily accessible issuing agency, as well as costs (15%), also represented
years (Valenti et al., 2021). hindrances.
Despite federal legislation that specifies minimum safety and quality
requirements of bivalve mollusks harvested for human consumption, 4. Discussion
and the monitoring and supervised compliance of those requirements
(determining microbiological and phycotoxin parameters) (Brazil, Sustainability is not a static state and depends on the general sce
2012), Rio de Janeiro State has not yet implemented a single sanitary nario. Aquaculture systems are highly adaptable and undergo evolution.
program (see the Discussion section). The challenge in building sustainable aquaculture goes through a
Fig. 8 presents some relevant data concerning the environmental continuous learning process, and the capacity to create systems that are
monitoring of cultivated area. able to respond to coming changes in the economic, environmental and
None of the farmers interviewed were legally obliged to perform social situation (Valenti et al., 2018). Although both inland and coastal
monitoring (due the size classifications of their farms), but all of them, at aquacultures have increased significantly in recent years in Brazil, it is
some point, performed environmental monitoring or had it done for still not a solid and sustainable activity. Various links of the aquaculture
them, even if on a non-routine basis. In general, the state takes primary production chain are fragile, including extension services, credit pol
responsibility for the monitoring (75%), although sometimes in tandem icies, environmental licensing, legislation, processing, distribution, and
with the third sector (25%). commercialization. Policies meeting the Agenda 2030, and complying
Monitoring focuses basically (and most frequently) on physical with SDGs are essential and urgent for the construction of sustainable
environmental parameters, including: water temperature (97%); trans aquaculture in Brazil (Valenti et al., 2021).
parency (80%); salinity (87%); and dissolved oxygen content (73%). Brazilian mariculture is currently weak in terms of its productive
Sampling intervals are generally monthly (53%), or biweekly (35%). organization and will need strategic planning to improve many of its
The sanitary qualities of aquaculture products themselves (generally economic, social, and environmental aspects (Pereira and Rocha, 2015).
their microbiological profiles) are monitored by most of the farmers When Brazilian policy makers consider national mariculture pro
interviewed (88%), with routine sampling intervals (generally on a grams, they tend to look to Santa Catarina State for lessons and insights.
monthly basis). Bivalve mollusk production in Santa Catarina is performed by over 600
farmers, and is valued at ca. US$ 20 million year− 1 (Safford et al., 2019).
In spite of being a rather recent industry in Brazil (having begun in the
3.4. Licenses and regulatory processes
mid-1990s), bivalve mollusk aquaculture has followed a growing trend
from 13 t year− 1 to over 22,000 since 2000.
Regional mariculture depends on three key permission licenses: a)
Although planning and management tools have improved the
the Aquaculture License, which is a probationary instrument that allows
governance of this activity, the lack of regulations and planned devel
the bearer to exercise aquacultural activities and grants certain rights as
opment (as in RJ) has imposed multiple obstacles (Suplicy et al., 2017)
well as access to services; b) the Environmental License, which is a state-
that reflect the diversity of environmental and coastal characteristics,
level license that allows aquaculture to be carried out in terms of its
differences between production systems, and the socio-economic pro
magnitude or pollution potential; and c) the Aquaculture Lease - an
files of the farmers – and it will be essential to act at the regional level.
aquatic space conceded by the Federal Government for aquaculture
Rio de Janeiro State will surely benefit from actions designed to guar
purposes. The leasing process may grant ownership of an Aquatic Area
antee the sustainable development of its mariculture production chain.
Lease for 20 years, and includes access to public policies for the sector,
Chile is an example of a rapid-growth economy that can successfully
such as specific credit lines.
compete in world markets, create jobs, and provide income for people
Fig. 9 presents some relevant data concerning the compliance rates
involved in the industry. Its success, however, has been limited with
on the permissions licenses and the bottlenecks to get it.
respect to other aspects of sustainable development, and there are
Seventy-five percent of the farmers hold an Aquaculture License. The
Fig. 8. Types of monitoring programs implemented by the public or private sectors, sampling frequency, and execution of microbiological analyses.
8
Fig. 9. Compliance and bottleneck rates.
important lessons to be learned from those specific development pattern production costs when Peru took over many of their markets. Chilean
(Asche et al., 2009). production was then redirected towards its domestic market.
Peru is likewise a good example of fast mariculture development, in a After declining for many years, scallop aquaculture in Peru was taken
manner more similar to Rio de Janeiro. The bottom-up initiation of up again in 2001, and the country has experienced an important growth
aquaculture operations there by small-scale farmers created personal in aquaculture production in recent years. Production was above 57,000
incentives for long-term sustainable use that differed from the more tons in 2013, 130% higher than in 2012, and exports increased rapidly
industrialized activities in Chile – although the El Niño phenomenon and during the 2000s from near US$10 million in 2000 to approximately US
socioeconomic effects highlight the necessity of local decision makers $160 million in 2013 (Mendo et al., 2016). Scallop aquaculture thrived
developing emergency adaptation plans (Kluger et al., 2018). due to the climatic, geographic, and oceanographic conditions of
Comparing these prominent cases can give us insights into the best Sechura Bay, where growth rates were faster. Additionally, the local
way forward for sustainable mariculture. industry took advantage of the lower production costs and less sophis
ticated structures used there. Production was also promoted by low
natural mortality due to predation, and the availability of seed collected
4.1. The beginning of mariculture in Rio de Janeiro
in natural banks (Kluger et al., 2019).
The first experimental mariculture initiatives in Rio de Janeiro began
in the 1970s, when simple wooden rafts were installed to grow mussels 4.2. Socioeconomic characteristics
(P. perna) and oysters (C. gigas) in the BL region (Manzoni and Schmitt,
2006). The private sector invested in bivalve mollusks farming in CV Valenti et al. (2021) pointed out certain limitations to
area in the mid-1980s, and marine farms were later encouraged by socio-economic sustainability of aquaculture in Brazil, especially the
municipal governments to include interested groups, especially Ilha lack of: business planning or reliable accounting; subsidies; reliable data
Grande Island residents. on the numbers of people enrolled, occupational injuries and illnesses
In the 1990s, coastal residents in the MET region who had been among aquaculture workers; equity and equality in opportunities; wages
harvesting brown mussel since 1970s at Jurujuba, were supported and and income; gender participation in the activity; unclear regulations;
encouraged by the Local Initiative for Urban Development (LIFE) of the and the secondary character of the activity, financed only with producer
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) under the RIO 92 agenda resources.
to replace their simple harvesting methods with commercial aquaculture The ICDE, WP and WA indices were directly influenced by the low
and became formal mussel farmers (Ritter, 2013). Also, from the production recorded, due to mortality. In a scenario where the pro
1990–2000s on, community initiatives related to fishermen’s associa duction is normalized, the sustainability measured by these indicators
tions (with public and private support) promoted mariculture as true will be increased. The Use of Local Workers (100%) are a very important
businesses in the CV and BL regions as alternatives to declining fishery indicator of sustainability.
activities. That sector has changed again with a recent announcement of Based on the patterns observed in our research, it is clear that
an ambitious shellfish farming venture with Spanish expertise that could mariculture activities in Rio de Janeiro have been attracting investors in
become the largest farm in the country. recent years who are more qualified and have higher education levels,
The growing area is equivalent to 200 ha (the largest marine farm in and that more funds have become available for those activities. Signif
the country), with an investment of R$ 420 million and an expected icant differences from earlier stages can be seen in terms of employment
production of 35,000 tons per year of mussels, oysters, and scallops. This generation and the dependence on that activity as a sole source of
initiative should double the national production of bivalve mollusks income.
and, according to the company, the farm may offer 500 direct jobs and The significant percentage of the societal regimes observed can be
1500 indirect ones (Seafood Brasil, 2020). explained by the initial family-based model adopted, and the insuffi
In comparison, Chile’s salmon farming industry reached commercial ciency of financial resources. The social organization of Rio de Janeiro
status in the late seventies, and by the 2000′ s had already developed into farmers has generated relevant results in terms of production based on
a successful export-oriented aquaculture industry that was able to take mutual collaboration, the exchange of technical and other relevant in
advantage of high consumer demand in three of the largest trade mar formation, group purchases of seed, production materials and equip
kets in the world—Japan, the USA, and the EU (Poblete et al., 2019). ment, the sharing of infrastructure, and the opening of new marketing
Foreign companies brought in new technologies and were responsible channels.
for production increases and the vertical integration of the industry. The safety of workers (55%) indicates a limited sustainability influ
In the 1980s, Chile also developed suspended scallop culture and enced by the outdoor work conditions and lack of mechanization.
mussel production in Tongoy Bay using Japanese technology and Problems related to injuries and occupational health are a significant
expertise. In the 1990s, Spanish investors financed processing facilities hindrance to economic growth. Those problems reflect the strenuous
and opened international markets to the Chilean fishing industry, which physical activity required by mariculture and insufficient infrastructure
then grew exponentially, with an emphasis on exports (Chávez et al., development. To solve those problems, mechanization must be sup
2019; Kluger et al., 2019; San Martin et al., 2020). Production reached ported, especially considering the ageing of individuals directly
its peak in 2004, but declined in the second half of the 2000s due to low involved in production activities. In the case of mussel farming, mech
international prices, limited local aquaculture production, and higher anized harvesting can reduce average labor costs by up to 30%, and
9
reduce the likelihood of accidents (Novaes et al., 2011), and needs to be unfeasible in Rio de Janeiro State. The BL region, however, shows
incorporated in the near future. substantial potential for developing mussel farming due to its favorable
Salmon production and bivalve mollusk aquaculture in Chile (which oceanographic conditions and the proximity to large urban centers and
also developed in Peru) differ with respect to societal conditions. In their consumer markets.
vestors of diverse origins, who employed their own technical and pro The current lack of scallop seed, outbreaks of their mortality, access
fessional personnel, formed Chilean companies. Local fishermen were to oyster seed coming from Santa Catarina, and the high values of sales,
only occasionally hired for maritime and diving activities. Whereas in have generated a greater interest in oyster farming, and a production
Peru, the entire scallop production chain relies heavily on small-scale spike is expected.
cooperatives of former fisherman, which in turn rely only on the suc Seaweed and cobia production are far below their production po
cess of their own operations and initiatives (Chávez et al., 2019; Kluger tentials. Seaweed production is curbed by limited national carrageenan
et al., 2019) – in a manner somewhat similar to that observed in Rio de processing capacity and the comparatively lower cost of Asian raw
Janeiro early initiatives. materials for producing phycocolloids for the international market,
making local production economically unfeasible (Hayashi et al., 2017;
4.3. Production Pereira et al., 2020a). Cobia production is limited by the low availability
of the fishery surpluses used to feed them (Landuci et al., 2019), as well
Essential issues with elements of the Brazilian aquaculture produc as the management of the monogenean parasite Neobenedenia melleni
tion chain include the price and quality of feed, specialized equipment (Kerber et al., 2011).
for off shore aquaculture, the complexity of the regulatory system, Resilience is an important factor for the success of any activity in a
market governance, the lack of representation by mariculture farmers in changing world. The capacity to self-reorganize and persist in adverse
official committees, insufficient biosecurity regulations and practices, situations allows farms to remain in the activity for longer periods; low
the absence of biological and sanitary monitoring programs, high taxes, risk factors and higher diversity of products and markets also increase
the difficulty of farmers in accessing credit, improvements in the cold the resilience (Valenti et al., 2018).
chain infrastructure, and consumer awareness (Valenti et al., 2021); Although no problems are encountered in selling mariculture prod
some of those elements can also be noted at the regional level. ucts, price disparities between different buyers indicate that there is
The IRR reveals the efficiency of the use of capital which, in our room for access to better markets. The advantage of sales through in
study, could be considered good (96%). Enterprises with lower initial termediaries includes their assured purchases and the ease of product
investment that generate the same net income are more sustainable, as delivery (as the latter is often seen as a complication for the producer
they correspond to a more adequate use of resource capital (Valenti due the poor infrastructure and lack of resources). Intermediaries, of
et al., 2018). The mariculture in Rio de Janeiro state was an attractive course, gather greater profits, much as in Peru, where those operators
enterprise business, and these indicators could be higher if all farms are also involved in secondary processing and exportation (Kluger et al.,
were in full operation. 2019).
Compared with seaweed mariculture, the aquaculture of farm-fed A producer organization, with the creation of a single online sales
animals requires more sophisticated technology. Consequently, animal channel that could aggregate orders, as well as built-in logistic struc
mariculture invests more financial and manufactured capital in initial tures, could simplify operations and optimize profits.
fixed (e.g. raft, net cages and manufacturing facilities) and variable costs Modern consumers of aquatic food generally support sustainable
(e.g. feeds, fry, and employed labor) (Wu et al., 2021). Mariculture in production. Thus, labeling a food as “sustainable” adds value to farm or
Rio de Janeiro depends on materials and equipment’s from other states sectorial products. Tools for assessing farms and aquaculture sectors are
(mainly Santa Catarina and Paraná) or countries (Chile), also the required to provide consistent and realistic certification and set of in
structure for fish farming is very expensive, causing an increase in in dicators calculated in the present article matches the needs of certifying
vestment cost which reflects in high ICDE. organizations. They are broader and more realistic than the indicators
Currently the principal reasons why farmers do not fully occupy their normally used by the main certifiers (Valenti et al., 2018).
licensed areas include the above-mentioned financial limitations, the Noteworthy is the recent process initiated to obtain a Geographical
lack of seed, and massive mortalities. Those events threatened the eco Indication (GI) for scallops cultivated in Ilha Grande Bay, which would
nomic sustainability of farmers, with sharp drops in family revenue for assure them of a brand name, a reputation, intrinsic value, and their own
many, causing their migration to other economic activities such as identity. According to the National Industrial Property Institute (INPI),
fishing, domestic labor, and construction. GIs are used to identify the origin of products or services when that place
The difference between the current and the potential production has become known or when a certain characteristic or quality of the
capacity of scallops (24%) can be partly attributed to the lack of seed – product or service is due to its origin. That GI should be extended to
but it was also the result of high mortality rates that resulted in total other species as well as the Baixada Litorânea region.
production losses during the 2018–2019 ongrowing season for many As well as food tourism is a rising industry that individual maricul
farmers. ture operators may be able to take advantage providing farmgate ex
The minimum sale size of scallops is 7 cm shell length, while the periences to interact with their business, and regional hubs or collectives
maximum is 9 cm. Some shellfish farmers will sell scallops that are less of tourism or education-oriented activities can showcase operations
than one year old. Only one of those farmers operates in IG bay, while all across the value chain (e.g., farming, harvesting, processing, marketing,
the others are located in the BL region, reflecting the fact that the two transport, and sales). Ecotourism can also be associated with maricul
areas have very distinct environmental characteristics, mainly due to the ture (Alleway et al., 2018).
occurrence of upwelling in Arraial do Cabo.
While environmental factors may explain the difference in the time 4.4. Seed
needed from seed to market size of shellfish between the two regions, it
will still be necessary to undertake in-depth studies to confirm their The availability of seed, especially of scallops, currently represents
effects. Husbandry practices, and scallop size at the time of sale, among one of the most significant bottlenecks to marine aquaculture in Rio de
other factors, could also explain the reduced time from seed to market in Janeiro. It is therefore essential to think about alternatives for their
the BL region. production. Growing demands from Rio de Janeiro mariculture farmers
The profitability of cultivating scallops (Marques et al., 2018) and have faced a series of technical problems that affect seed production and
the market competition with large scale mussel production in Santa delivery. Problems related to breeder and spat mortality linked to
Catarina State makes investments in mussel farming practically dependence of a single seed supplier have caused delays in supplying
10
seed to farmers and has negatively impacted production. Those annual mariculture not only consumes but also provides ecosystem services far
production delays compromise the winter harvest, the most favorable beyond the provision of goods. Resembling agroecosystems, mariculture
period for development and ongrowing. can, under certain circumstances, support many of the same funda
In the state of Santa Catarina, which leads national production of mental goods and services provided by nature, but the health of the
mollusks, although the Marine Mollusk Laboratory of the Federal Uni surrounding ecosystem will also have consequences for mariculture’s
versity of Santa Catarina (LMM) is currently unable to attend to existing role in supporting ecosystem services. (Alleway et al., 2018).
demands, it is a key player in production chain, offering pacific oyster, Although bivalves can enhance water purification and water clarity,
native oyster (Crasssotrea gasar), and scallop seeds at a lower price than they also absorb viruses, bacteria, toxic algae, and polluted organic
practiced by the private sector (Safford et al., 2019; Suplicy, 2018). In particles from the ambient environment (Naylor et al., 2021). The Na
addition to the LMM, two private laboratories that supply oyster and tional Program for Sanitary Control of Bivalve Mollusks (PNCMB) was
scallop seeds, are currently not being able to supply even 10–15% of is created in 2012 to establish the minimum requirements necessary to
the volume needed. Mussel seeds, on the other hand, are mostly guarantee the safety and quality of bivalve mollusks for human con
collected naturally using settling devices (Gasalla et al., 2017). sumption, as well as to monitor and supervise compliance to those
Similarly, insufficient seed supply was the main reason for the slow requirements.
decline of aquaculture output in Peru after the peak year in 2013, and The Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture—MPA (currently known
currently represents the main bottleneck for re-starting scallop culture as the Aquaculture and Fisheries Secretary—AFS, subordinated to the
there. Due to the ongoing crisis of insufficient natural seed supplies for Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply) is responsible for the
Peruvian scallop aquaculture, reducing dependence on natural banks is monitoring, control, and inspection of contaminating microorganisms
likewise highly recommended, and measures such as promotion of the and marine biotoxins in bivalve mollusks harvested from fishing and
use of seed collectors, the implementation of specific regulations aquaculture, as well as the supervision of compliance to industrial and
regarding access to populations and habitats, and the development of sanitary inspection requirements of bivalve mollusks destined for
more hatcheries (although not yet sufficiently efficient) are currently human consumption.
being adopted (Kluger et al., 2019). This program defines the limits for microorganism concentrations
Mussel culture in Chile (as in Rio de Janeiro) is dependent on seed (bacteria) and for biotoxins originating from marine algae blooms,
harvested from the natural environment by artisanal fishermen who act among other contaminants, but it has never actually been executed in
as farmers. The larvae are collected on artificial substrates suspended on Rio de Janeiro.
ropes hanging from buoys at different depths in the water column, and A significant number of farmers perform basic types of environ
are deployed in areas of high larval availability. The ropes are subse mental monitoring, all of which therefore depend exclusively on private
quently transferred to different areas for fattening and growth (during a initiatives. That situation generates vulnerability in the production
period of from 12 to 18 months, depending on local environmental sector regarding food security (Souza et al., 2015) and will require
conditions and food availability) (San Martin et al., 2020). public sector action for the implementation of such programs.
Obtain mussel seeds by this strategy from places where the recruit Mortality events, as mentioned above, occurred and then eventually
ment is constant (as Metropolitan region or Sepetiba bay) and transport ceased without the identification of their causative agent(s) – indicating
to other regions could be a possibility if mussel aquaculture becomes the necessity of having continuous environmental monitoring and
attractive. The Metropolitan region, although known to have the best diagnosis that can identify causes and suggest treatment strategies and
conditions for mussel settlement, is one of the most polluted areas in better channels for rapid responses, remediation, and preventative
Brazil and with records of mollusks contamination by microplastics measures (Paladini et al., 2017).
(Castro et al., 2016), viruses (Dias et al., 2018) and metaloids (Hau Even though in some cases bacterial and protozoan infections have
ser-Davis et al., 2021). In the case of bivalves, slow growth, increase in been identified, due to differences in sampling conditions between
the percentages of abnormal Velinger larvae, necrosis in tissues resulting studies, it was not possible to determine whether these were causative or
from gonad damage, and abnormal structures in the velum, are some of opportunistic organisms that predominated as a result of the poor con
the documented effects of harmful compounds (Hall et al., 2020; Lasota ditions of the animals. In fact, the absence of coordination, sampling
et al., 2018), which could affect larval settlement and seed development. standardization, and funding resources to allow long-term investigations
In this scenario, a careful analysis must be carried out, in search of a site that consider the seasonality of the region hampers the ability to un
that meets adequate recruitment conditions and does not allow the derstand and correlate these different research fronts.
transfer of the polluting factor from one site to another. Environmental stochasticity is a real concern in both Chile and Peru.
Joint efforts have also been directed to ensure regular seed supplies The biological and ecological impacts of coastal farms and environ
through research aimed at development and technological innovations mental variations must be better understood in order to prevent the
in the areas of broodstock maturation (Sühnel et al., 2012), larviculture mortality events of recent years that seriously impacted scallop and
(Ramos et al., 2021), larval settlement (Zanette et al., 2009), genetics mussel production (Kluger et al., 2019; San Martin et al., 2020). El Niño
(Maldonado-Amparo et al., 2004), and cryopreservation (Silvestri et al., events have drastically impacted the aquaculture sector in Sechura Bay
2016). It will also be necessary to install a second, smaller shellfish in Peru, forcing many people to migrate to different economic sectors
hatchery, with the collaborative participation of local state govern and even in other regions of the country (Kluger et al., 2018).
ments, universities, and the production sector, that can at least minimize Upwelling areas sustain the most productive ecosystems in the global
eventual seed supply crises in Rio de Janeiro mariculture. ocean with a major role in the marine primary production of global
marine production, and the worldwide fisheries providing a high num
4.5. Environmental and sanitary monitoring program ber of livelihoods and benefits to human society. These phenomena that
occurs in Chile and Peru (Ramajo et al., 2020) also occurs in the Coastal
The Use of Space indicator are higher than those registered by Per Lowlands.
eira et al. (2021) in macroalgae Hypnea pseudomusciformis farm system. In Chile and Peru the resurgence occurs all year, contrasting the
Indeed, macroalgae cultures are more environmentally sustainable. In Coastal Lowlands, where the resurgence has a seasonal characteristic,
our study, a Kappaphycus farm presented the lowest value (0.3 m2 kg− 1) occurring regularly between September and March, when the north
registered. Mariculture requires marine area, which does not compete easterly trade winds cause the displacement of the surface waters of the
with the space used for other kinds of food production, does not use fresh Brazil Current (warm and poor in nutrients) round and impacts the
water, which generally occurs in the culture of tilapia or other inland environmental variation as a consequence of the properties of these
aquaculture systems used to produce food (Pereira et al., 2021). Also, deeper waters (colder, more acidic, hypoxic and nutrient rich).
11
Natural variations in the intensity of the resurgence can affect the (Valenti et al., 2021).
performance and health of the animals and reflect on the socio-economic The PLDM would allow the creation of exclusive areas, streamline
scenario related to mariculture. Understanding how local biota residing aquaculture zoning, and make it easier for farmers to obtain permits –
upwelling-influenced habitats might be affected by a possible but it has not yet been implemented in Rio de Janeiro (Landuci et al.,
strengthening of the upwelling conditions is an urgent issue to be dis 2020). Producers can only receive a Real Lease of Use of the Territory
entangled, especially because this information would help to predict inside the Arraial do Cabo Marine Extractive Reserve (Reserva Extra
future impacts, and take more adequate actions (Ramajo et al., 2020). tivista Marinha de Arraial do Cabo – (RESEX)) in the BL (a legal in
Mortality events result from combined factors that act in different strument granted to a local community responsible for the interests of its
manners in different ecosystems (Soletchnik et al., 2007), and cultural members), where the usual assignment process been replaced by the
practices can likewise favor disease propagation (Dégremont et al., decisions of a managing committee. The community granted that lease
2015) – highlighting the importance of environmental monitoring as becomes responsible for managing a portion of territory in partnership
well as selective breeding programs to identify those factors and with the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio).
enhance natural resistance. The frequent changes in the federal governmental agencies respon
Once again, the examples of Santa Catarina State must be followed. sible for the aquaculture sector and, in many cases, changes in its
The creation there of a Committee for the Sanitary Control of Mollusks technical staff, have impaired the adoption of medium or long-term
(CECMB) brought together scientists, growers, extension agents, and strategies for the sustainable development of the sector. Although
government officials to develop targeted approaches to shellfish safety. freshwater reservoir occupation policies are an exception, there is an
The CECMB contributed to a better scientific understanding of HABs and urgent need to reassess the effectiveness of the Local Plan for the
other water quality concerns, and institutionalized a more collaborative Development of Mariculture (PLDM), including reassessing the areas
management approach (Safford et al., 2019). occupied by the aquaculture farms where the plan has already be
The lack of compliance with sanitary standards directly affects access established (Santa Catarina State) and extend that initiative to other
to, and the consolidation of, new markets, exemplified by the recent regions of the country (Valenti et al., 2021).
exclusion of Sechura Bay - Peru from the list of scallop farmers autho
rized to export to the European Union. 4.7. Loans and technical assistance
That situation led to the closure of some businesses to avoid the total
collapse of that market (Kluger et al., 2019). That pressure of interna Funding and specific credit lines for the aquaculture sector that are
tional markets to comply with international sanitary production stan accessible and have attractive rates and terms, are essential for
dards provoked —to some extent—a self-regulating system in Sechura. increasing production.
That movement created an interdependency of scallop farmer co Brazil has specific credit programs with relatively low-interest rates
operatives that relies on group compliance to market-based re to finance aquaculture, as well as many others to finance agriculture,
quirements (Kluger et al., 2019). which can also include aquaculture, although the funds allocated to
The importance of compliance with international sanitary produc aquaculture (including those earmarked for the development of inno
tion standards and traceability, such as required by the European Union, vative solutions and the modernization of production processes), are not
is well recognized by mariculturists in Rio de Janeiro, but their depen fully used (Valenti et al., 2021).
dence on governmental initiatives is of strategic importance to access Despite the availability of specific lines of credit for aquaculture, few
better markets. In this sense, it is essential that those initiatives be ur farmers can take advantage of them due to the conditions and guaran
gently implanted in Rio de Janeiro. tees required by banking agents. Legal aspects related to environmental
licensing, health certifications, authorizations, and land issues severely
4.6. Regulatory processes restrict access to credit in the region (Silvestri, 2019).
Loans are generally taken to cover operating costs, especially seed
Regulatory processes have fundamental roles in determining the full purchases. That loan modality suffers severe criticism, however, due to
potential of marine aquaculture development. The slow pace of area payment deadlines – which generally comes to term before the
leasing and environmental licensing, and the inherent risks of maricul completion of the production cycle, a peculiarity innates to that activity.
ture as an economic activity, can drive away potential investors (Knapp The main reasons that many farmers have not accessed credit programs
and Rubino, 2016). (but would like to) include the lack of information about them, the lack
Obtaining an environmental license in Rio de Janeiro state is a of technical support for project development and excessive bureaucracy,
relatively simple procedure and has the support of the state environment as was pointed out by the stakeholders from the various segments of the
agency. The publication of the Standard Operation Norm 32 (INEA, aquaculture industry in Brazil, and reported by Valenti et al. (2021).
2015b), which establishes criteria and procedures adopted for envi Just as was done in Santa Catarina State, policy makers must create
ronmental licensing of marine aquaculture ventures, is a significant special aquaculture-oriented credit lines with no or low-interest rates,
advance, with clear cut criteria that simplify the process. together with new government incentive programs that promote the
While environmental licenses have not been a problem in the state, adoption of new technologies, including the mechanization of aquatic
the same cannot be said of the country’s Water Use Assignment policies. production and processing phases (Suplicy, 2017) that could help fulfill
In Brazil, public waters are either owned by the federal government or the potential of the sector.
by the states. Decree 4895/2003 was created to regulate the assignment Kluger et al. (2018) noted that there are viable manners to support
policies of waters for aquaculture purposes under federal domain in local small-scale farmers by: i) establishing long-term financial plans
relation to aquaculture areas and Parks (Landuci et al., 2020); it was that enable them to absorb the consequences of losses caused by the
later revoked by decree 10.576/2020. mortality of their target resource; ii) developing strategies that could
In 2003, the Special Secretariat for Aquaculture and Fisheries (SEAP) provide structured support during the post-disturbance phase, including
initiated extended discussions and negotiations with the Ministry of the through financial aid and/or affordable credit, and rapid and effective
Environment to establish joint regulations called Local Plans for Marine assistance with the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure; and, (iii)
Aquaculture Development– PLDM. The PLDM is a multidisciplinary and spreading the risk of a localized environmental disturbance. A politically
participative study of coastal aquaculture planning and coastal man supported system of micro-credits would allow farmers to quickly obtain
agement at local scales (encompassing a single estuary or large bay) affordable credits for resuming their mariculture activities. Actions such
(Suplicy, 2017). The objectives of the PLDM were to assess the potential as these should be in the sights of decision-makers. Ecosystem service
for mariculture and to delimit areas for exclusive aquaculture use provision from mariculture might also be enabled through new
12
possibilities in green financing. as the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, which provide a
Technical assistance and rural extension for aquaculture and fish blueprint for human prosperity and environmental sustainability, or the
eries in Brazil are rendered by the public services of each state. It is European Commission’s Blue Growth strategy (Alleway et al., 2018).
incumbent on the federal and municipal entities to promote and support Food security, nutrition, and poverty alleviation (SDGs 1 and 2, and
productive activities. In general, it was observed that the levels of their associated targets) lie at the heart of the SDGs. Aquaculture
effectiveness of actions focusing on regional aquaculture by ATER were development, when undertaken sustainably and equitably, has, and will,
mainly conditioned by the feasibility of state and federal management contribute significantly to those fundamental development goals.
plans and instruments (Silvestri, 2019). Almost all of the SDGs, and many associated targets, are relevant to
The importance of the Brazilian Support Service for Micro and Small aquaculture development (FAO, 2017a), and emphasize the three di
Enterprises (SEBRAE, a private social service entity) must be recognized mensions of sustainability – social, economic, and environmental
here as the most cited institution when the subject was training within (Table 3).
the mariculture production chain. SEBRAE promotes an annual seminar A supportive and “enabling environment” is a critical precondition to
that has become an essential trade event for exchanging experiences insure sustainable development and should include appropriate and well
between farmers, farmers and technicians, and technicians from designed: policy and planning; legal and regulatory frameworks; in
different institutions; it also provides an opportunity for those wishing to stitutions; and financial facilitation and incentives (FAO, 2017a). Good
join the ranks of farmers to meet stakeholders and participate in dis policy and planning are the means to create such an enabling environ
cussions about mariculture. ment and a necessary condition for the sector to fully reach its growth
potential and ensure the ordered sustainability of this growth (FAO,
4.8. Forward directions 2017b).
Productivity will depend on a range of conditions including a suit
Trends in the production and environmental performance of aqua able site; high quality water, feed and other inputs; good husbandry
culture have been positive over the last 20 years. Pressure on the (related to training and/or experience and commitment). The challenge
aquaculture industry to embrace comprehensive sustainability measures remains in how to link increased productivity with poverty alleviation
during this period have, in many cases, improved governance, tech and food security, and this will only be achieved if the rights and equity
nology, site selection (siting), and management (Naylor et al., 2021). issues highlighted throughout the Agenda 2030 are addressed.
There may also be opportunities to align the valuation of ecosystem Environmental sustainability is a key pillar of the SDGs (along with
services from mariculture with global goals and policies that are inten social and economic sustainability) and there is strong emphasis in the
ded to support smart, equitable, and well-informed development, such SDGs on achieving this through more efficient resource use to keep
Table 3
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) and associated targets relevant to aquaculture development.
Key issues/SDGs targets 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
17.9
Enabling Environment 1.b 7 11,3 15.9 16.b 17.14
17.15
17.c
Access, use-rights, and equity, including human rights 1.4 5.a
Resilience 1.5 11.b 13.1 14.2
1.b
Productivity 2.3 8.2
2.4 8.3
Environmental sustainability and the efficiency of resource use 12.1 14.2 15.1
12.2 14.7 15.2
2 6 7.b 8.4 9.4 12.3 14.c 15.a
12.4 15.b
12.5 15.c
12.6
Integration of biodiversity and ecosystem values 14.a 15.5
15.9
Genetic resource conservation and sharing 2.5 14.a 15.6
2.a
Infrastructure 2.a 7.a 9.1
7.b 9.4
9.a
Distribution, trade, and markets 2.b 7 14.2
2.c 14.4
14.b
Decent work and working conditions 4.1 8.2 12.4
8.3
8.5
8.7
8.8
Gender equality and youth opportunity 1.b 4.5 5.1 8.6
4.7 5.5 8.b
4.a 5.a
5.b
Knowledge, education/training, and information 2.3 4.4 8.6 17.16
2.5 4.5 17.b
4.7
4.a
4.b
13
within safe ecological limits. Resource use efficiency gains may be resilience, productivity, the environmental sustainability and the effi
achieved through better practice and farm/business performance ciency of resource use (Naylor et al., 2021).
monitoring, encouraged through appropriate incentives (e.g. certifica Marine aquaculture initiatives in Peru, for example, preceded spatial
tion/labelling systems) or regulatory constraints To the integration of planning by political authorities, and the subsequent phase of scallop
biodiversity and ecosystem values, strategies will need to address spe growing production was mainly self-organized, with increasing numbers
cifically how biodiversity values can be accommodated or promoted of fishermen involved. A major issue still to be solved in Sechura Bay is
within or around aquaculture systems. the lack of management strategies that involve sustainable limits to
Achieving relevant targets will also depend on broader planning/ production, i.e., the system’s carrying capacity (CC) (Kluger et al.,
legal/regulatory frameworks that address the need for ecosystem, 2019).
habitat and biodiversity conservation, and the maintenance of water The average population density of Brazilian coastal regions is five
quality, although the latter may also be addressed through voluntary times higher than the overall national average, and 83% of the popu
codes of practice. lation of Rio de Janeiro State is concentrated in coastal areas (Obraczka
Salmon farming in Chile is a prime example of the necessity of et al., 2017). Those areas have become highly conflicted due to the
adopting measures that can guarantee sustainable development (Chávez intensification of environmental pressures from three of the main vec
et al., 2019), and the marine aquaculture in Rio de Janeiro faces very tors of economic development: housing, industry, and tourism
similar challenges (despite their differences in proportions), such as the (Jablonski and Filet, 2008).
controlled use of space and the coordination of that activity, its PLDMs were developed to be executed with the active participation
vulnerability to adverse events, limited governance and social condi of local stakeholders through multidisciplinary and participative studies
tions, and the lack of investments. for coastal aquaculture planning and management at a local scale,
The sanitary crisis caused by the infectious salmon anemia (ISA) serving for both aquaculture planning and coastal management initia
virus crisis (2007–2008) revealed that environmental and social issues tives (Suplicy et al., 2017). Coastal ecological and economic zoning
require more attention and that a national strategy should be developed (ZEEC) is perhaps the most important instrument of Brazilian coastal
to promote the sustainability of the industry (Chávez et al., 2019). legislation (Jablonski and Filet, 2008). It was elaborated and imple
The self-regulatory strategy was dramatically modified under the mented 1988 at various scales in portions of the national territory, with
General Law of Fisheries and Aquaculture (GLFA) in Chile, and a series the objective of carrying out integrated environmental and territorial
of regulatory reforms were implemented there within the general reg management actions. The diverse historical, political, economic, and
ulatory framework of aquaculture. The new framework included environmental contexts in which those zones were created reflect their
defining geographical areas for monitoring and surveillance; procedures varied degrees of effectiveness (Nicolodi et al., 2018).
for stocking, harvesting and fallowing; mandatory fallow periods be ZEEC is integrated into management processes through specific but
tween production cycles; new production standards, including fish complex institutional, legal and administrative relationships, and re
densities; and more stringent sanitary measures and environmental quires a broad process of participation, in addition to political media
control. The regulations also created a new institution called ‘barrio’ tion. Only recently did the Rio de Janeiro Environment Institute - INEA
(neighborhood) or ‘group of concessions’ located within similar implement a ZEEC (Obraczka et al., 2017) in a small portion of the coast.
geographical, oceanographic, and epidemiological areas with synchro Despite on-going efforts to improve current practices and processes
nized production calendars that allowed for better management of in Rio de Janeiro, current institutional practices and barriers prevent
pathogen transmission and defining appropriate distances between better coordination and integration between environmental planning
farms (Chávez et al., 2019). agencies, authorities that regulate coastal land use, and stakeholders
With the recent publication of Decree 10,544 in 2020, the Brazilian and the general public (Obraczka et al., 2017).
Federal Government approved the X Sector Plan for the Resources of the Significant improvement in sector governance by the agencies that
Sea (SPRS) (Brazil, 2020), which aims to define guidelines and priorities regulate the environment, coastal zoning, and aquaculture will be
for the sector during the period between 2020 and 2023, in line with the essential for planning the activities of productive chains of Brazilian
recommendations of the UN for the “Decade of the Ocean”. The SPRS mariculture, particularly at federal and state levels.
seeks to focus on: contributions to the implementation of the Agenda The strengthening of technical actions and participatory manage
2030 (related to oceans and coastal zones), as well as commitments ment coordination among institutions related to aquaculture and fishing
related to the SDGs and the importance of the development and will be very important to obtaining SPRS goals, and to solve key issues to
consolidation of a blue economy. the sustainable development of mariculture in Rio de Janeiro state.
Marine aquaculture is seen in the SPRS as an instrument for sus Despite reported conflicts, managers can exploit synergistic in
tainable development, as a source of food, employment, income, and teractions between the fisheries and mariculture sectors, and take
leisure (guaranteeing the sustainable use of fishing resources, as well as essential roles in mediating conflicts (Clavelle et al., 2019). Rio de
the optimization of the resulting economic benefits in harmony with Janeiro does not yet have any formal or organized structure that can
environmental preservation and biodiversity conservation). Although unite representatives of the organized sectors of the production chain
the SPRS seeks to contribute especially to SDG 14, other SDGs have their (consumer, producer, and industry) and establish partnerships with
own goals linked to marine aquaculture. Indeed, several objectives of government institutions that could analyze, discuss, and propose solu
the SPRS seek to overcome sustainability issues in Rio de Janeiro tions – as occurs in Santa Catarina (Suplicy, 2018). The absence of such
mariculture. structures will hamper participatory construction processes.
Policies for strengthening the concession of use-areas, restructuring The State Council for Fisheries and Aquaculture (CONEPA) is a
the national authorization system of aquaculture (Sistema Nacional das consultative and deliberative collegiate body that was designed to pro
Autorizações de Uso de Espaço Físico de Águas da União para fins de pose public policies for the development and promotion of fisheries and
Aquicultura – SINAU) and improving the processes of inspection and aquaculture (Rio de Janeiro, 2014) – and the SPRS could strengthen its
control of concessions are predicted (all actions related to SDG 14.7 - by implementation.
2030, increase economic benefits garnered from the sustainable use of Mariculture could be used to support continued associations and to
marine resources, including through sustainable management of fish provide a means for traditional and indigenous communities to maintain
eries, aquaculture and tourism). and preserve customary access or ways of life (Alleway et al., 2018). The
Spatial planning of aquaculture is fundamental to its sustainable 2030 Agenda places particular emphasis on the creation of pro-poor,
development (Landuci et al., 2020; Suplicy, 2017) and could contribute gender and youth sensitive policy frameworks in order to achieve the
to: Access, use-rights, and equity, including human rights, to the primary goal of poverty elimination. There is clearly an opportunity to
14
strengthen many aquaculture policies and strategies in this regard. commercial production but incidentally returns a positive effect, and via
Significant investment and knowledge, optimal location, and sometimes more active modes of delivery, such as bioremediation (Alleway et al.,
a minimum scale may all be required for successful aquaculture devel 2018).
opment (FAO, 2017a). Those certifications must be encouraged and fostered by state gov
Indeed, aquaculture can play a crucial role in providing alternative ernments to enhance the success of private governance arrangements by
income options for coastal communities if there is proper planning for providing capabilities, resources, and minimum regulations that support
this sector to ensure the participation of stakeholders in the decision- improvements in farm practices. In Peru, the ASC created by the World
making processes and avoid their exclusion from the direct benefits WideFund for Nature (WWF) granted certification to a bivalve farm
generated by the production chain (Krause et al., 2015). company, contributing to its access to exclusive markets (Kluger et al.,
Women are present in all sectors of Brazilian aquaculture: research, 2019).
education, extension, farm operation, farm ownership, processing, in Ilha Grande bay producers initiated a process to obtain a
vestment sectors, retail, fish feed, and decision-making, although most Geographical Indication (GI). GIs make it possible to preserve product
activities are still dominated by men, as in other parts of the world characteristics and enhance them for consumers, making intangible as
(Valenti et al., 2021). The predominance of men (94%) in Rio de Janeiro sets such as reputation, specific environmental factors, and human skills
coastal aquaculture production is also noteworthy. economically tangible by adding those values to products. The farmers
SDG 5 calls for achieving gender equality and empowering all and/or agents of a region can then incorporate the added value of those
women and girls, and the FAO emphasizes that gender equity is crucial characteristics, mobilizing an intellectual property right. It is necessary,
to the sustainability of small-scale fishing activities (FAO, 2016; 2017c). however, to fulfill a series of requirements, among them environmental
Placing women within the production chain is the first step to fortifying and sanitary monitoring to maintain that status. Somewhat very similar
their roles, experiences, challenges, and opportunities (Gopal et al., to what happens in the mussel industry in Galicia, where from the year
2020). 2000 the brand “Mexillón de Galicia” - mussel from Galicia was
We observed during our study that women were involved in mari approved- (Labarta and Fernández-Reiriz, 2019).
culture at different levels, mostly related to processing and retail, but Programs for monitoring biological aspects and chemical contami
still generally without leadership or decision-making roles. It will nants of water are essential to avoiding high mortality rates and
therefore be necessary for the sustainable development of the activity to ensuring animal welfare, quality, and the consumer safety of aquacul
stimulate policies of equality at regional levels to qualify and support ture products (Valenti et al., 2021). Environmental alterations due to
women and engage them politically by stimulating their participation in climate change can have negative impacts on the social and economic
decision-making processes at local and national levels and placing them aspects of aquaculture sustainability (Maulu et al., 2021).
in key roles. Infectious diseases of varying severities and durations have been
Women’s empowerment is linked to cultural factors as much as it is occurring over the last few years in Rio de Janeiro marine aquaculture
linked to socio-economics, and these have to be taken into account (Landuci, 2021; Santos et al., 2016). SPRS has, among its objectives: the
before and after the introduction of innovations for effective technology environmental monitoring of oceans; continued training of human re
diffusion and desired impacts to happen (Gopal et al., 2020). It is sources in Marine Sciences; the adoption of best practices and contri
necessary to provide them with training and formal education to butions to the overall health of the oceans (with reduced pollution and
improve the efficiency, profitability and sustainability of their activities; the mitigation of impacts). Long-term coordinated monitoring programs
as also ensure adequate infrastructure, equipment, technologies, and involving scientists, farmers and government officials that consider
access to markets (FAO, 2016). regional seasonality and environmental, biological and sanitary criteria
The SPRS aims to support policies that encourage the consumption of are therefore fundamental and urgent.
fishing and aquaculture products produced in sustainable manners; In Rio de Janeiro state there are great opportunities to extend the
farm-level certification is setting new norms for sustainable aquaculture range of species cultivated to supply existing and develop new markets,
globally, yet the role of certification remains limited due to low levels of thereby contributing to targets relating to poverty, hunger, health, and
producer compliance – which can be attributed to insufficient finances, productivity. Some of these initiatives may also be combined with in
low demand for certified products, poor literacy levels, inadequate tegrated multi trophic aquaculture systems and initiatives to restore
administrative skills required for monitoring and reporting, and envi populations of endangered or over-exploited wild populations (Alleway
ronmental production risks beyond the control of farmers (Naylor et al., et al., 2018; FAO, 2017a). Resilient aquaculture should be robust in the
2021). face of market volatility (related to both supply and demand), adverse
Linking ecosystem services to reputable certification schemes, in weather, disease and climate change, requiring technical knowledge
conjunction with the development of jurisdictional management and (training/extension); diversity of product or product opportunity (e.g.
regulatory frameworks, could create a pathway to the intentional de available seed for a variety of species); market information, market in
livery of benefits by operators while deterring the occurrence of unad telligence and a balance of bargaining power within the value chain;
dressed negative impacts (Alleway et al., 2018). Furthermore, biosecurity (at all scales) and disease resistance (FAO, 2017a).
incorporating valuations into existing seafood certification schemes (e. Infrastructure encompasses hard infrastructure such as water and
g., Best Aquaculture Practices, the Aquaculture Stewardship Council electricity supply, and soft infrastructure such as extension, training or
(ASC), Global GAAP, the Monterey Bay Seafood Watch program) might market information services. For aquaculture soft and hard infrastruc
facilitate greater market recognition of these services. ture could also be extended to include quality broodstock or seed supply
Certification schemes are currently focused on identifying the pro (FAO, 2017a). Appropriate infrastructure provision or support is likely
ducers, systems, and species of least environmental impact, and to contribute strongly to the other targets, and in particular those related
although a number of these schemes acknowledge some of the unique to sites and access rights, resilience, productivity, biosecurity, and
attributes of operations that provide benefits to the surrounding envi sustainability.
ronment, rarely do they incorporate scoring systems to evaluate The 2030 Agenda place significant emphasis on the concept of decent
ecosystem service delivery (Alleway et al., 2018). work, its potential contribution to poverty alleviation, and the need to
A wide range of regulating services can be associated with maricul eliminate child labour, forced labour and the exploitation of migrant
ture, such as nutrient cycling, assimilation, and removal; water filtra labour. (FAO, 2017a). Measures such as diversification, innovation,
tion; wild life attraction; maintenance of genetic diversity, and the technological upgrading, entrepreneurship and sustainable enterprise,
attenuation and stabilization of wave energy. Regulating services can be as well as social protection, occupational safety and health is empha
achieved through passive action, in which mariculture centers on sized and must be supported as important elements for decent work.
15
There is a significant need and opportunity to take this agenda forward Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and the Fundação de
for aquaculture in the coming decades. Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro - FAPERJ. The authors
The adoption of new technologies, especially mechanization, could appreciate the support of all of the farmers who kindly agreed to
increase the productivity and well-being of workers and promote gender participate in this survey. In memory of Philip Conrad Scott.
inclusion, as the intensification of production increases all workloads
(FAO, 2016), however mechanization and technological complexity will Appendix A. Supplementary data
shift labor demand from a large amount of manual labor to a fewer
number of specialized workers, therefore training and technical capac Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
itation must be encouraged. org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105889.
Support for scientific research projects, the monitoring and devel
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Ocean and Coastal Management 213 (2021) 105889

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean and Coastal Management

Mariculture in a densely urbanized portion of the Brazilian coast: Current

Fig. 3. Investment levels and monthly liquid incomes of mariculture farmers.

Fig. 4. Current situation of mariculture initiatives in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.

Fig. 6. Technical assistance access, issues, credit borrowing, and lenders.

Intermediaries retail Intermediaries retail

scallops (dz) 18 42% 58% fresh 6.6 12.4

Fig. 9. Compliance and bottleneck rates.

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