processes

Review
A Review on Data-Driven Quality Prediction in the Production
Process with Machine Learning for Industry 4.0
Abdul Quadir Md 1 , Keshav Jha 1 , Sabireen Haneef 1 , Arun Kumar Sivaraman 2 and Kong Fah Tee 3, *

1 School of Computer Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai 600127, India
2 Project Manager (R&D), Digital Engineering Services, Photon Inc., Chennai 600089, India
3 School of Engineering, University of Greenwich, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The quality-control process in manufacturing must ensure the product is free of defects
and performs according to the customer’s expectations. Maintaining the quality of a firm’s
products at the highest level is very important for keeping an edge over the competition. To
maintain and enhance the quality of their products, manufacturers invest a lot of resources in
quality control and quality assurance. During the assembly line, parts will arrive at a constant
interval for assembly. The quality criteria must first be met before the parts are sent to the assembly
line where the parts and subparts are assembled to get the final product. Once the product has
been assembled, it is again inspected and tested before it is delivered to the customer. Because
manufacturers are mostly focused on visual quality inspection, there can be bottlenecks before
and after assembly. The manufacturer may suffer a loss if the assembly line is slowed down
by this bottleneck. To improve quality, state-of-the-art sensors are being used to replace visual
inspections and machine learning is used to help determine which part will fail. Using machine
learning techniques, a review of quality assessment in various production processes is presented,
Citation: Md, A.Q.; Jha, K.;
along with a summary of the four industrial revolutions that have occurred in manufacturing,
Haneef, S.; Sivaraman, A.K.; Tee, K.F.
highlighting the need to detect anomalies in assembly lines, the need to detect the features of the
A Review on Data-Driven Quality
assembly line, the use of machine learning algorithms in manufacturing, the research challenges,
Prediction in the Production Process
with Machine Learning for Industry
the computing paradigms, and the use of state-of-the-art sensors in Industry 4.0.
4.0. Processes 2022, 10, 1966. https://
doi.org/10.3390/pr10101966 Keywords: data-driven; artificial intelligence; quality control; anomaly; machine learning;
manufacturing; Industry 4.0
Academic Editors: Wentao Ma,
Xinghua Liu, Jiandong Duan
and Siyuan Peng

Received: 22 August 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 21 September 2022 The state of industrial engineering that we see today is the result of consecutive
Published: 29 September 2022
advancements in the field of manufacturing in terms of innovation and economic develop-
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral ment. Generally, the industrial revolution has been considered as the ongoing process that
with regard to jurisdictional claims in was initiated in the late 18th century, but four major changes in the field of manufacturing
published maps and institutional affil- are the reason for what the industry looks like right now. These four major changes are often
iations. regarded as the pioneer that brought landscape changes in the manufacturing industry, so
they are generally classified as the industrial revolution that shaped the manufacturing
industry. A revolution builds on the knowledge gained from previous revolutions and
creates progressively complex networks for commercial exchange. The foremost industrial
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
revolution came in the late 18th century, mainly aimed at the benefits of mechanisms. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
main focus of the 1st industrial revolution was to find a substitute for humans or animals
This article is an open access article
by the means of mechanical labour. The machines of this time required a large amount of
distributed under the terms and
energy and were generally situated near the source of the energy, such as coal. The means of
conditions of the Creative Commons
energy generation was also limited to coal as modern sources of energy, such as solar energy,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
hydro energy, and wind energy, were not discovered yet. This combination of machines
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
situated near the energy source gave rise to a new form of living, called industrial cities.

Processes 2022, 10, 1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101966 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2022, 10, 1966 2 of 29

These towns tend to be situated near an energy source and had a well-connected
transportation network. New forms of manufacturing activities emerged in these cities as
they grew in terms of population. These manufacturing activities include steel, textiles,
tools, etc. Thus, by the use of mechanisms, machines were created using conventional
energy sources, and these attracted the population, which brought more manufacturing
activities. As the relationship between man and machine grew more and more, this created
complex commercial relations and an advanced form of manufacturing.
The principle of the 2nd revolution was based on mass production along assem-
bly lines, which helped in scaling up the output of the manufacturing industries. The
2nd revolution assisted in the advancement of the workforce, task, procedure, and machine
coordination. This coordination also helped in growing the output of the manufacturing
industries. The introduction of specialty and connection in manufacturing engineering,
which gave rise to several manufacturing parks, was one of the primary outputs of the
2nd revolution (industrial belts). The access to electricity at a cheaper cost also fuelled the
development of these industrial parks in the 2nd revolution. The 2nd industrial revolution
had a heavy dependence on modern telecommunication systems, such as radios, telegraphs,
and telephones, for better communication among these interdependent manufacturing
ecosystems. In this era, we experienced a major shift in the aspect of manufacturing units
and the place of energy sources. Due to the development of long-distance transportation,
such as railway and ferry services, we were able to create manufacturing parks at locations
that were far from coal mining cities, as the coals were transported to the respective loca-
tions by the means of railway and ferry services. The 3rd industrial revolution took place
in the late 20th century, where the driving factor of the advancement in manufacturing
was automation. As the burden of employing humans for doing repetitive work in the
manufacturing industry increased, the industrialist focused on finding an alternate solution
to the problem. This gave rise to the deployment of computer-aided manufacturing pro-
cesses. Computers took a central role, as many processes in manufacturing were assisted
by the computers. This gave rise to the Computer-Aided Design (CAD) package besides
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) in the industrial engineering industry.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the process of designing the parts to be manufac-
tured with the assistance of a computer. By using a computer to design the parts, the
accuracy of the part to be produced increases and computers are easily able to simulate the
conditions in which the manufactured part will be used. In turn, Computer-Aided Manu-
facturing (CAM) is a process in which the software and computer-controlled machinery are
combined to manufacture the part. CAM increases the accuracy of the product by neglect-
ing the error possibility caused by a human operator. During the 3rd industrial revolution,
globalization played a vital role as the trade policies between the countries were relaxed
and low-cost labour from developing countries was available as a suitable alternative to
mechanization. So, globalization greatly benefited the manufacturing industry as it enabled
minimum input costs, especially related to labour and technology sharing among various
manufacturing countries.
The term “Industry 4.0” was first used in the Federal Republic of Germany in 2011
during the “Hannover Fair”. The event’s objective was to unveil a new German financial
strategy related to high initiatives, heralding the start of the 4th industrial revolution [1,2].
In the 4th industrial revolution, it was accepted that industrialization was the main cause
of environmental degradation. So, in the 4th industrial revolution, the main aim of the
manufacturing industry is to create a viable and sustainable ecosystem that minimizes the
degradation of the environment. The manufacturing industry in the industrial revolution
focuses on improving the product life cycle, collaborative manufacturing along with cyber-
physical systems, and applying industrial principles, such as decentralizing, virtualization,
and interoperability. Manufacturing’s emphasis has switched from mass production to
smaller batch manufacturing, which can result in a more exact reaction to variations in
the request curve while also reducing production waste [3]. Figure 1 shows the four
industrial revolutions.
 virtualization, and interoperability. Manufacturing’s emphasis has switched from mass
production to smaller batch manufacturing, which can result in a more exact reaction to
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 variations in the request curve while also reducing production waste [3]. Figure 1 shows
3 of 29
the four industrial revolutions.

Figure1.1.The
Figure Thefour
fourindustrial
industrialrevolutions.
revolutions.

Industry 4.0 also works on complete network communication between companies,

Industry 4.0 also works on complete network communication between companies,
factories, suppliers, logistics, resources, customers, etc. This will assist the company in
factories, suppliers, logistics, resources, customers, etc. This will assist the company in
staying current with real-time demand curve fluctuations. Industry 4.0 primarily focuses on
staying current with real‐time demand curve fluctuations. Industry 4.0 primarily focuses
creating “smart factories” [4], where items may be distinguished and located at all periods
on creating “smart factories” [4], where items may be distinguished and located at all pe‐
by stakeholders. The stakeholders will also be able to know the history of the product,
riods by stakeholders. The stakeholders will also be able to know the history of the prod‐
the current status of the product, and all the possible routes the product has to reach its
uct, the current status of the product, and all the possible routes the product has to reach
target state. Thus, the stakeholders can efficiently guide the product to its target state and
its target state. Thus, the stakeholders can efficiently guide the product to its target state
reduce the transportation time to a minimum. As a result, Industry 4.0 encompasses a wide
and reduce the transportation time to a minimum. As a result, Industry 4.0 encompasses
variety of critical factors for the evolution of a sustainable industrial sector. Minimizing
a wide variety of critical factors for the evolution of a sustainable industrial sector. Mini‐
waste, the wise utilization of natural resources, efficient usage of raw materials, high power
mizing waste, the wise utilization of natural resources, efficient usage of raw materials,
capacity, and streamlining production time are all vital values for the sector’s long-term
high power capacity,
management. and streamlining
In this paper, we aim to find production
the recent time are all
trends andvital values
changes forhave
that the sector’s
taken
long‐term
place management.
after Industry In this paper,
4.0 concerning we aim
machine to find the recent trends and changes that
learning.
haveThetaken
restplace after
of the Industry
paper 4.0 concerning
is organized machine
as follows: learning.
Section 1 deals with a summary of
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section
the four industrial revolutions that took place in the manufacturing 1 deals with sector;
a summary of the
Section 2
four industrial revolutions that took place in the manufacturing sector;
describes the background of existing technologies; Section 3 highlights the need to detectSection 2 describes
theanomalies
the background andof features
existing technologies;
of an assembly Section
line; 3Section
highlights the need
4 deals with to detect the
machine anom‐
learning
alies and features
algorithms; Sectionof an assembly
5 discusses the line; Section
research 4 deals with
challenges; machine
Section learning
6 discusses algorithms;
the computing
Section 5 discusses
paradigm; Section 7 the research
discusses thechallenges; Section
state-of-the-art 6 discusses
sensors used intheIndustry
computing 4.0; paradigm;
Section 8
Section 7 discusses the state‐of‐the‐art sensors used in Industry 4.0;
shows a multi-level graph approach of Industry 4.0; Section 9 contain the conclusions; Section 8 shows
anda
multi‐level graph approach
Section 10 discusses future work. of Industry 4.0; Section 9 contain the conclusions; and Section
10 discusses future work.
2. Background
2. Background
Industry 4.0 is enabled by the following technologies (Figure 2).
(a) Industry
Big Data 4.0 is enabled by the following technologies (Figure 2).
In Industry 4.0, information from production is evaluated and processed to propose
data-driven solutions to current problems. This necessitates a well-defined, complicated
structure of the manufacturing facility, as well as many Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
sensors capable of monitoring operations in real time and sending data for processing. A
large amount of data is created when several sensors are used to examine any given stage of
a manufacturing process. These data must then be saved to comprehend the performance
evaluation of the manufacturing process and to modify the process as needed. As a result,
big data management is required for effective data management and storage.
Leite M et al. [5] described the need for big data in Industry 4.0. As more sensors are
used, and where these sensors can communicate with one another, a complex network
of data is created. These data must be mined, evaluated, and preserved since it is the
 Processes 2022, 10, 1966 4 of 29

property of the supplied organization. The authors also mentioned the properties of these
data that must be dealt with, which are volume, variety, velocity, value, and veracity.
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
The
4 of 30
authors then used a case study to examine the differences between the data collected using
processing procedures and data received from social media.

Figure
Figure2.2.Enabling
Enablingtechnologies
technologiesofofIndustry
Industry4.0.
4.0.

(b) Big
(a) Real-Time
Data Optimization
InLeite
Industry
et al. 4.0, information
[5] described thefrom production
real-time is evaluated
optimization of theand processed
supply chain into the
propose
era of
Industry 4.0.
data‐driven The authors
solutions attempted
to current to achieve
problems. This supply-chain
necessitates aprocess solutions
well‐defined, that are in-
complicated
ternationally
structure of theoptimal and adaptable
manufacturing inas
facility, the manufacturing
well business.
as many Industrial The authors
Internet of Thingsattempted
(IIoT)
sensors capable of monitoring operations in real time and sending data for processing. can
to concentrate on the supply-chain market’s planning and scheduling phases. Planners A
dealamount
large with market
of datauncertainty
is created by improving
when the planning
several sensors andto
are used scheduling
examine any processes.
given stage
The authors also
of a manufacturing emphasized
process. These the
datasustainable
must thenprocess
be savedas to
a new need that the
comprehend mayperfor‐
be met
by real-time
mance process
evaluation optimization.
of the manufacturing This will allow
process and toformodify
eco-friendly operation
the process while also
as needed. As
lowering costs. To discover the best answer to the challenges presented
a result, big data management is required for effective data management and storage. during the planning
andLeite
scheduling
M et al.phases, the authors
[5] described adopted
the need a meta-heuristic
for big data in Industry method.
4.0. As more sensors are
used, and where
(c) Cloud Computing these sensors can communicate with one another, a complex network of
data is created. These data must be mined, evaluated, and preserved since it is the prop‐
Yen et al. [6] focused on improving the speed of production performance. The au-
erty of the supplied organization. The authors also mentioned the properties of these data
thors underlined the need of increasing productivity to offer the product to the organiza-
that must be dealt with, which are volume, variety, velocity, value, and veracity. The au‐
tion. The fourth industrial revolution places a strong emphasis on cyber-physical systems.
thors then used a case study to examine the differences between the data collected using
Yen et al. [6] classified cyber-physical systems into three broad categories: cloud services,
processing procedures and data received from social media.
sensor infrastructure, and embedded systems. The authors also emphasized the significance
(b) Real‐Time
of cloud Optimization
services, which enable data storage and security while also allowing employees to
access services
Leite or data
et al. [5] regardless
described of their physical
the real‐time presence
optimization in asupply
of the specificchain
geographic
in the eraregion.
of
The cloud
Industry storage
4.0. service attempted
The authors offloads server maintenance
to achieve to a third
supply‐chain party solutions
process while ensuring
that arethe
data’s security optimal
internationally and availability for the consumer.
and adaptable This allows a manufacturing
in the manufacturing organization
business. The authors at‐
to simply
tempted toexpand and descale
concentrate on the their infrastructure
supply‐chain based
market’s on theirand
planning needs without incurring
scheduling phases.
infrastructure costs. The second advantage of cloud services is
Planners can deal with market uncertainty by improving the planning and scheduling to provide services to the
customer
processes. without the physical installation of any specific software. Finally, cloud services
allowTheforauthors
a morealsoseamless transformation
emphasized and transfer
the sustainable processof data both need
as a new within and
that outside
may be met the
bycloud architecture.
real‐time processThese contribute
optimization. to increased
This will allowmanufacturing
for eco‐friendly process productivity.
operation while also
lowering costs. To discover the best answer to the challenges presented during the plan‐
ning and scheduling phases, the authors adopted a meta‐heuristic method.
(c) Cloud Computing
Yen et al. [6] focused on improving the speed of production performance. The au‐
thors underlined the need of increasing productivity to offer the product to the organiza‐
tion. The fourth industrial revolution places a strong emphasis on cyber‐physical systems.
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 5 of 29

(d) Cyber-Physical System

Jazdi et al. [7] described the importance of cyber-physical systems to lead in the new
industrial revolution, namely, the data-centric Industry 4.0. The authors also compared the
cyber-physical system to a typical embedded system, with the main distinction being the
intercommunication capability provided by the cyber-physical system. Jazdi et al. [7] also
showed that a cyber-physical system with the help of the Internet of Things presents the
capability of smart networking, mobility, and flexibility.
(e) Additive Manufacturing
Ugur M Dilberoglu et al. [8] emphasized the need for additive manufacturing and
its importance in Industry 4.0. According to the authors, as mass customization becomes
possible in smart factories, the need of meeting customers’ demands for minute detail
has been stressed. This is possible by using additive manufacturing methods. As a
result, additive manufacturing has gained widespread acceptance in the fields of aerospace
manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and so on.
(f) Cobots
Rinat Galin et al. [9] suggested how robots can collaborate with humans to complete a
given task efficiently. One of the most visible aspects of Industry 4.0 is the usage of robots in
manufacturing. Robots are more efficient and precise than humans in performing repetitive
tasks in the industry. The authors divided industrial robots into three categories: industrial
robotics, collaborative robots, and mobile/semi-autonomous robots. An industrial robot is
reprogrammable and inflexible to a position. Collaborative robots aid people in completing
tasks while being near the operator. The third type of robot is a semi-autonomous mobile
robot that follows the operator’s instructions.
(g) Machine Learning
Machine Learning is the process of evaluating previous data and solving current
issues. Machine learning has been a prominent topic in the implementation of Industry 4.0,
with a focus on data-centric solutions. Machine learning is divided into three categories:
machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence. Machine Learning takes a
shallow learning approach to the data to provide a given output, while deep learning itself
tries to find the correlation before providing any given output. To make repetitious tasks
autonomous, artificial intelligence uses machine learning or a deep learning technique.
(h) Augmented Reality
Volker Paelke et al. [10] suggested the use of augmented reality in a smart factory
environment. Augmented reality may simulate the real environment, allowing workers to
receive more hands-on training. Workers will be able to work more efficiently as a result
of this. A shift from a command line interface to a graphical user interface, to augment
reality, is also suggested by the authors. The graphical user interface was able to offer a
visual depiction of the task, whereas augmented reality can assist in fully visualizing the
environment in which the work is to be completed. The authors also discussed how to
employ video see-through, optical see-through, and projection for a more effective training
experience for workers.
(i) Internet of Things
In Industry 4.0, data collection and data sharing play a vital role in providing data
solutions to smart factories. As a result, cyber-physical systems are used to create smart
sensors that gather and interact with one another. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIOT)
infrastructure is utilized for communication among these sensors and data collection.
Wan et al. [11] defined IIoT as the ability to collect data from various sensors in the network
securely and forward the given data to the cloud services for analysis of the data. As a
result, the IIoT bridges the gap in collecting and transferring sensitive data from sensors to
cloud infrastructure.
 Processes 2022, 10, 1966 6 of 29

3. Anomaly Detection
In data science, the process of identifying events and observations that deviate
from the usual pattern in the dataset is called anomaly detection. Outliers are different
from anomalies. In a given dataset, the data are closed together based on any given
standard deviation of the mean or median. There can be some extreme data points that
can be distributed evenly or unevenly in a fixed range. These extremes can be very
large or very small, depending on the orientation of the entire dataset. These extremes
present in the data are called outliers. An anomaly is a term that can be used instead of
outliers interchangeably.
There can be multiple reasons why an outlier is present in a dataset. The most common
reason is human error, which is produced while collecting the data. For example: take the
value “999” instead of “666”. Such type inconsistencies greatly affect the dataset negatively.
However, the magnitude to which the outlier affects the data is still unknown, but it can
completely change the perception of the data. So, the elimination of such a dataset becomes
necessary. For example, for 10 observations (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 100). Here, N = 10, and the
sum of the number = 145. The mean of the 10 observations is 14.5, but on closer inspection,
we observe that of all the data in the observation area in the 1-unit incremental order, only
the last one is supposed to be “10”, but instead it is “100”. This “100” can be considered
an outlier. Now, if we consider “10” at the 10th position of the observation, then the mean
would be 5.5. This clearly shows that an outlier in the dataset had pulled the mean towards
itself. Thus, giving the wrong perception of the dataset. In the case of the median, there
would be no change as it solely focuses on the central tendency.
To need to detect an outlier in our dataset is very important. This can be achieved by
identifying the data points whose difference between the mean and median is very high. For
this, the help of data visualization can be considered, such as scatterplots and boxplots or
OR PEER REVIEW 7 of 30
violin plots. Through these data visualization techniques, we can easily detect the presence
of any outliers in the dataset. Taken from Osama Abdelrahman et al. [12], outlier data are
shown in Figures 3 and 4. Anomaly data can be grouped into three main categories:

Figure 3. Outliers in a boxplot.

Figure 3. Outliers in a boxplot.
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 7 of 29
Figure 3. Outliers in a boxplot.

Figure 4. Outliers in aFigure

scatterplot.
4. Outliers in a scatterplot.

(a) Point Anomaly

(a) Point Anomaly
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 30
In a point anomaly, there are single independent data instances that show deviation in
In a point anomaly, there arecompared
their behaviour single independent data instances
to other data instances that show
in the dataset. deviation
In Figure 5, samples of
in their behaviour compared to other
point anomalies data in
are shown instances in the dataset.
2D (two-dimensional In Figure 5, samples of
space).
point anomalies are shown in 2D (two‐dimensional space).

Anexample
Figure5.5.An
Figure exampleofofan
ananomaly
anomalyin in2D
2D(two‐dimensional
(two-dimensionalspace)
space)where
where“O1”
“O1”and
and“O2”
“O2”are
arepoint
point
anomalies,“N1”
anomalies, “N1” and
and “N2”
“N2” are
are collective
collective anomalies,
anomalies, and
and “O3”
“O3” is
is aa collective
collective anomaly.
anomaly.

(b) Context
(b) ContextAnomaly
Anomaly

AAcontext
contextanomaly,
anomaly, also
also called
called contextual
contextualanomaly
anomalyand andcondition
conditionanomaly,
anomaly, is is where
where
data instances
data instances can
can be
be considered
considered asas an
an anomaly
anomaly in
in aa given
given situation
situation only;
only; i.e.,
i.e., the
the data
data
points are normal in another context. Contextual anomaly is commonly seen in time-series
points are normal in another context. Contextual anomaly is commonly seen in time‐series
data streams.
data streams.
(c) Collective Anomaly
A collective anomaly can be considered as a collection of various data instances that
appear to be normal when considered individually, but show irregularity when consid‐
ered in a group or a bigger picture. The whole group of data will show deviation from the
normal data instances. To prevent or eliminate the outlier, we must first detect an outlier
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 8 of 29

(c) Collective Anomaly

A collective anomaly can be considered as a collection of various data instances that
appear to be normal when considered individually, but show irregularity when considered
in a group or a bigger picture. The whole group of data will show deviation from the
normal data instances. To prevent or eliminate the outlier, we must first detect an outlier in
the dataset. It might happen that the data are not scaled and are exponentially increasing
and decreasing; this pattern is viewed as an outlier in the dataset. So, before eliminating the
outlier, we need to first scale the data in the dataset. Depending on the number of outliers
present in the data, we can take the measures. If the anomaly is minute, then eliminating
the anomaly points will not affect the dataset. If the outliers are more than the sampling,
the data is more meaningful; also, using the median instead of the mean will work, as
the median calculates the central tendency to reduce the effect of an outlier in the dataset.
Finally, it is advised to take suggestions from a domain expert for a proper understanding
of the data.

Features of Assembly Line

For assembly lines, precise configuration and essential management strategies are
employed to increase efficiency and effectiveness. For effective management, factors
such as scheduling, industrial environment, and assembly line balancing are taken into
consideration. Since the inception of the assembly line at the Highland Park Ford Plant
in Michigan, which may be recognized as the “Industrial Revolution” of the modern era,
significant progress has indeed been made in manufacturing. Today, an assembly line is
integrated with intelligent sensors, the Industrial Internet of Things (IIOT), sophisticated
machinery, scientific management planning, etc. Bortolini et al. [13] describe the various
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 30
dimensions that are considered in assembly system design, as shown in Figure 6, which are
discussed as follows:

Figure
Figure6.6.Dimensions
Dimensionsofofassembly
assemblysystem
systemdesign.
design.

(a) Balancing
Balancing is the most researched topic in the field of assembly‐line design. In this
context, academic scholars and experts have established models and means for optimizing
production‐line tasks at the workstation. For this, the objective function is taken into con‐
sideration and a set of constraints is made to satisfy the objective function. This results in
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 9 of 29

(a) Balancing
Balancing is the most researched topic in the field of assembly-line design. In this
context, academic scholars and experts have established models and means for optimizing
production-line tasks at the workstation. For this, the objective function is taken into
consideration and a set of constraints is made to satisfy the objective function. This results
in the optimization of various attributes that are associated with the assembly system, such
as time and cost.
(b) Sequencing
The sequencing metric is the brief-stretch counterpart of the balancing dimension. In
diverse-model assembly lines, numerous product models from the shared product family
fulfil the requirements of mass customization. So, to minimize the workstation load and to
fulfilling the customer’s demand, sequencing is done on the assembly line product model.
(c) Material feeding
In an assembly line, several products are employed. These models work independently
but in sync with other product models. So, each product models require an independent
material requirement, which is required to be fed into the assembly line at different time
intervals. So, the need to feed the right materials at the right locations can be solved using
the material feeding process.
(d) Equipment selection
To reduce the operational cost of the assembly line up to date, machines and sensors
are required to be installed at the assembly station. As a result, a necessity for equipment
system configuration is to pick which apparatus to purchase and install at the workplace to
minimize operational costs.
(e) Learning effect
The learning effect predicts an inverse link between an employee’s number of job
duplications and work length. In today’s manufacturing environment, an assembly line
is massively customized, and the product’s life expectancy cycle is quite short. So, the
introduction of new products in the assembly system causes reduced productivity due to
the training of the workers. To decrease this time consumption, an analysis of the learning
effect on the assembly system is done.
(f) Ergonomic risk
Ergonomic risk is the physical stress that the worker induces while working for a
prolonged period. Often, the workers in the assembly system suffer from musculoskeletal
disorders, due to repeated operations and the high frequency thereof. So, the workstations
must be ergonomically friendly to the workforce working in the workstation. With the
advent of the 4th industrial revolution, data-driven approaches are encouraged, and the
decisions taken regarding the assembly line systems are done using data-driven decision-
making. These gave rise to various skills, such as cyber-physical systems (CPS), the
Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, machine learning, collaborative robots (co-bots),
augmented reality, and additive manufacturing.

4. Machine Learning Algorithms in Manufacturing

With the advancement in data-collection approaches, concepts such as a Smart Plant
and Internet-of-Things (IoT) have become widespread, as described by Ziqui Kang [14].
The use of IoT has exponentially increased in the manufacturing sector in the last decade.
The sensors used in Industry 4.0 and IoT can collect data in real time and on-site from the
production lines. Machine learning has been used in Industry 4.0 to effectively accomplish
complex tasks, such as forecasting, analysis, strategy, and predictive modelling, using past
information. Therefore, the industry nowadays is focusing mostly on data-dependent
approaches. It has also been discovered that superior-quality data and massive data
 and Internet‐of‐Things (IoT) have become widespread, as described by Ziqui Kang
The use of IoT has exponentially increased in the manufacturing sector in the last de
The sensors used in Industry 4.0 and IoT can collect data in real time and on‐site fro
production lines. Machine learning has been used in Industry 4.0 to effectively accom
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 complex tasks, such as forecasting, analysis, strategy, and predictive modelling,
10 of 29
past information. Therefore, the industry nowadays is focusing mostly on data‐depe
approaches. It has also been discovered that superior‐quality data and massive dat
lections may vastly enhance the accuracy of the model deployed in machine learni
collections may vastly enhance the accuracy of the model deployed in machine learning
gorithms. When working with such a machine learning algorithm, it is critical to
algorithms. When working with such a machine learning algorithm, it is critical to use a
suitable algorithm to address a specific problem. Machine learning can be broadly c
suitable algorithm to address a specific problem. Machine learning can be broadly classified
fied as follows (Figure 7).
as follows (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Classification of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Figure 7. Classification of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
(a) Supervised Learning
(a) Supervised Learning
A machine learning algorithm
A machine in supervised
learning machine
algorithm in learning
supervised constructs
machine a function
learning constructs a fun
from the relevant input or multiple inputs and provides output as a set of labelled trained
from the relevant input or multiple inputs and provides output as a set of labelled tr
data. This function is based on the pattern that can be observed between the given input
and output of the machine learning algorithms. Supervised machine learning expects data
to be cleaned in terms of feature variety and assumes parameter optimization by using a
given machine learning algorithm.
(b) Unsupervised Learning
The unsupervised machine learning method does not need labelled training data for
its usage and implementation. Since there is no understanding of the connections between
the input and output of the information, unsupervised machine learning techniques are
often deployed. Unsupervised machine learning algorithms are often employed when the
correlations between the data input and output are unknown to the user.
(c) Semi-supervised Learning
The supervised and unsupervised methods deal with labelled data and unlabelled
data completely, but some datasets are such that only a minor portion is labelled, but
which cannot be neglected. Such data cannot be analysed by supervised and unsupervised
machine learning algorithms. To deal with such algorithms, semi-supervised machine
algorithms are used.
(d) Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning majorly deals with real-time analysis of the data. Here, the
agent observes the environment in which it is placed. All the actions that the agent performs
will result in some reward to the agent. The reward can be positive or negative, depending
on whether the action by the agent is fruitful in achieving the stated goal.
Different techniques that are used in machine learning to solve the given problems are
as follows:
i. Regression: In regression, input features are mapped to a continuous numerical value.
The output value can be a number or a floating value.
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 11 of 29

ii. Classification: Similar to regression, in classification, the inputs are mapped to one of
the output values, but here in the case of classification, the output values are discrete.
In the case of binary classification, the values can be zero or one, while in the case of
continuous values, the output consists of several classes.
iii. Clustering: In the case of clustering, the data are classified into several groups. These
groups are created based on similarities in the behaviour or characteristics of the data
present in the same group.
iv. Data Reduction: Data reduction is done on the dataset to reduce the number of
features or records present in the dataset. We can enhance the precision of the machine
learning algorithms by lowering the number of rows that have some missing data or
irrelevant data. By eliminating features that are irrelevant to the problem at hand, we
could enhance the accuracy of the machine learning algorithm, which is also called
the feature-extraction process.
v. Anomaly Detection: In a given dataset, there can be some data that are misrepre-
sented in the dataset taken into the consideration. Adding those data to the algorithm
will reduce the accuracy of the algorithm, so the removal of those anomalous data
becomes necessary from the data.
Some of the widely used machine learning algorithms in Industry 4.0 are discussed below:
i. Isolation Forest:
The isolation Forest approach, initially suggested by Fei Tony Liu et al. [15], is one of
the most successful in anomaly identification. The isolation forest is a tree-based anomaly
identification system based on decision tree methodology.
The isolation forest divides the data into different branches, depending on a randomly
chosen threshold value. This branching procedure is repeated until each data point in the
provided dataset is isolated. Once the data have been isolated, the isolation seeks to locate
the data points that required the fewest iterations when compared to other elements in
the dataset during the isolation process. Thus, as compared to other isolation-detection
methods, this approach to finding outliers offers the Isolation Forest approach a distinct
edge in detecting outliers explicitly. The unsupervised machine learning approach is used
to classify the Isolation Forest.
In industry 4.0, Isolation Forest algorithms have been extensively used in the detection
of anomaly behaviours in manufacturing operations. So, the possibility of detecting some
unusual characteristics has been widely used in the manufacturing of automobiles and
electrical appliances such as plugs and sockets.
ii. Decision Tree:
Decision Tree was originally enhanced by Ross J Quinlan et al. [16], who proposed the
ID3 decision tree method, which used Entropy Information Gain. In the present period,
Ross J Quinlan’s ID3 and Classification and Regression Tree (CART) contributions are
frequently employed in offering data-related solutions.
A Decision Tree is a type of supervised machine learning that predicts based on the
Gini Index value and the Entropy Information Gain. Decision Trees are commonly utilized
in classification issues. The decision tree’s base is referred to as the root, and a number of
nodes branch from these nodes, which are referred to as leaf nodes. The decision nodes
branch based on the Gini index value. Finally, a leaf node emerges from the decision nodes
and is in charge of the data’s final classification.
Being one of the oldest machine learning algorithms, the Decision Tree still finds its
relevance in the data-driven manufacturing era of Industry 4.0. A decision tree has been
widely used in predicting the number of defective engines that do not comply with global
performance standards.
iii. K-Nearest Neighbour:
K-Nearest Neighbour, proposed by Evelyn Fix et al. [17], is one of the most ancient
and successful machine learning algorithms. This algorithm is commonly used to provide
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 12 of 29

current solutions to industrial difficulties. The K-Nearest Neighbour machine learning clas-
sification method is non-parametric and supervised. The K-Nearest Neighbour algorithm’s
basic criterion is that it assigns the provided data point to the group of data that is closest
to the data point. The distance between a data point and a data cluster is calculated using
Euclidean distance or Manhattan distance.
One of the crucial machine learning algorithms for supervised learning of the data,
K-Nearest Neighbour is used in smart factories for detecting inconsistencies in the man-
ufacturing of hard disks. In the manufacturing of electronic appliances of switches and
sockets, K-Nearest Neighbour is used in the detection of anomaly data and finding the root
cause and reasons for its occurrence.
iv. Naive Bayes:
Naive Bias is a probabilistic learning approach that is being employed in many data-
driven solutions. Thomas Bayes was the first to invent the term “Nave Bayes” in 1702.
The word naive refers to the primary premise on which the algorithm is built, which
is that each attribute in the provided data is completely independent and has no link
between them. This implies that changing any variable in one feature does not influence the
variable connected with the other feature. The Bayes rule, commonly known as conditional
probability, is followed by Nave Bayes. In today’s era of data-driven solutions, Naive
Bayes has been particularly used in detecting anomaly behaviour in the log files of hard-
disk manufacturing.
v. Support Vector Machines:
Cai et al. [18] describe the support vector machine (SVM) algorithm. SVM is a super-
vised machine learning approach in which the classified data are projections in a hyperplane,
which is an n-dimensional Euclidean space with an n-1 dimensional subset dividing the
space into two disconnected halves. The data will be separated into multiple clusters by
the decision boundary along either side. These decision boundaries are based on a variety
of mathematical kernels, including the radial bias function, sigmoid, polynomial, nonlinear,
linear, and so on.
The application of Support Vector Machine (SVM) has been extensive in finding
irregular behaviour in hard-disk manufacturing, detecting defects on steel surfaces, visual
industrial defect detections, and also finding the root cause of the given problem. This
suggests that the Support Vector Machine is one of the most important machine learning
algorithms in Industry 4.0.
vi. Random Forest:
The author Leo Breiman et al. [19] proposed a bagging-based technique for solving
classification and non-classification issues without the need for any specific algorithm. This
Random Forest algorithm employs supervised machine learning methods.
The input is initially segmented and fed to numerous decision trees concurrently in
the Random Forest method. For classification issues, the majority output from all trees is
evaluated, whereas the aggregate value is utilized for non-classification problems. This
approach addresses the low bias and high variance issue noticed in decision tree algorithms
since it is not dependent on any specific algorithm.
Random Forest is one such machine learning algorithm that has seen a wide variety
of applications in various fields, ranging from healthcare to finance, housing, tourism, etc.
Random Forest has also shown promising results in the field of manufacturing. In Random
Forest, as no single tree dominates the output, its results are unbiased. In production
plants, Random Forest has been utilized to analyse Internet of Things (IoT)-based sensors
to monitor and control various manufacturing processes.
vii. Logistic Regression:
David Cox et al. [20] described Logistic Regression, which resulted in the solution of
a classification issue. Logistic Regression (LR) applies supervised machine learning to a
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 13 of 29

classification issue. The most significant advantage of LR is that it converts continuous

data into a categorized output. This is accomplished by employing a sigmoid mathematical
function, which determines a fixed threshold value between 0 and 1. All incoming variables
are then identified depending on whether they are in the above or below cluster based on
the threshold value.
Logistic Regression has been used in data-driven factories for observing the data from
the sensors and predicting the machine’s operational life. This enables the operator to
schedule systematic maintenance of the machines associated with the production process
and prevent bottleneck time in production processes.
The following Table 1 represents various algorithms that are used in the produc-
tion processes.

Table 1. Various algorithms are used in production processes regarding machine learning.

Authors Key Contributions Algorithms

Anomaly detection in car manufacturing Global Local Outlier in Sub-Space
Van Stein et al. [21]
was done (GLOSS)
Isolation Forest (I-Forest),
Predict the anomaly detection has been Partitioning Local Outlier Factor (PLOF),
David Muhr et al. [22]
used to predict defective engines. One-Class SVM (OCSVM),
Local Outlier Factor (LOF)
Decision Tree,
An inconsistency in the log data files
K-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN),
Thanatarn Pattarakavin et al. [23] from the hard disc manufacturing
Naïve Bayes,
conditions was determined.
Support Vector Machine (SVM)
Machine learning based on sensor control Gradient Boosted Trees (GBT),
Dorian Moldovan et al. [24] in the manufacturing process Random Forest (RF),
was detected Logistic Regression (LR)
One-class ELM (OCELM),
Reducing operation and maintenance
Isolation Forest (IForest),
Weizhong Yan et al. [25] costs of gas turbine engines using
One-class SVM (OCSVM),
anomaly detection was done
Non-kernel based One-class ELM
Anomaly detection on the core failures of Local Outlier Factor (LOF),
Lehr et al. [26]
Die-Casting was detected One-class SVM (OCSVM)
One-class SVM,
Kun Liu et al. [27] Defects on Steel surface were detected Generative Adversarial
Networks (GANs)
Abnormalities on ImageNet data for
Benjamin Staar et al. [28] Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
surface inspection were detected
Visual defect detection for Industrial Support Vector Machine (SVM),
Tamas Czimmermann er al [29]
applications was detected k-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN)
CNN-based surface inspection in
Benjamin Staar et al. [30] Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
industrial applications was done
Histogram-based Outlier Score (HBOS),
One-class SVM (OCSVM),
Isolation Forest (IForest),
Anomaly detection and root cause
k-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN),
Osama Abdelrahman et al. [12] analysis on assembly line manufacturing
Clustering-Based Approaches for Outlier
was done
Detection (CBLOF),
Local Outlier Factor (LOF),
Angle-based Outlier detection (ABOD)

5. Research Challenges
As the manufacturing industry moves from four industrial revolutionary stages, rapid
changes took place in the manufacturing sector. Concepts such as productivity were
introduced, as well as where to optimize the manufacturing operations, how to reduce
the cost of manufacturing and thus increase profit as much as possible. Emphasizing
collaborative work was given more attention, and this gave rise to the Total Quality
Management (TQM) process for better optimization of manufacturing operations. With
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 14 of 29

the rising of Industry 4.0, the demand for making data-driven decisions has increased
tremendously. By making data-driven decisions we can satisfy the modular needs of the
customers. The amount of wastage can also be reduced by producing the product on the
given parameters that provide the optimal output. This can be achieved by analysing past
trends in the changes of the parameters that govern the production process. Further, with
historical data, we can predict the requirement of raw materials that will be required at any
time of a given production process. However, the conventional method for designing and
implementing the manufacturing processes requires to be updated with the modern means
of approaches that rely heavily on data analysis of historical data.

6. Computing Paradigm
Machine learning is a computational method that can be used effectively in various
domains. Machine learning can be used to predict the need for maintenance in the machine.
Conventionally, the machines are serviced based on fixed parameters; but, with time,
the degradation in the performance of the machines takes place. So, the effectiveness of
servicing the machines reduces with time. The normal statistical method fails to predict the
time interval for the maintenance of the machine. So, machine learning algorithms can be
used to predict the accurate time interval for machine maintenance.
Time-series data analysis, Gaussian mixture models, and multivariate linear regression
were the three machine learning algorithms utilized by Gauri Shah et al. [31] to detect
anomalies in engine-based machines. In linear regression, a linear relationship between a
dependent and an independent variable is used to predict the values of the dependent vari-
ables. The multivariate linear regression model is used as the number of input parameters
is more than one. For deciding the threshold, a Gaussian mixture model was used. The
data used in the paper [31] were not continuous so time series data analysis was used. Once
outliers are discovered using machine learning models and the parameter limits are known,
we can detect anomalies in machine performance in real-time and alert maintenance crews
to execute precautionary maintenance and maximize machine uptime; this will enable to
increase in the machine’s operational lifespan.
Bas van Stein et al. [21] mainly focussed on finding an anomaly detection algorithm
for their BMW dataset. The database includes information regarding steel coils used
to manufacture various automotive body components, including side edges, roofs, and
structural components, including B-pillars. To create the various components of cars,
different types of materials are used, requiring different machine settings. The creation of
a final product is highly complex as the process of material selection and corresponding
machine setting is highly dimensional. Data-mining algorithms are used at the start of
the production chain to estimate the places where problems may arise. Though most of
the characteristics are still unknown at this moment in the production process, the outlier
detection approach is very essential at this early stage. However, using anomaly detection
techniques at this early stage is a big challenge.
Conventional mathematical models, such as Optimal Operational Control and Real-
Time Optimization, are used, but these mathematical models fail to detect external distur-
bances and noise. Another crucial disadvantage produced by adopting the mathematical
formula is that it cannot entirely optimize the manufacturing process. Due to these lim-
itations, a data-determined method is required to monitor and optimize the production
process. The advantage of using a data-driven approach is that it requires minimum knowl-
edge and understanding of the domain area. The data-driven approach also incorporates
noise in the data and these noises can be reduced. In [21], the authors propose the use
of Global Local Outlier Probabilities (GLOSS) for outlier detection. It was observed that
GLOSS works well in detecting outliers in high-dimensional data compared to Local Outlier
Factor (LOF) and Local Correlation Integral (LOCI).
Finally, in [21], unsupervised machine learning techniques, such as intrusion detection
systems, were used for measurement to find areas of incoming blanks and rapid deviations.
Following the detection of outliers or anomalies in the data, forecasting data-driven models,
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 15 of 29

including such Random Forest, were used to validate the algorithm on historical data,
containing the properties of the materials, specifications of the product, and a quality
pointer towards the inability to forecast the expected outcome of the inbound steel blank
before stamp. The machine settings may be set depending upon those machine learning
models to obtain the appropriate material qualities for the steel blank.
The objective of the study by David Muhr et al. [22] was to divide the data according
to the relevant domain information and determine if the effectiveness of outlier detection
algorithms is enhanced for a malfunctioning internal combustion engine. To see if the
effect of data partitioning on high-dimensional vibration data is taken from the internal
combustion assembly line. A divide and conquer technique, which is based on data
portioning, is taken into consideration for anomaly detection where abundant unlabelled
data are available. After the engine has been put together, the data from the assembly
line is gathered and sent for a cold test. During this test, an electric motor is linked to
the engine and different indicators for torque, force, temperatures, mechanical vibrations,
and sound discharge are monitored. The study of the vibration in the internal combustion
engine is very complicated as the internal combustion engine is very complex in terms of
design. So, usually, the gathered vibration based on the above parameters is measured
and the anomaly is manually detected by a graphical representation of the above data
by the technician. In [22], by using machine learning methods, the threshold value was
determined for deciding if the engine has failed the test. As defined by Chandola et al. [32],
an anomaly is “the problem of finding the patterns in the data that do not conform to the
expected behaviour”.
The detection of anomalies in the data can be classified into three classifications:
(1) supervised anomaly detection, where ground-truth labels are available for both normal
and anomalous instances; (2) semi-supervised outlier detection, where the trained data
consists of solely normal cases, and abnormalities differ from the learned model; and
(3) unsupervised outlier detection, where no labels are required and abnormalities are
assumed to reside in the minimum concentration region of the data. Generally, the data
are available in supervised form; however, there might be inconsistencies in the previous
labelling. So, in this paper, unsupervised anomaly detection methods were used. To detect
the algorithm, three algorithms were used. The 1st algorithm with the Local Outlier Factor
(LOF) was used where local outliers were detected based on how isolated the data is
from its surrounding neighbourhood data points. The 2nd algorithm used was One-Class
Support Vector Machine (OCSVM), which is principled on Support Vector Machine, where
only positive examples are considered while outliers are considered as negative examples.
In the 3rd algorithm, Isolation Forest (I Forest) was used for anomaly detection, where
anomalies are isolated without profiling the normal instances. Further, the data used were
partitioned and compared with the results of non-partitioned data, to see the effect, as
shown in Figure 8.
The Area Under Receiver Operating Characteristics (AUROC) score was utilized
to compare the outcomes of various abnormality-detection algorithms, where a perfect
ranking would provide an AUROC value of 1 and the lowest score would yield a value of 0.
The result showed that data partitioning increased the AUROC score in each algorithm
and further averaging and maximizing all three algorithms also increases the AUROC
score. Thanatarn Pattarakavin et al. [23] worked on the production line of a hard-disk
manufacturing firm in Thailand. Hard drives are produced using a highly sophisticated
procedure that includes hundreds of automated equipment that operate continuously to
produce the given product. If an abnormality occurs, the entire production line is halted,
and the diagnostic crew inspects each machine to determine the origin of the anomaly.
This process is time-consuming as it stops the production line till the diagnostic team finds
the root cause of the error. In an autonomous manufacturing line, all of the equipment
is tracked using different types of sensors, and the logs from such sensors are utilized to
determine the reason for the issue. So, by using the machine learning method on these log
files, the prediction of anomalies can be done, which will help the diagnostic engineers to
 belling. So, in this paper, unsupervised anomaly detection methods were used. To detect
the algorithm, three algorithms were used. The 1st algorithm with the Local Outlier Factor
(LOF) was used where local outliers were detected based on how isolated the data is from
its surrounding neighbourhood data points. The 2nd algorithm used was One‐Class Sup‐
port Vector Machine (OCSVM), which is principled on Support Vector Machine, where
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 16 of 29
only positive examples are considered while outliers are considered as negative examples.
In the 3rd algorithm, Isolation Forest (I Forest) was used for anomaly detection, where
anomalies are isolated without profiling the normal instances. Further, the data used were
solve the issue in less time and more effectively. The machines used in manufacturing the
partitioned and compared with the results of non‐partitioned data, to see the effect, as
hard disk are tightly synchronized and collaborate and communicate to keep the production
shown in Figure 8.
running smoothly.

Enginevibration
Figure8.8.Engine
Figure vibration data
data were
were utilized
utilized to
toevaluate
evaluatepartitioning
partitioningand
andnon-partitioning
non‐partitioningabnor-
abnor‐
malityidentification
mality identificationsystems.
systems.

When any anomaly is detected, the production line is stopped, and the cause of the
disruption is identified and solved quickly. Log files from all the machines are diagnosed.
These log files contain information; some of them can be useless to the diagnostic team,
and some information needs to be removed. This process of removal of the unimportant
message is very complicated and requires a human expert. A considerable amount of
the error is caused by operators, called human errors, but which are easy to detect by the
operator. In turn, a large amount of error is caused by the software part of the production
line. So, to detect anomalies caused by the software part of the production, machine
learning algorithms are used on log files obtained from the machines involved in the
manufacturing process.
The dataset used in [23] is a head stack assembly (HAS) used in hard-disk manu-
facturing, as shown in Figure 9. Note that the process sequence is the same as given in
Figure 10. In [23], for data visualization and data analysis, the authors use orange canvas
software. To extract the critical information before data visualization, pre-processing of the
data from the log files is done to remove unnecessary data present in the log files. All the
transactions present in the log file are separated and placed into the individual transaction.
In the log file, each operation is described as a process. Using machine learning methods,
the author can correctly extract eleven parameters that may be utilized to anticipate the
abnormality. Here, the three machine learning algorithms are Naive Bayes, Support Vector-
ing Machine (SVM), and k-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN), with Decision Tree also taken into
consideration for predicting anomalies in the data. Classification performance (CA), F1
Score, Precision, and Recall are among the outcomes, with F1 being the harmonics average
of Precision and Recall. To evaluate the different machine learning models, Recall and
Precision were employed.
 Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 30
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1966 PEER REVIEW 18
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Figure 9. Head
Figure 9. Head stack
stack assembly
assemblyprocess
processused
usedininthe
thehard
harddisk.
disk.
Figure 9. Head stack assembly process used in the hard disk.

10. HSA
Figure 10.
Figure HSA process
process sequence.
sequence.
Figure 10. HSA process sequence.
The dataset was split into 10 sections, nine of which were utilized for learning the pa-
The dataset was split into 10 sections, nine of which were utilized for learning the
rameters and one for testing. All the machine learning methods performed well, according
parameters
The andwas
dataset one split
for testing.
into 10 All the machine
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which were methods performed
utilized well,the
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Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 30

Processes 2022, 10, 1966 18 of 29

For the industry to cope with the rapidly changing needs of customers, suppliers,
and logistics providers, and for material procurement, it has to implement a data‐driven
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approach for correcting,
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various all these processes
missing values in is it. because the
Data clean‐
data were highly imbalanced and consisted of various missing values
ing is to prepare the data, as part of preprocessing. Here, all the missing values in the in it. Data cleaning is
to prepare the data, as part of preprocessing. Here, all the missing
dataset (which is represented by “NaN”) need to be removed, filled using the mean of the values in the dataset
(which is represented by “NaN”) need to be removed, filled using the mean of the feature,
feature, and finally the data are normalized between the interval of [0,1]. The objective of
and finally the data are normalized between the interval of [0,1]. The objective of feature
feature selection is the process of eliminating those features that do not contribute to clas‐
selection is the process of eliminating those features that do not contribute to classification.
sification. These three techniques are discussed in [24]. The first is the Bourta algorithm,
These three techniques are discussed in [24]. The first is the Bourta algorithm, in which the
in which the algorithm identifies the variables that are associated with the Random Forest
algorithm identifies the variables that are associated with the Random Forest Classification
Classification algorithm. By considering the Residual Sum of Squares (RSS), the Multivar‐
algorithm. By considering the Residual Sum of Squares (RSS), the Multivariate Adaptive
iate Adaptive
Regression SplineRegression
(MARS) Spline (MARS)
decides whichdecides
featureswhich features are
are important. important.Principal
Furthermore, Further‐
more, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is used to turn a set of statistically
Component Analysis (PCA) is used to turn a set of statistically independent attributes into independ‐
ent attributes
a set into aones,
of associated set ofknown
associated
as theones, known
principal as the principal
components. components.
The result of all these Thefeature
result
ofselections
all these feature selections
is shown in Table 2. is shown in Table 2.

Figure11.
Figure MachineLearning
11.Machine Learningsteps
stepsfor
forthe
theSECOM
SECOM dataset.
dataset.

Comparingvarious
Table2.2.Comparing
Table variousselection
selection techniques
techniques used
used for
for feature
feature extraction.
extraction.
Feature Selection Algorithm Feature NumberAlgo‐
Selection of Features Selected of Features Se‐
Number Understandings
Bourta algorithm 22
Understandings
Uses Random Forest (RF) as default
rithm lected
MARS 10 Used for Regression Analysis
PCA Utilizes the Uses Random linear
Forest (RF) as de‐
Bourta algorithm 111 22 use of orthogonal transformation
fault
MARS 10 Used for Regression Analysis
Utilizes the use of orthogonal lin‐
PCA 111
ear transformation
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 19 of 29

Further, in [24], the authors discussed cross-validation to validate the machine algo-
rithm. This 5-fold approach was used where 4-fold became a training dataset and 1-fold
was the testing dataset for the algorithm. Two approaches were used to reduce overfitting.
The first is Under Sampling of Majority Class (where the amount of majority class examples
is equal to the amount of minority class examples) using WEKA software, and the second is
Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE), which oversamples minority class
data using the k-Nearest Neighbour algorithm among the nearest minority class values.
In [24], machine learning algorithms such as Gradient Boost (GB), Random Forest (RF), and
Logistic Regression (LR) were applied to all the changes to the dataset. The metrics used
for comparison are as follows:

TP
Precision = (1)
TP + FP
TP
Recall = (2)
TP + FN
Precision ∗ Recall
F − measure = 2 ∗ (3)
Precision + Recall
TP + TN
Accuracy = (4)
( TP + TN + FP + FN )
In the components of the confusion matrix, Equations (1)–(4), TP denotes True Positive,
FP denotes False Positive, FN denotes False Negative, and TN is True Negative. It was
then discovered that when the data was unsampled, for precision, the best value (0.8944)
was obtained when choosing Logistic Regression and using the Bourta algorithm. Using
the Random Forest algorithm and the Bourta feature selection, the Precision was modified
and improved when the majority class was under-sampled (0.9154). For oversampling
of the minority class (0.9050), precision was obtained using Logistic Regression and the
MARS algorithm. The False Positive rate for the unsampled value was 0.7559 when all
the features and Logistic Regression were used. The Bourta algorithm was used to select
features, and Random Forest (RF) was used to classify using the False Positive rate (0.2547)
for the majority class. A False Positive rate of 0.4374 was obtained when the minority class
was oversampled and a Logistic Regression algorithm was used for the classification.
In Weizhong Yan et al. [25], a condition-based critical maintenance method was used
to minimize the power plant functional and maintenance (O&M) costs, particularly in
industrial gas turbine power plants. For this approach, the author used the Extreme
Learning Machine Learning (ELM) algorithm. Yan et al. [25] described an anomaly that
occurs very rarely compared to the normal instances in the data. As a result, the authors
gathered Thermal Couples (TC) facts, which have been implemented in the turbine stages,
in the dataset. Within the combustion chamber, fuel and pressurized air are combined and
combusted; this hot gas then flows through numerous turbine stages, where thrust/power
is created. Monitoring the exhaust gas temperatures in the exhaust of the gas turbine
section will help in getting combustor abnormalities using a Thermal Couple (TC). In the
dataset collected, there is a 27-combustor chamber and the Thermal Couple (TC) collects
the exhaust temperature from this combustor. The data were collected for one year. In the
dataset collected, there are 10 events where abnormalities were observed. These 10 events
are spread over 30 samples, which have generated around 300 abnormal sample instances.
In turn, the normal instance included in the data consists of 47,575 instances. The general
architecture of the whole process is shown in Figure 12.
In the dataset, there are a total of 27 thermocouples features, so the author applied deep
learning stacked autoencoder (SDAE) on the raw sensor measurements. The autoencoder
gave 12 features that were responsible to generate abnormalities in the dataset. The machine
learning classifiers were based on these 12 characteristics. Extreme Learning Machines
(ELM) are a sort of feed-forward neural net developed by Huang et al. [33]. Just as with
traditional feed-forward neural networks, which employ weights and biases, ELM neuron
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 20 of 29

connections are chosen at random and fixed; thus, they do not need to be trained. Thus,
ELM training is often limited to determining the relationship between the unseen and
output layers. The minimum squares of the unseen layer yield matrix can be used to do this.
Due to such relationships in the ELM network, they are fast and have a better-generalized
performance. Weizhong Yan et al. [25] used four types of machine learning algorithms:
Isolation Forest, one-class ELM with an RBF kernel and sigmoid activation function, one-
class ELM without any kernel, and one-class Support Vector Machine (one-class SVM).
Isolation Forest is an anomaly-identification approach proposed by Liu et al. [34], in which
it is assumed that the outlier is smaller and different from the regular data, and therefore
their binary tree has a shorter average route length than normal data trees. In the paper,
the author used three lengths and five levels of sub-samples. One class of SVM uses a
hyper-plane that separates the dataset from the origin so that the hyperplane is as close
to the datapoint as possible. Yan et al. [25] concluded their article by pointing out that
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 30
when 5-fold cross-validation was utilised, they found that kernel-one class ELM performed
best in terms of the ROC curve and area-under-curve (AUC), trailed by one-class ELM
(non-kernel), one-class SVM, and Isolation Forest.

Figure
Figure12.
12.The
Theoverall
overallsystem
systemarchitecture.
architecture.

InJan Lehr
the et al. there
dataset, [26] have
are adeveloped
total of 27anthermocouples
alternative to visual inspection
features, used for
so the author quality
applied
control
deep in thestacked
learning industry using machine
autoencoder (SDAE)learning
on theapproaches. Here, a datasetThe
raw sensor measurements. wasautoen‐
created
usinggave
coder a two-step approach,
12 features which
that were reduces the
responsible size of theabnormalities
to generate data and complexity of the The
in the dataset. data.
For the dataset used in this article, the author tested two methods:
machine learning classifiers were based on these 12 characteristics. Extreme Learning Ma‐ convolutional neural
network
chines (CNN)
(ELM) areand
a sortconvolutional autoencoder
of feed‐forward (CAE).
neural net It takes by
developed a lot of work
Huang et to
al.produce
[33]. Justchar-
as
acteristics that must be manually developed for optical examination.
with traditional feed‐forward neural networks, which employ weights and biases, Krizhevsky et al.
ELM[35]
were the
neuron first to useare
connections a neural
chosennetwork
at randomfor and
image processing.
fixed; thus, they It uses
do not Convolutional Neural
need to be trained.
Network
Thus, ELM(CNN)trainingwith AlexNet.
is often limitedCNN was further the
to determining developed by Jiebetween
relationship Hu et al.the[36]. Even
unseen
though neural networks were able to produce great results, the industry
and output layers. The minimum squares of the unseen layer yield matrix can be used to could not accept
their
do usage
this. Duebecause
to suchofrelationships
the lack of availability
in the ELM of the large dataset
network, they arerequired
fast andto train
have the neural
a better‐
networks. However, CNN showed promising results for computer
generalized performance. Weizhong Yan et al. [25] used four types of machine learning vision applications.
Liu et al. [27]
algorithms: and Goodfellow
Isolation et al. [37]ELM
Forest, one‐class implemented
with an RBFsurface inspection
kernel using a activation
and sigmoid Generative
Adversarial Network (GAN) and One Class Classifier (OCC). Here, 10,000 images were
function, one‐class ELM without any kernel, and one‐class Support Vector Machine (one‐
taken for training purposes. Furthermore, CNN encoders are appropriate for texture-
class SVM). Isolation Forest is an anomaly‐identification approach proposed by Liu et al.
quality inspection in a manufacturing setting, according to research by Grunwald et al. [38].
[34], in which it is assumed that the outlier is smaller and different from the regular data,
Staar et al. [28] also used CNN for industrial applications and Czimmermann et al. [29]
and therefore their binary tree has a shorter average route length than normal data trees.
analysed various methods and AI approaches to visual defect detection of surfaces. In
In the paper, the author used three lengths and five levels of sub‐samples. One class of
all the above papers, the authors concluded that the use of neural networks yields good
SVM uses a hyper‐plane that separates the dataset from the origin so that the hyperplane
results. However, Jan Lehr et al. [26] used a dataset that is not considered large enough
is as close to the datapoint as possible. Yan et al. [25] concluded their article by pointing
for the usage of neural networks. So, Jan Lehr et al. [26] used a dataset that was created by
out that when 5‐fold cross‐validation was utilised, they found that kernel‐one class ELM
Bergmann et al. [30]. Javaid et al. [39] used an unsupervised clustering method to detect
performed best in terms of the ROC curve and area‐under‐curve (AUC), trailed by one‐
surface defects in the manufacturing process. For quality assurance, Jan Lehr et al. [26]
class
usedELM (non‐kernel),
the method by which one‐class SVM, and Isolation Forest.
Jan Lehr et al. [26] have developed an alternative to visual inspection used for quality
control in the industry using machine learning approaches. Here, a dataset was created
using a two‐step approach, which reduces the size of the data and complexity of the data.
For the dataset used in this article, the author tested two methods: convolutional neural
network (CNN) and convolutional autoencoder (CAE). It takes a lot of work to produce
 faces. In all the above papers, the authors concluded that the use of neural networks yields
good results. However, Jan Lehr et al. [26] used a dataset that is not considered large
enough for the usage of neural networks. So, Jan Lehr et al. [26] used a dataset that was
created by Bergmann et al. [30]. Javaid et al. [39] used an unsupervised clustering method
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 to detect surface defects in the manufacturing process. For quality assurance, Jan Lehr21 ofet29
al. [26] used the method by which
(a) A multi‐matrix camera system creates images of the objects, and various machine
(a) learning techniques,
A multi-matrix suchsystem
camera as CNNs and CAEs,
creates imagesare ofapplied to the
the objects, anddata. Here,machine
various the de‐
fect
learning techniques, such as CNNs and CAEs, are applied to the data. Here, the algo‐
is less, so it is treated as an anomaly; this will convert the machine learning defect
rithm from
is less, so itmulti‐class
is treated as classification
an anomaly;tothis OCC.will convert the machine learning algorithm
(b) The fromnext step will be
multi-class the anomalies
classification clustering using an unsupervised machine learn‐
to OCC.
(b) ing The technique,
next step will andbe these clusters are
the anomalies labelledusing
clustering by the anemployees
unsupervised andmachine
classified into
learning
critical and uncritical
technique, and thesedefects.
clusters are labelled by the employees and classified into critical
Theanddataset
uncritical defects.
created using the aforementioned methods can contain both basic and
complicated designs,
The dataset created usingwith an edgethe length ranging from
aforementioned methodsthe line,
can with
contain a minimum
both basicofand 3
mm, to a maximum of 500 mm. To get the images, a multimedia
complicated designs, with an edge length ranging from the line, with a minimum of 3 mm, matrix camera is used,
and
to ato obtain a of
maximum high‐quality
500 mm. Toimage, get thethe product
images, is placed onmatrix
a multimedia the conveyor
camera isbelt, and
used, andtheto
illumination is diffused
obtain a high-quality to avoid
image, the light
productreflections.
is placedIn onthe
thedatasets,
conveyortwo non‐symmetric
belt, and the illuminationcom‐
plex shapes to
is diffused areavoid
considered: one is defect‐free
light reflections. and another
In the datasets, one is defective.complex
two non-symmetric The materials
shapes
used in the product
are considered: one are made outand
is defect-free of aluminium
another oneand their images
is defective. The were
materialscaptured
used fromin the
different scenarios at an angle of 30 degrees and 50 degrees.
product are made out of aluminium and their images were captured from different scenarios The dataset created in this
manner consisted
at an angle of 30 of 102 defect‐free
degrees images and
and 50 degrees. The23 images
dataset containing
created in thisdefective
mannerproducts.
consisted
Furthermore,
of 102 defect-freethe product
images was and placed
23 images on acontaining
turntable with four‐degree
defective products. steps in horizontal
Furthermore, the
directions.
product was Only 90 defect‐free
placed on a turntablephotoswithwere used to train
four-degree thein
steps classifier.
horizontal Thedirections.
remainingOnly im‐
ages were usedphotos
90 defect-free to evaluate
were theused levels of accuracy
to train of theThe
the classifier. faulty and fault‐free
remaining images images.
were used Theto
aim was towards
evaluate the levels generating
of accuracy embeddings
of the faulty thatandare fault-free
low‐dimensional
images.representations
The aim was towards of the
images.
generatingFurther, Convolutional
embeddings that areAutoencoder
low-dimensional (CAE)representations
and Convolutional of theNeural
images. Network
Further,
(CNN) were used.
Convolutional It was discovered
Autoencoder (CAE) and thatConvolutional
the embedding of fault‐free
Neural Network images
(CNN) was
werenear to
used.
It was
each discovered
other, that the embedding
but the embedding of fault-free
of faulty images images
was far apart.wasSo, near
usingtoEuclidian
each other, but the
distance,
embedding
the author was of faulty
able toimages
detect was
if thefarproduct
apart. So, using Euclidian
is defective or not. distance,
For feature theextraction,
author wasRes‐ able
to detect
Net‐18 wasif used.
the product is defective
A pre‐trained or not.was
ImageNet For considered.
feature extraction, ResNet-18
This approach was used.
is called “pre‐A
pre-trained
trained”; ImageNet
also, modifiedwas considered.
ResNet‐18 wasThisusedapproach is calledrate
with a learning “pre-trained”;
of le‐8. Anotheralso, modified
dataset
ResNet-18 was used with a learning rate of le-8. Another
was used to test the model’s resilience, which would be the MVTec dataset published dataset was used to test by the
model’s resilience,
Bergmann et al. [30]. which would be the
In conclusion, CAE MVTec
performeddatasetworst
published by Bergmann
for defect‐free et al.Pre‐
images. [30].
In conclusion,
trained CAE performed
CNN performed well forworst for defect-free
non‐defective images images. Pre-trained
and performed CNN
well forperformed
defective
well forwhile
images, non-defective
fine‐tuned images
CNNand performed
performed bestwellwithfor defectiveasimages,
defective well aswhile fine-tuned
defect‐free im‐
CNN performed best with defective as well as defect-free
ages. Figure 13 shows an example photo of a single item captured in a 4‐degree increment. images. Figure 13 shows an
example photo of a single item captured in a 4-degree increment.

Figure 13. Every ninth image shows an example photo of a single item captured in 4-degree increments.
Figure 13. Every ninth image shows an example photo of a single item captured in 4‐degree incre‐
ments.
7. State-of-the-Art Sensors Used in Industry 4.0
Mohd Javaid et al. [39] described sensors as “the device which senses the input
stimulus from the physical environment, and produces a digital output is called sensors”.
This is shown in Figure 13. The physical parameters can be a quantity, property, or any
given condition. The intake stimulus can also be any other environmental phenomenon,
such as pressure, force, fluid flow, radiation, heat, motion, wetness (moisture), or other
environmental parameters. The output can be a signal such as voltage, amperage, capacitor,
resistance, frequency, and so on. This reaction output is either transformed into a legible
display or delivered via an electronic wave network for other functions. Any system that
wants to be automated and intelligent needs sensors. A variety of sensors are offered on
the market depending on their appropriateness and uses. These sensors are produced
 mental parameters. The output can be a signal such as voltage, amperage, capacitor, re‐
sistance, frequency, and so on. This reaction output is either transformed into a legible
display or delivered via an electronic wave network for other functions. Any system that
wants to be automated and intelligent needs sensors. A variety of sensors are offered on
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 the market depending on their appropriateness and uses. These sensors are produced 22 of 29in
mass or can be produced based on individual customers’ demands. According to a report
by Javaid et al. [39], sensors would form the core of any automation system in Industry
4.0, to boost
in mass or canproductivity
be produced through
basedautomation.
on individual With the help of
customers’ sensors, tracking
demands. According of to
prod‐
a
ucts andbymachines
report Javaid etcan al. be done
[39], in real
sensors time,form
would and an theautomated
core of anycontrol systemsystem
automation will mini‐
in
mize the plant’s
Industry maintenance
4.0, to boost cost. through
productivity Throughautomation.
digitalization, With production
the help ofmobility
sensors, can be im‐
tracking
of products
proved, which andgives
machines can be done
a competitive edge in to
real
thetime, and an automated
manufacturing firms in control system These
the market. will
minimize the plant’s maintenance cost. Through digitalization,
are all features incorporated in Industry 4.0. So, sensors play a very important role production mobility canin
be improved,
smart industries. which gives a competitive edge to the manufacturing firms in the market.
These are allJavaid
Mohd features incorporated
et al. [39] describedin Industry 4.0. So,are
that sensors sensors
linkedplay a very
with important
multiple role and
devices in
smart industries.
systems present in a facility, as shown in Figure 14. This combination of sensors and the
MohdInternet
Industrial Javaid et of al. [39] described
Things (IIoT) has that made sensors
ordinary are sensors
linked with capablemultiple devices and
of measuring com‐
bustion, making them “Intelligent Sensors”. These intelligent sensors can collectand
systems present in a facility, as shown in Figure 14. This combination of sensors thethedata
Industrial
and Internet
can perform of Things
some (IIoT)
level of has made on
computation ordinary
hand. sensors capable ofof
The architecture measuring com-
such intelligent
bustion, making them “Intelligent Sensors”. These intelligent sensors can collect the data
sensors can be complex. The sensors need to be very compact and their main advantage
and can perform some level of computation on hand. The architecture of such intelligent
is that they can be installed to monitor places that are considered hazardous for human
sensors can be complex. The sensors need to be very compact and their main advantage is
beings. Andreas Schutze et al. [40], Mohd Javaid et al. [39], and Abid Haleem et al. [41]
that they can be installed to monitor places that are considered hazardous for human beings.
further detail the improved capacity of the sensors that can now assess machine noise,
Andreas Schutze et al. [40], Mohd Javaid et al. [39], and Abid Haleem et al. [41] further
signal
detail the improvedand
degradation, the reaction
capacity of dynamics,
of the sensors that can in now
addition
assess tomachine
other thingsnoise,that were
signal
before restricted. Shan Wang et al. [42],
degradation, and the reaction of dynamics, in addition to other things that were before re-in
Daniel Schmidt et al. [43], and Ali S et al. [44],
their papers,
stricted. Shanexplained
Wang et al.how [42],smart
Danielfactories
Schmidtincorporated
et al. [43], andvarious
Ali S et al.principles across
[44], in their cross‐
papers,
disciplines,
explained how suchsmartas emerging
factoriessensor technology,
incorporated artificial
various intelligence,
principles robotics, big data,
across cross-disciplines,
smart
such as valves,
emerging cloud computing,
sensor technology,andartificial
automation in control
intelligence, systems,
robotics, big to improve
data, product
smart valves,
quality, reduce the production cost, and acquire new markets.
cloud computing, and automation in control systems, to improve product quality, reduce All the above‐mentioned
technologies
the production communicate with each
cost, and acquire newother efficiently
markets. All the under the same rooftechnologies
above-mentioned as the Indus‐
trial Internet ofwith
communicate Things
each(IIoT). The main under
other efficiently aim ofthe using
same sensors
roof asisthe to Industrial
eliminate Internet
the risksofin‐
Things with
volved (IIoT).human
The main erroraim of using
caused bysensors is to eliminate
the operators operating the the
risksmachines.
involved with humanto
Compared
error caused by the operators operating the machines. Compared
humans, sensors are reliable and can remotely detect and record feedback from changes to humans, sensors are
reliable and can remotely detect and record feedback from changes
in the parameter that the sensor is monitoring using electrical signals. The advantages that in the parameter that
thesensors
the sensor isgive monitoring
over theusing electrical method
conventional signals. Theare advantages
(a) effectivethat the sensors giveand
decision‐making; over(b)
the conventional method
self‐optimization are (a) effective
for automation decision-making;
of production lines. In Figureand (b) 15,self-optimization
the different sensors for
automation of production
serving Industry 4.0 are shown. lines. In Figure 15, the different sensors serving Industry 4.0
are shown.

Figure
Figure14.
14. A
Asensor’s
sensor’s input
input and output signals
signals are
areshown
shownininaaschematic
schematicdiagram.
diagram.

In the Industry 4.0 context, the data received from these sensors may be used
for a variety of tasks, including predictive maintenance, automation, asset condition
monitoring, asset condition analysis, and overall process flow automation. Using
sensors, the industry can achieve cost-effective and trustworthy knowledge of the
materials before procuring them. This can be very beneficial for the pharmaceuticals
and chemicals industry. Sensors along with robots are used for choosing the path
based on their perceived environment. Sensors in the robot help the robot to take
proper decisions in various dynamic situations. Thus, sensors combined with robotics
are at the forefront in terms of innovation and research. Using sensors, the void in
production can be eliminated in real-time using material and inventory knowledge
from the sensors, which continuously collect data from the production plant and
 Processes 2022, 10, 1966 23 of 29

material inventory stores. Once the data collected from the sensors are uploaded
to the cloud, then analysis of the data starts, which will predict the pattern for the
production facilities. From these patterns, the decision makers can make data-driven
decisions for material procurement, inventory management, machine maintenance,
product packaging, etc. The data further will also help in maximizing production,
forecasting loss, forecasting material scrape age, maintaining, planning, replenishing,
and lagging inventory automatically. Here, during all the above-mentioned decisions,
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW there is minimum to no involvement of the operator, thus reducing the burden on24 of 30
the operators and workers in the production facilities. Advanced machine learning
methods are utilized for data analysis.

Figure
Figure 15.15. Sensorswith
Sensors withvarious
various capabilities
capabilitiesforfor
Industry 4.0.4.0.
Industry
The steps followed by sensors are shown in Figure 16. First, the flow of the environ-
In the
ment Industry
parameters 4.0 context,
needed the data
to be sensed received
goes through from the
sensing these sensors
panel. Then, may
as thebe used for a
sensor
variety of tasks, including predictive maintenance, automation, asset
senses the parameters, it monitors the parameters. Then the sensed parameter is collected condition monitor‐
ing,and
asset condition
converted into analysis, and overall
the data. These data canprocess
further be flow
usedautomation.
for either the Using sensors, the in‐
decision-making
process
dustry canor can be analysed
achieve by theand
cost‐effective sensors themselves.
trustworthy The final output
knowledge of the from the sensor
materials before pro‐
can be viewed on the panel. All sensors utilized in Industry 4.0 constitute
curing them. This can be very beneficial for the pharmaceuticals and chemicals industry. sophisticated
sensors, and all these sensors play an important part in building the Internet of Things (IoT)
Sensors along with robots are used for choosing the path based on their perceived envi‐
systems that have altered the industry. The entire manufacturing ecosystem would crumble
ronment. Sensors
until stability and inconsistency
the robot help the robot to
are maintained by take
theseproper decisions in
sensor-dependent various
systems. dynamic
This
situations. Thus,
projects the sensors combined
dependency with
and reliability robotics
needed are atproduction
by today’s the forefront in terms
systems of innova‐
regarding
tionthe
and research.
collection andUsing
sensingsensors, the
of data. In void 17
Figures in and
production can be eliminated
18, the capabilities of the sensorsin for
real‐time
Industry
using material4.0 and
andtheinventory
classification of the sensors
knowledge frominstruments
the sensors, in Industry
which(Manufacturing)
continuously collect
data4.0from
are shown.
the production plant and material inventory stores. Once the data collected
from the sensors are uploaded to the cloud, then analysis of the data starts, which will
predict the pattern for the production facilities. From these patterns, the decision makers
can make data‐driven decisions for material procurement, inventory management, ma‐
chine maintenance, product packaging, etc. The data further will also help in maximizing
production, forecasting loss, forecasting material scrape age, maintaining, planning, re‐
plenishing, and lagging inventory automatically. Here, during all the above‐mentioned
decisions, there is minimum to no involvement of the operator, thus reducing the burden
on the operators and workers in the production facilities. Advanced machine learning
Processes 2022,
Processes 2022, 10,
10, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 25 of
25 of 30
30

sensors for
sensors for Industry
Industry 4.0
4.0 and
and the
the classification
classification of
of the
the sensors
sensors instruments
instruments in
in Industry
Industry (Man‐
(Man‐
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 ufacturing) 4.0
ufacturing) 4.0 are
are shown.
shown. 24 of 29

Figure 16.16.
Figure
Figure 16. Sensor
Sensor operation
Sensor in
operationin
operation the
inthe context
thecontext of Industry
context of
of Industry4.0.
Industry 4.0.
4.0.

Figure 17. Instrumentation for Industry (Manufacturing) 4.0.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Instrumentation
Instrumentation for
for Industry
Industry (Manufacturing)
(Manufacturing) 4.0.
4.0.
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30

Processes 2022, 10, 1966 25 of 29

Figure 18. Classification of the sensors in Industry 4.0.

Figure18.
Figure Classificationofofthe
18.Classification thesensors
sensorsininIndustry
Industry4.0.
4.0.
8. Multi‐Level Graph of Industry 4.0
8. Multi-Level
The phraseGraphGraph
“Industryof Industry
4.0” was 4.0
8. Multi‐Level of Industry 4.0coined in 2011 during the Hanover Conference. Blaz
The
RodicThe phrase
et al. “Industry 4.0”Industry
[45] explained was coined4.0inin 2011 during the Hanover Conference. Blaz
phrase “Industry that4.0” was coined connects the business
2011 during departments
the Hanover Conference.andBlaz
entire
Rodic et
production al. [45]
chain explained that
to be integrated Industry
by means 4.0 connects the
of digitalization.business departments
According to KPMG and en-
(2016),
Rodic et al. [45] explained that Industry 4.0 connects the business departments and entire
tire
duringproduction
the chain
productchain to be
developmentintegrated
cycle,by means of digitalization.
allofdepartments linked According
with the to KPMG
manufacturing
production to be integrated by means digitalization. According to KPMG (2016),
(2016),
ecosystem,during the product
such as R&D, development
sales, customers, cycle, all departments linked
equipment manufacturers, with the
so manufac-
during the product development cycle, all departments linked with theand on, are all
manufacturing
turing ecosystem,
consulted, such as R&D, sales, customers, equipment manufacturers, and so on,
ecosystem, as shown
such in Figure
as R&D, sales,19 (a multi‐level
customers, graph
equipment approach to Industry
manufacturers, and so4.0).
on, Industry
are all
are all consulted, as shown in Figure 19 (a multi-level graph approach to Industry 4.0).
4.0 allows for greater openness during the product‐development process.
consulted, as shown in Figure 19 (a multi‐level graph approach to Industry 4.0). Industry Industry 4.0 also
Industry 4.0 allows for greater openness during the product-development process. In-
attempts
4.0 allowstofortransform the production
greater openness approach
during the from a centralized
product‐development to a decentralized
process. Industry 4.0 alsoman‐
dustry 4.0 also attempts to transform the production approach from a centralized to a
ufacturing
attempts toprocess,
transform tothe
meet the client’s
production mass customization
approach requests.
from a centralized to a decentralized man‐
decentralized manufacturing process, to meet the client’s mass customization requests.
ufacturing process, to meet the client’s mass customization requests.

Figure19.
Figure Multi-levelgraph
19.Multi‐level graphof
of Industry
Industry 4.0.
4.0.
Figure 19. Multi‐level graph of Industry 4.0.
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 26 of 29

Small and medium-sized businesses benefit greatly from Industry 4.0’s decentralized
approach (SMEs). SMEs are important to the economy in terms of job creation. By utilizing
additive manufacturing, the SME gains a distinct edge in meeting the market’s need for
tiny tailored products.
Cyber-physical Systems (CPS) are critical to the success of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. CPS draws together technologies that were previously functioning separately
to create an integrated complex network of sustainable manufacturing environments.
Because the working approach in Industry 4.0 is decentralized, precise monitoring and
control are essential. As a result, smart sensors with the capacity to connect and gather
data effectively were developed. These smart sensors might replace previous sensors that
were based on basic embedded systems.
As the application of these smart sensors expanded, so did the necessity to link them.
As a result, the present sensors have been digitized, allowing them to gather and send
data automatically without the need for human involvement via the Industrial Internet
of Things (IIoT). All data generated have to be preserved safely and without loss. The
cloud provided the necessary infrastructure for discrete and secure data storage. Finally,
statistical information may be gathered from the acquired data to propose solutions to a
particular problem utilizing machine learning techniques. As a result, Industry 4.0 was
able to integrate significant technologies to create a manufacturing environment that is safe,
dependable, modular, and scalable.

9. Conclusions
How Industry 4.0 is transforming the manufacturing sector is examined in this paper.
Every manufacturing process is connected to high-tech sensors. These sensors collect
data that indicate how the machines are behaving in a specific environment. To maximize
the production of a manufactured product, these data are further used as historical data
and fed into a machine learning algorithm. The output of the algorithm determines the
optimum parameters needed to maximize production. Furthermore, the inconsistencies
in the data can also be used to determine the factors that have degraded the quality of
the manufactured product, thus enabling data to be used to observe and stimulate the
parameters in manufacturing that allow maximum output. As a result, the quality of the
manufactured product can be improved by detecting and eliminating these inconsistencies.
The paper presents a review of quality assessment in various production processes. The
paper also provides a summary of the four industrial revolutions that have occurred in
manufacturing, highlighting the need to detect anomalies on assembly lines, the need to
detect the features of assembly lines, the various machine learning algorithms used by
manufacturers, the research challenges, as well as the computing paradigms and state-of-
the-art sensors used in Industry 4.0.
The paper discusses, in detail, the major factors that led to the contribution of the
industrial revolution and how each revolution has shaped the manufacturing industry.
Subsequently, the paper discusses the background of the various technologies that are
integrated under the umbrella of Industry 4.0. Further, a discussion on anomalies, their
types, and how they affect the manufacturing process, is done. The paper also discusses the
use of machine learning in manufacturing and how it can be used to detect and eliminate
anomalies in the manufacturing process. The paper also aims at discussing the challenges
of manufacturing regarding productivity and quality, which can be improved using the
modern manufacturing process. Further, a discussion on the literature survey of various
production processes, and how machine learning is used in real time, is conducted. In this
paper, we also introduce the sensors and their types used in the production processes. Using
a multi-level graph, emphasis is put on the complete integration of the manufacturing
environment. Towards the end of the paper, we conclude the paper with the aim to discuss
the use of machine learning and how the data are generated using sensors and an overview
of Industry 4.0. Finally, a discussion on the future work and the need for training of the
existing workforce in the manufacturing industry is completed.
Processes 2022, 10, 1966 27 of 29

10. Future Work

Industry 4.0 has focused on the interplay between humans and machines. As a result,
new collaborative robots, also known as Cobots, are being created. The emphasis of
Industry 4.0 has been on integrating a man–machine environment, with much effort put
into making the machine efficient. However, the current difficulty is giving appropriate
training to the existing workforce to handle such a complex network of man–machine
ecosystems. As a result, personnel must get specialized training, and chatbots powered by
Natural Language Processing (NLP) can be quite useful.
Mario Casillo et al. [46] discussed using chatbots for effective training of the workforce.
Chatbots may also be used to assist employees by reminding them of any pending work
or training they have to complete. Personalization in chatbots can therefore aid to boost
worker efficiency. The author provides information on creating a chatbot that includes a
Topic Generator, Domain Generator, Dialogue Ontology Generator, Interaction Quality
Monitoring, Man–Machine Interaction Monitor, and Context-Awareness Assistant. The
smart factory chatbot should be able to help employees in real time, give efficient training,
and customize the teaching based on the worker’s learning capacity. Currently, work is
scarce in the field of chatbot support, which needs extensive investigation in the future.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.Q.M. and K.J.; methodology, K.J.; formal analysis, S.H.;
resources, A.Q.M.; data curation, A.K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, K.F.T.; supervision,
A.Q.M., A.K.S. and K.F.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no interest.

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