INTERNAL AUDIT

Information technology audits

It is likely to be necessary to have an IT specialist in the internal audit team to undertake an audit of
the controls, as some of them will be programmed into the computer system.

Financial audits
The financial audit is internal audit's traditional role. It involves reviewing all the available evidence
to substantiate information in management and financial reporting. The substantive procedures and
tests of controls employed by external audit are also used by internal audit. The importance of
controls in preventing financial reporting errors mean that it is necessary to review certain areas
regularly to ensure the relevant controls continue to be in place. Many internal audit functions with
therefore adopt a cycle approach to financial internal audit engagements to ensure each area is
reviewed on a regular basis.

Compliance audits
In not compy can pay fines or have its licence to trade revoked. It is essential that management are
up to datewith the regualtory requirements applicable and put internal control in place to ensure
compliance and detect any instances of non-compliance. It is likely that the IA funciton will include a
member of staff who has specific knowledge and training in these areas.

Operational audits
Operational audits are audits of the operational processes of the organisation. They are also known
as management or efficiency audits. Their prime objective is the monitoring of management's
performance, ensuring company policy is adhered to. There are two aspects of an operational
assignment:
* Ensure policies are adequate
* Ensure policies work effectively
In terms of adequacy, the internal auditor will have to review the policies of a particular department
by:
* Reading them
* Discussion with members of the department
Then the auditor will have to assess whether the policies are adequate, and possibly advise the
board of improvement. The auditor will then have to examine the effectiveness of the controls by:
* Observing them in operation
* Testing them
This will be done on similar lines to the testing of controls by external auditors which is discussed in
Section D of this Study Text, even though the controls being tested may differ.

Gaining an understanding of the entity and its environment

ISA 315 sets out the methods that the auditor shall use to obtain the understanding:
* The permanent audit file where information of continuing importance to the audit is kept
* Audit working papers from the previous year’s audit file
* Information from the client’s website
* Publications or websites related to the industry the client operates in
A combination of the following procedures should be used to obtain an understanding:
* Inquiries of management and others within the entity
* Analytical procedures
* Observation and inspection

Inquiry
The auditors will usually obtain most of the information they require from staff in the accounts
department, but may also need to make enquiries of other personnel, for example, internal audit,
production staff or those charged with governance. Those charged with governance may give insight
into the environment in which the financial statements are prepared. In-house legal counsel may
help with understanding matters such as outstanding litigation, or compliance with laws and
regulations. Sales and marketing personnel may give information about marketing strategies and
sales trends. If the client has an internal audit function, inquires should be made of internal auditors
as appropraite as part of the risk assessment procedures.

Observation and inspection

These techniques are likely to confirm the answers made to inquiries made of management. They
will include observing the normal operations of a company, reading documents or manuals relating
to the client's operations or visiting premises and meeting staff.

Misappropriation of assets
However, it can also involve management who are usually more capable of disguising or concealing
misappropriations in ways that are difficult to detect. Employees may be involved in such fraud in
small and immaterial amounts, but it can also be carried out on a larger scale by management who
may then conceal the misappropriation, for example, by:
* Embezzling receipts (for example, diverting them to private bank accounts)
* Stealing physical assets or intellectual property (inventory, selling data)
* Causing an entity to pay for goods not received (payments to fictitious vendors)
* Using assets for personal use

Audit procedures
In accordance with ISA 315, the auditor shall obtain a general understanding of:
* The applicable legal and regulatory framework
* How the entity complies with that framework
The auditor can achieve this understanding by using his/her existing understanding and updating it,
and making inquiries of management about other laws and regulations that may affect the entity,
about its policies and procedures for ensuring compliance, and about its policies and procedures for
identifying, evaluating and accounting for litigation claims. The auditor shall remain alert throughout
the audit to the possibility that other audit procedures may bring instances of non-compliance or
suspected non-compliance to the auditor’s attention. These audit procedures could include:
* Reading minutes
* Making inquiries of management and in-house/external legal advisors regarding litigation, claims
and assessments
* Performing substantive tests of details of classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures
The auditor shall request written representations from management that all known instances of
noncompliance or suspected non-compliance with laws and regulations whose effects should be
considered when preparing the financial statements have been disclosed to the auditor.

Non-compliance: audit procedures:

Obtain understanding of nature of act and circumstances.
Obtain further information to evaluate possible effect on financial statements.
Discuss with management and those charged with governance.
Consider need to obtain legal advice if sufficient information not provided and matter is material.
Evaluate effect on auditor’s opinion if sufficient information not obtained.
Evaluate implications on risk assessment and reliability of written representations.

Impact of interim audit work on the final audit in general

Performing audit procedures before the period-end can assist in identifying significant matters at an
early stage of the audit and help resolve them with management's assistance or develop an effective
audit approach to address them. This reduces the time taken at the final audit to gain the remaining
sufficient appropriate audit evidence needed. If the auditor obtains audit evidence about the
operating effectiveness of controls at the interim audit, when it comes to the final audit, instead of
having to gain evidence over controls covering the whole year the auditor can focus on:
* Obtaining audit evidence about significant changes to those controls subsequent to the interim
period
* Determining the additional audit evidence to be obtained for the remaining period
If substantive procedures are performed at an interim date, the auditor must cover the remaining
period by performing substantive procedures, or substantive procedures combined with tests of
controls for the intervening period. Conclusions will have been reached on the testing carried out at
the interim audit and the auditor essentially has to carry out any procedures necessary to provide a
reasonable basis for extending the audit conclusions from the interim date to the period end.
Essentially, because the interim balance has been audited, the auditor can focus on auditing the
movements in the balance between the interim date and the year end. A point to note is that when
misstatements that the auditor did not expect when assessing the risks of material misstatement are
detected at an interim date, the auditor many need to modify the planned nature, timing or extent
of substantive procedures covering the remaining period. This may result in repeating the
procedures in full that were performed at the interim date. Therefore part of the expected benefit of
carrying out the interim audit will have been lost.

Audit procedures to obtain audit evidence

Audit evidence can be obtained by inspection, observation, inquiry and confirmation, recalculation,
reperformance and analytical procedures. The auditor obtains audit evidence by undertaking audit
procedures to do the following:
* Obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment to assess the risks of material
misstatement at the financial statement and assertion levels (risk assessment procedures)
* Test the operating effectiveness of controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting, material
misstatements at the assertion level (tests of controls)
* Detect material misstatements at the assertion level (substantive procedures)
The auditor must always perform risk assessment procedures to provide a satisfactory assessment of
risks.
Tests of controls are performed to obtain audit evidence about the operating effectiveness of
controls preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements at the assertion level.
Substantive procedures are audit procedures performed to detect material misstatements at the
assertion level. They are generally of two types:
* Substantive analytical procedures
* Tests of detail of classes of transactions, account balances and disclosures
Inspection of tangible Inspection of tangible assets that are recorded in the accounting
assets records confirms existence, but does not necessarily confirm rights
and obligations or valuation. Confirmation that assets seen are
recorded in accounting records gives evidence of completeness.
Inspection of This is the examination of documents and records, both internal and
documentation or records external, in paper, electronic or other forms. This procedure provides
evidence of varying reliability, depending on the nature, source and
effectiveness of controls over production (if internal). Inspection can
provide evidence of existence (eg a document constituting a financial
instrument), but not necessarily about ownership or value.
Observation This involves watching a procedure or process being performed (for
example, post opening). It is of limited use, as it only confirms the
procedure took place when the auditor was watching, and because
the act of being observed could affect how the procedure or process
was performed.
Inquiry This involves seeking information from client staff or external
sources. Strength of evidence depends on the knowledge and
integrity of source of information. Inquiry alone does not provide
sufficient audit evidence to detect a material misstatement at
assertion level nor is it sufficient to test the operating effectiveness of
controls.
Confirmation This is the process of obtaining a representation of information or of
an existing condition directly from a third party eg confirmation from
bank of bank balances
Recalculation This consists of checking the mathematical accuracy of documents or
records and can be performed through the use of IT.
Reperformance This is the auditor's independent execution of procedures or controls
that were originally performed as part of the entity's internal control
Analytical procedures Evaluating and comparing financial and/or non-financial data for
plausible relationships. Also include the investigation of identified
fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent with other
relevant information or deviate significantly from predicted amounts.

Control environment
Control environment includes the governance and management functions and the attitudes,
awareness and actions of those charged with governance and management concerning the entity's
internal control and its importance in the entity.
A strong control environment does not, by itself, ensure the effectiveness of the overall internal
control system, but can be a positive factor when assessing the risks of material misstatement. ISA
315 states that auditors shall have an understanding of the control environment. As part of this
understanding, the auditor shall evaluate whether:
* Management has created and maintained a culture of honesty and ethical behaviour
* The strengths in the control environment provide an appropriate foundation for the other
components of internal control and whether those components are not undermined by deficiencies
in the control environment

Control activities
Control activities are those policies and procedures that help ensure that management directives are
carried out. ISA 315 states that the auditor shall obtain an understanding of control activities
relevant to the audit and how the entity has responded to risks arising from IT. Control activities
include those activities designed to prevent or to detect and correct errors. Examples include
activities relating to authorisation, performance reviews, information processing, physical controls
and segregation of duties.
Approval and control of Transactions should be approved by an appropriate person. For
documents example, overtime should be approved by departmental managers.
Controls over
computerized applications
Checking the arithmetical For example, checking to see if individual invoices have been added up
accuracy of records correctly.
Maintaining and reviewing Control accounts bring together transactions in individual ledgers. Trial
control accounts and trial balances bring together unusual transactions for the organisation as a
balances whole. Preparing these can highlight unusual transactions or accounts.
Reconciliations Reconciliations involve comparison of a specific balance in the
accounting records with what another source says the balance should
be, for example, a bank reconciliation. Differences between the two
figures should only be reconciling items.
Comparing the results of For example, in a physical count of petty cash, the balance shown in
cash, security and the cash book should be the same as the amount held.
inventory counts with
accounting records
Comparing internal data For example, comparing records of goods despatched to customers
with external sources of with customers' acknowledgement of goods that have been received.
information
Limiting physical access to Only authorised personnel should have access to certain assets
assets and records (particularly valuable or portable ones). For example, ensuring that the
inventory store is only open when store personnel are there and is
otherwise locked.

Design of the sample

The auditor must consider the purpose of the audit procedure when designing an audit sample. The
auditor must also consider the characteristics of the population. When considering the
characteristics of the population, the auditor might determine that stratification or value-weighted
selection is appropriate. The auditor must design a sample size sufficient to reduce sampling risk to
an acceptably low level. Sampling risk can lead to two types of erroneous conclusions: for tests of
controls, that they are more effective that they actually are or for tests of details, that a material
misstatement does not exist when it actually does; and for tests of controls, that controls are less
effective than they actually are or for tests of details, that a material misstatement exists when it
actually does not. The lower the risk the auditor is willing to accept, the greater the sample size will
need to be. Sample size can be determined using a statistically-based formula or through the use of
judgement. ISA 530 also requires the auditor to select items for the sample in such a way that each
sampling unit in the population has a chance of selection. When statistical sampling is used, each
sampling unit has a known probability of being selected. When non-statistical sampling is used,
judgement is applied. However, it is important that the auditor selects a representative sample, free
from bias, by choosing sample items that have characteristics typical of the population.

Performing audit procedures

Once the sample has been selected, the auditor must perform appropriate audit procedures on each
item in the sample. If the audit procedure is not applicable to the selected item, the test must be
performed on a replacement item. If the auditor cannot apply the designed audit procedures (eg if
documentation relating to the item has been lost), or suitable alternative audit procedures, to the
selected item, that item must be treated as a deviation from the prescribed control (for tests of
controls) or a misstatement (for tests of details).

Deviations and misstatements

In rare cases, a deviation or misstatement may be considered an anomaly, in which case the auditor
must obtain a high degree of certainty that this is not representative of the population, by carrying
out additional audit procedures.

Evaluating the results

ISA 530 requires the auditor to evaluate the results of the sample.
For tests of controls, an unexpectedly high deviation rate in the sample may result in an increase in
the assessed risk of material misstatement, unless further audit evidence to substantiate the initial
assessment of risk is obtained.
For tests of details, an unexpectedly high misstatement amount in the sample may lead the auditor
to conclude that a class of transactions or account balance is materially misstated, in the absence of
further audit evidence that no misstatement exists. If the total exceeds tolerable misstatement, the
sample does not provide a reasonable basis for conclusions about the population. The auditor must
therefore also consider the results of other audit procedures to assist in determining the risk that
actual misstatement in the population exceeds tolerable misstatement. The risk may be reduced if
additional audit evidence is obtained. The auditor must also evaluate whether the use of sampling
has provided a reasonable basis for conclusions about the population from which the sample was
drawn. If the conclusion is that sampling has not provided this, the auditor may request
management to investigate misstatements that have been identified and make any necessary
adjustments, or tailor the nature, timing and extent of further audit procedures to best achieve the
assurance required.

Computer-assisted audit techniques

The major steps to be undertaken by the auditors in the application of a CAAT are as follows.
* Set the objective of the CAAT application
* Determine the content and accessibility of the entity's files
* Define the transaction types to be tested
* Define the procedures to be performed on the data
* Define the output requirements
* Identify the audit and computer personnel who may participate in the design and application of
the CAAT
* Refine the estimates of costs and benefits
* Ensure that the use of the CAAT is properly controlled and documented
* Arrange the administrative activities, including the necessary skills and computer facilities
* Execute the CAAT application
* Evaluate the results

Audit software
Benefits of using audit software
(a) Audit software can perform calculations and comparisons more quickly than those done
manually.
(b) Audit software makes it possible to test more transactions than when simply manually scanning
print outs. For example audit software may facilitate searches for exceptions, such as negative or
very high quantities when auditing inventory listings. The additional information will give the auditor
increased comfort that the figure being audited is reasonably stated.
(c) Audit software may allow the actual computer files (the source files) to be tested from the
originating programme, rather than print outs from spool or previewed files which are dependent on
other software (and therefore could contain errors or could have been tampered with following
export).
(d) Using audit software is likely to be cost-effective in the long-term if the client does not change its
systems.
Difficulties of using audit software
(a) The costs of designing tests using audit software can be substantial as a great deal of planning
time will be needed in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the client's systems so that
appropriate software can be produced.
(b) The audit costs in general may increase because experienced and specially trained staff will be
required to design the software, perform the testing and review the results of the testing.
(c) If errors are made in the design of the audit software, audit time, and hence costs, can be
wasted in investigating anomalies that have arisen because of flaws in how the software was put
together rather than by errors in the client's processing.
(d) If audit software has been designed to carry out procedures during live running of the client's
system, there is a risk that this disrupts the client's systems. If the procedures are to be run when
the system is not live, extra costs will be incurred by carrying out procedures to verify that the
version of the system being tested is identical to that used by the client in live situations.

Test data
Bearing the examples above in mind we can see the main benefits of using test data techniques are:
(a) Test data provides evidence that the software or computer system used by the client are working
effectively by testing the program controls and in some cases there may be no other way to test
some program controls.
(b) Once the basic test data have been designed, the level of ongoing time needed and costs
incurred is likely to be relatively low until the client’s systems change.
However, there are some problems with using test data:
(a) A significant problem with test data is that any resulting corruption of data files has to be
corrected. This is difficult with modern real-time systems, which often have built-in (and highly
desirable) controls to ensure that data entered cannot be easily removed without leaving a mark.
(b) Test data only tests the operation of the system at a single point of time and therefore the results
do not prove that the program was in use throughout the period under review.
(c) Initial computer time and costs can be high and the client may change their programs in
subsequent years.

Financial statement assertions

Assertions are representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are embodied in the
financial statements, as used by the auditors to consider the different types of potential
misstatements that may occur. ISA 315 states that the auditor must use assertions for classes of
transactions (ie statement of profit or loss), account balances (ie statement of financial position),
and presentation and disclosures in sufficient detail to form the basis for the assessment of risks of
material misstatement and the design and performance of further audit procedures.
Assertions used by the auditor
Assertions about Occurrence and rights and obligations: disclosed events, transactions and
presentation and other matters have occurred and pertain to the entity.
disclosure Completeness: all disclosures that should have been included in the financial
statements have been included.
Classification and understandability: financial information is appropriately
presented and described, and disclosures are clearly expressed.
Accuracy and valuation: financial and other information are disclosed fairly
and at appropriate amounts.

Assertions about classes of transactions and events for the period under audit: Occurrence,
Completeness, Accuracy, Cut-off, Classification, Presentation.
Assertions about account balances at the end of period: Existence, Rights and obligations,
Completeness, Valuation and allocation, Presentation.

Non-current assets
Financial statement assertion Audit objective
Existence and occurrence -Additions represent assets acquired in the year and disposal
represent assets sold or scrapped in the year
– Recorded assets represent those in use at the year-end
Completeness – All additions and disposals that occurred in the year have
been recorded
– Balances represent assets in use at the year-end
Rights and obligations – The entity has rights to the assets purchased and those
recorded at the year-end
Accuracy, classification and – Non-current assets are correctly stated at cost less
valuation accumulated depreciation
– Additions and disposals are correctly recorded
Assertions relating to presentation – Disclosures relating to cost, additions and disposals,
and disclosure (occurrence and depreciation policies, useful lives and assets held under
rights and obligations, finance leases are adequate and in accordance with
completeness,classification and accounting standards
understandability, accuracy and
valuation)

The following important criteria will be considered by the external auditors when determining if the
work of internal auditors, experts or service organization is likely to be adequate:
Scope of work – the work of others must be evaluated to determine if it I sufficient and appropriate
Organizational status – (relevant to internal audit only) The external auditor must evaluate the
status of the internal audit department within the entity.
Due skill and care – the auditor must determine that the expert, service organization or internal
audit is independent of the client to ensure no bias is reflected in their work
Independence – the auditor must determine that the expert, service organization or internal audit
department is independent of the client to ensure no bias is reflected in their work.
Technical competence – the work of others must be appropriate quality to be relied upon by the
auditor must have the technical ability and/or qualification to provide such work
Auditing accounting estimates
ISA 540 Auditing accounting estimates, including fair value accounting estimates, and related
disclosures
An accounting estimate is an approximation of a monetary amount in the absence of a precise
means of measurement.
Estimation uncertainty is the susceptibility of an accounting estimate and related disclosures to an
inherent lack of precision in its measurement.
Management's point estimate is the amount selected by management for recognition or disclosure
in the financial statements as an accounting estimate.
Auditor's point estimate or auditor's range is the amount, or range of amounts, respectively,
derived from audit evidence for use in evaluating management's point estimate.
Examples of accounting estimates include:
* Allowance for doubtful accounts
* Inventory obsolescence
* Warranty obligations
* Depreciation method or asset useful life
* Outcome of long-term contracts
* Costs arising from litigation settlements and judgements
* Provision against the carrying amount of an investment where there is uncertainty regarding its
recoverability
Balances and transactions related to accounting estimates are therefore more susceptible to
management bias, especially where management has an incentive to manipulate trading results (eg
their remuneration is linked to the profit for the year). It is often difficult for auditors to obtain
conclusive evidence over the reliability of estimates. Even it the auditor can formulate a reasonable
estimate, it will be difficult for auditors to challenge managements’ estimate on the basis the
auditor’s point estimate is different. Management will often argue they are better placed to make
estimates due to their ongoing involvement with the business and its environment.

Risk assessment procedures

ISA 540 states that the auditor shall obtain an understanding of the following to provide a basis for
the identification and assessment of the risks of material misstatement for accounting estimates:
* The requirements of the applicable financial reporting framework
* How management identifies those transactions, events and conditions that may give rise to the
need for accounting estimates
* How management makes the accounting estimates and an understanding of the data on which
they are based including:
– Method
– Relevant controls
– Assumptions
– Whether change from prior period in method used
– Whether management has assessed the effect of estimation uncertainty
The ISA also states that the auditor shall review the outcome of accounting estimates included in the
prior period.

Risk identification and assessment

The auditor shall also evaluate the degree of estimation uncertainty associated with an accounting
estimate. Where estimation uncertainty is assessed as high, the auditor shall determine whether
these give rise to significant risks.
Auditing inventory
Financial statement assertion Audit objective
Existence and occurrence – Recorded purchases and sales represent inventories
bought and sold.
– Inventory on the statement of financial position
physically exists.
Completeness – All purchases and sales are recorded.
– All inventory at year-end is included on the statement of
financial position.
Rights and obligations – The entity has rights to inventory recorded in the period
and at the year-end.
Accuracy, classification and valuation – Costs are accurately determined in accordance with
accounting standards.
– Inventory is recorded at year-end at the lower of cost
and net realisable value.
Cut-off – All purchases and sales of inventories are recorded in the
correct period.
Assertions relating to presentation and – Inventory is properly classified in the accounts.
disclosure (classification and – Disclosures relating to classification and valuation are
understandability,completeness, adequate and in accordance with accounting standards.
accurcy and valuation)

The physical inventory count

AUDIT PLAN: PLANNING INVENTORY COUNT
Gain knowledge * Review previous year's arrangements.
* Discuss with management the inventory count arrangements and
significant changes.
Assess key factors * The nature and volume of the inventory
* Risks relating to inventory
* Identification of high value items
* Method of accounting for inventory
* Location of inventory and how it affects inventory control and recording
* Internal control and accounting systems to identify potential areas of difficulty
Plan procedures * Ensure a representative selection of locations, inventory and procedures
are covered.
* Ensure sufficient attention is given to high value items.
* Arrange to obtain from any third parties’ confirmation of inventory they
hold.
* Consider the need for expert help.
REVIEW OF INVENTORY COUNT INSTRUCTIONS
Organisation of count * Supervision by senior staff including senior staff not normally involved
with inventory
* Tidying and marking inventory to help counting
* Restriction and control of the production process and inventory
movements during the count
* Identification of damaged, obsolete, slow-moving, third party and
returnable inventory
Counting * Systematic counting to ensure all inventory is counted
* Teams of two counters, with one counting and the other checking or two
independent counts
Recording  Serial numbering, control and return of all inventory sheets
 * Inventory sheets being completed in ink and signed
* Information to be recorded on the count records (location and identity,
count units, quantity counted, conditions of items, stage reached in
production process)
* Recording of quantity, conditions and stage of production of work-in
progress
* Recording of last numbers of goods inwards and outwards records and of
internal transfer records
* Reconciliation with inventory records and investigation and correction of
any differences

Inventory held by third parties

* Direct confirmation from the third party regarding quantities and condition (in accordance with
ISA 505 External confirmations)
* Inspection or other appropriate audit procedures (if third party’s integrity and objectivity are
doubtful, for example)
The other appropriate audit procedures referred to above could include the following:
* Attending, or arranging for another auditor to attend, the third party’s inventory count
* Obtaining another auditor’s report on the adequacy of the third party’s internal control for
ensuring that inventory is properly counted and adequately safeguarded
* Inspecting documentation in respect of third party inventory (eg warehouse receipts)
* Requesting confirmation from other parties when inventory has been pledged as collateral

Cut-off testing
A cut-off error in the recording of sales will result in misstatements in the inventory and receivables
balances. A cut-off error in the recording of purchases of raw materials will have an equal knock-on
effect on inventory and payables. Cut-off testing is often used to confirm the completeness, as well
as the existence of receivables and payables.

Management cut-off procedures

The auditors should consider whether management has implemented adequate cut-off procedures:
procedures intended to ensure that movements into, within and out of inventories are properly
identified and reflected in the accounting records. Purchase invoices should be recorded as liabilities
only if the goods were received prior to the count. Revenue cut-off - Invoices for goods dispatched
after the count should not appear in the statement of profit or loss for the period. Prior to the
physical inventory count, management should make arrangements for cut-off to be properly applied.
(a) Appropriate systems of recording of receipts and dispatches of goods are in place, and also a
system for documenting materials requisitions. Goods received notes (GRNs) and goods dispatched
notes (GDNs) should be sequentially pre-numbered.
(b) Final GRN and GDN and materials requisition numbers are noted. These numbers can then be
used to subsequently check that purchases and sales have been recorded in the current period.
(c) Arrangements should be made to ensure that the cut-off arrangement for inventories held by
third parties are satisfactory.
There should ideally be no movement of inventory during the count. Preferably, receipts and
dispatches should be suspended for the full period of the count. It may not be practicable to
suspend all deliveries, in which case any deliveries which are received during the count should be
segregated from other inventory and carefully documented.
Perpetual (or continuous) inventory
If perpetual inventory counting is used, auditors will verify that management:
(a) Ensures that all inventory lines are counted at least once a year
(b) Maintains adequate inventory records that are kept up-to-date. Auditors may compare sales and
purchase transactions with inventory movements and carry out other tests on the inventory records,
for example, checking casts and classification of inventory.
(c) Has satisfactory procedures for inventory counts and test-counting. Auditors should confirm the
inventory count arrangements and instructions are as rigorous as those for a year-end inventory
count by reviewing instructions and observing counts. Auditors will be particularly concerned with
cut-off, that there are no inventory movements while the count is taking place and inventory records
are updated up until the time of the inventory count.
(d) Investigates and corrects all material differences. Reasons for differences should be recorded
and any necessary corrective action taken. All corrections to inventory movements should be
authorised by a manager who has not been involved in the detailed work. These procedures are
necessary to guard against the possibility that inventory records may be adjusted to conceal
shortages. Auditors should check that the procedures are being operated.
AUDIT PLAN: PERPETUAL INVENTORY COUNT
* Attend one of the inventory counts (to observe and confirm that instructions are being adhered
to).
* Follow up the inventory counts attended to compare quantities counted by the auditors with the
inventory records, obtaining and verifying explanations for any differences, and checking that the
client has reconciled count records with book inventory records.
* Review the year's inventory counts to confirm the extent of counting, the treatment of
discrepancies and the overall accuracy of records (if matters are not satisfactory, auditors will only
be able to gain sufficient assurance by a full count at the year-end).
* Assuming a full count is not necessary at the year-end, compare the listing of inventory with the
detailed inventory records, and carry out other procedures (cut-off, analytical review) to gain
further comfort.

Valuation of inventory
Assessment of cost
There are several ways of determining cost. Auditors must ensure that the company is applying the
method consistently and that each year the method used gives a fair approximation to cost. They
may need to support this by additional procedures:
* Reviewing price changes near the year-end
* Ageing the inventory held
* Checking gross profit margins to reliable management accounts

Valuation of raw materials and brought-in components

The auditors should perform work to test whether the correct prices have been used to value raw
materials and brought-in components valued at actual costs by referring to suppliers' invoices. The
valuation may include unrealised profit if inventory is valued at the latest invoice price. Reference to
suppliers' invoice will also provide the auditors with assurance as regards ownership. If standard
costs are used, auditors should check the basis of the standards, compare standard costs with
actual costs and confirm that variances are being treated appropriately.

Valuation of work-in-progress and finished goods

'Cost' comprises the cost of purchase plus the costs of conversion. The cost of conversion comprises:
* Costs specifically attributable to units of production
* Production overheads
* Other overheads attributable to bringing the product or service to its present location and
condition

Cost vs NRV
Net realisable value is likely to be less than cost when there has been:
* An increase in costs or a fall in selling price
* Physical deterioration
* Obsolescence of products
* A marketing decision to manufacture and sell products at a loss
* Errors in production or purchasing
For work-in-progress, the ultimate selling price should be compared with the carrying value at the
year-end plus costs to be incurred after the year-end to bring work-in-progress to a finished state.

Using the work of an audit expert

An auditor’s expert could be employed by the auditor to assist in the following areas:
* Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control
* Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement
* Determining and implementing overall responses to assessed risks at the financial statement level
* Designing and performing further audit procedures to respond to assessed risks at the assertion
level
* Evaluating the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence obtained in forming an opinion on
the financial statements
Where the auditor’s expert is external, the evaluation of objectivity will include inquiry of interests
and relationships that could create a threat to objectivity. The auditor to agree in writing the
following with the auditor’s expert:
* Nature, scope and objectives of the work
* Respective roles and responsibilities of the auditor and the auditor’s expert
* Nature, timing and extent of communication between auditor and auditor’s expert, including the
form of any report
* Confidentiality requirements
The agreement between the auditor and the auditor’s expert is often in the form of an engagement
letter.

Evaluating the work of the auditor’s expert

The auditor shall evaluate the adequacy of the auditor’s expert’s work, which will include the
following:
* The relevance and reasonableness of the expert’s work and consistency with other audit evidence
* The relevance and reasonableness of any assumptions and methods used
* The relevance, completeness and accuracy of any source data used
If the auditor’s evaluation results in a conclusion that the expert’s work is not adequate, the auditor
must agree on the nature and extent of further work to be done by the expert, and perform
additional audit procedures.

Using the work of internal audit

* Whether the work of the internal audit function or direct assistance can be used and in which
areas and to what extent
* Whether that work is appropriate for purpose of the audit
* If using internal audits to provide direct assistance, to appropriate direct, supervise and review
their work

Receivables
Assertions about – All sales transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the entity
classes of transactions (occurrence)
– All sales transactions that should have been recorded have been
recorded (completeness)
– Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded appropriately
(accuracy)
– All transactions have been recorded in the correct period (cut-off)
– All transactions are recorded properly (classification)
Assertions about – Recorded receivables exist (existence)
account balances at the – The entity controls the rights to receivables and related accounts (rights
period-end and obligations)
– All receivables that should have been recorded have been recorded
(completeness)
– Receivables are included in the accounts at the correct amounts
(valuation and allocation)
Assertions about – All disclosed events and transactions relating to receivables have
presentation and occurred and pertain to the entity (occurrence, rights and obligations)
disclosure – All disclosures required have been included (completeness)
– Financial information is appropriately presented and described and
disclosures clearly expressed (classification and understandability)
– Financial and other information is disclosed fairly and at appropriate
amounts (accuracy and valuation)

Internal control considerations

The audit of receivables and sales is closely linked to the objectives we looked at when we
considered controls over the sales system. Segregating responsibilities in this area is a very
important control. One person should not be responsible for taking orders, raising sales invoices and
receiving and recording monies from customers. The failure to segregate these duties could lead to a
fraud such as teeming and lading, which would overstate receivables balances. From the company’s
point of view, the reconciliation of the aged receivables accounts with the receivables control
account on a regular basis is a key control to highlight anomalies. However, as with a bank
reconciliation, the auditor will usually only focus on the year end reconciliation, as this is often the
most efficient way to obtain audit evidence. A common control over the sales system is having
numerically sequenced invoices, which are matched to shipping documentation or goods
despatched notes (GDNs). One area the auditor may be able to make use of client controls is over
the completeness of sales, where the client performs a reconciliation between sales records outside
of the accounting system and the sales in the financial statements. However, if they are unable to
test and rely on such controls, the auditor often uses samples of documents outside of the
accounting system as a starting point for substantive tests of completeness. This might include
testing completeness of sales by checking there is an invoice for a sample of GDNs.

Receivables
COMPLETENESS  Agree the balance from the individual sales ledger accounts to the aged
receivables’ listing and vice versa.
  Match the total of the aged receivables’ listing to the sales ledger control
account.
* Obtain a breakdown of the trade receivables for the current and the
previous period and compare the level of trade receivables year on year.
Discuss any obvious omissions/unusual trends with management.
* Select a sample of GDNs issued during the year and vouch them to the
relevant sales invoice. Ensure that the invoice has been accurately recorded
in the correct accounting period.
 Cast and cross-cast the aged trial balance before selecting any samples to
test.
 Trace a sample of shipping documentation to sales invoices and into the
sales and receivables’ ledger.
 Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the disclosures
relevant to receivables have been made.
 Compare the gross profit % by product line with the previous year and
industry data.
 Compare the level of prepayments to the previous year to ensure the
figure is materially correct and complete.
 Review detailed statement of financial position to ensure all likely
prepayments have been included.
EXISTENCE  Perform a receivables’ circularisation on a sample of year-end trade
receivables
 Follow up all balance disagreements and non-replies to the receivables’
confirmation.
 Perform alternative procedures for any exceptions and nonreplies to the
receivables’ confirmation, such as:
 Review after-date cash receipts by inspecting bank statements and cash
receipts documentation.
 Examine the customer’s account and customer correspondence to assess
whether the balance outstanding represents specific invoices and confirm
their validity.
 Examine the underlying documentation (purchase order, dispatch
documentation, duplicate sales invoice etc).
 Inquire from management explanations for invoices remaining unpaid after
subsequent ones have been paid.
 Observe whether the balance on the account is growing and if so, find out
why by discussing with management.
RIGHTS AND  Review bank confirmation for any liens on receivables.
OBLIGATIONS  Make inquiries of management, review loan agreements and review board
minutes for any evidence of receivables being sold (eg to factors).
VALUATION AND  Compare receivables’ turnover and receivables’ days to the previous year
ALLOCATION and/or to industry data.
 Compare the aged analysis of receivables from the aged trial balance to
the previous year.
 Review the adequacy of the allowance for uncollectable accounts through
discussion with management
* Review whether there are any after-date cash receipts for slow moving/old
receivables balances
* Compare the receivables collection period ratio for the current and prior
year and discuss any significant variations with management.
 Compare the bad debt expense as a % of sales to the previous year and/or
 to industry data
 Compare the allowance for uncollectable accounts as a % of receivables or
credit sales to the previous year and/or to industry data.
 Confirm adequacy of allowance by reviewing correspondence with
customers and solicitors.
 Examine credit notes issued after year-end for allowances that should be
made against current period balances.
 Examine large customer accounts individually and compare to the previous
year’s balances.
 For a sample of old debts on the aged trial balance, obtain further
information regarding their recoverability by discussions with management
and review of customer correspondence.
 For a sample of prepayments from the prepayments’ listing, recalculate
the amount prepaid to ensure that it has been accurately calculated
* Calculate the potential level of trade receivables which are not recoverable
and assess whether this is material or not
CUT-OFF  For a sample of sales invoices around the year-end, inspect the dates and
compare with the dates of dispatch and the dates recorded in the ledger for
application of correct cut-off.
 For sales returns, select a sample of returns documentation around the
year-end and trace to the related credit entries.
 Perform analytical procedures on sales returns, comparing the ratio of
sales returns to sales.
 Review material after-date invoices, credit notes and adjustments and
ensure that they are recorded correctly in the relevant financial period.
CLASSIFICATION  Take a sample of sales invoices and examine for proper classification into
revenue accounts
ACCURACY  For a sample of sales invoices, compare the prices and terms to the
authorised price list and terms of trade documentation.
 Test whether discounts have been properly applied by recalculating them
for a sample of invoices.
 Test the correct calculation of tax on a sample of invoices.
OCCURRENCE  For a sample of sales transactions recorded in the ledger, vouch the sales
invoice back to customer orders and dispatch documentation.
OCCURRENCE AND  Determine, through discussion with management, whether any receivables
RIGHTS AND have been pledged, assigned or discounted and whether such items require
OBLIGATIONS disclosure in the financial statements
CLASSIFICATION AND  Review the aged analysis of receivables for any large credits, nontrade
UNDERSTANDABILITY receivables and long-term receivables and consider whether such items
require separate disclosure.
 Read the disclosure notes relevant to receivables in the draft financial
statements and review for understandability.
ACCURACY AND  Read the disclosure notes to ensure the information is accurate and
VALUATION properly presented at the appropriate amounts.

Audit objectives for cash

Financial statement assertion Audit objective
Existence Recorded cash balances exist at the period-end
Completeness Recorded cash balances include the effects of all transactions that
have occurred
Rights and obligations The entity has legal title to all cash balances shown at the period-
end
Valuation Recorded cash balances are realisable at the amounts stated
Assertions relating to Disclosures relating to cash are adequate and in accordance with
presentation and disclosure accounting standards and legislation
(classification and
understandability, occurrence
and rights and obligations,
accuracy and valuation,
completeness)

Planning the cash count

Cash in this context may include unbanked cheques received, IOUs and credit card slips, in addition
to notes and coins. As part of their planning procedures the auditors will need to determine the
locations where cash is held and which of these locations warrant a count. Planning decisions will
need to be recorded on the current audit file including:
 The precise time of the count(s) and location(s)
 The names of the audit staff conducting the counts
 The names of the client staff intending to be present at each location
Where a location is not visited it may be appropriate to obtain a letter from the client confirming the
balance.

Cash count
The following matters apply to the count itself.
* All cash/petty cash books should be written up to date in ink (or other permanent form) at the
time of the count.
* All balances must be counted at the same time.
* All negotiable securities must be available and counted at the time the cash balances are counted.
* At no time should the auditors be left alone with the cash and negotiable securities.
* All cash and securities counted must be recorded on working papers subsequently filed on the
current audit file. Reconciliations should be prepared where applicable (for example, imprest petty
cash float).

AUDIT PLAN: CASH COUNT (to confirm completeness, valuation, existence and disclosure)
 Count cash balances held and agree to petty cash book or other record:
– Count all balances simultaneously
– All counting to be done in the presence of the individuals responsible
– Enquire into any IOUs or cashed cheques outstanding for a long period of time
 Obtain certificates of cash-in-hand from responsible officials.
 Confirm that bank and cash balances as reconciled above are correctly stated in the financial
statements.
Follow up
 Obtain certificates of cash-in-hand as appropriate.
 Verify unbanked cheques/cash receipts have subsequently been paid in and agree to the bank
reconciliation by inspection of the relevant documentation.
 Ensure IOUs and cheques cashed for employees have been reimbursed.
 Review whether IOUs or cashed cheques outstanding for unreasonable periods of time have been
provided for.
 Verify the balances as counted are reflected in the accounts (subject to any agreed amendments
because of shortages and so on) by inspection of draft financial statements.

Payables and accruals

Assertions about – All purchase transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the entity
classes of transactions (occurrence)
– All purchase transactions that should have been recorded have been
recorded (completeness)
– Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded appropriately
(accuracy)
– Purchase transactions have been recorded in the correct period (cut-off)
– Purchase transactions are recorded properly in the accounts
(classification)
Assertions about – Trade payables and accrued expenses are valid liabilities (existence)
period-end account – Trade payables and accrued expenses are the obligations of the entity
balances (rights and obligations)
– All liabilities have been recorded (completeness)
– All liabilities are included in the accounts at appropriate amounts
(valuation and allocation)
Assertions about – All disclosed events and transactions relating to liabilities have occurred
presentation and and relate to the entity (occurrence and rights and obligations)
disclosure – All disclosures required have been included (completeness)
– Financial information is appropriately presented and described and
disclosures clearly expressed (classification and understandability)
– Financial information is disclosed fairly and at appropriate amounts
(accuracy and valuation)

AUDIT PLAN: ACCOUNTS PAYABLES AND ACCRUALS

COMPLETENESS  Obtain a listing of trade accounts payables and agree the total to the
general ledger by casting and cross-casting.
 Test for unrecorded liabilities by inquiries of management on how
unrecorded liabilities and accruals are identified and examining post year-
end transactions.
 Obtain selected suppliers’ statements and reconcile these to the relevant
suppliers’ accounts
 Examine files of unmatched purchase orders and supplier invoices for any
unrecorded liabilities.
 Perform a confirmation of accounts payables for a sample
 Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the disclosures
relevant to liabilities have been made.
 Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables and
accruals to the previous year.
 Compare the amounts owed to a sample of individual suppliers in the
trade accounts payables listing to amounts owed to these suppliers in the
previous year.
 Compare the payables’ turnover and payables’ days to the previous year
and industry data.
 Reperform casts of payroll records to confirm completeness and accuracy.
 Confirm payment of net pay per payroll records to cheque or bank transfer
summary.
 Agree net pay per cashbook to payroll.
  Inspect payroll for unusual items and investigate them further by
discussion with management.
 Perform proof-in-total (analytical procedures) on payroll and compare to
figure in draft financial statements to assess reasonableness.
EXISTENCE  Vouch selected amounts from the trade accounts payables listing and
accruals listing to supporting documentation such as purchase orders and
suppliers’ invoices.
 Obtain selected suppliers’ statements and reconcile these to the relevant
suppliers’ accounts.
 Perform a confirmation of accounts payables for a sample.
 Perform analytical procedures comparing current year balances to the
previous year to confirm reasonableness, and also calculating payables’
turnover and comparing to the previous year
VALUATION AND  Trace selected samples from the trade accounts payables listing and
ALLOCATION accruals listing to the supporting documentation (purchase orders, minutes
authorising expenditure, suppliers’ invoices etc).
 Obtain selected suppliers’ statements and reconcile these to the relevant
suppliers’ accounts.
 For a sample of accruals, recalculate the amount of the accrual to ensure
the amount accrued is correct.
 Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables and
accruals to the previous year.
 Compare the amounts owed to a sample of individual suppliers in the
trade accounts payables listing to amounts owed to these suppliers in the
previous year.
 Compare the payables’ turnover and payables’ days to the previous year
and industry data.
CUT-OFF  For a sample of vouchers, compare the dates with the dates they were
recorded in the ledger for application of correct cut-off.
 Test transactions around the year-end to determine whether amounts
have been recognised in the correct financial period.
 Perform analytical procedures on purchase returns, comparing the
purchase returns as a % of sales or cost of sales to the previous year.
ACCURACY  Recalculate the mathematical accuracy of a sample of suppliers’ invoices to
confirm the amounts are correct.
 Recast calculation of remuneration.
 Reperform calculation of statutory deductions to confirm whether correct.
 Confirm validity of other deductions by agreeing to supporting
documentation.
 Recast calculation of other deductions.
OCCURRENCE  For a sample of vouchers, inspect supporting documentation such as
authorised purchase orders.
 Agree individual remuneration per payroll to personnel records, records of
hours worked, salary agreements etc.
 Confirm existence of employees on payroll by meeting them, attending
wages payout, inspecting personnel and tax records, and confirmation from
managers.
 Agree benefits on payroll to supporting correspondence
CLASSIFICATION AND  Review the trade accounts payables listing to identify any large debits
UNDERSTANDABILITY (which should be reclassified as receivables or deposits) or long-term
 liabilities which should be disclosed separately.
 Read the disclosure notes relevant to liabilities in the draft financial
statements and review for understandability.
ACCURACY AND  Read the disclosure notes to ensure the information is accurate and
VALUATION properly presented at the appropriate amounts.

Reconciliations of accounts payables with suppliers’ statements

Many suppliers provide monthly statements to their customers. they are a reliable source of
evidence to support suppliers’ balances and provide evidence as to the existence, completeness and
valuation of balances. The auditor should not rely on photocopies or faxed statements. If there is any
doubt, the auditor should request a copy directly from the supplier or confirm the balance with the
supplier (see above). When selecting accounts for testing, the auditor should consider the volume of
business during the year, not the balance outstanding at the year-end, because the risk is
understatement of balances. Most differences between balances on suppliers’ statements and the
year-end accounts payables’ listing are likely to be due to goods and cash-in-transit and disputed
amounts, however all differences need to be investigated thoroughly.

Reasons for differences

Where differences arise these need to be categorised as either in-transit items or other (including
disputed) items. In-transit items will be either goods or cash.
goods-in-transit: *ascertain whether the goods were received before the year-end by reference to
the GRN
*Check whether the goods are included in year-end inventory and purchase accruals.
cash-in-transit: *Differences arise where the payment to the supplier was made by cheque before
the year-end but was not received by him until after the year-end.
* The date the cheque was raised and its subsequent clearing through the bank account after the
year-end should be verified by inspecting the cash book and the post year-end bank statements.
* if the cheque clears after the year-end date, it may indicate that the cheque, though raised before
the year-end was not sent to the supplier until after the year-end. The relevant amount should be
added back to year-end accounts payable and to the end of year bank balance.
Other reasons: * Differences which do not arise from in-transit items need to be investigated and
appropriate adjustments made where necessary.
*These differences may have arisen due to disputed invoices, where for example the client is
demanding credit against an invoice which the supplier is not willing to agree.
*The client may decide not to post the invoice to the supplier account as he does not consider it to
be a liability of the company. However, differences may also arise because invoices have been held
back in order to reduce the level of year-end accounts payable.
If significant unexplained differences are discovered it may be necessary to extend testing. There
may also be a problem if sufficient suppliers' statements are not available. Alternative procedures,
eg a circularisation may then be required.

Examples of the principal types of contingencies disclosed by companies are:

 Guarantees (for group companies, of staff pension schemes, of completion of contracts)
 Discounted bills of exchange
 Uncalled liabilities on shares or loan inventory
 Lawsuits or claims pending
 Options to purchase assets
AUDIT PLAN: PROVISIONS/CONTINGENCIES
 Obtain details of all provisions which have been included in the accounts and all contingencies
that have been disclosed.
 Obtain a detailed analysis of all provisions showing opening balances, movements and closing
balances.
 Determine for each material provision whether the company has a present obligation as a result of
past events by:
– Review of correspondence relating to the item
– Discussion with the directors. Have they created a valid expectation in other parties that they will
discharge the obligation?
 Determine for each material provision whether it is probable that a transfer of economic benefits
will be required to settle the obligation by:
– Checking whether any payments have been made in the post year-end period in respect of the
item by reviewing after-date cash
– Review of correspondence with solicitors, banks, customers, insurance company and suppliers
both pre and post year-end
– Sending a letter to the solicitor to obtain his views (where relevant)
– Discussing the position of similar past provisions with the directors. Were these provisions
eventually settled?
– Considering the likelihood of reimbursement
 Recalculate all provisions made.
 Compare the amount provided with any post year-end payments and with any amount paid in the
past for similar items.
 In the event that it is not possible to estimate the amount of the provision, check that a contingent
liability is disclosed in the accounts.
 Consider the nature of the client's business. Would you expect to see any other provisions eg
warranties?
 Consider the adequacy of disclosure of provisions, contingent assets and contingent liabilities in
accordance with IAS 37.

Specific procedures for litigation and claims

Make appropriate enquires of management and others including in-house legal advisers
Review minutes of meetings of those charged with governance and correspondence between the
entity and its external legal advisers
Review legal expense accounts
Use any information obtained regarding the entity’s business, including information obtained from
discussions with any in-house legal department

Facts discovered after the date of the auditor's report but before the financial statements are
issued
The financial statements are the management's responsibility. They should therefore inform the
auditors of any material subsequent events between the date of the auditors' report and the date
the financial statements are issued. The auditor does not have any obligation to perform
procedures, or make enquires regarding the financial statements, after the date of the report.
However if the auditor becomes aware of a fact that, had it been known to the auditor at the date of
the
auditor’s report, may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
 Discuss the matter with management and those charged with governance.
 Determine whether the financial statements need amendment.
 If amendment is required, inquire how management intends to address the matter in the financial
statements. If amendment is required to the financial statements and management makes the
necessary changes, the auditor must carry out a number of procedures:
* Undertake any necessary audit procedures on the changes made.
* Extend audit procedures for identifying subsequent events that may require adjustment of or
disclosure in the financial statements to the date of the new auditor's report.
* Provide a new auditor's report on the amended financial statements.
If management does not amend the financial statements:
* If the auditor’s report has not yet been provided to the entity, the auditor shall modify the opinion
and then provide the auditor’s report.
* If the auditor’s report has already been provided to the entity, the auditor shall notify
management and those charged with governance not to issue the financial statements before the
amendments are made; but if the financial statements are issued anyway, the auditor shall take
action to seek to prevent reliance on the auditor’s report.

Facts discovered after the financial statements have been issued

Auditors have no obligations to perform procedures or make enquiries regarding the financial
statements after they have been issued. However if the auditor becomes aware of a fact that, had it
been known to the auditor at the date of the auditor’s report, may have caused the auditor to
amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
* Discuss the matter with management and those charged with governance.
* Determine whether the financial statements need amendment.
* If amendment is required, inquire how management intends to address the matter in the financial
statements.
If the financial statements are amended, the auditor shall carry out any necessary procedures on the
amendment, and review the steps taken by those charged with governance to ensure that anyone in
receipt of the previously issued financial statements is informed. The auditor shall also issue a new
or amended auditor’s report which will include an explanatory paragraph (known as an emphasis
of matter or other matter ) that refers to a note in the financial statements that discusses the reason
for the amendment. Audit procedures will be extended up to the date of the new report. If
management do not take the necessary steps, the auditor shall notify management and those
charged with governance that the auditor will seek to prevent future reliance on the report. If
management still do not act, the auditor shall take appropriate action to seek to prevent reliance on
the auditor’s report.

Director's Responsibility
 They must assess going concern
 They should use a suitable basis on which to base the going concern
 They should use information on sources of finance, future profitability and repayment of
debt
If the directors have any material uncertainties as to the going concern of the business they must
disclose them in the financial statements.

Auditors Responsibility
 They must assess the appropriateness of the going concern assumption
If there are going concern issues, the auditor must ensure that sufficient disclosures are made
Management Responsibility Assess if can carry on for foreseeable future

At least 12 months
Auditor Responsibility Decide if management are right to use going concern status

Should uncertainties be disclosed

Obtaining written representations

Throughout the course of the audit, the auditors will determine those items on which written
representations are required and should inform management of those areas on which they will be
seeking written representations. At the finalisation and review stage the auditors will provide
management with a draft representation letter containing the necessary representations. The
auditors will then ask management to print the letter on their headed paper, review the
representations, and sign the document to confirm them. Written representations are requested
from those responsible for the preparation of the financial statements – management is usually the
responsible party. These representations can therefore be requested from the chief executive officer
and chief financial officer, or equivalent.

Doubt about the reliability of written representations

If written representations are inconsistent with other audit evidence, the auditor shall perform audit
procedures to try to resolve the matter. If the matter cannot be resolved, the auditor shall
reconsider the assessment of the competence, integrity and ethical values of management, and the
effect this may have on the reliability of representations and audit evidence in general.

Treatment of misstatements
ISA 450 Evaluation of misstatements identified during the audit requires the auditor to accumulate
misstatements identified during the audit, other than those that are clearly trivial. The ISA
distinguishes between factual misstatements (misstatements about which there is no doubt),
judgemental misstatements (misstatements arising from management’s judgement concerning
accounting estimates or accounting policies) and projected misstatements (the auditor’s best
estimate of misstatements arising from sampling populations). ISA 450 requires the auditor to
communicate all misstatements accumulated during the audit with the appropriate level of
management on a timely basis and to request management to correct those misstatements. If
management refuses, the auditor must establish the reasons why and consider this when evaluating
whether the financial statements as a whole are free from material misstatement. As part of their
completion procedures, auditors shall consider whether the aggregate of uncorrected
misstatements in the financial statements is material. If uncorrected misstatement are material, it
will necessary to express a modified auditor’s opinion. Less serious MM is qualified opinion. More
serious MM is adverse opinion.

Communication of uncorrected misstatements

ISA 450 requires the auditor to communicate uncorrected misstatements and their effect to those
charged with governance, with material uncorrected misstatements being identified individually.
The auditor shall request uncorrected misstatements to be corrected. The auditor shall also
communicate the effect of uncorrected misstatements relating to prior periods. The auditor shall
request a written representation from management and those charged with governance whether
they believe the effects of uncorrected misstatements are immaterial (individually and in aggregate)
to the financial statements as a whole. A summary of these items shall be included in or attached to
the representation.

REPORTS
1. Opinion
o This is the first section.
It identifies also what has been audited
2. Basis for Opinion
o The Basis for Opinion directly follows the Opinion section and includes the assertion
of the auditor’s independence.
If the audit opinion has been modified, the explanation would be here too
3. Material uncertainty regarding going concern (if any)
o If there is a material uncertainty with respect to going concern, it will now be
described in a separate section that identifies it as such
4. Emphasis paragraphs (if any)
o An emphasis of matter paragraph may be next, or it might follow the key audit
matters if it relates to a matter in there
Includes a statement that the auditor is independent of the entity Identifies the IESBA Code States
audit evidence is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the auditor’s opinion
5. Key audit matters
o The key matters addressed in the audit (compulsory for PLC audits, voluntarily for
others)
6. Other matter paragraphs* (if any)
A paragraph included in the auditor's report that refers to a matter other than those presented or
disclosed in the financial statements that, in the auditor's judgment, is relevant to users'
understanding of the audit, the auditor's responsibilities or the auditor's report.
7. Other information
o Describes the auditor’s responsibilities for “other information” (e.g., the rest of the
annual report), and the outcomes
8. Responsibilities for the financial statements
o Includes responsibilities for going concern and identifies those charged with
governance (if different from management)
9. Auditor’s responsibilities
o Includes a description of the auditor’s responsibilities with respect to going concern

Modified opinions in auditor’s reports

The auditor collects together any uncorrected misstatements that have been discovered by the audit
process, in line with ISA 450. Where the aggregate of these misstatements is material, the opinion
must be modified. ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor's report sets out
the different types of modified opinions that can result. It identifies three possible types of
modifications: A qualified opinion, An adverse opinion, A disclaimer of opinion.

Qualified opinions
A qualified opinion must be expressed in the auditor’s report in the following two situations:
(1) The auditor concludes that misstatements are material, but not pervasive, to the financial
statements. Material misstatements could arise in respect of:
* The appropriateness of selected accounting policies
* The application of selected accounting policies
* The appropriateness or adequacy of disclosures in the financial statements
(2) The auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence on which to base the opinion
but concludes that the possible effects of undetected misstatements, if any, could be material but
not pervasive. This is also known as a ‘limitation in scope’.
The auditor’s inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence is also referred to as a
limitation on the scope of the audit and could arise from:
* Circumstances beyond the entity’s control (eg accounting records destroyed)
* Circumstances relating to the nature or timing of the auditor’s work (eg the timing of the auditor’s
appointment prevents the observation of the physical inventory count)
* Limitations imposed by management (eg management prevents the auditor from requesting
external confirmation of specific account balances)

Adverse opinions
An adverse opinion is expressed when the auditor, having obtained sufficient appropriate audit
evidence, concludes that misstatements are both material and pervasive to the financial
statements.
Reason deemed pervasive Example
Misstatements are not confined to No depreciation has been provided on plant and equipment, a
specific elements, accounts or receivable balance consisting half of total receivables is
items in the financial statements irrecoverable and has not been provided and trade payables
have been significantly understated, All misstatements are
material and these balances are significant on the SOFP.
Misstatements are confined to A house building company has included all the houses it has
specific elements, accounts or constructed in the year as noncurrent assets rather than
items in the financial statements inventory. The value of these houses constitutes 90% of the
and represent a substantial total asset value on the SOFP.
portion of the financial statements
Misstatements relate to There is a material uncertainty in respect of going concern
disclosures which are fundamental which has not been adequately disclosed
to users' understanding of the
financial statements

Disclaimers of opinion
An opinion must be disclaimed when the auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence on which to base the opinion and concludes that the possible effects on the financial
statements of undetected misstatements, if any, could be both material and pervasive. The opinion
must also be disclaimed in situations involving multiple uncertainties when the auditor concludes
that, despite having obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence for the individual uncertainties, it
is not possible to form an opinion on the financial statements due to the potential interaction of the
uncertainties and their possible cumulative effect on the financial statements.

Communication with those charged with governance

ISA 705 states that when the auditor expects to express a modified opinion, the auditor must
communicate with those charged with governance the circumstances leading to the expected
modification and the proposed wording of the modification in the auditor’s report.

Summary of modifications and impact on the auditor’s report

Nature of circumstances Material but not pervasive Material and pervasive
Financial statements are QUALIFIED OPINION ADVERSE OPINION
materially misstated
Auditor unable to obtain QUALIFIED OPINION DISCLAIMER OF OPINION
sufficient appropriate audit
evidence

AUDIT PLAN: PROVISIONS/CONTINGENCIES

* Obtain details of all provisions which have been included in the accounts and all contingencies
that have been disclosed.
* Obtain a detailed analysis of all provisions showing opening balances, movements and closing
balances.
* Determine for each material provision whether the company has a present obligation as a result
of past events by:
– Review of correspondence relating to the item
– Discussion with the directors. Have they created a valid expectation in other parties that they will
discharge the obligation?
* Determine for each material provision whether it is probable that a transfer of economic benefits
will be required to settle the obligation by:
– Checking whether any payments have been made in the post year-end period in respect of the
item by reviewing after-date cash
– Review of correspondence with solicitors, banks, customers, insurance company and suppliers
both pre and post year-end
– Sending a letter to the solicitor to obtain his views (where relevant)
– Discussing the position of similar past provisions with the directors. Were these provisions
eventually settled?
– Considering the likelihood of reimbursement

AUDIT PLAN: DIRECTORS’ EMOLUMENTS

* For each director, obtain a schedule of emoluments for the year, split between wages, bonuses,
benefits, pension contributions and other emoluments.
* Check the addition of the schedule and ensure the totals are in agreement with the disclosure in
the financial statements.
* Ask each individual director to confirm the emoluments listed are complete and in line with their
expectations.
* Compare the emoluments with both the previous year’s emoluments and with expectations, taking
into account the knowledge obtained during the audit (for example if you know a director has left
during the year, is there any compensation for loss of office expected?).
* Agree salaries, fees, bonuses and pension contributions to payroll records for the individual
directors and check the amounts paid on the bank statements agree with the payroll records.
* Review the directors’ contracts and ensure emoluments are consistent with the terms of these
contracts.
* Review board meeting minutes and meetings of any remuneration committee for evidence of any
bonuses, fees or other emoluments not disclosed.
* Review the cash book for any unusual transactions which suggest undisclosed directors
emoluments.
* Obtain and review returns to tax authorities made on behalf of the directors by the company
which detail non cash benefits. Ensure these are consistent with the benefits disclosed in the
financial statements.
* Consider the adequacy of disclosure of directors’ emoluments in accordance with applicable
accounting standards and local legislation, including the separate disclosure of amounts due to or
from directors in respect of director’s emoluments.
Sales system
Sales system consists of four main stages. Each stage has its own key documentation
1. order placed –order form
2. dispatch of good – GDN
3. Goods invoiced recorded – Invoice
4/ Payment received – Remittance advice

Purchase system
consists of four main stages. Each stage has its own key documentation.
1. order stage – purchase requisition, order form
2. Good received – GRN
3. Goods invoiced and recorded – Invoice
4. Payment made - Remittance advice

Payroll
consists of 3 main stages. Each stage has its own key documentation.
1. Work recorded – Timesheet
2. Recognition of payroll liability – payroll records
3. Payment made – Payslips

Inventory system
* Only goods required by the entity are accepted and are accurately recorded
* Damaged goods are not accepted and inventory is appropriately valued
* The business is not interrupted due to stock outs
* Inventory is kept securely (not damaged or stolen)

Bank and cash system

* All monies received are recorded
* All monies received are banked
* Cash and cheques are safeguarded against loss or theft
* All payment are authorized, made to correct payees and recorded
* Payment are not made twice for the same liability

Non-current assets
* The capital expenditure is appropriately classified in the accounting records
* That capital items are recorded in the non-current asset register
* That there is safe custody of assets

Communication of deficiencies in internal control

Significant deficiencies in internal controls shall be communicated in writing to those charged with
governance in a report to management.
A deficiency in internal control exists when a control is designed, implemented or operated in such
a way that it is unable to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements in the financial statements
on a timely basis, or a control necessary to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements in the
financial statements on a timely basis is missing.
A significant deficiency in internal control is a deficiency or combination of deficiencies in internal
control that, in the auditor’s professional judgement, is of sufficient importance to merit the
attention of those charged with governance. ISA 265 includes examples of matters to consider when
determining whether a deficiency in internal control is a significant deficiency:
 The likelihood of the deficiencies resulting in material misstatements in the financial statements in
the future
 The susceptibility to loss or fraud of the related asset or liability
 The subjectivity and complexity of determining estimated amounts
 The amounts exposed to the deficiencies
 The volume of activity that has occurred or could occur
 The importance of the controls to the financial reporting process
 The cause and frequency of the exceptions identified as a result of the deficiencies
 The interaction of the deficiency with other deficiencies in internal control

The importance of communicating with those charged with governance

ISA 260 Communication with those charged with governance sets out guidance for auditors on the
communication of audit matters arising from the audit of the financial statements of an entity with
those charged with governance. Communication with those charged with governance is important
because:
 It assists the auditor and those charged with governance to understand audit-related matters in
context and allows them to develop a constructive working relationship.
 It allows the auditor to obtain information relevant to the audit.
 It assists those charged with governance to fulfil their responsibility to oversee the financial
reporting process, thus reducing the risks of material misstatement in the financial statements.
The auditor shall communicate the following:
 The auditor’s views about significant qualitative aspects of the entity’s accounting practices,
including accounting policies, accounting estimates and financial statement disclosures
 Significant difficulties encountered during the audit
 Significant matters arising from the audit that were discussed or subject to correspondence with
management
 Written representations requested by the auditor
 Other matters that, in the auditor’s professional judgement, are significant to the oversight of the
financial reporting process

Significant risks
Significant risks are complex or unusual transactions that may indicate fraud, or other special risks.
Significant risks are those that require special audit consideration.

ISA 500 Audit evidence requires auditors to 'design and perform audit procedures that are
appropriate in the circumstances for the purposes of obtaining sufficient appropriate audit
evidence'. 'Sufficiency' and 'appropriateness' are interrelated and apply to both tests of controls and
substantive procedures.
 Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence.
 Appropriateness is the measure of the quality or reliability of the audit evidence.
The quantity of audit evidence required is affected by the level of risk in the area being audited. It is
also affected by the quality of evidence obtained. If the evidence is high quality, the auditor may
need less than if it were poor quality. The ISA requires auditors to consider the relevance and
reliability.