GE706 LESSON 2

The Fibonacci Sequence

Sequence

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called terms that may have repeated
values. The arrangement of these terms is set by a definite rule.

a. 1, 10, 100, 1000

b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20
c. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8

Find the next three terms and state the rule on how the sequence work.

The Fibonacci sequence is one of the most famous formulas in mathematics.

Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers that precede it. So, the
sequence goes: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. The mathematical equation
describing it is Xn+2= Xn+1 + Xn

A mainstay of high-school and undergraduate classes, it's been called "nature's

secret code," and "nature's universal rule." It is said to govern the dimensions of
everything from the Great Pyramid at Giza, to the iconic seashell that likely graced the
cover of your school math textbook.

Golden Ratio is approximately 1.618.

1/1 = 1.0
2/1 = 2.0
3/2 = 1.50
5/3 = 1.6667
8/5 = 1.60
13/8 = 1.625
21/13 = 1.6154
34/21 = 1.619
55/34 = 1.6177
89/55 = 1.6182

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Mathematics For Our World

Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world. Mathematics helps predict
the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world, as well as helps humans exert control over
occurrences in the world for the advancement of our civilization.

Mathematics for Organization

We need mathematical tools to help us make sound analysis and better decisions. For instance,
- A particular store can gather data on the shopping habits of its customers and make necessary
adjustments to help drive sales.
- Scientists can plot bird migration routes to help conserve endangered animal populations.
- Social media analysts can crunch all online postings using software to gauge the netizens’
sentiments on particular issues or personalities.
- Software can generate a map of words that are most talked about in social media.

Mathematics for Prediction

Applying the concept of probability, experts can calculate the chance of an event occurring.
Example, Based on historical patterns meteorologists can make forecasts to help us prepare for our day-
to-day activities. They can also warn us of weather disturbances that can affect our activities for weeks
or months. Astronomers also use patterns to predict the occurrence of meteor showers or eclipses.

Mathematics for Control

How Mathematics control the world?

It gives us a way to understand patterns, to quantify relationships, and to predict the future.
Math helps us understand the world — and we use the world to understand math. ... Using it, students
can make sense of the world and solve complex and real problems.

What is the Use of Mathematics for Control

Control theory is a branch of Applied Mathematics dealing with the use of feedback to
influence the behaviour of a system in order to achieve a desired goal. One can distinguish two
classes of systems for which control theory plays an indispensable role, namely man-made systems and
biological systems.

Mathematics is Indispensable

Mathematics makes our life orderly and prevents chaos. Certain qualities that are
nurtured by mathematics are power of reasoning, creativity, abstract or spatial thinking, critical
thinking, problem-solving ability and even effective communication skills.

CHAPTER 2 SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

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 The aim of this chapter is to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that can serve you
in a wide variety of situations.
This chapter will introduce you to some of the special language that is a foundation for much
mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets, relations, and functions.

VARIABLES

A variable is sometimes thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it as a
placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you imagine that it has one or more
values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want whatever you say about it to be equally true
for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t want to be restricted to considering only a particular,
concrete value for it.

In this sentence you can introduce a variable to replace the potentially ambiguous word “it”.

Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x2?

Is there a number  with the property that 2 + 3 = 2?

Example: Writing Sentences Using Variables

Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

a. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Solution:
Given any real number a, a2 is nonnegative.
Or: For any real number a, a2 0.

b. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the square of their
sum?
Solution:
Are there numbers a and b with the property that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?
Or: Are there numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

1. A universal statement says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set.
2. A conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some other thing also has to be
true.
3. An existential statement says that there is at least one thing for which the property is true.

Example. Universal Statement: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
Conditional Statement: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
Existential statement: There is a prime number that is even.

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Universal Conditional Statements

A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both universal and conditional.

Example. For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

This statement can be rewritten in a way that makes its conditional nature explicit but universal nature
implicit.

If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

Or: If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.

The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature explicit and its conditional
nature implicit.

For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

Or: All dogs are mammals.

Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a universal because its first part says that a certain property is true
for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its second part asserts the existence of
something.

Every real number has an additive inverse.

All real numbers have additive inverses.

Rewritten as: For all real numbers r, there is an additive inverse for r.
For all numbers r, there is a real number s such that s is an additive inverse for r.

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential because its first part asserts that a
certain object exists and is universal because its second part says that the object satisfies a certain
property for all things of a certain kind.

Example. Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.
Or There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every positive integer.
There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is greater than or equal to m.

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THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor
(1845-1918).

Notation

1. Set-Roster Notation
If S is a set, the notation x S means that x is an element of S. The notation x  S means that x is
not an element of S. A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by writing its entire element
between braces.

Examples.

S = {1, 2, 3} and R = {1, 2, 3, …, 50}

Set S has three (3) elements, that is; 1, 2 and 3. Set R has fifty (50) elements. 1, 2, 3, …, 50.

Note: The symbol . . . is called ellipsis and is read “and so forth”.

Example. Using the Set-Roster Notation

a. Let A = { 1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = { 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements of A, B, and C?
How are A, B, and C related?
b. Is {0} = 0
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}
d. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, -n}. Find U1, U2, and U0.
The following are some sets of numbers with the given special symbolic names.

2. Set-Builder Notation

Let S denote a set and let P(x) be a property that elements of S may or may not satisfy. We may
define a new set to be the set of all elements x in S such that P(x) is true. We denote this
notation as
{ x  SP(x)}

the set of all such that

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 Example. Using Set-Builder Notation

Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and Z+ the set of all
positive integers, describe each of the following sets.
a. { x  R-2<x<5}
b. { x  Z-2<x<5}
c. { x  Z+-2<x<5}
d.{ x  Z -3<x<5}

Subsets

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A  B, if and only if, every element of A
is also an element of B.
Symbolically:
A  B means that For all elements x, if x A then xB.

The phrases A is contained in B and B contains A are alternative ways of saying that A is a subset of B.

A  B means that there is at least one element x such that x  A and x  B.

Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B if and only if, every element of B is in B but there is
at least one element of B that is not in A.

Example. Let A = Z+, B = { n  Z 0  n  100}, and C = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}. Evaluate the truth and
falsity of each of the following statements.

a. BA
b. C is a proper subset of A
c. C and B have at least one element in common
d. CB
e. C  C.

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