Palm Oil Mill Hand Book

Palm Oil Process
The Principle & Operational Techniques
PALM OIL PROCESSING
The Principles &

Operational Techniques
Palm Oil Process
PREFACE
This "handbook" has been prepared as a reference for the many engineers and other professionals who from
time to time need to refresh their memory or update their knowledge on the principles and the operational
techniques relating to the extraction and the recovery of Palm Oil and Palm Kernels from the fruit of the oil
palm (Elaeis guineensis).
They may be occupying the position of Mill Manager, Mill Engineer, Mill Superintendent, Laboratory
Analyst etc.
The book may also serve as a text book or reference for those wanting to pursue, or are already pursuing a
career in this fascinating industry that directly combines large scale agricultural enterprises with industrial
processing plants in a variety of different ways.
There are five major sections to this book.

The first is an introduction to the base product, i.e. the fresh fruit bunches from the oil palm, dealing with
the fundamentals of its composition and (chemical) behaviour.
This section also briefly describes the matters to be considered for harvesting, handling and transportation
of the f.f.b. and deals therefore with those matters that effect or can affect the f.f.b. before reaching the
processing plant.
The second section describes the fundamentals and basic requirements to be considered when planning the
locality, the type of process and the machinery required therefore.
The third section explores, describes and details the unit operations normally found in a palm oil mill.
The fourth section deals with the waste products generated, the disposal of it and the sources of pollution.
The last section is an overview of all other activities and requirements that are normally associated with the
operation of a palm oil mill, in particular the generation of steam and electricity, the maintenance of the
machinery and equipment and the monitoring and evaluation techniques for the operation, administration,
maintenance, stores, sales etc.
It is impossible for me to acknowledge all the ideas of the many engineers, authors and friends whose
experiences, added to my own during the forty years in engineering, may appear in this book.
Fortunately I can acknowledge some of my friends and associates from whose world wide knowledge and
experience in their specialized fields I gained during the past twenty four years in the palm oil industry and
which has contributed to individual chapters in this book.
These include: J.J.Olie; R.A.Gillbanks, MBE; ; T.Fleming; D.A.M.Whiting; K.L.Hammond; D.R.Hoare;

J.C.Lumsden; Lim Kang Hoe; Dr.P.D.Turner; T.Menendez.
Finally, I acknowledge that much of the material in this book is by no means new and/or complete but
constitutes an attempt to amalgamate the information from published papers, manufacturers instruction
books etc., with my personal knowledge, views and experience in this industry.
J.A.Vugts.
Palm Oil Process
ABBREVIATIONS
Admix. : Percentage foreign matter in kernel

B.O.D. : Biological Oxygen Demand
B.V. : Benzidine Value
C.B.C. : Cake Breaker Conveyor
C.M.C. : Cracked Mixture Conveyor
C.O.D. : Chemical Oxygen Demand
C.P.O. : Crude Palm Oil
D : Dura palm type
E.F.B. : Empty Fruit Bunches
F.F.A. : Free Fatty Acid
F.F.B. : Fresh Fruit Bunches
H.R.T. : Hydraulic Retention Time
Lotox : Low total oxidation (value)
M.P.D. : Mash Passing to Digesters
M.V.A. : Melavonic Acid
N.O.S. : Non Oily Solids
P. : Pisifera palm type
P.K. : Palm Kernel
P.K.E. : Palm Kernel Expeller
P.K.O. : Palm Kernel Oil
P.O.M. : Palm Oil Mill
P.O.M.E. : Palm Oil Mill Effluent
P.V. : Peroxide Value
S.S. : Suspended Solids
T. : Tenera palm type
T.D.S. : Total Dissolved Solids
T.O.C. : Total Organic Carbon
T.O.D. : Total Oxygen Demand
Totox : Total oxidation (value)
T.S. : Total Solids
U.S.B. : Un Stripped Bunches
V.M. : Volatile Matter (moisture content)
Palm Oil Process
CONTENTS
Preface
Abrreviations used
SECTION #1 The raw material - F.F.B.
1. Fresh Fruit Bunches 1-1

2. Ripenes standards 2-1
3. Bio chemistry 3-1
4. Ripeness parameters 4-1
5. Ripeness pattern 5-1
6. Summary 1 to 5 6-1
7. Other factors of influence to F.F.B. 7-1
8. Planting material 8-1
9. Pollination 9-1
10. Climate 10-1
11. Soil condition 11-1
12. Fertilizer 12-1
13. Harvesting interval 13-1
14. Transportation 14-1
15. Summary 7 to 14 15-1
SECTION #2 The Factory - Design considerations
16. Design 16-1

17. Site selection 17-1
18. Locality 18-1
19. Effluent disposal 19-1
20. Seasonal wind 20-1
21. Transport distances 21-1
22. Summary 16 to 21 22-1
SECTION #3 The Factory - Extraction of C.P.O. and P.K.
23. General requirements 23-1

24. Fresh fruit bunches 24-1
25. Sterilization of fruit 25-1
25.1 Air release 25-3
25.2 Condensate removal 25-6
25.3 Sterilizing cycle 25-7
Content # iii
Palm Oil Process
25.4 Steam consumption 25-9

25.5 Operation 25-19
25.6 Sterilized fruit to thresher machine 25-20
25.7 Threshing or stripping the fruit 25-21
25.8 Distribution sterilized fruit 25-25
26. Mash Passing to Digester 26-1

26.1 Introduction 26-1
26.2 Method of sampling 26-1
26.3 Analysis 26-2
26.4 Recording of results 26-2
26.5 Interpretation of results 26-3
27. Digesting of sterilized fruit 27-1

27.1 The digester 27-1
27.2 The action 27-1
28. Pressing of digested fruit 28-1

28.1 The press 28-1
28.2 The operation 28-2
28.3 The extraction efficiency 28-5
29. Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) 29-1

29.1 The collection of C.P.O. 29-1
29.2 The clarification of C.P.O. 29-3
29.3 The storage of C.P.O. 29-9
29.4 Evaluation of C.P.O. 29-10
30. Palm Kernel (P.K.) 30-1

30.1 Nut / Fibre mixture 30-1
30.2 The cake breaker conveyor 30-1
30.3 Nut / Fibre separation 30-3
30.4 Nut treatment 30-8
30.5 Nut cracking 30-9
30.6 Kernel / Shell separation 30-10
30.7 Kernel recovery 30-13
30.8 Kernel drying 30-13
30.9 Kernel cleaning 30-14
30.10 Evaluation of P.K. 30-15
Content # iv
Palm Oil Process
SECTION #4 Waste products and pollution.
31. Disposal of "dry" material 31-1

31.1 Solid waste products and disposal 31-1
31.2 The incinerator 31-1
31.3 The direct to field disposal 31-2
31.4 The use of E.F.B. as fuel 31-3
31.5 The fibrous material 31-3
31.6 The fuel value of fibre 31-4
31.7 The shell material 31-4
31.8 The fuel value of shell 31-5
31.9 The sludge (centrifuge) solids 31-5
31.10 Solids from Decanter systems 31-6
31.11 Solids from effluent treatment 31-6
32. Disposal of "wet" material 32-1

32.1 Parameters for liquid effluent 32-1
32.2 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) 32-1
32.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) 32-2
32.4 Total Organic Carbon (T.O.C.) 32-3
32.5 Total Oxygen Demand (T.O.C.) 32-3
32.6 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.C.) 32-3
32.7 Correlation of measurements 32-3
32.8 Biological treatment definitions 32-4
32.9 Aerobic suspended growth treatment 32-5
32.10 Control methods and technology 32-8
32.11 Treatment types 32-8
32.12 Anaerobic facultative pond system 32-9
32.13 Anaerobic (bi-phase) facultative ponds 32-10
32.14 Anaerobic/extended aeration pond system 32-13
32.15 Anaerobic tank digestion/extended
aeration system 32-13
32.16 Land application of partly treated effluent 32-17
32.18 Effects of application of digested effluent 32-18
33. Air pollution 33-1

33.1 Boiler smoke 33-1
33.2 Incinerator smoke 33-3
Content # v
Palm Oil Process
SECTION #5 a) Steam and electricity generation

b) Monitoring and Evaluation
34. Generation of steam and electricity 34-1

34.1 General boiler water information 34-1
34.2 Water treatment : external 34-4
34.3 Water treatment : internal 34-9
34.4 Blow down 34-10
34.5 The principle of de-aeration 34-12
34.6 Procedure for boiler "boil out" 34-15
34.7 Steam requirement calculations 34-17
34.8 Electricity 34-25
35. Repair and Maintenance 35-1

35.1 Maintenance and scheduling 35-1
35.2 Check list for reporting on Palm Oil Mills 35-7
36. Process control 36-1

36.1 The aim of process control 36-1
36.2 Examination of F.F.B. 36-2
36.3 Empty Bunch checking 36-4
36.4 Sampling 36-5
36.5 Interpretation of the results 36-7
36.6 General comments 36-8
37. Quality control 37-1

37.1 The Laboratory 37-1
(37I).01 Determination of F.F.A. in C.P.O. 37-3
(37I).02 Volatile matter in oil 37-5
(37I).03 Dirt in oil 37-7
37.2 Oxidation 37-8
37.3 Bleach-ability 37-9
37.4 Quality analysis of P.K. 37-10
37.5 Determination of oil losses 37-12
37.6 Other tests 37-21
38. Administration and accounting 38-1
Glossary follows
Content # vi
SECTION #1
THE RAW MATERIAL

[FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES]
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #1
FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES
1.01 "Oil is made in the field, and lost in the factory."

This statement, as old as the industry itself, remains to be true, but provided both the
field and the processing operation are well controlled, these losses can be controlled
and kept within,(for the industry) acceptable parameters.
Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) harvested from the oil palm trees, and the loose fruits that
have already detached from the bunch whilst still on the tree are collected from "the
fields" and both together are transported to the factory.
The stage of ripeness at which this bunches are harvested and the condition of this
fruit when delivered at the factory, determines to a large extend the efficiency of the
extraction process and the quality of the products produced by the CPO factory.
1.02 The CPO factory produces Crude Palm Oil and Palm Kernel.
Further processing of the CPO and the PK takes place in more specialized refineries,
crushing and extraction plants.
Theoretically, the exact point of ripeness or maximum oil content or yield from the
fruit can be determined from a number of factors.
Practically, one cannot expect that harvesters possess the knowledge as described
hereunder and a usable compromise to obtain a harvest of a good average of fully
ripe, mature FFB is required.
1.03 Various circumstances may determine the practical parameters, although the most
used one remains the control of FFB by physical observation to determine the
percentage "black and hard" bunches of the total FFB delivered.
A full description of the most commonly used parameters can be found under the
section 5, chapter 36 : Process Control.
1.04 Soil type and climatic conditions have a definite influence on the growth and
yield pattern of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
Section #1
The Raw Material [Fresh Fruits Bunch] # 2
Palm Oil Process
An average rainfall of 2000 millimeter or more per year and 5 to 7 hours sunshine
per day are usually good parameters to secure an economically justified yield.
Generally these conditions can be met in the tropical zone between 15 degrees North
and 15 degrees South of the Equator, around the world.
1.05 Height increment (trunk elongation) ranges between 40 to 80 centimeter per year
(pending on age, genetic type and conditions) and the yield of FFB follows a distinct
pattern, changing with the age of the palm.
Peak yields are generally obtained at the palm age of between 5 and 7 years old (when
leave production is at maximum), and there after the yield declines to a reasonably
steady pattern.
1.06 Both the male and the female "flowers" (inflorescences) grow on the same palm.
Each inflorescence has a central stalk with spike lets carrying the flowers.
1.07 The male inflorescence can carry as many as or over a 1000 flowers, which produce
between 20 and 50 grams of pollen during about 5 days.
Pollen are released 2 to 3 days after the beginning of an thesis.
1.08 The female inflorescence carries a considerably larger number of flowers, the total
varies, but can be several thousand flowers, pending on the arrangement of the
central, upper and lower spike lets.
1.09 After pollination the female inflorescence develops into a fruit bunch, taking up to
22 weeks to become a fully developed and ripe bunch.
1.10 Each pollinated female flower may develop into an individual fruit in the bunch; its
shape and weight varying depending on its geographical position in the bunch.
The total bunch weight thus can vary considerably and ranges from about 10 kg to as
much as 80 kg per bunch, the average weight usually varies between 15 and 30 kg.
1.11 An individual fruit consists of a seed (the "palm kernel"), surrounded by pericarp.
Pericarp includes three layers, i.e.: the hard endocarp (the "shell"), the fleshy mesocarp
(the "fibre") which contains the palm oil and the thin outer skin or exocarp.
1.12 Oil palms can broadly be divided into three distinct types, i.e.: the Dura palm (D), the
Tenera palm (T), and the Pisifera palm (P).
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
1.13 The nut of the Dura palm has a relatively thick shell (between 2 and 8 mm) and the
percentage mesocarp to fruit is generally low (30 to 65 %).
Dura fruit can be recognised when the fruit is cut transversely and no ring of fibres in
the mesocarp close to the shell can be noticed.
1.14 The nut of the Tenera palm has a thinner shell than that of the Dura palm (between
0.5 and 3 mm) and the percentage mesocarp to fruit is higher (60 to 99%).
Tenera fruit has the distinct and prominent ring of fibres close to the shell, clearly
allowing identification of the fruit when cut.
1.15 The Pisifera palm fruit has a kernel but no shell.
1.16 Palm fruit may also develop even though no pollination appears to have taken place.
These fruits are termed parthenocarpic fruit and although these can be oil bearing,
they are usually small and with a solid centre, no kernel.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #2
RIPENESS STANDARDS
2.01 Harvesting fruit bunches at the correct state of ripeness is of paramount importance
in maximizing the oil yield.
2.02 It is generally accepted that for the maximum exploitation of the oil, the fruit
bunch should be at its peak of ripeness.
This is where the problem arises, basically on the uncertainty of the best time to
harvest the fruit bunch to give the maximum product.
2.03 The conventional system is to determine the ripeness by the number of loose fruits
detached from the bunch, i.e. 1,2,3 etc. loose fruits detached, or the amount of loose
fruit per kilogram of estimated bunch weight, i.e. 10 to 25% detached fruits, etc. and
any of these two criteria may be right.
2.04 An understanding of the formation of the various biochemical processes and the
resulting palm products which normally either increase or decrease at the “ripe” stage
may help to determine this stage of fruit ripeness.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #3
BIO CHEMISTRY OF DEVELOPING OIL PALM FRUIT
3.01 Several distinct biochemical changes take place in the mesocarp as the fruit develops
from flower to maturity.
3.02 Carbohydrates form the major biochemical constituent in the early stages of
development.
These are Tran located from the main plant (palm), especially from the leaves, via
the bunch stalk into the fruits.
3.03 The presence of Chlorophyll also contributes to the formation of carbohydrates.

(The function of chlorophyll pigments is to generate carbohydrates by
photosynthetic conversion of CO2 , H2O and light energy)
For fruit development the need to have chlorophyll reduces and diminishes once the
carbohydrates are utilized to form (storage) oil bodies.
3.04 Carbohydrates are continuously Tran located and synthesized within the fruit until a
certain stage whereby the carbohydrate "pool" is drastically converted to lipids.
3.05 Accessory pigments (such as carotene, orange plant pigment) and their isomers are
also produced in the early stages of development and the amount increases
proportionally with the increase in lipid content.
3.06 Tocopherols (naturally occurring trace elements, able to act as antioxidants) have
been shown to increase in amount as the fruit matures.
3.07 In the early stages of development, lipids form only about one percent of the total
weight of mesocarp and a large proportion of the lipids are phospholipids.
3.08 Phospholipids are important (at this stage) as an entity for cell wall and cell
membrane formation.
(The proportion of phospholipids to total lipids remain none the less very low in ripe
fruit.)
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
3.09 An important product of the carbohydrate metabolism is "tannin" (acidic

substance).
The amount of tannin in the fruit is constant throughout the development of the
fruit.
3.10 Proteins, which function as the building blocks of cells and as enzymes for all
biochemical reactions, also remain proportionally constant throughout the stages of
development.
(Proteins form only 0.1 % of the total biochemical products in ripe palm fruit)
3.11 The biosynthesis of lipids is the main feature exhibited by mesocarp.
The precursor for lipid synthesis is carbohydrate.
The conversion of carbohydrates to lipids takes place immediately after the kernel
has fully developed.
3.12 The formation of lipids accelerate as the fruit approaches maturity and maximizes at
the ripe stage, (i.e. about the 20th week after pollination).
3.13 Senescence triggers the degradation (or hydrolysis) of lipids to glycerol and free fatty
acids (FFA)
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #4
PARAMETERS FOR DETERMINING THE DEGREE
OF RIPENESS
Possible parameters are:
a) Lipid content
b) Free Fatty Acid formation
c) Moisture content
d) Carotene :(Chlorophyll absorbency ratio)
e) Carotene :(Carotene absorbency ratio)
a) Lipid content
The amount maximizes when fruit is ripe and the amount drops slightly after
senescence.
Total oil content increases with the age of the plant.

The amount of oil in wet mesocarp increases from 1% in the young fruits to
about 40 % in the mature fruits.
The FFA composition of the mesocarp lipid at different stages of maturity is
significantly different.
In 11 week old fruits, linoleic acid (C18:2) is prominent, forming about 28% of the
FFA composition.
As the fruit matures, oleic acid (C18:1) forms the bulk of the lipid.
In the ripe fruit the FFA composition of the lipid extract is similar to that of the
CPO (see table 1)
It is only natural that the product which is generated by the plant maximizes at
the mature stage and the composition is such to provide the fruit with lipids
containing the basic fatty acid precursors for the subsequent process of dispersion
and survival.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
b) Free Fatty Acid formation
Degradation of lipids occurs after senescence and also in bruised, mature fruits.
(Senescence is the immediate phenomenon following the fully mature fruit
stage)
The metabolism of biochemical substrate stops.

Instead, degradation of some of these products, especially lipids take place.
The action of lipases on the lipids is responsible for catalyzing the formation of
FFA's and glycerol’s.
Lipases may be derived from within the mesocarp or contributed by bacteria,

yeast’s and other microbial infections.
Substantial amounts of free fatty acids are formed in the senescence fruit. (see
table 2)
In the fruit, FFA's constitute about 0.8% of the total lipid and may increase to 9
or 10% after the fruits are detached from the bunch.
c) Moisture content
Water forms the major constituent in plants, for it is very important as a medium
for transport, for biochemical reactions and as a solvent.
It is very important when fruit is at the young stage, whereby development

requires the precursors to be water soluble.
Water is also the source of hydroxyl groups for biochemical reactions.
The need to have excess water is reduced as the function of the cells in the
mesocarp becomes more specialized.
It is expected that in palm fruit the amount of water per gram mesocarp is least at
the ripe fruit stage.
80% of the total weight of 11 week old mesocarp is water and the percentage
reduces to about 30 to 40% in the ripe fruit.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
It has also been shown that the amount of water in the detached fruit is
considerably lower (± 25 to 30 %, see table 3)
(A certain drop in the proportion of water in the fruit could trigger the fruits to
senescence.)
d) Carotene: Chlorophyll absorbency ratio
The formation of various biochemical palm products for example: lipids,

carotenes, tocopherols; all of which normally maximize at the mature stage are
not the only processes that are occurring in the plant.
The degradation of these products may also occur and these happen in fully ripe
and damaged or infected fruits.
(Degradation of biochemical products which are formed at the early stages of
development and have no further contribution to the fruit may also occur.)
The products include chlorophyll and the all important Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are converted to potential intermediates for lipid synthesis, as are

chlorophyll’s.
Ripe fruits DO NOT contain any chlorophyll pigments, the drop in the
chlorophyll content has been shown to be proportional to the increase in lipid
and the carotene content.
This distinct change provides additional information with respect to the degree of
ripeness of the fruit.
Chlorophyll pigments are not detectable in the ripe fruit, but their presence is
always detectable and have been measured in the younger fruits.
Chlorophyll content increases and then decreases at the later stage and is absent
in the ripe fruit.
Spectral scanning of the extracts of mesocarp of various ages has provided some
accurate judgment of ripe and unripe fruits.
Carotenes are always present, even in the very young fruits.
The "yellowing" of the mesocarp as the fruit ripens is due to the degradation of
chlorophyll’s and the build up of carotenes.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
In younger fruits, chlorophyll’s form the main photosynthetic pigment for the
synthesis of carbohydrates.
The carotenes at this stage function as accessory pigment during the

photosynthetic process.
The ratio of carotene to chlorophyll content at different stages of development is

therefore useful in determining the age of the fruit and can be used as an
indicator for ripeness standard. (under laboratory conditions)
e) Carotene : Carotene absorbency ratio
The biosynthesis of carotene in oil palm is similar to that of other plants.

The basic precursor is carbohydrate which undergoes biochemical changes, firstly
to acetyl CoA.
This acetyl CoA will subsequently be converted to melavonic acid (m.v.a.),

isopentenyl pyrophosphate (i.p.p.) and finally polymerisation of these i.p.p's to
carotenes.
These carotenes are accessory pigments found in the protoplasts or chloroplasts.
A typical spectrum of carotene distribution of crude palm oil is identical to that
of the distribution of ripe mesocarp extract.
Carotene extracts of ripe mesocarp exhibits three absorbency peaks: at 432 nm,
456 nm and 480 nm.
Maximum absorbency is at 456 nm for mature and ripe fruits.
Younger fruits, where the chlorophyll pigments are present have a maximum
absorbency of 432 nm.
As the fruit develop to maturity, the absorbency at 432 nm decreases to a stage

where the absorbency at this wavelength is lower than that of 456nm.
At the same time the absorbency at 664 nm for chlorophyll’s also decreases, and
finally disappears.
The ratio of absorbency at 456 nm and 432 nm formulated may be useful as an
indicator to determine the degree of ripeness of the fruit.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
A 456 : 432 nm absorbency ratio with a value < 1 may indicate young fruit.
14th to 16th week old fruits have ratios from 0.8 to 1.0.
Mature fruits (18th/19th week) normally have values of 1.0 to 1.2, (and at the
same time exhibit an absorbency peak at 664 nm, which indicates the presence of
chlorophyll’s)
In ripe and senescence fruit, the 456 :432 nm absorbency ratio is 1.2, and do not
exhibit any chlorophyll absorbency peak at 664 nm.
This ratio has also been applied to study the various different degrees of
development of fruit that occur in the bunch itself.
Controversy of whether there is a need to allow all the fruits to be completely

developed before harvesting can be solved by this carotene: chlorophyll
absorbency ratio system.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #5
RIPENESS PATTERN
[relation of a ripe fruit let to the rest of the bunch]
5.01 Ripe fruit may be defined as fruit which has the maximum amount of oil, and more
directly as fruit which contains no more chlorophyll’s and attaining a carotene to
carotene absorbency ratio of > 1.2 (which occurs normally in the 20th week after an
thesis.)
5.02 The fruits of any given bunch do not ripen simultaneously, due to slight variations
in the time of pollination of the flowers.
(The period of receptivity of the florets in an anthesizing female inflorescence is
about 2 to 5 days.)
5.03 Visual observation indicate that both the size and the color of the fruit from the
different locations on the bunch are different.
The fruits on the periphery (outer side) of the bunch are usually large and deep
orange in color, whilst the fruits embedded in the interior of the bunch are
sometimes smaller and do not have the deep orange coloration.
Correlation of all these fruits with one another in terms of the degree of ripeness can
be made.
5.04 Analysis done on the same bunch of a particular age, from different bunch sections,
i.e. top, middle and bottom and from each section from different spikelets, i.e.
outer, middle and inner parts shows that the contents of chlorophyll’s and carotenes
are more in the top sections and decreases towards the bottom, but the 456 : 432
nm absorbency ratio is at a constant value, i.e. < 1.
5.05 This constant value indicates that the fruits from different sections are all in a similar
stage of maturity.
5.06 Unless: the absorbency ratio of the top section is equal or more than 1, which would
indicate that the fruits in that section are older than the fruits in the middle or
bottom section of the bunch.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
5.07 Analysis from the 20th week (optimum ripeness) show a similar absorbency profile;
in all the fruits from whatever position on the bunch.
5.08 Another criterium to constitute the finding that the fruit on the different bunch and
spikelet section are of similar physiological age is the fatty acid composition of the
fruits from these different sections.
5.09 It can be seen that the distribution of fatty acid in the fruits, from various sections
have a similar pattern.
The contents of the major fatty acids such as Palmitic Acid (C16:0) and the C18 fatty
acids, i.e. Oleic Acids (C18:1) and Linoleic Acids (C18:2) are quite similar.
5.10 The fatty acid distribution profile is similar within a bunch, although the oil content
in the outer fruits is higher and decreases towards the inner portion of the bunch.
This is due to the intrinsic property of the fruit by virtue of its position on the
bunch.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #6
SUMMARY [chapters 1 to 5]
6.01 The conversion of carbohydrates to lipids at about the 13th week of development
appears to be the main function of the fruit at this stage of its development.
6.02 The accumulations of tocopherols and carotenes are proportional to the build up of
oil.
6.03 Carbohydrates are synthesized by the fruit during this stage, but at a decreasing rate.
6.04 Since the indications are that most of the fruits in the bunch are of similar
physiological age, it is therefore not necessary to wait to harvest the bunch, ONCE
THERE ARE SIGNS THAT SOME OF THE FRUITS ARE RIPE.
Table#1 Fatty acid composition in %
C type AGE OF FRUIT IN WEEKS RIPE C.P.O.
11 12 13 14
12 0.22 - - - - -
14 0.62 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.7 0.2
16 27.8 38.9 37.2 39.6 44.9 44
16:1 1.06 - - - - -
18 4.12 5.1 5.2 4.9 4.0 4.5
18:1 14.4 18.4 22.0 32.6 37.3 39.2
18:2 28.8 25.6 24.4 19.3 14.4 10.1
18:3 22.3 10.9 9.8 2.7 0.3 0.4
20 0.77 0.3 - 0.3 0.3 0.4
17 - 0.2 0.6 0.2 - -
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Table #2 Fatty acid content
Sample: Volume NaOH in (McOH) % FFA
7th week (young fruit) 0.2 ml 0.1
Ripe fruit 0.5 - 1 ml 0.25 - 0.5
Ripe fruit 2.5 ml 1.3

(easily detached)
Senescened fruit 10.8 ml 5.5
Table #3 Oil and Moisture Content
Sample: oil / bunch oil / fruit Moisture
Ripe fruit (mill) 20 % - 22 %
Ripe fruit (laboratory) 30 % 45 % 40 %

8th week (laboratory - <1% 80 %
10th week (laboratory) - 1% 80 %
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #7
FACTORS OF INFLUENCE TO THE PROCESSING
OF FFB
7.01 The quality and quantity of the FFB delivered to the mill can vary considerably due
to a number of factors which are outside the control of the mill staff.
Some of these factors are fairly constant, whilst others can change from day to day, or
in some circumstances even from hour to hour, depending on:
- Type of Planting material
- Age of the planting
- Efficiency of pollination
- Climate and /or seasonal conditions (present and past)
- Soil conditions
- Fertiliser programmes
- Harvesting methods/interval
- Type of collection and transportation to the mill
7.02 The handling of FFB in general does affect its quality and the less the fruit is touched
after it is harvested from the tree, the higher the chances are that the F.F.A content
remains at the low level it generally is at the point of harvest.
It is of course necessary to move and transport the fruit to the mill, but all
unnecessary handling must be avoided where ever possible.
7.03 This philosophy has led to a variety of handling and transport systems, all more or less
effective (see FFB, chapter 24, page 24-1), but is very often to a large extent
dependent on the local circumstances and the distances the fruit has to be carried.
7.04 Type of planting material:
The different types of oil palm breeds and hybrids all produce FFB with a different
composition of mesocarp and nuts.
The resulting different ratios of fibrous material (mesocarp), shell and kernel (nuts)
and the varying quantities of these components will require different process
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
machinery or machine adjustments to achieve the aim of optimum extraction of the

palm oil and kernel.
7.05 Age of planting material:
As for the type of material, the age of the palm from which the fruit is harvested, can
determine the physical size of the bunch and the total oil content of the fruit.
Again, to obtain the maximum extraction of the products, machinery may have to
be adjusted to cope with the material.
7.06 Efficiency of pollination:
Popularly stated, non pollinated (non fertilised) fruit has no kernel.(and a low oil
content).
The processing, especially pressing of this type of fruit is difficult and the resulting
press liquid is difficult to separate into oil, water, dirt etc.
(The immediate side effect of the non availability of kernel is the difference in fuel
composition to the boiler furnace, since less or no shell will be available to be mixed
with the fibre.)
7.07 The by insect (Elaedobius kamerunicus) pollinated fruit has generally a much more
"dense" composition than fruit pollinated by wind and or larger insects and in general
has a larger number of fully and partly developed fruitlets in the bunch.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #8
PLANTING MATERIAL
8.01 Type of planting material:
The different types of oil palm breeds and hybrids all produce f.f.b. with a different
composition of mesocarp and nuts.
The resulting different ratios of fibrous material (mesocarp), shell and kernel
(nuts) and the varying quantities of these components will require different
process machinery or machine adjustments to achieve the aim of optimum
extraction of the palm oil and kernel.
8.01 Age of planting material:
As for the type of material, the age of the palm from which the fruit is harvested,
can determine the physical size of the bunch and the total oil content of the fruit.
Again, to obtain the maximum extraction of the products, machinery may have to
be adjusted to cope with the material.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #9
POLLINATION
9.01 Efficiency of pollination:
Popularly stated, non pollinated fruit has no kernel.(and a low oil content).
The processing, especially pressing of this type of fruit is difficult and the resulting
press liquid is difficult to separate into oil, water, dirt etc.
(The immediate side effect of the non availability of kernel is the difference in fuel
composition to the boiler furnace, since less or no shell will be available to be
mixed with the fibre.)
9.02 The by insect (Elaedobius Kamerunicus) pollinated fruit has generally a much
more "dense" composition than fruit pollinated by wind and or larger insects and
in general has a larger number of fully and partly developed fruitlets in the bunch.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #10
CLIMATE AND/OR SEASONAL CONDITIONS
10.01 The climatic conditions at the time of harvest and transport have a marked
difference on the process in the factory.
Heavy rainfall usually result in waterlogged bunches on arrival at the factory, where
this fruit is weighed over the weigh bridge.
The "extra" weight recorded can have a marked effect on the calculation of the
extraction rates of both oil and kernel since these are generally calculated against
the total F.F.B. weights recorded for the day or the production run.
It is not uncommon that during wet days a larger percentage earth and dirt sticks
to the bunches, which is also transported to the factory and can cause problems
during the screening and clarification (de sanding) process.
10.02 Seasonal weather patterns have a marked influence on the yield of f.f.b. per hectare
planted and thus are the main cause for the peak production and the low
production periods of the factory.
During heavy rainfall pollination of the oil palm flowers, whether by insects or by
other natural causes, is generally not as effective as during the dryer periods of the
year.
10.03 It can be estimated that approximately 20 to 22 weeks after pollination the

bunches are ready to be harvested.
With experience, the amount of fruit to be harvested in a given period from a

known hectare of planting can be estimated about six months in advance of the
actual harvesting dates.
Thus high and low periods of production can be forecasted with reasonable
accuracy and the production runs, the maintenance periods etc. of the factory can
be planned in advance.
10.04 Shorter term influences such as frequently alternating periods of sunshine and rain
generally accelerate the fruit ripening process, whilst extended periods of dry or
very dull weather tends to slow down the rate of fruit ripening and can affect the
production.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #11
SOIL CONDITION
11.01 Soil conditions:
Oil palm will grow on a wide range of soil types, each of these will influence the
yield to a degree.
F.F.B. harvested from different soil areas will not show up in the factory and
therefore has no direct influence on the type of treatment or process of the fruit.
11.02 On acid sulphate soils however, bunch ash (the ash produced from empty bunches
after incineration) has proved to be useful in ameliorating the adverse soil
conditions prevalent and provide an inexpensive source of nutrients.
Depending on the logistics and environmental circumstances, the use of (whole)

empty bunches as a mulch in oil palm is also practiced.
The empty bunches contain significant quantities of nutrients, but are "bulky"
(approximately 20 to 25% of F.F.B. weight) and the logistics of removal from the
factory, transport and application in the field becomes a matter for economic
consideration.
11.03 The decision as to what the preferred method of empty bunch disposal will be has a
considerable influence on the design and lay out of an oil palm factory, where
provision must be made for either incinerators and bunch ash disposal or for
storage and handling facilities for the (whole) empty bunches.
11.04 The application of the liquid effluent from the mill (from sludge ponds etc.) to the
fields is also an option that can be considered under certain circumstances.
This can be in the form of:

- raw effluent
- anaerobic (digester) bottom fraction
- aerobic pond bottom fraction
- aerobic pond "supernatant"
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
All contain substantial amounts of nutrients beneficial to the palms albeit in

different forms and concentrations.
The logistics of removal, transport and application to and in the field becomes an
economic consideration which has a direct influence on the design and lay out of
the factory.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #12
FERTILIZER
12.01. Fertilizer programmes:
Fertilizer programmes have no direct influence on the operation of an oil palm

mill.
As noted in Chapter 11, under certain conditions the mill may however be involved
in supplying some of the organic fertilizers for these programmes.
In general the aim of applying fertilizers is to increase the yield per hectare and as
such the total quantity of F.F.B to be processed may increase and result in an
altered (higher) throughput demand on the mill.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #13
HARVEST INTERVAL
13.01 Harvesting methods / Interval:

Noted under section 1, "The raw material", are the various theoretical
considerations of determining the bunch ripeness.
In practice the estate (field) management has to compromise and reach a decision
on an appropriate practical harvesting standard.
13.02 All ripeness standards used specify the minimum acceptable degree of ripeness and
the degree to which the overall average ripeness of the bunches harvested differs
from this standard, depends to a large extend on the frequency of harvesting, i.e.
the length of the interval between harvests and to a lesser degree on the prevailing
climatic conditions.
13.03 The actual method of harvesting makes little or no difference to the process in the
mill, provided estate management controls the length of the bunch stalks, the
collection of the loose fruit etc.
(Long stalks increase F.F.B. weight and tend to "soak up" oil, thus giving an
apparent lower oil extraction rate.
Loose fruit carry the highest oil content and if not collected and included in the
overall F.F.B. delivered to the mill will decrease the apparent extraction rates of
both oil and kernel)
13.04 The harvesting interval affects the oil quality to a considerable extend.
When intervals are too long (generally if more then 10 days), a high proportion of
"over ripe" fruit will be harvested, leading to high f.f.a. contents and increased oil
losses in the factory.
When intervals are too short (generally if less then 7 days), the trend develops
towards the harvesting of "under ripe" fruit, i.e. before the bunches reach their
maximum oil content.
13.05 The oil produced from these "under ripe" bunches will have a lower F.F.A. but the
extraction rate is also likely to be lower.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
This may be acceptable in certain circumstances, where the financial gain (from
sales of low F.F.A. oil) is higher than the "loss" in extraction.
Data obtained at the mill from F.F.B. quality checks and the laboratory analysis
should be viewed by the field management and used to decide on the most suitable
interval of harvesting the fruit.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #14
TRANSPORTATION
14.01 Type of collection and transportation to the mill:
The method of collection and transportation of the F.F.B. to the factory varies
considerably from area to area and is to a large extend depending on the preference
of the estate owner.
14.02 Since it is known that bruised and damaged fruit in general produces oil with a
higher f.f.a. than undamaged fruit, the less handling of the fruit before sterilization,
the better the quality of the oil produced will be.
14.03 Apart from the quality factor it has also been shown that undamaged and carefully
handled fruit results in lower oil losses during the sterilization process, ultimately
resulting in an improved extraction rate of oil.
Section #1
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #15
SUMMARY (chapter 7 to 14)
15.01 Virtually all of the points noted under Section 1, the chapters 1 to 6 and the
chapters 7 to 14 above are generally outside of the control of the mill management
and engineers.
15.02 It is however important that the mill management has some understanding of the
factors which affect the material that is to be processed, both from the point of
view of designing/modification of the mill machinery and or lay out and to foster
a greater degree of understanding and cooperation between "the field" and "the
factory".
Section #1
SECTION #2
THE FACTORY
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #16
DESIGN
16.01 Technological innovations and improvements, coupled to a better understanding

of the various processes involved in the extraction of Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) and
Palm Kernel (P.K.), have resulted in equipment and design changes over the years
to accommodate new equipment and the improved process technology.
Examples of such changes are for instance:
* the use of water tube boilers versus fire tube boilers

* the use of steam turbines versus reciprocating steam engines
* the use of double door sterilizers versus single door sterilizers
* the use of screw type presses versus reciprocating hydraulic presses
* the use of "bunch crushers"
* the use of dynamic clarification systems versus static clarification systems
* the use of "vibro energy" rotating screening devices versus the "shaking" type
screens
* "ripple mill" nut crackers versus conventional centrifugal nut crackers
* etc. etc.
16.02 Some of the innovations/modifications are not new, but merely a renewed
application of an existing older principle, which coupled to other changes in the
selected equipment and design has shown to be either economically advantageous,
more efficient and/or more practically orientated by reducing the levels of skill
required for maintenance of the equipment etc.
Most, but not all, changes required the design and lay out of the factories to be re
examined and have generally resulted in a more efficiently designed work place and
allowed for a certain amount of "standardization" to be introduced.
Despite this, the design and the lay out of palm oil factories are still very much
subject to the individual preference of the owners and/or the individual preference
of the Engineer(s) in charge .
16.03 There have been a number of efforts made to "standardize" palm oil processing
factories, all of which were and are more or less effective.
Section #2
The Factory [Design Considerations] # 30
Palm Oil Process
The considerable quantity of proprietary machinery on the open market which can
be utilized in an oil mill, whether or not specially adapted, precludes the total
standardization.
16.04 Generally the lay-out should allow for a generous work space around the
individual equipment and machinery, to allow unobstructed access for repairs and
maintenance without interference to the nearby machinery.
16.05 Modifications and/or the installation of additional equipment (since technology

changes and knowledge improves over time) are a fact of life and thus should, to a
limited extend, be taken into account when designing the lay-out.
16.06 A "cramped" work space will invariably lead to a lack of supervision and operator
attention and thus could cause the deterioration of the process and reduce the
optimum usage and out put of the equipment installed.
The (possible) extra cost associated with creating ample work space at the design
stage will be more then repaid during the economic life span of the mill.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #17
SITE SELECTION
17.01 There are a number of factors which play an important part in the selection of the
physical site for a palm oil mill.
The following gives an indication of the major points to be taken into account,
but is by no means a complete list since much depends on the individual
circumstances.
17.02 Once an area has been selected for the establishment of oil palm plantings, the area
should be thoroughly examined for the most suitable place to locate the
processing facilities.
This should preferably be done at the time of the feasibility study, or as soon as
possible there after, allowing sufficient time for planning, design, tendering,
building and commissioning of the mill and other required infrastructure.
17.03 Where possible, advantage should be taken of the natural "lay of the land" of the
area in which a new mill is to be built.
The design and lay out of the mill and its other buildings can be such as to
maximize the utilization of natural "high" and "low" spots in the selected area.
17.04 The proximity of a steady, good and plentiful water supply, for both the factory
and the required residential labour force must be taken into account.
17.05 Soil and soil bearing tests should be performed to establish the requirements and
parameters for the calculation of the foundation type, size etc. for the buildings,
the individual items of equipment, roads etc.
17.06 The depth at which the natural and/or seasonal water table exists must be
established and taken into account and a complete contour map of the area for the
mill construction should be made by qualified civil engineers or surveyors.
17.07 Such civil engineering details should be completed in advance of the mechanical
design so that the maximum advantage can be taken of existing natural situations
on the proposed mill site.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #18
LOCALITY
18.01 The "local" requirements for the disposal of effluent and air pollution should be
checked and taken into account when the location of the mill is decided.
In general the mill site should be chosen as "central" as possible to the supplying
plantation areas, to keep time and distance of F.F.B. transport (and thus the cost of
this operation) to a minimum and the bulk storage area or port to which the
products of C.P.O. and P.K. are to be transported.
18.02 Since both C.P.O. and P.K. are but a percentage of the f.f.b. volume, the site
selection should favor the shorter distances to the f.f.b. supply.
18.03 Other local conditions, such as the access to common facilities (planned or
existing) for the work force should be taken into account.
18.04 Generally when a new mill is planned, the sitting of the staff and labour housing is
also to be planned and nuisance factors such as smell, noise, pollution etc. should
be taken into account.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #19
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL
19.01 Consideration of either all or part of the liquid effluent, its solid fractions and the
empty bunches for direct land application (if this is known at the time of the
feasibility study) should also be taken into account and the logistics of such an
approach must be thoroughly examined.
19.02 Where the effluent disposal decided on consists of ponds a generously sized area
must be allocated within a reasonable distance from the mill.
19.03 The total area required (see section 4, chapter 32) for these ponds can be rather
large and the option for additional ponds later must be taken into account.
19.04 Access to the ponds is important, in view of the control, the maintenance, the
eventual solids removal etc., but the whole area must be securely fenced in to
prevent unauthorized access and possible accidents.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #20
SEASONAL WIND
20.01 Prevailing seasonal wind directions should be checked in view of the location of the
accommodation and facilities for both the staff and the labour force, to minimize
air pollution and noise nuisance to these residential areas.
20.02 Especially the smoke and vapours omitted from the incinerator stacks does not rise
to a great height, but usually settles down within one to two kilometers from the
source point.
This may not be serious (can in fact be beneficial) to the planting, but it is less
then desirable if this residue settles on the areas in which the staff and labour
housing and facilities are located.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #21
TRANSPORT DISTANCES
21.01 Distance to the nearest public access road and existing infrastructure such as health
services, schools, public transport etc. should also be taken into consideration.
21.02 Due to the size of oil palm plantations, the location is usually at some considerable
distance from the nearest village or town and the provision of reasonable all
weather roads for the transportation of the raw and the final products is usually
included in the planning of the overall plantation lay-out.
Section #2
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #22
SUMMARY [chapters 16 to 21]
22.01 As noted above, the list is by no means complete and each new location should be
checked thoroughly by plantation staff, civil engineers, the mill design engineers
and environmental experts to reach the most suitable solution.
Section #2
SECTION #3
THE FACTORY
EXTRACTION OF C.P.O AND P.K
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #23
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
23.01 The processing requirements can be separated into several distinct areas, each with
their own input of "raw material" and their output of "processed material".
23.02 Broadly, a C.P.O. factory requires the following stages in the process of producing
Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) and Palm Kernel (P.K.):
1: Fresh fruit bunch (f.f.b.) reception, f.f.b. storage, f.f.b. handling and f.f.b.
sterilization.
2: Threshing and distribution of the sterilized fruit.
3: Oil and kernel extraction, C.P.O and P.K. storage and C.P.O. and P.K. handling.
4: Disposal of the empty bunches, the fibrous material and the shell.
5: Disposal of the liquid effluent.
23.03 In order to allow for this processing there has to be :
6: Generation of steam and electricity
23.04 In order to efficiently and economically manage the operation of the mill there are
further the requirements of:
7: Process control, the analysis and recording of process data.
8: Quality control of the produced C.P.O. and P.K.
9: Repair and maintenance of the equipment
10: Administration and accounting for the total operation.
23.05 Each area can be sub divided into various stations, each again with their own
"input" and "output", each with their own particular equipment.
Section #3
The Factory [Extraction CPO and PK] # 39
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #24
FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES
24.01 The fresh fruit bunches are harvested and collected from the fields and transported
to the mill by a variety of types and sizes of vehicles.
These may include tractor-trailer operations, trucks fitted with side or rear tipping
bins, hand loading or net loading of F.F.B. etc.
24.02 Some estates developed transport systems where the actual sterilizer cages are taken
into the fields, on purpose built special truck or trailer frames, thus eliminating the
need for loading ramps, others use railways in the fields etc., or a hybrid of any of
the above noted systems.
24.03 The choice of system is often dictated by the particular circumstances and/or
economics.
The main aim should remain the same, i.e. to transport F.F.B. to the mill with the
minimum of handling and bruising of the fruit at the lowest possible cost.
24.04 The first stop at the mill site is the weigh bridge, where the transport unit inclusive
the f.f.b. is measured for gross weight, usually in metric tones to the second or
third decimal point.
(i.e. kilogram)
After discharging the f.f.b. the now empty unit is weighed again and the resulting
netto weight of f.f.b. delivered is calculated and recorded for each load.
The accumulated total of these netto weights gives the total weight of f.f.b.
delivered to the mill for the hour, the day, the week, the month etc.
24.05 The weigh bridge records can thus be used to find out the "flow" of f.f.b. into the
mill on which the required through put per hour can be based.
NOTE : Since all extraction rates and some losses are usually calculated against the
f.f.b. weight, the accuracy of the operation and the recording is important
and must therefore be regularly checked by mill management or
engineers.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
A regular (minimum weekly) check for accuracy and correct operational

procedures should be made and faults etc. can be rectified immediately.
24.06 A scheduled maintenance procedure must be followed, ensuring that the required
accuracy is maintained.
(see also under section 5, chapter 35, Maintenance)
24.07 Vehicles carrying F.F.B. should be checked to ensure that other than f.f.b. weight
factors are not included.
(Example: "passengers" coming in with the vehicle, water in the truck bin during
the rainy season etc.)
24.08 Various methods of unloading or discharging the f.f.b. from the transport units are
in use, partly depending on the type of transport and the type of system used.
Each require their own specific operational procedures and attention.
24.09 Loading ramps.
This is generally a steel platform, positioned on an angle that will allow the f.f.b.
discharged from the transport units to "slide down" to the discharge hoppers,
chutes or doors at the lower end of the platform.
The F.F.B. can thus be distributed into the sterilizer cages that are positioned
underneath the chutes or doors.
NOTE: At this point, i.e. before bunches are transferred into the sterilizer cages, a
bunch ripeness check should be conducted. (see also under section 5,
chapter 36,"Process control")
Bunches arriving at the mill should be at least 85% of the "ripe" category.
The "black and hard" fruit must be reported to the mill management and estate
management, so that the suppliers of this fruit can be informed.
A too wide a variation in "ripeness" will result in an ineffective sterilization process

with either too high oil losses or "un-strip-able" bunches, all resulting in further
processing problems in the factory causing increased oil losses and lower
extractions.
Harvesting and ripeness standards are essentially the responsibility of plantation
management, but it remains the mill management's responsibility to report the
condition of the delivered f.f.b.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
24.10 Loading ramps are commonly used through out the industry, despite the
disadvantage of bruising and damaging the fruit as a result of the action of
dumping from the transport unit on to the ramps, the sliding of the fruit down on
the ramp and the subsequent dumping from ramp into the sterilizer cages.
The result of this bruising and damage to the fruit is inevitably an increase in the
f.f.a. content of the oil produced.
24.11 The system of "in field cage loading" can (at least partially) prevent most of this
damage and has proved to result in oil produced with generally a lower f.f.a. %
then oil extracted from fruit handled via loading ramps.
Care must be taken to not "overload" the cages, either in the field or under the
ramps, as this results in the bunches bruising and rubbing against the sterilizer
walls and ceiling apertures. The spillage of loose fruit etc. will increase the losses
and lower the apparent extraction rate of oil.
24.12 Bunch transportation to the sterilizers:
The most commonly used method is by means of rail tracks from the ramp area to
the sterilizer area.
The shunting from one track to another can be achieved by using either railway
switches or by using a transfer system specially designed for the purpose.
The latter have distinct advantages and should be the preferred option, from both
the points of view of ease of operation and maintenance of the equipment.
Movement of the cage trains along the tracks is most commonly achieved with the
aid of either horizontal or vertical capstans.
24.13 Depending on the design and lay out of the factory, sterilizers can be equipped
with either a single door or with a door on either end of the sterilizer vessel.
The single door operation requires extensive handling and shunting of cages, while
the double door operation is a "one way in - one way out" fashion, usually
requiring straight rail tracks only, without the need for rail switches, cross over etc.
Both systems have a number of built in problem areas and continually require
extensive and costly maintenance and operational care to prevent derailments, a
hold up in processing.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
24.14 Rail tracks, switches, sterilizer bogie axles, bearings and wheels all need very regular
and almost continual servicing and should thus be on a regular (scheduled)
maintenance programme.
24.15 Storage of f.f.b. in cages, before and after actual process hours, usually requires a
fairly large shunting yard and method for pushing/pulling cage trains, shunting
from track to track etc.
24.16 Hybrid systems are also commonly in use, usually requiring the use of a tractor or
forklift to shift cages, both full and empty ones.
The logistics of having to move a fairly large number of cages backwards and
forward to achieve a certain throughput per hour and the usually limited space
available to do this in can be problematic and requires effective control to prevent
a process hold up etc.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #25
STERILIZED FRUIT
25.01 F.F.B. sterilization
Sterilization is the first step in the process of extracting oil and kernel from the
f.f.b.
Inadequate or incorrect sterilization will undoubtedly adversely effect the

efficiency of the extraction process.
25.02 The usual method of sterilization is a batch process, and this "batch" process has to
supply the feed needed to maintain the subsequent extraction processes, most of
which are of a more "continuous" nature.
A hold up in the supply of sterilized fruit results in the disruption of down stream
processing, which not only leads to the loss of through put, but also to the loss of
product resulting from a lower efficiency of the total operation.
It is for this reason that sterilization operation must be scheduled according to a

precise timetable, geared to the through put of the mill.
25.03 The most important functions of the sterilization process are:
a) to inactivate the enzymes that promote the formation of free fatty acid.
(To ensure that these enzymes are destroyed the whole of the oil carrying fruit
must reach a temperature of at least 55 degrees Celsius.)
b) to loosen the fruit in the bunch so that the maximum amount of fruit is
recovered in subsequent threshing (stripping) process.
(This aim will be achieved provided the fruit reaches a temperature of
110oCelsius for a minimum period of 20 minutes and the heating medium
provides moisture. The sterilization with live steam of low pressure is therefore
suitable.)
Other functions of the sterilization can be stated to be:
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
c) To soften the fruit in the bunch so that the mesocarp and the nut can be
detached from each other (in the digester).
(A "clean" separation of the nut and the fibre will facilitate the proper
operation of the depericarper later on in the process.)
d) To condition the mesocarp so that the oil bearing cells can be more easily and
effectively broken and the oil recovered.
(Unbroken oil cells have a density close to that of water and will not be
recovered in the clarification process.)
e) To dehydrate the fruit, which appears to have two functions, i.e. the pre-
treatment of nuts for kernel recovery and an apparent positive effect on the
efficiency of the operation and through put of the screw presses used for the
extraction of the oil.
f) Bio chemical changes also appear to take place during the process of
sterilization, having a beneficial effect on the process of clarification.
25.04 Sterilization is commonly achieved by means of live steam admission into the
sterilizing vessel loaded with f.f.b. in partly perforated steel cages.
The steam pressure is usually 3 kg/cm2 (±42 lbs/inch2) and a properly controlled
cycle with 30 minutes or more at this pressure will generally give satisfactory
sterilization results.
25.05 As noted previously, the standard of ripeness of the f.f.b. delivered may necessitate
the cycle times to be varied to suit the type of fruit to be sterilized.
Very ripe fruit can be sterilized in a shorter period, whilst when fruit is well set,
under ripe and hard the sterilization times may have to be extended .
Double or triple peaks can be used to ensure proper sterilization and good stripping
of the bunches, the latter is the most common.
Air release
25.1.01 When a sterilizer is loaded with fresh fruit and the door is first closed, the vessel is
full of air.
Air is a poor conductor of heat and must be removed from the vessel so that the
heat transfer to the bunches will not be impaired.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
25.1.02 There are two practical methods of air removal from sterilizers, i.e.:
a) steam sweeping and

b) diffusion, followed by blow off of steam.
a) Steam sweeping:
Steam is lighter than air and as the vessel fills with steam it will sweep the air
downwards and force it through the de-aeration valves.
This action should be controlled so that there is as little turbulence as possible.
Strong turbulence will mix the steam and air and pockets of air will remain in the
vessel; within these pockets there will be low temperatures.
An idea of the time needed to clear the vessel of air can be obtained by
considering the volume of the vessel and the area of the air release valves.
Example:
A 10 x 2.5 tonne cage sterilizer is 2.1 meter in diameter and 30 meter long, i.e.
has a volume of about 104 cubic meter.
If 4 x 75 mm outlets provided, these will have a combined open area of 177

square centimetre, (0.0177 m2 ).
The vessel should be cleared of air in say 10 minutes, thus the average speed out
of the valves during de-aeration must be about 9.8 m/sec (35 km/hr).
25.1.03 The fruit and the cages have a volume so there is actually less then the volume of
air calculated above, but inevitably air and steam will mix, the air will not
necessarily be swept evenly to the outlet valves etc. so the estimate of time can
be accepted as reasonably valid.
To achieve an average speed of 9.8 m/sec through the outlet valves, the vessel
must be under pressure during the steam sweeping, de-aeration process.
At the start of the cycle the vessel and its contents will be cold and the steam first
admitted will be condensed and there can be neither an increase in pressure nor
an air displacement until the rate of the steam admission to the vessel exceeds
the rate of condensation.
To achieve the required de-aeration the steam admission must be relatively high
and this will conflict with the need to reduce turbulence.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
To keep turbulence within acceptable levels sterilizers are fitted with a steam
distributor along the top of the vessel to ensure an even dispersion of steam.
This distributor is essential and must have a properly selected cross sectional area
and openings correctly sized to ensure good steam distribution, evenly along the
whole length of the sterilizer.
As the fruit is held in cages, the air must be removed from these cages as well as
from the open volume of the vessel and to ensure that this is achieved it is
essential that both the size and the number of holes in the cage sides and bottom
plate are adequate not only for the purpose of admitting steam into the cage and
fruit, but also allow air to escape.
25.1.04 With a well designed system and if care is taken it should be possible to sweep the
majority of the air from the open volume of the sterilizer and the cages, but the
air trapped in the bunches is not swept out.
b) Diffusion:
Steam pressure will tend to compress this air into the bunch so that the fruit in
the centre of the bunch will remain surrounded by air and thus not be subjected
to heat.
After a period of time has elapsed, the steam will diffuse into the air and air will
be displaced to allow heat penetration, but with very tightly knit fruit bunches
there will not be sufficient time for the diffusion to be effective within the
designed time of the sterilizing cycle.
This slow diffusion of steam into and the displacement of air from the bunches
can partly be explained by the fact that steam entering the bunch will condense
until the surfaces of the bunch exposed to the steam reach saturation
temperature.
If fruit is well set then the diffusion process must be assisted by intermediate
blow offs from the sterilizer.
25.1.05 Theoretically, if pressure is released from the sterilizer at 3 kg/cm2, one quarter
of the air left in the vessel should also be removed.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
More importantly, the air trapped in the bunches will be released, so that on the
next application of pressure steam will penetrate further into the bunch.
After steam sweeping and one blow off very little air will remain in the open
volume of the sterilizer, but there will still be air trapped in the bunches.
25.1.06 The timing for subsequent blow offs (i.e. in multiple peak sterilization) could or
should be delayed until there is some "heat" in the bunches.
Since diffusion is assisted by turbulence in the gases steam admission after blow
offs should be at the maximum rate attainable to give the best possible
conditions for diffusion.
"Triple peak" sterilization has proved to be effective in assisting the best air
release from the bunches during this sterilization.
Despite this and however careful the air sweeping is carried out, air will find its
way to the bottom of the sterilizer vessel throughout the cycle and provision for
the continual removal of this air (quite separate from the removal of
condensate) must be made.
25.1.07 Temperature gauges or recorders fitted to the sterilizer provide a check on the
temperature obtained in the vessel.
There will be no air in the top of the vessel, thus the temperature measured there
will always be that of the corresponding steam pressure and does not necessarily
reflect the temperature of the fruit that is to be sterilized.
A more accurate indication of that temperature can be gauged by placing the

sensing device below the level of the fruit cages.
Any condensation droplets removed with the air release when the vessel is under
pressure will flash off into steam under normal atmospheric pressure, thus the
sign of steam emerging from the air release outlets does not indicate that all air
is released and the valves can be closed.
25.1.08 Air release valves must be provided with a bypass without a valve to ensure a
continuous and adequate release of air throughout the complete sterilizing cycle.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
25.2 Condensate removal:
25.2.01 As steam is used in the sterilizer it condenses and this condensate has to be
removed from the vessel for several reasons:
a) If it is not removed it will flood the bearings of the cage bogies, wash out the
lubricating agent and ruin the bearings.
b) If the level is allowed to rise any further up to the level of fruit any "free" oil
and oil out of the bunches will be washed out in excessive quantities.
c) The "free" oil on the surface of the fruit is a result of damage and bruising of
the fruit and this oil has a high fatty acid content and is therefore quite
corrosive.
The mixture with the condensate will thus be of a corrosive nature and
attacks the steel work of the sterilizer.
This corrosion cannot be totally eliminated since condensate must flow out
of the vessel, but should be minimized as much as possible by keeping the
vessel as free of condensate as practicably possible.
d) At the end of the sterilizing cycle any free condensate still left in the vessel
will flash off and thus increases the total blow off time of the sterilizer.
25.2.02 Condensate must be cleared when pressure in the vessel is still low to prevent a
build up of condensate through the main condensate valves, whilst a "constant
bleed" system with sample capacity to ensure continuous adequate removal of
the condensate formed throughout the cycle must also be provided.
Despite the ample capacity cited above, the main condensate valves should be
used at least once during the cycle to make sure no condensate can build up in
the vessel.
Hot condensate "blown" out of the sterilizer will flash off into steam and
adequate provisions should be made for a condensate drainage system away from
the operating area of the sterilizers.
Adequate in this sense must take into account that at the start of the cycle both
air and condensate released are at their maximum and that these should (must)
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
be provided with separate systems. (Pipes full of condensate cannot allow air to
pass out.)
25.3 The sterilizing cycle
25.3.01 A full sterilizing cycle consists basically of three phases :
i) Steam pressure build up
ii) Constant pressure phase
iii) Blow off
i) Steam pressure build up
The pressure build up in the sterilizer must be at a rate that will allow the
requirements of proper de-aeration as described before and the constant
pressure phase of minimal 30 minutes at 3 kg/cm2 to be attained within the
designed or preferred cycle time.
The supply of steam and the piping transporting this steam has therefore to
be calculated large enough to achieve this aim.
The very large quantity of steam required at the start of the cycle is usually
limited by the capacity of the back pressure system and if supplemented by
live steam of reduced pressure direct from the boilers, by the capacity of the
steam boilers supplying this steam.
A pressure build up to 3 kg/cm2 in a time of maximum 10 minutes would

be ideal, but very few systems in C.P.O. mills are able to achieve this. (see
under 25.4, Steam consumption)
ii) Constant pressure phase
While careful attention must be given to the other parts of the cycle, it is in
the constant pressure phase that the action aimed for in the sterilization
process are accomplished.
Thus, if full pressure for the required length of time is not maintained, the
careful control of the other phases will be wasted and of no value.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
This is particularly so in multiple sterilizer installations where one sterilizer

has reached full pressure and another vessel starts is pressure build up.
The tendency for the pressure in the first vessel to drop is to be watched and
must be avoided.
If adequate steam supply cannot be obtained, the systems should be
regulated so that this drop can be avoided and full pressure maintained.
iii) The blow off phase
Blow off must be completed as fast as possible, by fully opening the blow
off exhaust valves, in order to achieve as much dehydration as possible and
keep the non productive periods of the total sterilizing cycle to a minimum.
A complete blow off from full pressure to atmospheric pressure in about

four minutes would be ideal.
Towards the end of the blow off, condensate main valves should be opened
to ensure the removal of any condensate liquid still left inside the vessel.
Pipe lines and, if utilized, exhaust silencers should be adequately sized so as

to not restrict the volume of the blow off and thus lengthen the time for
this.
25.4 Steam consumption
25.4.01 The low pressure steam in the C.P.O. mill is usually provided by means of a back
pressure system from the electrical power generating steam engines or turbine
sets.
Such equipment can be, and for C.P.O. mills usually is, designed with an exhaust
or back pressure steam at 3 kg/cm2.
This provides sufficient temperature for sterilization, higher pressures and hence
higher temperatures could result in decreased oil quality.
Steam pressure and steam temperature are not proportionate, therefore an

increase in pressure would not significantly improve the rate of heat transfer to
the f.f.b. to be sterilized.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
25.4.02 The steam consumption of the sterilizing relates almost entirely to the mass of
metal and fruit that has to be brought up to temperature and to the losses
through radiation and blow off.
25.4.02 The insulation of the sterilizer, provided it is in good condition, assists in

reducing radiation losses as much as possible whilst keeping the time lag between
(last) blow off and the steam admission for the next cycle as short as possible
also assists considerably in keeping the sterilizer metal "hot" and thus reducing
the consumption.
25.4.03 Theoretical calculation of STEAM DEMAND :
The sterilizer can be considered as a condenser with at the start of the cycle a very
high condensing capacity and thereafter a quickly reducing capacity down to
more moderate levels with a practically zero condensing capacity at the end of
the cycle.
The quantity of condensed steam per unit of time (Q) equals:
Q=F x ∆t xα
F = total surface in contact with the steam

∆t = temperature difference between the fruit surface and the surrounding
steam.
Α = heat transmission co efficient
The total surface in contact with the steam at the start of the cycle has then the
highest value, since the fruits are still hard and the bunches in the sterilizer cage
are touching each other on only a few points and the total of these surfaces are
rather small.
25.4.04 At the start of the cycle these surfaces are still dry and has been shown that
droplet condensation will occur.
The heat transmission co efficient (1) then has a very high value of : 70.000
kcal/m2.hr.oCelsius.
At the start of the cycle t has the highest value too, since:
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
temperature of steam at atmospheric pressure = 100 o C

the temperature of the fruit surface say = 30 o C
—————————
The temperature difference therefore = 70 o C
25.4.05 Towards the end of the cycle the situation is quite different, since in the first
place there is no droplet condensation any more, but a film condensation
instead, with a heat transmission co efficient (2) of about : 6000 kcal/m2.hr.oC.
25.4.06 Secondly the surface in touch with the steam has been reduced as well since the
fruits have become softer and the initial firmness has disappeared and the mass of
bunches show a distinct shrinkage.
The surfaces of contact between the bunches is increased and consequently the
fruit surface in contact with the steam has decreased.
It is rather difficult to establish the exact reduction in the free condensing

surface, but an acceptable estimate would be that the reduced surface is 90% of
the original surface. (F2=0.9F1)
25.4.07 Thirdly, the temperature difference (∆t) has been reduced to a great extend.
The aid of thermo couples the temperature difference between the surrounding
steam and the layer of pericarp nearest to the nut has been measured and the
tests have shown that the assumption of a temperature difference at the end of
the cycle of 4o C is acceptable. (t2 ) (The longer the cycle, the smaller this
difference will be )
With the aid of the above, the condensing capacity at the start of the cycle can
be calculated to be:
70.000 kcal/m2 . hr . o C x F1 m2 x 70 o C = 4.900.000 kcal x F1 / hr.
25.4.08 Towards the end of the cycle this can be calculated to be:
6000 kcal/m2 . hr . o C x 0.9 F1 x 4 o C = 21.600 kcal x F1 / hr.
In other words, the condensing capacity is about 200 times bigger at the start of
the cycle then towards the end of the cycle.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Figure1 shows the calculated steam consumption of a sterilizer, with no

restriction in steam supply.
This figure shows that the peak consumption is about 7 times the average
consumption.
Thus for example, for a sterilizer with a capacity of 15 tons f.f.b. and an actual
steaming time of 60 minutes the average steam consumption is 2700 kg/hr/hr,
or 2.7 tons / hr.
Without any restriction the peak demand could then be 7 x 2.7 = 18.9 tons /
hour.
If the actual steaming time is reduced to 45 minutes, then the average steam
consumption increases to 3.6 ton / hr and the peak demand to 25.2 ton / hour.
25.4.10 "Throttling" devices such as orifice plates have been used to curb this peak steam
demand. (figure 2, and 3)
It is obvious that the pressure build up will then be slower and consequently a
longer steaming time will be required, i.e. a moderate steam flow will not allow a
short steaming time.
However, an appropriately sized orifice only throttles down the peak steam
demand and does not hamper the steam flow at all after the condensing capacity
has dropped down under the preset level of maximum steam flow.
(figure 4, and 5)
(As a matter of fact the orifice plate will allow a bigger steam consumption than
the fruit is able to condense) (figure 5, page 25-17)
25.4.11 The steam flow ( in kg/hr) through an orifice plate fitted in a 200 mm internal
diameter steam pipe line for saturated steam with a pressure before the orifice of
3 kg/cm2 on the gauge is as shown in table 1.
Steam flow (in kg/hour) through an orifice plate in:
Pipeline of 200 millimetre internal diameter for saturated steam pressure before
orifice of 4 kg absolute, = 3 kg/cm2 gauge.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Sterilizer pressure in Diameter of orifice in millimetres

kg/cm2
100 mm 90 mm 80 mm 65 mm
0 10190 8190 6430 4220

0.5 10190 8190 6430 4220
1 10190 8190 6430 4220
1.5 10150 8160 6400 4200
2 9400 7550 5920 3880
2.5 7390 5930 4640 3040
3 0 0 0 0
The calculation for the correct size of the orifice is quite complex using
Bernoulli's theorem and the general equation for the mass flow of a fluid
through and orifice.
Calculation using simplified equations are not very accurate and the results
obtained using such equations show quite large differences.
Having plenty of steam available towards the end of the cycle is also of no help
in shortening the required cycle time because the capacity of the fruit to
condense the steam is by then greatly reduced.
25.4.12 In calculations of total steam demand for sterilizing an allowance must be made
for the period of overlap between sterilizers.
There can also be a substantial steam demand when mill production is reduced.
For instance a 30 ton f.f.b./hr mill with 3 presses could have two x 9 cage
sterilizers.
When this mill runs on two presses at 20 ton f.f.b./hr the overlap in the sterilizer
operation will still be needed and the steam demand will be almost the same as it
is for the three press operation.
The fuel available from the two press operation will only be 2/3 or 66 % of that
available at full through put and the operation will come to a halt when steam
pressure and production cannot be sustained due to this shortage of fuel.
25.4.13 For multiple peak sterilization average consumption can be as much as 250
kg/ton f.f.b. and at the peak rate the steam consumption will be the maximum
that the steam system can support when the pressure is being build up at the start
of the cycle.
Section #3
Figure #1
STEAM CONSUMTION OF A STERILIZER
No Restriction Supply @ 3 kg/cm 2
Sterilizer Pressure Steam Usage Ton/Hr
0.00 26.00
0.05 21.00
0.10 12.00
0.15 9.00
0.20 8.00
0.25 7.00
0.30 6.50
0.35 6.00
0.40 5.60
0.45 5.20
0.50 4.80
0.55 4.60
0.60 4.40
0.65 4.20
0.70 4.00
0.75 3.80
0.80 3.65
0.85 3.50
0.90 3.30
0.95 3.20
1.00 3.05
1.05 2.90
1.10 2.80
1.15 2.60
1.20 2.50
1.25 2.40
1.30 2.25
1.35 2.10
1.40 2.00
1.45 1.90
1.50 1.85
1.55 1.80
1.60 1.70
1.65 1.60
1.70 1.55
1.75 1.50
1.80 1.42
1.85 1.35
1.90 1.32
1.95 1.20
2.00 1.10
2.05 1.00
2.10 0.95
2.15 0.90
2.20 0.85
2.25 0.80
2.30 0.75
2.35 0.65
2.40 0.60
2.45 0.55
2.50 0.50
2.55 0.45
2.60 0.40
2.65 0.35
2.70 0.30
2.75 0.25
2.80 0.20
2.85 0.15
2.90 0.10
2.95 0.05
3.00 0.00
Figure #1
STEAM CONSUMPTION OF A STERILIZER
2
No restriction in steam supply @ 3kg/cm
30
25
20
Steam Consumtion of
TON/HOUR
Sterilizer
15
10
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
2
STERILIZER PRESSURE in Kg/cm
Figure #2
With Trottled Steam Flow
Steam Usage With Trottled Steam Average Steam Usage
Sterilizer Pressure Steam Usage [Ton/Hr]
Flow [Ton/Hr] [Ton/Hr]
0.00 26.00 6.00 2.70
0.05 21.00 6.00 2.70
0.10 12.00 6.00 2.70
0.15 9.00 6.00 2.70
0.20 8.00 6.00 2.70
0.25 7.00 6.00 2.70
0.30 6.50 6.00 2.70
0.35 6.00 6.00 2.70
0.40 5.60 6.00 2.70
0.45 5.20 6.00 2.70
0.50 4.80 6.00 2.70
0.55 4.60 6.00 2.70
0.60 4.40 6.00 2.70
0.65 4.20 6.00 2.70
0.70 4.00 6.00 2.70
0.75 3.80 5.00 2.70
0.80 3.65 4.60 2.70
0.85 3.50 4.30 2.70
0.90 3.30 4.00 2.70
0.95 3.20 3.80 2.70
1.00 3.05 3.60 2.70
1.05 2.90 3.50 2.70
1.10 2.80 3.30 2.70
1.15 2.60 3.10 2.70
1.20 2.50 2.90 2.70
1.25 2.40 2.80 2.70
1.30 2.25 2.68 2.70
1.35 2.10 2.56 2.70
1.40 2.00 2.44 2.70
1.45 1.90 2.32 2.70
1.50 1.85 2.20 2.70
1.55 1.80 2.14 2.70
1.60 1.70 2.08 AVERAGE = 2.7 TON/HR
1.65 1.60 2.02
1.70 1.55 1.96
1.75 1.50 1.90
1.80 1.42 1.80
1.85 1.35 1.70
1.90 1.32 1.60
1.95 1.20 1.50
2.00 1.10 1.40
2.05 1.00 1.32
2.10 0.95 1.24
2.15 0.90 1.16
2.20 0.85 1.08
2.25 0.80 1.00
2.30 0.75 0.94
2.35 0.65 0.88
2.40 0.60 0.82
2.45 0.55 0.76
2.50 0.50 0.70
2.55 0.45 0.64
2.60 0.40 0.58
2.65 0.35 0.52
2.70 0.30 0.46
2.75 0.25 0.40
2.80 0.20 0.34
2.85 0.15 0.28
2.90 0.10 0.22
2.95 0.05 0.16
3.00 0.00 0.10
PEAK @ 5.8 TON/HR = 2.15 X AVERAGE
Figure #2
With throttled steam flow
30
25
20
TON/HOUR
Steam Consumtion
15
10
Peak @5.8 T/H = 2.15 x

AVERAGE
5
AVERAGE = 2.7 T/H

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
2
Figure #3
With Trottled Steam Flow too much
Steam Usage With Trottled Steam Flow Average Steam Usage
Sterilizer Pressure Steam Usage [Ton/Hr]
too much [Ton/Hr] [Ton/Hr]
0.00 26.00 3.80 2.70
0.05 21.00 3.80 2.70
0.10 12.00 3.80 2.70
0.15 9.00 3.80 2.70
0.20 8.00 3.80 2.70
0.25 7.00 3.80 2.70
0.30 6.50 3.80 2.70
0.35 6.00 3.80 2.70
0.40 5.60 3.80 2.70
0.45 5.20 3.80 2.70
0.50 4.80 3.80 2.70
0.55 4.60 3.80 2.70
0.60 4.40 3.80 2.70
0.65 4.20 3.80 2.70
0.70 4.00 3.80 2.70
0.75 3.80 3.80 2.70
0.80 3.65 3.80 2.70
0.85 3.50 3.80 2.70
0.90 3.30 3.80 2.70
0.95 3.20 3.80 2.70
1.00 3.05 3.80 2.70
1.05 2.90 3.80 2.70
1.10 2.80 3.80 2.70
1.15 2.60 3.80 2.70
1.20 2.50 3.80 2.70
1.25 2.40 3.80 2.70
1.30 2.25 3.80 2.70
1.35 2.10 3.80 2.70
1.40 2.00 3.80 2.70
1.45 1.90 3.80 2.70
1.50 1.85 3.70 2.70
1.55 1.80 3.48 2.70
1.60 1.70 3.26 AVERAGE = 2.7 TON/HR
1.65 1.60 3.04
1.70 1.55 2.82
1.75 1.50 2.60
1.80 1.42 2.46
1.85 1.35 2.32
1.90 1.32 2.18
1.95 1.20 2.04
2.00 1.10 1.90
2.05 1.00 1.86
2.10 0.95 1.82
2.15 0.90 1.78
2.20 0.85 1.74
2.25 0.80 1.70
2.30 0.75 1.62
2.35 0.65 1.54
2.40 0.60 1.46
2.45 0.55 1.38
2.50 0.50 1.30
2.55 0.45 1.24
2.60 0.40 1.18
2.65 0.35 1.12
2.70 0.30 1.06
2.75 0.25 1.00
2.80 0.20 0.96
2.85 0.15 0.92
2.90 0.10 0.88
2.95 0.05 0.84
3.00 0.00 0.80
PEAK 3.8 TON/HR = 1.4 X AVERAGE
Figure #3
With steam flow throttled too much
30
25
20
Steam Consumtion of
Sterilizer
TON/HOUR
15
10
Peak 3.8 T/H = 1.4 x

5
AVERAGE
AVERAGE = 2.7 TON/HR

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
2
Figure #4
STEAM FLOW IN KG/HR THROUGH AN ORIFICE IN PIPE LINE 200 mm I.D
Sterilizer Pressure ø 60 mm ø 80 mm ø 90 mm ø 100 mm
0.00 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.05 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.10 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.15 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.20 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.25 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.30 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.35 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.40 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.45 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.50 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.55 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.60 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.65 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.70 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.75 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.80 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.85 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.90 4200 6400 8100 10150
0.95 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.00 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.05 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.10 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.15 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.20 4200 6400 8100 10150
1.25 4200 6385 8092 10150
1.30 4180 6370 8083 10130
1.35 4160 6355 8075 10110
1.40 4140 6335 8063 10090
1.45 4120 6315 8059 10070
1.50 4100 6300 8050 10050
1.55 4084 6285 8030 10000
1.60 4068 6280 8010 9950
1.65 4052 6275 7990 9900
1.70 4036 6250 7970 9850
1.75 4020 6200 7950 9800
1.80 3996 6130 7870 9710
1.85 3972 6090 7790 9620
1.90 3948 6050 7710 9530
1.95 3924 5950 7630 9440
2.00 3900 5900 7550 9350
2.05 3820 5800 7420 9200
2.10 3740 5700 7290 9050
2.15 3660 5600 7160 8900
2.20 3580 5500 7030 8750
2.25 3500 5400 6900 8600
2.30 3400 5300 6720 8380
2.35 3300 5100 6540 8160
2.40 3200 5000 6360 7940
2.45 3100 4800 6180 7720
2.50 3000 4600 6000 7500
2.55 2840 4500 5600 7040
2.60 2680 4300 5200 6580
2.65 2520 4000 4800 6120
2.70 2360 3700 4400 5660
2.75 2200 3400 4000 5200
2.80 2000 3000 3500 4600
2.85 1750 2500 3000 4000
2.90 1500 2000 2500 3000
2.95 1000 1200 1300 1400
3.00 0 0 0 0
Figure #4
STEAMFLOW IN KG/HR THROUGH AN ORIFICE
in PIPELINE 200 mm I.D
12000
ø 100 mm
10000
ø 90 mm
8000
STEAMFLOW in Kg/Hour
ø 80 mm
6000
ø 60 mm
4000
2000
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
2
Figure #5
COMPARATION STEAM REQUIREMENT (A) and POSSIBLE
THROUGHPUT OF ORIFICE (B)
Sterilizer Pressure A B
0.00 6500 6500
0.05 6500 6500
0.10 6500 6500
0.15 6500 6500
0.20 6500 6500
0.25 6500 6500
0.30 6500 6500
0.35 6500 6500
0.40 6500 6500
0.45 6500 6500
0.50 6500 6500
0.55 6500 6500
0.60 6500 6500
0.65 6500 6500
0.70 6500 6500
0.75 5700 6500
0.80 5200 6500
0.85 4600 6500
0.90 4200 6500
0.95 3900 6500
1.00 3700 6500
1.05 3500 6500
1.10 3300 6500
1.15 3100 6500
1.20 2900 6500
1.25 2800 6500
1.30 2700 6480
1.35 2500 6460
1.40 2400 6440
1.45 2300 6420
1.50 2200 6400
1.55 2100 6360
1.60 2000 6320
1.65 1900 6280
1.70 1800 6240
1.75 1700 6200
1.80 1600 6140
1.85 1550 6080
1.90 1500 6020
1.95 1400 5960
2.00 1300 5900
2.05 1250 5820
2.10 1200 5740
2.15 1100 5660
2.20 1050 5580
2.25 1000 5500
2.30 950 5360
2.35 900 5220
2.40 850 5080
2.45 800 4940
2.50 750 4800
2.55 700 4640
2.60 650 4480
2.65 600 4320
2.70 550 4160
2.75 500 4000
2.80 450 3750
2.85 400 3250
2.90 350 2500
2.95 300 2000
3.00 300 0
Figure #5
Comparison Steam Requirement (A) and
Possible Throughput of Orifice (B)
7000
B = possible througput of
6000 oriface
5000
4000
Kg/Hour
3000 A = comparison steam

requirement
2000
1000
0
0.05 0.30 0.55 0.80 1.05 1.30 1.55 1.8 2.05 2.3 2.55 2.8
STEAM PRESSURE in kg/cm 2
Palm Oil Process
25.5 Sterilizer operation
25.5.01 An oil mill cannot reach its rated throughput unless the required number of tons
of well sterilized fruit are delivered to the threshing station at regular intervals.
Failure to deliver fruit to the sterilizers as required, for what ever reason will
reduce the throughput of the presses, which in turn will reduce the fuel supply to
the boilers and in extreme cases results in steam shortage and inadequate, or
delayed, sterilizing which in turn leads to a further lowering of the throughput.
A strict control is therefore necessary.
25.5.02 During peak harvesting periods large quantities of loose fruits can be delivered to
mills.
If sterilizer cages are loaded with loose fruit entirely the heat penetration will be
very poor and under sterilized fruit will enter the process.
The enzymes responsible for the production of f.f.a. will probably be inactivated
later in the process, but the other undesirable effects from poor sterilization will
not be eliminated.
Loose fruit must be distributed over a sufficient number of sterilizer cages to
prevent this occurrence.
Note: One exception to the above is when loose fruit is sterilized on its own,
as sometimes practised when separating f.f.b. for the production and
subsequent segregating high and low f.f.a. oil.
When separately sterilized a shorter (about 45 minute) cycle of single
peak at full pressure is sufficient to adequately sterilize and prepare the
fruit for processing.
25.5.02 The correct sequence and timing of valve operations for correct sterilization has
proved to be far better maintained by a programmable automated valve control
system than by manual control.
However, an automated valve control system does not compensate for an

inadequate steam supply and does in fact produce worse results under poor
steam availability than a well operated manually controlled system.
The sequencing must be controlled to keep the total process synchronized to the
extend that the operation of the extraction equipment can be regarded as a
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
continuous operation with no flow interruptions as a result of the batch type

sterilization process.
Proper sequencing will also benefit the operation of the steam boilers, by having
a sufficient time lag between peak steam demands. This in turn will have a
beneficial effect on the steam driven power generating equipment since the main
steam pressure maintained is more even, with less "low" pressure periods.
25.6 Transportation of sterilized fruit.
25.6.01 After the sterilizing process the fruit is transported to the next step in processing,
i.e. to the stripping or threshing equipment.
Transportation of the cages is usually effected by means of a capstan and pull

ropes, pulling a whole train of cages out of the sterilizer, thus making space for
the next load of f.f.b. to be placed in the still hot sterilizer vessel.
This change over should be effected as quickly as possible in order to reduce the
heat loss from the open sterilizer and reduce the steam requirement for the next
cycle.
25.6.02 Emptying of the cage can be achieved in different ways. the most common one
being the overhead hoisting crane which lifts the cage to the thresher platform
and tips the fruit out of the cage on to a feed regulating device which is usually
situated on top of the thresher machine.
25.6.03 The use of a ground level "tippler" device (as for instance commonly used in the
sugar industry) has also found an application in the C.P.O. factory.
With this method the need for extra heavy building columns to take the load
and stress from an overhead crane or gantry is eliminated, the building height
can be reduced (thus reducing capital expenditure) and if correctly designed the
speed of the tipping device can be controlled to achieve the required even
feeding of the thresher machine, thus eliminating separate regulating feed
devices.
The (ground level) tipping device does need a conveyor system to transport the
sterilized fruit to the inlet of the thresher machine.
Both methods result in approximately the same oil loss before extraction.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Despite the obvious advantages of a ground level cage tipping device, the almost
universal adherence to the overhead crane system could be seen as a lack of
original thought on the subject and a lack of willingness from the palm oil
industry to examine other industries for possible improvements in design and
utilization of machinery.
25.7 Stripping or threshing of the sterilized fruit.
25.7.01 The second process step in the factory is the stripping or threshing of the
sterilized fruit bunches. The functions of the thresher can be separated into two
major ones:
a) to cause the fruit to detach from the bunches, and
b) to separate the then loose fruit from the now empty bunch stalks.
Both these actions cause oil losses and although these are unavoidable, correct
operation can keep these losses within the for the industry accepted limits.
25.7.02 The operation and the effectiveness of the thresher must be continuously
monitored during the operation to prevent the 'un-stripped bunch' (u.s.b.)
count from reaching too high levels.
One method to reduce the level of unstripped bunches or poorly stripped
bunches is to feed the bunches after the first threshing to a "bunch crusher".
This machine squeezes the poorly or partly stripped bunch through a set of
(usually star shaped) rollers, thereby dislodging any or most of the fruit still
attached to the bunch stalk after the first threshing. The bunch and squeezed out
fruit is then subjected to a second threshing, where virtually all fruit is removed.
(see also section 5.36, Process Control)
Regular representative sampling and analysis must be done to monitor the

effectiveness of both the threshing and the sterilizing, for it has been shown that
as much as 30 % of all oil losses can originate in these two first steps of
processing f.f.b..
It has been calculated that an 0.5 % increase in all oil lost on bunches represents a
financial loss of a five to six digit figure per annum for a 30 ton/hr C.P.O. mill!
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
25.7.03 The most commonly used thresher machine is the rotary drum type, which
depending on its physical size can have a capacity to about 45 ton F.F.B./hour.
The sterilized bunches are fed into the thresher drum, which rotates at a fixed
speed.
The drum is usually made up of small section channel bars or T shaped bars,
arranged at equal distances around the outer circumference of the drum.
The clearance between the bars is sufficient to allow the released fruit to drop
through these gaps, whilst the empty bunch stalks remain inside the drum and
are transported to the end of the drum opposite the inlet side by means of bars
fitted inside the drum at such an angle as to effect this movement of the
bunches.
25.7.04 Drum diameters vary from about 1.8 meter to 2 meter and the drum length
from 3 to 5 meter, the longer drums usually giving a better threshing effect.
The bunch is lifted to a height just before the vertical center line of the drum
where the weight of the bunch overcomes the centrifugal force exerted on this
bunch by the circular motion within the drum and the bunch drops to the
bottom of the drum.
25.7.05 In order to prevent the complete rotation of the bunch the centrifugal force (C)
has to be smaller then the weight (G). i.e. C < G.
m x v2
C = —————
r
where : m = mass
v = centrifugal speed
r = radius of drum
n = rotational speed of drum
d = diameter of drum
then:
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
G G x Pi2 x r2 x n2
m = —— → ———————— <G
g g x r x 900
r x n2 d x n2
and ———— < 1 and ———— it follows that
900 1800
√ 1800
n < ————
d
The empirical formulae for the thresher speed can be stated to be
√ 1800
n = 0.75 to 0.80 x ————
d
i.e. a drum with a diameter of 1.8 meter should have a rotational speed of
√1800
n = 0.75 @ 0.80 x ———— = ± 25 r.p.m.
1.8
The size of the bunches obviously are an important factor and the empirical
formula
40 √D - d
——————
2
n = —————————— , where
D - d
n = r.p.m ; D = inside diameter drum and d = smallest diameter of bunch at

widest part, takes this into account.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
It follows that one single speed cannot cater for the wide variety of bunch sizes
that are usually delivered to the mill, since the diameter "d" will vary with every
bunch delivered.
25.7.06 Variable speed of the drum would not solve this problem, since the sizes of
bunches to be stripped will vary from minute to minute.
A compromise has to be reached to obtain the most efficient threshing process
and the stripping effect will thus seldom or never be 100 %.
Once the size and the speed of the drum have been determined, the effectiveness
of the thresher can be judged by its stripping effect.
25.7.07 Poor stripping can be the result of several causes:
a) irregular feeding and/or overloading of the thresher

b) a build up of too many bunches in the drum
c) too short a retention time of the bunch in the drum
d) insufficient "pick up and drop down" action in the drum
a) Insufficient feeding, which often leads to shock loading and/or overloading

of the thresher will generally also result in shortening the actual retention
time of the bunch in the drum, causes poor stripping and higher oil losses
from fruitlets carried off with the empty bunch.
b) The build up of too many bunches in the drum will allow the impact of the
bunch dropping down to be cushioned and in general increases the retention
time of the bunch in the drum.
c) The residence time in the drum can be controlled by having suitably spaced
lifting bars, angled to the longitudinal axis, to "throw" the bunches in the
direction of the outlet from the drum.
d) Too fast a travel in that direction is also undesirable since the bunch would
then not be subjected to a sufficient number of drops and impacts to ensure
complete stripping.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
25.7.08 Oil losses in the threshing station as a result of the stripping process are:
a) losses due to absorption of oil by the empty bunch stalks
b) losses due to fruits not released from the bunch and carried off with the
"empty" bunch.
a) Oil losses in empty bunches:
Irregular feeding of the thresher machine causes temporary overloading and

overloading causes a build up of bunches inside the thresher drum.
The (prolonged) contact between "full" and "empty" bunches will be such as
to allow the oil released from the bruised and damaged fruit to be transferred
and absorbed by the empty bunches.
This oil loss can be quite significant, especially if the build up layer in the
drum is also caused by ,or causing itself too long a retention time of the
bunches in the drum.
Losses of up to ± 0.7% (to f.f.b.) can be accepted, but these can quickly
double or even triple if both loading and retention time are incorrect.
b) Losses through non released fruit or fruitlets otherwise carried off with the
empty bunches are the second cause for high losses.
A build up layer of bunches in the drum has the effect of cushioning the
impact of the bunches when dropped during the threshing action and the
threshing action will be incomplete.
As a result of this, fruitlets not yet fully detached and/or released from the
bunch stalk will be carried off with the 'empty' bunch.
The losses sustained from this can be quite high and in this case not only oil
is lost, but kernel as well.
The cushioning effect will also increase the apparent "un-strip-able bunch"
(u.s.b.)
The employment of the bunch crusher and the subsequent 'second

threshing' can substantially reduce these losses, a figure of 1% (to f.f.b.) or
lower is common.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
34.5.03 The feeding of the drum type thresher machine is often achieved by means of a
feed conveyor with a variable controllable speed or a feed chute to regulate and
control the quantity of fruit released to the thresher.
The quantity should match the throughput of the extraction equipment.
34.5.04 It is beneficial (and common) to provide slots, a grill or grate at the bottom end
of the chute leading into the thresher drum.
This will allow all or part of the already loose fruits to be removed before these
enter in to the thresher drum and this reduces the load of the drum.
An average of as much of 15 % of the loose fruitlets can be removed and
collected in this way.
25.8 Distribution of sterilized fruit.
25.8.01 The material stripped from the bunches, i.e. fruitlets, calyx leaves, occasional
spikelets and other bunch "trash" needs to be transported to the machinery
required for the next step in the process.
It is not uncommon that with the bunches some unwanted material, such as
sand, earth, stones, bits of timber or steel etc. are also delivered.
If these unwanted materials are not noted and removed during the ramp transfer,
they will enter the process in the thresher machine where the larger bits that can
not pass through the slots of the thresher drum will remain in the drum until
manually removed.
25.8.02 The smaller bits however will find their way through and can cause jamming and
damage to the transportation equipment of screw conveyors and bucket
elevators.
Large, flat plate type, permanent magnets can be placed at selected points in an
effort to attract and trap/hold any metal bits that may be included in the mash
passing to the digesters.
Stones etc. will usually pass through the whole system, including the presses and
separate out from the processed material in the depericarper, polishing drums etc.
25.8.03 The various conveyors used are usually the screw type conveyor, suitably sized
and geared for the required respective duty and the quantity of material to be
handled.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The action of conveying sterilized fruit in this way compresses the fruit and thus
oil is expelled and losses are to be expected. However, since the conveyor
"scrapes" the fruit along, the expelled oil is mostly picked up by the mass
transported and actual oil loss can be negligible, provided conveyors are well
maintained.
25.8.04 To lift the fruit to a height suitable for feeding into the digesters the most
commonly used method is the bucket type elevator.
Care must be taken to not overload this elevator in order to minimize the
spillage of loose fruits from the open buckets.
25.8.05 Even in a well balanced and well controlled operation there will be some spilled
fruit and fruit not collected from the "boot" of the elevator, where the buckets
collect their load.
Oil losses can be considerable here and all the not collected material must be
regularly, manually cleared, especially from the elevator boot and returned to
the process.
25.8.06 It has been found that the simplest and most convenient way to guarantee
almost continuously full digesters during the process, can be achieved with the
aid of a suitably sized "maximum level" chute into the digester and a return
conveyor system, i.e. once the digester is full the excess fruit still in the conveyor
is returned to the start of the process, after the thresher, before the elevator.
25.8.07 The system can be balanced by regulating the feed to the thresher in such a way
that a continuous "trickle" of fruit is returned, thus ensuring that the digester(s)
are kept full at all times during the process.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
General Data
Screw Conveyor
Capacity of a screw conveyor
C = A x B x V , where:
A = sectional area of the material passing through the trough (usually about 30 %
of the area of the trough)
B = bulk density of the fruit
V = velocity of the material moving (= rpm x pitch of screw)
Average bulk density:
Material Loose Wet nuts Dry nuts Cracked Dry Wet Wet
fruit mixture kernel kernel shell
Density kg/m3 590 585 560 500 595 640 790
Thresher considerations
Bunches are stripped after 6 to 7 drops from about 1.2 meter, drum diameter 1.8
meter, rpm = 23.
At each drop the bunch moves "forward" by about 0.5 meter
Thresher capacity
C = area x k x bulk density x velocity
pi x D2
Area = ————— m2
4
K = factor 0.05
bulk density = 0.32 metric ton per cubic meter.
Velocity = if the bunch drops once every 0.75
revolution and rpm = 23, then
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
velocity = (23: 0.75) x 0.5 = 15.33 meter per minute
thus
C = (0.785x1.82m2) x 0.05 x 0.32 mt/m3 x (15.33 m/minute x 60 minutes)
= 37.4 metric tons per hour.
Fruits Elevator Consideration
The "normal" (chain) speed for a fruit elevator is between 15 and 20 meters per
minute (or about 0.33 meter per second).
(for minimum wear and longest life time, the slower the better).
For best performance bucket capacity should not be more than 80 % full during
normal operation.
Cb x B x V
Conveying capacity = ——————
P
Cb = bucket capacity, (in cubic meters)

B = bulk density of fruit
(normally 0.30 - 0.35 metric ton / cubic meter)
V = chain speed, ( in meter/second)
P = spacing of buckets, (in meters)
(buckets should be space at 2 or 3 times the projection of the bucket)
Centrifugal discharge:
The pick up of fruits is obtained by "dredging" the fruit from the bottom boot of the
conveyor, the discharge is obtained by "throwing" the fruit out of the bucket by
centrifugal force.
The elevator can be a single chain type, with buckets bolted to the chain links and
fitted with support rollers or slides at the left and right hand side, although for heavier
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
loads this is not recommended as buckets tend to skew left and right when scraping
(dredging) fruit out of the bottom boot.
The skewing puts additional stress on the chain links and the bucket fixing bolts.
The additional load induced by the dredging (=pick up) action
360 x W
can be calculated as ——————
S
where W = weight of material in each bucket

S = spacing of the buckets.
A full and clean discharge depends mainly on the angle of the elevator, the size of the
sprockets used and the speed.
The "ideal" speed for efficient discharge =
R
V = 60 x g x r x cos Q x ——— (meter/minute)
r
V = ideal speed
g = acceleration due to gravity
r = radius of the fruits center of gravity
R = radius of the sprocket pitch circle
Q = angle of discharge (from vertical)
In most cases this speed will be too high for a CPO mill fruit elevator, and the design
usually features the "positive discharge" rather than the "centrifugal discharge"
elevator.
Positive discharge:
The positive discharge design has a lower chain speed, pick up of fruits is more
efficient and the elevator is almost always a double chain type where the buckets are
supported between two strands of chain.
Buckets are spaced at intervals about double of the bucket projection.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The chains should be deflected backwards under the top sprockets (or head wheels)
by a pair of deflector sprockets or wheels in such a way that the contents of each
bucket will fall clear of the bucket ahead.
The angle of the elevator assists in the material falling clear of the returning chains
and buckets.
As chains will "stretch" unevenly, bottom sprockets should be allowed to idle
alternately in order to even out this difference in stretched chain length.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #26
MASH PASSING TO DIGESTER (M.P.D)
26.1 Introduction
Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) is extracted from the material that passes through the
extraction equipment.
This material is commonly known as Mash Passing to Digester, or M.P.D.
26.1.01 M.P.D. is the total fruit, calyx leaves, under developed fruit and spikelets, that
have been threshed out of the sterilized bunches, i.e. the total sterilized fruit
without the empty bunches.
26.1.02 M.P.D. analysis if correctly applied has two important functions in the process
control of a C.P.O. factory.
a) Provide a quantitative (partial) assessment of the quality and composition of

the fruit that is being processed.
b) The results may be used as a feed back for setting optimum process operating
conditions.
26.2 Method of Sampling and analysis.
26.2.01 Equipment required:
A top loading balance of a two to three kilogramme range, measuring to ±10

grammes accuracy.
26.2.02 Sampling:
Samples must be taken before the fruit is elevated to the digesters, i.e. at the
thresher conveyor (or weighing belt equipment etc.) to the elevator.
The weight of the sample should be as close to one kilogramme as possible and
must be taken every half hour during regular processing.
The sample must be analysed immediately after sampling, this is preferably done
"on the factory floor", i.e. close to the sampling point.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
26.3 Analysis.
26.3.01 Each sample should be analysed for percentage by weight of:
a) Whole fruit with nut, split into two components:
i) MESOCARP (squeezed out from each fruit)
→ Mesocarp ┐
├― Whole fruit
→ Nut ┘
ii) NUTS
b) NORMAL PARTHENOCARPS
(= underdeveloped fruits)
c) ABNORMAL PARTHENOCARPS
(= normal whole fruit without nut)
d) CALYX leaves and Spikelets

(= all "non fruit" material)
26.4 Recording of results.
26.4.01 The results must be recorded accurately and tabulated as under:
Date: .../.../..... F.F.B. Source:......
Total Whole Fruit with nut Abnormal Normal Calyx leave &
Time
Sample parthenocarp parthenocarp Spikelets
Mesocarp Nuts
wght wght % wght % wght % wght % wght %
30.
1080 360 33.0 324 119 11.0 120 11.1 157 14.6
0800 0
1000 320 32.0 320 32.0 72 7.2 175 17.5 113 11.3
0900
340 32.4 298 28.4 166 15.8 168 16.0 78 7.4

0930 1050
1000 etc etc Etc etc
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
26.4.02 This requires a full time sampler i.e. the sampling and testing must continue for
as long as the factory is processing fruit.
26.5 Interpretation of the results
26.5.01 The variation in extraction rates of both C.P.O. and P.K. (Palm Kernel) over a
given amount of time is directly related to the tabulated results, i.e.:
C.P.O. mainly from mesocarp - if the mesocarp % drops, then C.P.O. extraction
can be expected to drop accordingly.
P.K. mainly from nuts - if the nut % drops, then P.K. extraction can be expected
to decrease accordingly.
If Abnormal Parthenocarps % is too high, then pollination of the fruit is most

likely incomplete, reducing the oil bearing mesocarp.
If Normal Parthenocarps % is too high, then the fruit is probably harvested

before the correct (optimum) ripeness standard.
If Spikelets and other material % is too high, then fruit may have had a too long
retention time in the sterilizer (over cooked) or in the thresher (over threshed),
when the normally whole empty bunch/stalk is broken up and pieces pass to the
oil extraction equipment.
(This results in a lower extraction rate, since the material "soaks up" oil and
retains it)
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #27
DIGESTING OF Sterilised fruit
27.1 The digester
27.1.01 The next step in the process of extracting C.P.O. and P.K. from the M.P.D. is the
digesting of the sterilized fruit.
The digester was developed during the period that C.P.O. mills predominantly
used either "hand presses" or "hydraulic ram" type pressing equipment for the
extraction of the oil.
27.1.02 The M.P.D. to be processed by these machines had to be prepared for this
pressing by liberating and rupturing the oil cells in the fruit mass.
Oil bearing cells not ruptured during the digesting process will, even under the
rather high pressure in the press cage of an hydraulic press, remain "unopened"
and the oil in these cells will be lost.
27.1.03 The introduction of the, now almost universally used, screw type press changed
this somewhat.
Due to the turbulence in-and the kneading action exerted upon the press cake in
the press cage of a screw press, the M.P.D. has a better chance of being ruptured
and releasing the oil.
The action of a feed screw, as used with certain presses further enhances this
aspect.
27.2 The action:
27.2.01 The digesters most commonly used in C.P.O. MILLS are steam jacketed,
cylindrical vessels with a vertical central rotating shaft to which pairs of
stirring/cutting/shearing arms are attached.
The action of these rotating arms causes the fruit mass to be "digested" (=
mashed)
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
27.2.02 The size (volume) of the digester must relate to the through put capacity of the
press which follows it.
If the screw press through put is say 10 ton bunches per hour and the digester
volume is rated at 2.5 ton, the average digestion time would be: 2.5/10 x 60 =
15 minutes , and for a digester of 3.5 ton would be
21 minutes.
In practice, because the digester is not always operated absolutely full and
because press through put can for short periods be considerably higher than the
average through put, the digesting time will be shorter than the theoretical
calculated time.
It is therefore important that the digester is kept as full as practicably possible

during the process and that the press through put is kept as steady as possible and
within the normal rating of the press.
A steam jacket allows for the digested fruits to be brought up and kept at the
preferred operating temperature of about 90 to 95 degrees Celsius.
27.2.03 The preparation of the fruit mash for efficient pressing can be stated to be at
least:
a) maintaining the correct temperature

b) the cutting / shearing of fruitlets
c) the rupturing of oil bearing cells
d) the "even" feed into the press
a) The heating system should allow for the supply of sufficient steam in order
that the digested mash leaves the digester at about 90 to 95 o C.
These high temperatures have been shown to be vital for good press results,
lower oil losses on fibre and easier clarification (higher temperatures reduce
the viscosity and generally it can be said that the higher the temperature, the
lower the losses)
Further more it will aid the fibre / nut separation in the depericarper as free
moisture at higher temperature will flash off better from the fibre / nut
mixture in the cake breaker conveyor.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Care must be taken not to over heat the mash to boiling temperature since
this has a marked detrimental effect on the ability to separate the
components oil, water and non oily solids of the C.P.O. later on during the
clarification stage.
Continuous live steam injection into the digester has also been observed to
aid the formulation of an emulsion of the C.P.O. components and gives rise
to separation difficulties during clarification.
b) The cutting and shearing action is achieved by the friction between the fruit
mash and the stirring arms.
In order to obtain the maximum effect of this, the digester must be kept
properly filled since the height of the fruit mash in the digester is directly
related to the pressure within the mash as a result of its own weight.
The friction encountered by the stirring arms during the cutting or shearing
action will tend to rotate the whole of the fruit mash in the digester and this
must be avoided.
It is for this purpose that the vertical wall of the cylindrical digester body has
a number of vertically mounted (usually angle iron) strips fitted, which
hinder and prevent this unwanted rotation.
The retention time of the fruit in the digester obviously also has a
pronounced influence.
If the digester is not properly filled, the digesting time will be shortened and
the pressure in the fruit-mash reduced, both resulting in inadequate
digesting.
c) The rupturing of oil bearing cells.
Correct cutting and shearing action in the digester will cause the walls of the
oil bearing cells to be ruptured so that the oil these cells contain is released
spontaneously and can be extracted easily during the pressing process
following the digesting.
If the crude oil freed from the cells by the cutting / shearing action in the
digester is not removed (i.e. drained off), the oil will act as a lubricant and as
a result of this the stirring arms will loose more and more of their grip on the
fruit mash and the effectiveness will be greatly reduced.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
A direct result of not draining off the "free oil" out of the digester will be
that the stirring arms will agitate and mix the liquid for a considerable time.
This will aid the formation of emulsions consisting of:
i) free oil
ii) oil emulsified with water
iii) water emulsified with oil
iv) water
v) fibrous material
The emulsions of ii) and iii) above are usually of a very high viscosity and
considerably reduce the effectiveness of the extraction of oil in the press
The addition of a (large) quantity of (hot) water to reduce this viscosity will
help to restore this effectiveness to an extend, but the oil losses in sludge
may increase disproportional and the volume of liquid effluent increases
considerably.
Proper digester drainage of the "free oil" appears to give the best results
during the pressing stage.
(The addition of dilution water after this stage, to aid the settling out
proportions of the crude oil is another matter, see under chapter 29,
clarification of C.P.O.)
d) The even feed of the digested fruit mash into the press is important in view of
the pressing action and the maintaining of a low oil loss on fibrous material
( and nuts ) expelled by the press.
The more even the feed is maintained, the more even the conditions inside
the press cage will be maintained and the best average setting for the cone
pressure can be maintained.
(see under chapter 28, Pressing of digested fruit)
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #28
THE PRESSING OF Digested fruit.
28.1 The Press
28.1.01 Directly following the digesting is the actual extraction of the oil, achieved
usually by a pressing action.
Presses have evolved from hand operated ones to hand operated hydraulic ram
types, to automatic hydraulic ram types and to the presently almost universally
used twin screw type presses.
28.1.02 The change over from hydraulic ram type presses to screw type presses was partly
as a result of changes in the fruit composition as a result of "improved" planting
material with a higher yield of oil.
In general it can be stated that the "Dura" type f.f.b. suited the hydraulic ram type
extraction equipment, but created problems if processed by screw presses, whilst
the later developed "Tenera" type f.f.b. proved to be problematic with the
hydraulic ram type presses, but suited the screw type presses.
28.1.03 This is partially due to the composition of the press cake from the different types
of fruit.
To illustrate the difference between the average "Dura" and the average "Tenera"
type fruit, it is useful to compare the main parameters:
"DURA" "TENERA"
M.P.D. : F.F.B. 65 % 70 %
Bunch trash : F.F.B.

(Calyx leaves,spikelets, abortive fruitlets etc.) 7% 10 %
Fibre : Nuts 65 : 35 80 : 20
Clean sterilized fruit : F.F.B. 60 % 60 %
Nuts : F.F.B. 25 % 13 %
Oil in M.P.D. : F.F.B. 18 % 24 %
Oil extraction rate : F.F.B. 17.5 % 24 %
Kernel extraction rate : F.F.B. (clean, no dirt) 4.5 % 6%
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
It must be noted however, that even within the specific type of fruit, the
composition can vary greatly and the figures shown above are by no means
absolute, but are only to show the differences.
Between the two types and are not decisive for the types.
28.1.04 With the exception of the type of press which utilizes a feed screw, the shape and
confirmation of these screw presses varies as a result of manufacturer's
ideology, but their operating principles and action is virtually the same.
The objective of the machinery used in the pressing process is to extract the
maximum quantity of good quality palm products.
28.1.05 Palm produce is the sum of the products C.P.O. and P.K and in order to achieve
the objective as stated in 28.1.04 above, it will be necessary to strike a balance
between the two, since occasionally the required actions conflict with each other.
In general the aim of a palm oil mill is to maximize the profitability of its
operation, thus an optimum balance between the efficiency of the extraction of
good quality products and the cost of operation of the mill is required.
28.2 The pressing operation is only part of this overall process and its efficiency
depends to a large extend on the correctness of the processes prior to this
pressing stage.
28.2.01 The pressing has the following objectives:
General aim: Specific aim: Efficiency measured by:
High extraction High oil recovery % O.L.D.B.

efficiency % O.L. on nuts
High kernel recovery % kernel in fibre
C.P.O. suitable for efficient clarification Clarification station results

(see note 1 , below)
Press cake suitable for efficient depericarping % fibre in nuts for kernel
extraction
% nuts lost in (fuel) fibre
High quality products Minimum deterioration of oil extracted Laboratory tests

(see note)
Minimum breakage of kernels in pressing % broken kernel in analysis
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Note :
It will be obvious that the pressing cannot correct errors made in the previous
processes of sterilization threshing and digesting; whilst pressing only partly
controls these measures.
28.2.02 There are a number of known reasons / situations in and out side of the mill
which affect press performance and all of these can vary considerably, for
example:
VARIABLE AFFECTS
a) F.F.B.: harvesting efficiency Throughput, oil & kernel recovery %

harvesting interval ditto
handling ditto
contamination Throughput, quality of oil produced
sterilization Throughput, oil & kernel recovery and quality
b) Digesting: condition Throughput, oil recovery

filling Throughput, oil & kernel recovery %
temperature Throughput, oil & kernel recovery % and quality
c) Pressing: screw speeds Throughput, oil & kernel recovery %

cone pressure Oil & kernel recovery and quality
condition Oil & kernel recovery %
28.2.03 Virtually all variables have a direct effect on the through put and the extraction
efficiency, because:
a) F.F.B.:
Prolonged harvest interval usually result in the harvesting of "over ripe"
bunches from which too much fruits have already detached, or will detach on
cutting this fruit which will also have a higher f.f.a. %.
Harvesting efficiency includes the collection of the loose fruits, non or

partial collection results in different ratios of M.P.D. to F.F.B. and lower
extraction and/or recovery rates of both oil and kernel by the milling
process.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
F.F.B. handling, if incorrect, increases the bruising and damage to the fruit,
decreasing the recovery of oil from M.P.D. and increases the oil losses on
sterilizer condensate.
F.F.B. sterilization affects the press results the most, since:
Under sterilized M.P.D. reduces the through put considerably and increases
oil loss on fibre.
Over sterilized M.P.D. leads to higher oil losses due to the emulsifying effects
in the digester and the breaking up of the fibrous material.
Pressing will generally take place with increased cone pressures, which will
also lead to a higher kernel breakage.
F.F.B. contamination
Apart from the likely jamming or breakdown of the equipment, certain

compounds will also effect the quality of the oil produced.
b) The mechanical condition of the digester, i.e. badly worn stirring and/or
expelling arms leads to incomplete digesting and higher oil losses.
The level of filling of the digester has a direct influence on the efficiency of
the digesting process (see 27.2.03 b) usually resulting in higher oil losses,
kernel breakage and lower recovery rates.
The temperature affects the through put and the recovery rates (see 27.2.03
a)
c) The screw speed (for both the feed screw and the main screw) has a
considerable effect on the overall performance of a screw press.
Usually the correct speed, producing on average the lowest oil and kernel
losses, is found by trial and error and seldom changes during the process.
An exception to this is the feed screw, generally higher feed screw speeds
appear to increase through put, but also increase the oil losses and the kernel
breakage.
It is generally accepted that an increase in cone pressure does not greatly

affect the through put, but reduces oil losses, whilst at the same time it
increases kernel breakage and losses.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Again, the most suitable setting is usually determined by trial and error and
the cone control (often automated) adjusted in such a way that an
acceptable average is achieved.
The overall mechanical condition of the press, i.e. the wear on screws and
press cages does not appear to have a marked effect on the press performance
until a critical point is reached.
There after the recovery % of both oil and kernel reduces drastically and
losses increase beyond acceptable limits.
28.3 Pressing (extraction) efficiency
28.3.01 It is common practice in the palm oil industry to consider the oil loss on fibre ex
presses as the most important one.
It is however more appropriate and more accurate to take the overall oil losses
into account and judge the overall performance by calculating the extraction
efficiency of the overall palm produce , i.e. C.P.O. and P.K.
There exists a direct relation between the press cake composition, the oil loss in
fibre, the percentage nut breakage, (the shell thickness) and the torque of the
press, due to the setting of the cones at the exit side of the press.
Generally it can be observed that:
i) With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance with the

percentage nuts in the press cake
ii) With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance with the ratio
kernel to nut ( as a result of thinner shells)
iii) With improper feed, reducing the capacity of the press in relation to the
main screw speed, the press cake tends to "slip" and nut breakage increases
iv) With a constant fruit composition the oil loss on fibre will decrease with
an increase in torque, but at the same time nut breakage will increase.
28.3.02 Kernels from broken nut will not necessarily be lost, recovery can still be effected
in the depericarper section, provided the kernel is not totally crushed and
pulverized.
There are many factors involved in efficient extraction, starting with the actual
type and composition of the fruit and continuing with the handling. the
sterilization, threshing , digesting and pressing.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
It is essential that all the operations involved are correctly executed and
controlled.
On average a particular mill has usually a particular type of f.f.b. to process and
the most effective press settings are usually achieved by trial and error
techniques.
Economic considerations are also of influence, i.e. if a high through put is not of
a major importance it is usually preferred to operate on higher cone pressures,
resulting in lower oil losses on fibre, which will usually outweigh the increased
losses in kernel that may occur.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #29
CRUDE PALM OIL
29.1 The Collection of C.P.O.
29.1.01 The liquid extracted by the presses has a fairly high viscosity, which increases with
the oil and solid content of the liquid and with the decrease of the temperature
of the liquid.
Thus, collection of C.P.O. and distribution to the screening plant is best kept as
short as possible and can usually be achieved by chutes and funnels leading to a
"crude oil gutter", suitably sized to match the out put of the number of digesters
and presses that feed into this gutter and fixed on an angle to facilitate fast(er)
flow to the screening plant.
29.1.02 The screening plant may or may not have a sand trap tank or filter installation,
fitted before or after the actual screening, to remove the sand.
Sand has a very high influence on the wear and tear of the machinery.
Much depend on the local conditions and circumstances, i.e. whether sand is or is
not a common component of the crude oil often depend on field conditions
and f.f.b. handling.
29.1.03 The sand trap acts by "settling". thus the major consideration is to allow the
speed of the crude oil flow to reduce to near static conditions in order that sand
has sufficient time to settle out and sink through the viscous liquid to the
bottom of the trap or tank.
Thus, the trap or tank dimensions are important, as in too small a unit the sand
with its very low "sinking" speed in the liquid will not have time to settle out.
The sand "cyclone" uses a specially designed hydro cyclone through which the
C.P.O. is pumped.
The liquid enters tangentially, so causing the sand particles to be deposited
against the cylindrical outer wall of the cyclone by centrifugal force and to
follow a down ward spiral to escape through the cone outlet, together with a
small flow of liquid.
Most of the desanded liquid passes out through the top of the cyclone.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
29.1.04 The vibrating screens will generally not screen out sand, unless screen material
with extremely fine mesh is used.
The major purpose of the vibrating screens are:

i) to remove fibrous material and other coarse materials
ii) to reduce the viscosity of the liquid
The vibrating screens are usually fitted with at least two screens in series,
normally fitted above each other, i.e. the coarser one in the top position and the
finer one in the lower position.
29.1.05 Screen mesh sizes vary, often with individual preference, but on average 20 and
40 mesh screens are most commonly used.
Screens can be fitted to near horizontally fitted vibrating frames of rectangular

shape, creating and "up and down" motion coupled with a forward motion of
controlled amplitude.
Such screens were (and still are) commonly used although the introduction of
the "vibro energy separator" has replaced many of them.
29.1.06 The vibro energy separator has circular screens which vibrate around its center of
mass and creates vibration in the horizontal plane, in the vertical plane and in
tangential planes, causing the material to be screened to move across the screen
to the periphery.
The much improved accuracy of controlling these simultaneous vibrations in the

various planes improves the screening out of solids from the crude oil
considerably, with the minimum of carry over of oil with the solids screened out.
The vibro energy separator's action of reducing the viscosity of the liquid is quite
effective and oil recovery from the liquid has improved with the introduction of
these screens.
29.1.07 Although as yet not indisputably proven, it is generally accepted that the overall
losses from the vibro energy separators are lower than those from comparable
conventional screens and oxidation levels of the oil produced are lower.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The separated solids are usually returned to the M.P.D. entering the process, on
its way to the digester.
29.1.08 The screened liquid is collected in a holding tank (the "crude oil tank") and
pumped to the clarification station of the mill.
Tanks may be heated by closed steam coils to maintain the temperature of the
liquid.
To reduce the chances of homogenization of this crude oil it must be pumped

evenly and at steady, slow rates to the clarification station.
29.2 The Clarification of C.P.O.
29.2.01 C.P.O. is extracted from sterilized mesocarp and the major variations in the
C.P.O. are mainly due to the type of extraction process used.
Fresh mesocarp may be analysed as follows:

49 % Oil
35 % Water
16 % Non Oily Solids
whilst sterilised mesocarp may be:

54 % Oil
28 % Water
18 % Non Oily Solids
The aim of the clarification process is to separate as much as possible all foreign
particles from the oil in order to produce palm oil as pure as possible before
storage and sales, whilst keeping losses of oil on the removed foreign particles as
low as possible.
The (screened) liquid pumped to the clarification consists of three major

components:
a) a mixture of oil and water
This mixture can be seen as two parts, i.e.: i) "free" oil and ii) a homogenized
emulsion
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
i) "Free" oil is mainly oil that has separated out in the digester and the press
before the press cake was submitted to the high extraction pressures.
This oil has little or no affinity to water and will readily and quite fast "settle
out".
ii) The homogenized emulsion is mainly the liquid extracted under the high
extraction pressures in the press cake and this emulsion has different stages,
i.e.:
iii) a mainly oil and some water emulsion, and
iv) a mainly water and some oil emulsion.
V) The oil - water emulsion is a more or less stable emulsion from which oil will
reasonably easy separate under the correct conditions of viscosity and
temperature.
This separating process can be assisted by a "shearing" action created in the
(static) clarification tank.
vi) The water - oil emulsion can also be separated, provided that the therefore
necessary correct viscosity and temperature conditions are met.
292.02 The most common clarification processes used in C.P.O. mills are either direct
"static" tank primary oil recovery, or "dynamic" primary oil recovery with the aid
of mechanical decanting.
Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages and the final outcome
both in quantity and quality of the oil produced (and lost) is about equal.
The two flow diagrams below shows the principle difference in the two systems.
29.2.03 The composition of the C.P.O. to the clarification process varies widely,
depending F.F.B. quantity and quality, the type and effectiveness of the
sterilization, the threshing, digesting, pressing and screening.
It is practically impossible to design a system that would be near perfect whilst

accepting these widely fluctuating composition of the C.P.O. input.
The physical properties of C.P.O. (density, particle size, viscosity) are important
and influence the behavior of the C.P.O.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Typical specific gravity of palm oil itself at various temperatures would be:
0.857 at 100 º C
0.876 at 70 º C
0.890 at 50 º C
whilst the specific gravity of fibres, cell debris etc. is usually greater and can be as
high as 1.4.
The viscosity of C.P.O. itself is approximately :

8 centipoises at 100 º C
and depends mainly on the extend of the dilution.
29.2.04 The basic principle of static clarification is that a mixture of oil and water
(sludge) tends to separate into two layers with the liquid of the lowest specific
gravity at the top.
The force separating the two elements is the difference in specific gravity between
the two.
The emulsions behave according to Stokes Law and principally also to Newton's
Law for particle fluid mechanics.
Stokes Law states that the velocity of the rise of oil particles is a quantitative
function of:
a) the difference in density
b) gravity
c) square of particle diameter
d) viscosity
In general Stokes Law can be applied to attempts to calculate the oil recovery
efficiency in a static tank type system, i.e. from the Stokes Law formula it can be
calculated that particles of 20 micron diameter would settle a distance of one
meter in 5 hours if the oil temperature was 80 º C.
In practice, convection currents and "emulsion layers" tend to reduce the rate of
settling and a longer time than calculated is needed.
The speed of settling of the solid particles in C.P.O. depends considerably on the
type of extraction process, since this largely determines the amount of solids and
the quantity and proportion of cell debris.
Newton's Law is a general equation which can be applied under all ranges of
velocities, hence it is better suited to the centrifugal or decanter type process.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
29.2.05 From the relationship between the size of the oil droplet, the rate of rise in the
emulsion and the viscosity it is clear that it will be impossible to reduce oil losses
to zero.
This oil loss depends amongst other things upon the amount and the size of the
"free oil" droplets.
Too much digesting and "boiling" of the C.P.O. by overheating will emulsify the
liquid and decrease the option of efficient oil recovery.
29.2.06 The effect of viscosity on the emulsion is quite large and greatly influences the
rate of rise of the oil droplets.
Viscosity can be reduced by various means, such as: raising the temperature of
the liquid, diluting the liquid, or chemically treating the liquid.
The first two methods are common for C.P.O. mills, the latter (solvent
extraction) is less common.
29.2.07 The effect of temperature is quite self explanatory.
For optimum results, the temperature should be raised as high as possible, but
not above boiling point and should be maintained at this high level through out
the period of (gravitational) separation Hence clarification tanks must be
adequately insulated and must be covered at the top.
29.2.08 Diluting to reduce the viscosity is also generally practiced, by adding hot water
(to 95 ºC) to the process.
The quantity of this dilution is subject to discussion, but for sole static
clarification as much as 30 % of water to crude oil is advocated in order to
enhance the oil recovery.
29.2.09 The "pure" oil extracted from the clarification, (which ever system used) still has
too high a moisture and dirt content to maintain the quality.
The oil is treated by a centrifugal separator assembled as a purifier, which removes

both dirt and moisture from the oil.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The dirt can be removed sufficiently to an acceptable low percentage by this

action, but the moisture content of purified oil will still be above the required
percentage.
This excess of remaining moisture is generally removed in the process of "drying"

the oil under vacuum, and the resulting oil now has the accepted moisture and
dirt specifications for storage before usage.
29.2.10 The vacuum dryer is usually operated at an absolute pressure of about 50 Torr,
with the aid of a vacuum steam ejector or vacuum pump.
Drying can then be carried out at lower temperatures with little or no risk of
oxidation of the oil .
29.2.11 The sludge fraction of the clarification process is further treated to remove as
much oil and solids from the sludge as possible, before it is considered
effluent.
This process is usually done by specially designed "sludge centrifuges", with or

without a variety of aids such as screens, filters etc. to reduce the solid
content before entering the sludge separator.
The "oil" fraction recovered from the sludge centrifuges is returned to the
C.P.O., whilst the solids and the liquid fractions are considered effluent.
Solids can be directly disposed of (field application), whilst the liquid fraction still
has to be further treated before it can be disposed off.
(see section 4, Waste products)
29.3 The storage of C.P.O.
29.3.01 The storage of C.P.O. from a correct process, which produces oil of a sufficiently
low moisture and dirt content usually takes place in ordinary steel tanks, without
special treatment.
Storage of oil may last for several months without unacceptable deterioration in
the quality of oil, although the F.F.A. content will continue to increase.
29.3.02 Moisture and dirt can create micro biological reactions which will produce
enzymes and a relatively rapid rate of F.F.A. development.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
A similar effect can occur if C.P.O. is properly clarified, but subsequently stored
in dirty or infected tanks, containers etc.
"Wet" C.P.O., i.e. with too high a moisture content also undergoes a hydrolysis
process.
The resulting increase in F.F.A. is then not caused by enzymes, but due to a
spontaneous auto catalytic hydrolysis.
The normal moisture content of C.P.O. for storage is between 0.08 and 0.10 %.
Too dry oil in this respect is not useful, since palm oil is hygroscopic and thus will
absorb moisture from the atmosphere contact with the oil surface.
Reducing the surface area or the use of a "blanket" of inert gas may reduce
oxidation, but for practical reasons is seldom seen at C.P.O.mill storage tanks.
Care should be taken to avoid the "splashing" of palm oil entering the storage
tanks, since this will increase the oxidation levels.
29.4 Evaluation of C.P.O.
29.4.01 FOSFA recognizes several contracts, i.e.
Product Basis of Sale Contract Quality & Quantity determination

C.P.O. C.I.F. Fosfa 80 at destination
C.P.O. F.O.B. Fosfa 53 at shipment
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Oil (P.K.O.)]
Market patterns change, but majority of produce is sold on a C.I.F. basis.
Careful handling and storage prior to shipment and correct carriage procedures
to the port of destination should result in only modest deterioration in quality
of the product.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
29.4.02 Comparison of "outturn Quality" (example)
Good quality CPO % Poor Quality CPO%

F.F.A. 3.00 4.75
V.M. 0.20 0.45
Dirt etc. 0.02 0,05
Sale = 500 MT @ US$ 400.-/tonne C.I.F

Shipped 500 MT = US$ 200,000.-
a) Loss in weight (+/-0.75%)= 3.75 tonne = US$ 1,500.-

Delivered value oil = US$ 198,500.-
Good Quality Poor Quality

Delivered value 198,500 198,500
b) Less:V.M. and Dirt (0.22%) 436.70 (0.50%) 992.50
c) Add FFA premium basis 5% (2%) 3,970 (0.25%) 496.25

——————————————————
Value received for oil 202,033.30 198,003.75
Good Quality oil advantage = US$ 4029.55 or equivalent to US$ 8.06 per tonne.
Comments:
a) The CPO is weighed (or gauged) at destination and buyers do not pay for
the loss in weight (skin loss etc.), which is deducted.
b) Buyers do not pay for water and dirt in the oil, weights are deducted.
c) Each percent of FFA below the agreed basis of 5% shall be paid for by buyers
at the rate of 1 % of the contract price, with fractions in proportions.
Equally, if % is above agreed basis a deduction is made on the same basis.
The contract also states that " oil shall be of merchantable quality"
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
If oil is contaminated in transit, (from residual cargo left over in pipelines of

ships etc.) then buyers may well claim the oil is not of good merchantable
quality. A claim would be laid against the ship.
If CPO is heavily oxidized or with a very high FFA, rejection by customers

could take place, since the oil is outside the FOSFA conditions agreed
between the buyers and sellers.
Although not part of an economic evaluation, it should be stressed that

consumers attach great importance to the stability of the oil which can be
influenced by factors other than the FFA content itself .
These are mainly oxidation and bleachability characteristics.
A direct relationship between the degree of oxidation and the bleachability

of palm oil has been shown, thus all factors which induce or promote
oxidation are harmful to bleachability and thus the resultant quality.
FFA content does not directly influence the "heat bleach" ability, as it does
not interfere with the destruction of the carotenes.
FFA content alone is therefore insufficient as a single guide to the quality of
palm oil.
Heavy metals are most damaging, since they catalyze oxidation.

Copper and Iron both have a particularly bad influence, with copper being
the worst.
Great care is to be taken that no contamination can arise through contact of
oil with copper or copper alloy fixtures.
(Ships must carry a certificate containing information on the last three

cargoes carried and a statement that tanks, heating coils, pipelines and
fittings contain no copper or copper alloy.)
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
C.P.O. RECOVERY/CLARIFICATION PRINCIPLES
During the visits over the last two years a number of actions and record keeping
exercises were initiated in order to have sufficient (and sufficiently trustworthy)
data to analyze the general process of C.P.O. recovery in the mill.
The data have shown up a number of areas where control has to be intensified in
order to achieve a more consistent process state, reduce losses and increase recovery
rates.
Most of these matters have been discussed on site and the keeping and analyzing of
the records involved should now have become a "routine" matter.
There is however still a great need to "use" the results of the analysis and actively
transfer the gained knowledge etc. to the factory in order to improve the process.
I.e., we know what is wrong, we know why it is wrong, but we do not seem to have
effective corrective action taken.
During my most recent visit I tried to find out how much the assistants actually
know and understand of a number of basic principles involved in the process.
The impression was not too good.
To assist with improving the knowledge and understanding please study the
following pages, add or translate where you think necessary and discuss this with
the assistants until they "can dream about this", i.e. until there are no questions left
unanswered with regards to why and for what reason the process must be done in a
certain way.
Most of what follows was discussed with the assistants, but with a time constraint
and I am not at all sure that the subject matter penetrated sufficiently and that they
fully understand all that they need to know.
They MUST KNOW AND UNDERSTAND IT. If not, we can not expect them to
supervise and control labourers.
Apart from maintaining the machinery and equipment in a good operational state
it is equally important to train, re-train and supervise the operators.
It pays to watch operators and study ways and means to apply their work to the
best advantage. If labourers are left to their own devices, there may often be a
considerable amount of wasted time and unless they are trained and well
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
supervised, undesirable methods may be (will be!) practised merely because they
have got into the habit of doing it the wrong way, and do not realise that it is just
as easy, and often time saving, to do it the right way.
Observations in the various stations in the mill have shown up a umber of areas
where operators and labour have done exactly that, i.e. found "short cuts" to what
they think is a "better way", thereby destroying the principles on which the process
is based.
I order to ensure that those who are in a supervisory position understand the
principles involved, the attached pages were written.
If you have any trouble understanding the subject matter, ask!
CLARIFICATION PRINCIPLES
The Continuous Clarification Tank (C.C.T.) is designed to work effectively under

certain conditions and with a certain input of raw material.
these conditions are not met - and maintained during process - the C.S.T. can not
perform as it should and the final results will be very poor indeed in terms of oil
recovery (and often also of oil quality)
Remember that the tank itself has no input, thus if poor material is put in under
poor conditions, ... poor material will come out!
I.e. the famous statement made for computers applies here also: GARBAGE I =
GARBAGE OUT!!
The basic input into the C.S.T is:

1) Crude oil and
2) heat.
1) Crude oil:
The crude oil composition, i.e. the % oil, water and solids is almost the same or very
similar, when taken direct from the presses. (press liquid)
After the presses we add to this composition by means of diluting it with HOT
WATER, up to 30 % of the volume of the press liquid and then we call it "crude
oil".
2) Heat:
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
During the transfer of the fruit from the sterilizers to the presses the fruit mass
cools down, which can be quite considerably, depending on how long it takes to be
transferred.
The only heat added to the process after the sterilizers is in the digester, either by
means of a heated jacket around the digester body or , as in the case of TP, by
means of live steam injection into the mass in the digester.
The additional heat is necessary to bring the fruit mass to the correct temperature
to release the oil in the mass.
The temperature of the mass passing from the digester to the press must be kept at
a minimum of 90 degrees Celsius, maximum 95 degrees Celsius.
In other words it must be almost at boiling temperature but NEVER actually as hot
as 100 degrees because this will discolour the oil to be extracted and will cause
problems later on in the bleaching and refining stage.
THIS TEMPERATURE OF 95 DEGREES MUST BE KEPT THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS
Therefore the DILUTION WATER TEMPERATURE , i.e. the hot water added to the
press liquid must also be at 95 degrees or just about boiling temperature!
That means that the HOT WATER TANK should always be about boiling
temperature as during the transfer from this tank to the crude oil gutter the
temperature will only decrease.
If the distance from the hot water tank to the crude oil gutters is too far, insulating
the pipes may be necessary.
The main problem is usually not keeping the tank temperature at a steady ±100
degrees.
The hot water at 95 degrees will heat up the press liquid again and the crude oil
formed should thus be about 95 degrees as well before it enters the sand trap tank.
At that temperature the viscosity of the crude oil is such that it will allow the
maximum settling out of heavy solids (i.e. sand) and the maximum separation of
"free" oil from the crude oil.
The retention time in the sand trap tank is only short, but if any action is expected
from this tank at all the viscosity must be correct, in other words the temperature
of the liquid must be at least 95 degrees.
The sand trap tank has a circular steam heating pipe fitted with nozzles.
This direct steam heating should ONLY be used to heat the contents of the tank
BEFORE actual process. If it is used during process it will only cause a swirling
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
action and thereby mixing the solids etc. that are trying to sink down and settle
out, back into the liquid. (have a look at the drawing of the tank!)
In other words: During process this steam supply must be shut!
(it never is because of trying to heat the oil in this tank, operator error!!)
The sand trap tank should act as a TRAP, i.e. solids should sink to the bottom - to
be drained out at regular intervals, the timing of which needs to be established by
trial and error - and the crude oil skimmed of the top to go to the vibrating
screens.
The screens remove the lighter particles (fibre etc.) and also some of the coarser
solids etc.
On the screens the crude oil cools down very rapidly (large surface area exposed to
the ambient temperature).
For that reason the crude oil tank is fitted with an open heating coil so that the
crude oil can be reheated to the required 95 degrees before pumping it to the C.S.T.
in the clarification.
The C.O. tank is about 5000 litre, the production at say 3 presses running is about
15000 litre, retention time about 20 minutes, thus an OPEN coil, because the
retention time in this tank is too short to transfer sufficient heat via a closed coil
and at this stage the addition of steam (=condensate) does not alter the settling out
properties of the pure oil and in any case it has still to be pumped to the
clarification.
(Although this is the reason why positive displacement pumps like "mohno" pumps
are better suited to this duty, they don't mix the liquid as much)
The heating steam to the crude oil tank MUST therefore always be open during
process and a regular control of the temperature meters (that is why these are
fitted.) must be part of the supervisor's routine (and for that matter anybody else's
that have anything to do with the process)
The contents of the crude oil tank must always be at maximum temperature , 95
degrees, before pumping it to the clarification.
During its travel from the crude oil tank to the C.S.T. the temperature of the crude
oil will decrease again and once again it must be reheated to its operating
temperature before the optimum effect of the settling out action in the C.S.T. can
be realized.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
CONTINUOUS SETTLING TANK
The input into the C.S.T. is thus very important the steadier this input is in other
words : the more consistent the composition, the temperature and the 'flow' is, the
better the final result.
The composition must be kept as steady as possible by

a) controlling the amount of dilution of the press liquid so that a 30 % dilution to
the volume of the press liquid is maintained - whether 2, 3 or however many
presses are in operation, and
b) by maintaining the temperature of the dilution water as close as possible to the
95 degrees mark, and
c) by ensuring that the temperature of the crude oil at all stages before the C.S.T. is
kept as close to the 90 degrees as possible.
The C.S.T. itself has two methods of heating the contents:

1) by means of live steam addition
2) by means of a closed steam heating coil
1) Live steam:
A circular ring made of a steam pipe with 10 mm diameter holes facing inwards is
fitted just above the conical section of the tank.
This ring is fitted for one reason only: To heat up the contents of the C.S.Tank
BEFORE processing starts.
Live steam should NEVER be added during processing , it will destroy the separating
action of the oil - water - solids in the tank.
To maintain the temperature during the retention period of the crude oil in the
C.S.T
(which for a 90 ton tank is about 6 hours) a CLOSED STEAM HEATING COIL is
fitted, again just above the conical bottom section of the tank.
The temperature MUST BE MAINTAINED at MINIMAL 85 degrees Celsius.

Laboratory tests and experimental tests have unquestioningly shown this to be the
most "active" temperature, i.e. at which the best viscosity range for the separation
of the free and trapped oil and the settling out of the solids in the shortest period of
time.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The tank is called Continuous Settling tank for a good reason ! i.e. the continuous
settling of the contents with as little disturbance and 'shock loading' as possible.
After an initial period of operation "layers" will be formed in the tank, from top to
bottom:
pure wet oil (% oil > % moisture) → first

oil - sludge mix (% oil ± = % V.M.) → layer
sludge - oil mix (% V.M. > % oil) → second or

water - oil – solids (crude oil composition) → middle
water - solids mix ( mostly sludge + solids ) → layer
solids - water mix (mostly solids + sludge) → bottom

solids (mostly solids) → layer
Thus basically three layers are formed, of which the middle one is the most active
one.
That is where the "stirrers" are fitted to help the separation by shearing the mixture
of crude oil entering the tank and helping oil globules to rise up and solids to sink
down .
The conical bottom of the tank has a purpose - it will collect the settled out solids
sinking down and guide them to the lowest point, where a 'drain' valve is fitted.
The bottom layer should not be disturbed any more, therefore both the steam coils
and the stirrers are fitted above this level.
(The steam coils would very quickly "cake up" with the solids baking on to them
and the stirrers would stir and swirl the solids back in to the layer above!!)
Thus the lowest stirrer blade is fitted about 35 cm above the start of the conical
section.
Pending the size of the C.S.T. the highest blade / paddle is about half way the
straight section of the tank.
Usually there are 4 rotating paddles (@ 3 - 5 rpm) and 3 stationary plates. The slow
rotating paddles shear the liquid and if the temperature, or more correctly the
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
viscosity is correct, oil and solids will have a much greater chance of escaping the
middle layer.
The bottom layer should therefore be never more than the conical section
The middle layer should be from the bottom of the straight section to above the
top paddle
The top layer should be from the top paddle to the oil skimmer.
The principle for continuity is that WHAT COMES IN (the crude oil) -- MUST
GET OUT (pure wet oil skimmed off, sludge underflow, solids) and provided that
this "in = out" is maintained, the layers will have their maximum effectiveness.
Maximum effectiveness is when:

a) the pure wet oil has the lowest V.M. %, and
b) the sludge underflow has the lowest oil content
The control for this maximum effectiveness is :

1) the maintaining of the correct temperature (= viscosity)
2) the maintaining of the levels in the C.S.T, especially the thickness of the
uppermost layer, the pure wet oil, i.e. the height/position of the skimmer
In principle : the thicker the top layer, the better the composition of the pure wet
oil, but too thick a top layer may cause the middle layer to extend too far down so
that the crude oil mixture which has not yet had time to separate and settle out
reaches the sludge underflow outlet and thus resulting in a too high oil content on
underflow.
Thus, a balance needs to be established. This is not the same for each tank and
MUST be determined by trial and error.
Once the best positions have been established they should seldom or never require
changing by more then a couple of centimetres up or down, if any!!
Samples have been taken,and records kept of the composition of pure wet oil and
sludge underflow.
The results show that a large variation can represent any degree of effectiveness.
The variation is largely due to

a) temperatures are not kept up, and
b) because operational errors in "playing around" with the skimming devices, and
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
c) because of uneven and (largely) uncontrolled inputs into the tank (from
crude oil pumps, returns etc.
Obviously, the longer the total retention time, the better the results.
The temperature = viscosity requires constant attention. Steam coil valves should
always be fully open, condensate traps must be regularly inspected and "blown
through" (at least daily) and sight glasses inspected for any signs of 'oil'.
LIVE STEAM IS NEVER TO BE OPENED DURING PROCESS!!!, it function is
entirely to heat tank contents which have cooled down during non production
periods.
The level control skimmers:

At the time when samples are taken of the pure wet oil and of the sludge
underflow, the actual thickness of the oil layer should be measured and recorded,
together with the position of the skimming device.
(this can simply be done by using a glass tube, stick it in the oil layer, close the top
with your thumb and slowly lift the tube out of the oil, the column of oil in the
tube represents the thickness)
When analyzing the recorded sample test results and comparing this to the oil
thickness measured it will soon become apparent at which thickness the lowest
V.M. % on pure wet oil was achieved and the lowest oil on underflow was achieved.
Once the skimmer setting correlating with the best results has been established it
must be kept in that position, LOCK IT, FIT AN ALARM, THREATEN PEOPLE
WITH INSTANT DISMISSAL or what ever, but KEEP THE LEVEL CONSTANT.
THE ONLY TIME the skimmers should be adjusted is at the end of a production
run, when as much as possible the free oil is to be 'pushed out' of the C.S.T.
That is done by the addition of hot water only, thus the composition of the tank
contents change drastically and thus the layers need to be adjusted equally
drastically.
NEVER AT ANY OTHER TIME SHOULD THIS BE NECESSARY.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS STAGES IN CLARIFICATION
PRESS LIQUID (UNDILUTED)

(+/- 45 % OF FFB INPUT)
OIL : 50 %
WATER : 45 %
NOS : 5%
CRUDE OIL TANK ( WITH 30 % DILUTION ADDED) =

INPUT INTO CONTINUOUS SETTLING TANK
OIL : 38 %
WATER : 58 %
NOS : 4%
OUTPUT COUNTINOUS SETTLING TANK

WET PURE OIL : (35 % OF CST INPUT)
UNDERFLOW : (65 % OF CST INPUT)
INPUT TO PURIFIERS INPUT TO DECANTERS

OIL 98.9 % OIL 10 %
WATER 1.0 % WATER 85 %
NOS 0.1 % NOS 5%
TO VACUUM DRYER; END PRODUCT

= "CPO" = OIL 99.8 % + V.M. O.2 %)
OUTPUT FROM 3 PHASE DECANTERS
OIL : 28 % (RETURN TO CST OR PURE WET OIL)

OIL : 32%
WATER : 64 %
NOS : 4%
SOLIDS : 9 % (DISPOSE DIRECT ; END PRODUCT)

OIL : 3%
WATER : 78 %
NOS : 19 %
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
HEAVY PHASE : 63 % (DISPOSE DIRECT, TO EFFLUENT OR RE-USE FOR

DILUTION OF PRESS LIQUID (SEE ABOVE)
OIL : 1%
WATER : 92 %
NOS : 7%
OUTPUT FROM 2 PHASE DECANTER:

(OPERATING ON PRESS LIQUID + =/< 10 % DILUTION)
OIL OUTPUT SOLIDS OUTPUT

57 % 43 %
OIL 96 % OIL 1.5%
WATER 2.4 % WATER 79 %
NOS 0.6 % NOS 19.5 %
(TO PURIFIERS OR 3 PHASE DECANTER) TO EFFLUENT POND; END

PRODUCT
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #30
PALM KERNEL
30.1 Nut/fibre mixture
After the extraction of C.P.O. from the digested and pressed M.P.D., the residue
is a mixture of fibre and nuts.
The composition of this mixture can vary considerably, being dependant on the
type of fruit and the type of process applied.
The different (genetic) types of fruit will have different ratios of fibre to nut, (for
example for Dura fruit the weight of fibre is about 20% of the weight of nuts,
while for D x P fruit the weights can be about equal) and the weight and size of
the individual nuts can vary considerably.
The type of process, mainly hydraulic presses or screw type presses, influences the
compactness of the fibre / nut mixture after pressing and to a degree, the oiliness
of the extracted fibre.
Thus, the machinery used for the separation of this mixture need to be designed
for the average composition of the F.F.B. to be processed.
30.2 The cake breaker conveyor
30.2.01 The first process after the pressing is the action of "breaking up" the cake
expelled from either the hydraulic or the screw presses.
The cake from the hydraulic presses is dense and well compacted, while the cake
from the screw presses is less compacted.
In both cases this mixture needs to be "broken up" and opened before separation
by the nut/fibre separator, commonly known as the "depericarper".
(This in fact is a wrong name for this machine, but is commonly used through
out the industry to describe the nut / fibre separator)
30.2.02 The commonly used method is to transport the cake from where it is expelled
from the presses to the separator by a trough type rotating conveyor fitted with
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
paddles, the angle of which can be adjusted so that there is a slow forward
movement and a limited "tossing" movement of the cake.
The forward movement can be adjusted to obtain the maximum retention time
in the conveyor without causing overflows or other obstructions.
30.2.03 The speed of the rotating shaft and paddles must be adjusted to ensure that the
cake is in fact "tossed" and not just "kneaded" and varies somewhat depending on
the diameter of the conveyor and may have to be found by experimenting with
different speeds.
(This however is a design function as the speed cannot normally be altered

during the process. Generally a 60-cm diameter conveyor will require a shaft
rotating speed of about 80 RPM)
A general indication of the sizes / speeds required to achieve the preferred paddle
"tip speed" of ± 2.4 m/sec would be:
Max.diameter paddles Conveyor diam. size RPM of the shaft
760 mm 800 mm 60
610 mm 660 mm 75
560 mm 610 mm 80
500 mm 560 mm 90
Diameter RPM
Peripheral speed = 3.14 x —————— x ——— metres/second,
100 60
where the diameter is in metres.
The movement of the fibre / nut mixture can thus be quite violent and
considerable and loosen the fibre from the nuts.
The free fibre will loose a certain amount of moisture, due mainly to the
exposure and the "flashing off" during this tossing action.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Cake breaker conveyors are traditionally fitted with steam jackets to increase the
temperature of the fibre and so help in this drying action, but if the conveyor is
sufficiently long enough and the retention time is adequate, a moisture
reduction from about 45% to 30% can be achieved without this steam jacket.
A prerequisite for this is that both the digester and the press temperatures are
kept at a minimum of 85 o C.
30.3 Nut / Fibre separation
30.3.01 Once the nut/fibre mixture has been adequately prepared by the cake breaker
conveyor, the separation of the nuts and the fibrous material can be achieved by
either mechanical or pneumatic air stream separation.
30.3.02 The mechanical nut/fibre separator has severe limitations with regard to capacity
and with the expansion of the industry coupled to the increase in process
capacity, this equipment has largely been replaced by the now commonly used
air separation type of equipment.
30.3.03 The pneumatic nut/fibre separators can be divided into two basic types with
occasionally a hybrid combination of these two can also be found.
30.3.04 For smaller capacity factories (5-15 ton/hr), the rotating drum type separator has
been used.
This, in principle, is a slow rotating (10-15 RPM) long, narrow drum, fitted with
lifting arms and baffle or retaining rings.
The air is evacuated through a fan and blown to a cyclone.
The fibrous material is carried with this air and recovered from the cyclone,
usually situated conveniently near the boiler fuel supply storage area.
The rotating drum type separator for larger capacity processing plants tends to be
very large in size and thus has a very large power consumption.
This fibre passes through the fan, thus causing wear and tear, so a suitable hard
wearing material should be chosen for this fan.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Since most of the separation does actually take place after the drum, the vertical
column type separator has proved to be a cheaper and less power and
maintenance requiring method.
30.3.05 The vertical column type nut/fibre separator with induced draught (commonly
known as the ("depericarper") is now almost universally used in palm oil mills.
The principle of this operation is that in a vertical column, with an induced

upward airflow of a certain velocity, the loose fibre will move upwards (being
"light" in weight and "large" in volume), whilst the nuts will drop down to the
bottom (being "heavy" in weight and "small" in volume).
Experiments at various air speeds have shown that, pending condition and
column size, an air velocity of between 8 and 15 metres/second allows for a good
separation of nuts and fibre.
The vertical column usually has one of its sides manufactured so that
adjustments can be made and this will allow adjustment to obtain the most
suitable air velocity through the vertical air column under given circumstances so
that fibre is evacuated to the cyclone, while nuts (and free kernel from the
presses) will drop to the bottom.
The entry of the nut/fibre mixture into the column should be at minimum one
metre from the top of this column (column is about four metres long or high)
to allow good separation.
30.3.06 The fibre is sucked out by an air-stream current induced by a fan and ducting to
a cyclone where it is recovered, usually via a rotating air lock.
Several parameters must be considered when designing/ calculating this induced

draught system, i.e.:
a) Air volume/weight per unit weight of the fibre to be transported
b) Velocity of transportation and separation of the fibre to be transported and
separated.
c) Volumetric air flow rate
d) Characteristics of the fan to be utilised for the air movement.
a= Fibre from oil palm fruit has an approximate bulk density of 270-275
kg/m3.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Experiments under a number of varying conditions have shown that an air to

fibre ratio of 3.5 - 4 kg air per kg fibre transported gives adequate and
satisfactory results.
b= Separation speed depends mainly on the lifting velocity of the various

components in the material to be separated (i.e. fibre, nuts, kernel. shell etc.)
Experiments have shown that on average conditions the following tabulated

data can safely be used for calculating the requirements of a nut/fibre
separation and transport system.
Material Velocity
Fibre dust and / or fines 2 m/sec
Normal fibre (V.M. < 40%, oil content < 8%) 4 m/sec
Wet fibre (V.M. > 40, < 50%, oil > 8, < 10%) 6 m/sec
Small shell (D x P type) 10 m/sec
Normal shell ( mixed type F.F.B.) 12 - 14 m/sec
Small kernel ( < 4 mm diameter) ±14 m/sec
Small nut ( < 8 mm diameter) ±16 m/sec
Large shell ( D type) ±16 m/sec
Normal kernel ( > 10 mm diameter) 18 m/sec
Normal nut ( > 14 mm diameter) 20 - 24 m/sec
Large kernel ( > 15 mm diameter) 20 m/sec
Large nut ( > 20 mm diameter) 20 - 28 m/sec
To keep the losses within an acceptable range, the separating speed should
thus be taken to be < 14 m/sec, so that kernel and nut will separate from the
material for further treatment, while the fibre and smaller shell particles etc.
will be transported away.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Transportation speed has been experimentally established (for oil palm fruit
fibre with a "normal" moisture content < 40% and oil content < 8 % ), to be
most efficient between 22 and 30 m/.sec.
Lower speeds will allow fibre to "drop out" from the main air stream,
especially so in long ducts and bends and this could cause blockages etc. by
building up and thus effectively reducing the cross sectional area of the
ducting etc.
c= Air flow rate volume can be calculated from the equation:
Volumetric air flow F = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2 in m3/second,
where V1 = velocity at cross section A1, V2 = velocity at cross section A2 etc.
Once the transport velocity, the air to fibre ratio and the ducting size etc.
(for calculation of the cross sectional areas) have been chosen / determined,
the volume in cubic metres per second or cubic metres per hour can be
calculated.
A similar calculation can be made for the vertical separating column.
d= Fan characteristics are usually known from the manufacturer's data, given in
curves and diagrams.
If the ducting, bends, columns etc are considered as a single "resistance", the
pressure necessary to force air with a given (calculated)volume through this
resistance can be calculated from the formula V = 4005 x H0.5.
Once the calculated pressure and volume at the fan are known, a curve can
be drawn to show the requirement of the system under all prevailing
conditions.
This curve can be crossed with the pressure/volume data from the
manufacturer and the point or points of intersection of the two curves will
be the required combination for the calculated operation.
The curves seldom or never match exactly, thus a most suitable compromise
has to be selected, taking into account that pressure losses through each part
of the system (i.e. the separating column, the ducting, the bends etc.) vary as
the square of the flow rate.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Note:
Since fibre quantities as produced by the pressing station vary throughout the
process period, calculations are best made "on the safe side", (i.e. slightly too
large).
If air volumes prove to be too large, the outlet air stream from the fan can
easily be restricted to create the most suitable operating conditions.
30.3.06 Together with the nuts there may still be some free fibre and some fibre which is
still adhering to the nuts as well as pieces of shell, kernel and other debris.
This is usually removed in a "polishing drum", to which the nuts are guided
directly after the vertical column.
30.3.08 The term "polishing" drum adequately describes the action of this equipment, i.e.
the still adhering fibre is "polished" of the nuts.
This action is as much due to the nuts rubbing against each other in the rotating
drum, as to the rubbing of nuts against the drum.
The rotating drum is provided with slots or holes to allow the smaller particles,
fibre etc. to pass out of the drum, whilst the whole nuts (and larger free kernel if
present) are given a forward motion through the drum by means of lifting bars,
arms or baffles so that this material passes through the whole length of the drum
and exits at the opposite end to the entry side.
30.3.09 Occasionally a "secondary depericarper" is used to subject the nuts plus the
polished off
fibre, debris etc. to a further pneumatic separation.
30.3.10 The polishing drum also effectively removes other unwanted debris from the
nuts, such as metal, bolts, nuts, stones, etc.
30.4 Nut treatment
30.4.01 During normal, continuous processing, the nuts after being separated will still be
hot or warm and the shells will be somewhat "elastic", whilst the kernel may still
be adhering to the shell as well.
The nuts may still have a moisture content of up to 20%.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
30.4.02 To extract the kernel from these nuts, the nuts need to be cracked and to do so
in a hot or warm condition would be more difficult due to this elasticity of the
shell and could lead to greatly than necessary kernel breakage.
30.4.03 There fore nuts are generally conditioned before the cracking process.
Nut conditioning in the traditional way is achieved by storing the nuts in rather
large square shaped silos, which may be equipped with heaters (for further
reducing the moisture content to about 10%) and fans for air circulation.
The square type silos tend to enhance a "tracking" effect of the nuts stored and
will leave areas in the nut silo where the nuts tend to "hang" and remain, thus
producing a "candling" effect through the silo.
This irregular flow of the material can result in the production of mouldy nuts,
which will affect the quality of the product later to be extracted from the kernels
(palm kernel oil).
A more suitable storage bin would be of a cylindrical shape, with the air ducts for
heating and drying centrally placed.
More recently the (re)introduction of the double or triple peak sterilization, and
the introduction of the "ripple mill" type nut cracker, has shown that nuts from
this process are almost adequately conditioned in the sterilizer and that all that is
required is to cool the nuts before the cracking process.
This cooling can be achieved by storing the nuts in a cylindrical bin as described
above, provided with (unheated) air circulation.
The bin also acts as a buffer bin, thereby taking out troughs and peaks in the
production of nuts and allowing for a more regulated flow of nuts for further
processing.
30.5 NUT CRACKING
30.5.01 With properly preconditioned nuts, the nut cracking is a simple operation, where
the shell is struck hard enough to crack and split this so that the kernel can be
released.
30.5.02 Despite this apparent simplicity, over the years a surprisingly large variety of nut
crackers have entered the market, almost invariably of the centrifugal type in
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
which the nuts are flung from a high speed rotor to a stationary "cracking ring".
Both horizontal and vertical shaft types have been used.
30.5.03 Due to the variability of the nut size a number of ways have been invented to
deal with this, ranging from tray type sorters, to rotating drum type sorters
and/or graders and self grading nut crackers.
All have been or are more or less successful and each of these have their own
peculiar short comings.
30.5.04 In most cases the outcome is a compromise between the efficiency of the
cracking, the amount of not cracked nuts expelled and the amount of kernels
cracked or broken during the nut cracking process.
Obviously, the larger the compromise, the more difficult it will be later in the
process to separate the whole, clean kernel from the rest of the material.
30.5.05 The recent introduction of the "ripple mill" type nut cracker has somewhat
reduced this necessary compromise and, given reasonable conditions, the
cracking results from this type of equipment far out classes the other traditional
machinery.
(Provided that the base material is derived from palms of the D x P type cross,
and thus have a relatively thin shell and a fairly uniform size nut)
Another noted advantage of the ripple mill type equipment is the relatively small
size and floor space it occupies and its low power consumption as compared with
the traditional crackers and its high through put.
30.5.06 Despite all good intentions a number of nuts will pass through the systems not
cracked and these should be recovered and submitted again for cracking etc.
Recovery of these nuts can be achieved by a variety of grading screens, sorting

devices etc.
All nut crackers are, by virtue of their action, high wear and tear equipment and
the regular and proper maintenance of these machines to maintain their
optimum operating condition has proved to be a major factor in maintaining a
good cracking efficiency.
30.5.07 Another major factor in obtaining good cracking efficiency is the regular feeding
of the cracker, to prevent "shock loads".
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
This can be achieved by placing a simple vibrating feeding device before the
cracker.
The feeding device can be fitted with a slotted tray, to screen out and remove
loose fibres, small particles of shell etc.
30.6 KERNEL / SHELL SEPARATION
30.6.01 The cracked mixture expelled from the nut crackers contains kernel, the broken
shell parts and fragments of kernel and shell.
From this mixture primarily the whole, clean kernel needs to be separated and
recovered.
30.6.02 In principle there are two methods in use to achieve this, i.e. the "dry" separation
method and the "wet" separation method.
30.6.03 Before either of the above two methods a variety of screening activities can take
place, all with the aim to separate the various components of the mixture as
effectively as possible.
30.6.04 The "dry separation" is by far the simplest and the most economical, but is not
always the most effective method.
The principle of this pneumatic separation is similar to that of the nut / fibre
separation, i.e. the difference in volume - weight ratio of the various
components in the mixture.
process is known as "winnowing" and can be done either as a single stage

operation, or in multiple stages.
30.6.05 Provided the losses can be kept within the required parameters, this method has
the great
advantage that the kernel recovered from this process has already a low moisture
content and kernel drying thus becomes a much less difficult matter.
Also the average quality of the palm kernel oil extracted from this kernel has
proved to be generally lower in F.F.A.
It is thus well worth while to pursue with dry separation, even if the direct end
result is only partially acceptable and the unacceptable portion of the resulting
product has (separately) to be submitted to a further (possibly "wet") separation
method.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
The volume of the material for this secondary "wet" separation will be greatly
reduced, thus reducing the capacity and the equipment requirements, whilst
improving the overall final quality of the recovered palm kernel.
30.6.06 The "wet" separation methods can in principle be divided into two methods, i.e.:
the clay (or brine) bath separation and the separation with the help of a hydro
cyclone unit.
30.7.07 The clay bath separator takes advantage of the difference in specific gravity of the
not dried kernel (about 1.07) and the specific gravity of shell (about 1.2).
Thus, in a bath with suspended clay to maintain a specific gravity between these
two (i.e. about 1.12) the kernel will float and the shell will sink.
30.6.08 The clay suspension is circulated continuously and the floating kernels are
skimmed of the top continuously.
The shell is usually removed by a screw conveyor at the bottom.
30.6.09 The clay bath separator can be quite effective, provided the correct density level is
maintained, i.e. a regular replacement of the clay removed with the kernel and
the shell is required.
The process is however difficult to control and can be quite expensive, due to the
cost of clay etc. and the now a days favoured option would be the separation
with the use of the hydro cyclone separator.
30.6.10 The hydro-cyclone separator action is comparable to that of an air cyclone, but
as the name implies, the medium is liquid, here water.
Water enters the unit tangentially and the resulting circular motion causes the
heavier particles to be deposited on the outer wall of the cylinder by centrifugal
force, with a spiral path down and out through the bottom part of the cyclone.
This movement of water requires fairly large pumps and the power consumption
of a hydro-cyclone unit is therefore quite high.
In a correctly adjusted hydro cyclone, most of the shell particles (high density)
pass downward, with a small flow of water, while most of the water together with
most of the kernels (lower density) move to the centre of the cylinder and
upwards to leave the cyclone via the overflow at the top of the cylinder.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
30.6.11 The pumps, cyclones, adjustable conical sections etc. are all subject to
considerable wear and tear and regular adjustments and replacements are
required to ensure a consistent effective operation and if losses are to be kept
within the required parameters.
30.6.12 The shell fraction, separated from the mixture by whatever means or system is
usually transported directly by the most suitable method to the boiler fuel
storage area, to supplement the fibre fuel component.
30.7 KERNEL RECOVERY
30.2.01 The kernel recovered after the separation requires further treatment, the extend
of this treatment depending mainly on the method of separation used. Kernel
recovered from dry separation methods have already a relatively low moisture
content ( about 12%) and the retention time in the traditional kernel drying silos
can be shortened considerably to achieve the required final moisture content for
storage (about 7%)
This type of kernel is also less susceptible to mould formation, which ensures a
better quality of the final product of palm kernel oil.
30.7.02 Kernel recovered from the wet separation method can have an internal moisture
content of over 20%.
This moisture is much more difficult to remove, since it must first diffuse to the
kernel surface before if can evaporate.
Wet kernel (i.e. all kernel with a moisture content > 7%) can support the growth
of a mould that leads to an increased rate of hydrolysis of the palm kernel oil
extracted from this kernel, i.e. an increase in F.F.A.
The enzyme causing this is produced by the mould growth and can withstand
quite high temperatures, thus the drying after the mould has developed will only
enhance the appearance of the kernel, but will not prevent the later quick
deterioration of the kernel oil since the enzyme will remain active in the palm
kernel oil.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
30.8 KERNEL DRYING
30.8.01 Kernel drying is most commonly achieved by the "continuous" type silo dryers.
Drying is achieved by blowing hot or warm air through the kernels at the
bottom, the middle and the top level sections of the silo at different
temperatures.
The coldest being at the bottom, the hottest being at the top section of the silo.
Too high an air temperature (>85o C) could cause discolouration of the kernel
(and thus the kernel oil extracted there from) and must be avoided.
Thus retention times can be quite long and rather large capacity drying silos will
be needed.
Here again the advantages of the dry separation method show up quite clearly,
since the lower initial moisture content will allow lower drying air temperatures
and shorter retention times to dry the kernel to the required moisture content.
The resulting end product will be of higher quality.
Despite the term "continuous" dryer, this type of drying in practice really works
out to be more of the "batch" type operation.
Continuous drying , where kernel is moved continuously on slow-moving
conveyor belt or tables has been tried as an alternate method and proved to be
quite successful, producing well dried good quality kernel.
The preferred method thus depends very much on a design philosophy and
economical considerations.
30.9 KERNEL CLEANING
30.9.01 Kernel cleaning, after the drying process consists mainly of the removal of dirt
and shell debris, loose fibre and fragments of broken kernel.
This can be done mechanically, by air separation or by hand.
Much depends on the quality of the process before the drying stage, but
invariably shells and shell particles which adhered to the kernel before the drying
process will have come loose during this process, partly due to the reduction in
moisture (size) of the kernel and partly due to the rubbing action and the overall
friction encountered in the silos.
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
In some cases a simple "seed cleaning" device as used commonly in the grain and
other seed industries can be adapted and successfully applied here.
The degree of "cleanliness" is expressed as the "percentage admixture" and is

generally largely defined by the end use or user of the palm kernel.
30.10. EVALUATION OF P.K.
30.10.1 Fosfa recognizes several contracts, i.e.
Product Basis of Sale Contact Quality % Quantity

determination
Palm kernel C.I.F. Fosfa 29 at destination
Palm kernel F.O.B. Fosfa 79 at destination or

shipment as agreed
between buyer/seller
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Expeller (P.K.E.)]

Market patterns change from time to time, but the majority is sold on a C.I.F. basis.
30.10.2 Comparison of "Outturn Quality"
Good Quality P.K [%] Poor Quality P.K [%]

Oil content 49.5 47.00
F.F.A 4.25 9.75
Shell and Dirt 6.00 10.00
Sale of 500 MT @ US$ 200,- /tonne
Shipped 500 tonne @ US$ 200,- = 100,000.- = 100,000.-

Outturn = 487 tonne
————————————————
Shortage 13 tonne = 2,600.- = 2,600.-
————————————————
Outturn value = 97,400.- = 97,400.-
Good Quality Poor Quality
a) Oil content
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
Contract basis 49.0% 49%

Out turn 49.5% 47%
————————————————
Premium / Penalty +0.5% -2%
+0.5 x 1.3% = +0.65% -2 x 1.3%= -2.6%
b) F.F.A content 4.75% 4.75%

Out turn 4.25% 9.75%
————————————————
Premium / Penalty +0.5% -5.0%
+0.5 x 0.75= +0.38% -5 x 0.75= -3.75%
Shell and Dirt:

Contract basis 2.75% 2.75%
Out turn 6.00% 10.00%
————————————————
Penalty -2.25 x 1%= -2.25 -2.25 x 1%= -2.25
-1.00 x 2%= -2.00 -2.00 x 2%= -4.00
-2.00 x 3%= -6.00 -1.00 x 4%= -4.00
————————————————
Total penalty -3.22% -22.60%
Out turn value 97,400.- 97,400.-

Penalty -3.22% = 3,136.28 -22.6% = 22,012.40
————————————————
Net Value 94,263.72 75,387.60
Difference between good and poor quality =

US$ 18876.12 or US$ 37.75 per tonne.
Poor quality kernel gives rise to large crushing losses, which is why the
specifications have been set to the following indicative levels:
Oil content over 49%

F.F.A under 4%
Dirt & Shell under 6%
Moisture under 7%
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
CALCULATIONS FOR NUT TRANSPORT/DESTONER SYSTEM:
1) Known Data
Nut throughput : 5.25 ton/hr
Lifting velocity nuts : 40 m/sec
Conveying velocity : 30 m/sec
Separation velocity : up to 8 m/sec
Air ratio per kg conveyed nut : 2.5 : 1
Density of air at 27 oC : 1.177 kg/m3
2) Unknown data (to be calculated)

Air flow rate
Static pressure requirement
Size of lifting column
Size of separating section
Size of transport pipe or duct
3) Calculation
a) Air required to convey 5250 kg nuts per hour
= 5250 x 2.5 kg/hr = 13125 kg/hr
Airflow rate
= 13125 kg/hr : 1.177 kg/m3 = 11151 m3/hr
Losses due to speed reduction @ 2 %, losses due to leakage etc.

@ 10 %, calculate to actual flow rate of
= 11151 x 1.12 = 12489 m3/hr.
b) Suction pressure required:

for pick up nuts from rest = ± 125 mm WG
pressure loss in ducting and column = ± 125 mm WG
pressure loss in cyclone = ± 75 mm WG
————————
Total = ± 325 mm WG
Section #3
Palm Oil Process
c) Cross section area for lifting column:

With lifting velocity of 35 m/sec and flow rate of 12489 m3/hr =
12489
—————— = 0.086729 m2
60 x 60 x 4
Column diameter = 0.3323 meter
d) Cross section area for the conveying pipe or duct:

With velocity of 30 m/sec and flow rate 12489 m3/hr, cross section area =
0.11564 m2, and diameter of transport pipe = 0.3837 meter
e) Cross section area for the separating column:

With velocity of 8 m/sec and flow rate 12489 m3/hr, the minimum cross
section area required would be: 0.43365m2
For a circular separating column the diameter calculates to 0.5521 meter.
To be "on the safe side" and to suit commercially available equipment, a

12" diameter pipe (= ±0.31 meter) for the lifting column can be used.
Conveying ducting can be rounded of to 0.38 meter diameter.

Fan capacity selected should be rounded up to the nearest commercially
available , usually 15000 m3 @ 500 mm WG.
ACTION FOR FPII:
1) FPII should check the measurements and data of their existing equipment and
compare with above theoretical calculations to ensure that at least the minimum
requirements are met.
2) The schematic diagram no 1 shows the principle lay out of the system.
FPII should compare with what they have and determine what additional
material, equipment etc. they may require.
3) The lay out as shown on sketch 2 is simple and direct, but it does require a
minimum difference in height between nut inlet and separating box outlet of at
least 8 meters.
That should be possible in FPII, and it will eliminate the need for the now used
single chain bucket elevator.
Section #3
SECTION #4
THE FACTORY
WASTE PRODUCT & POLLUTION
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #31
DISPOSAL OF "DRY" MATERIAL
31.1 Solid waste products and disposal.
31.1.01 The major source and nature of solid "wastes" from C.P.O. mills are:
a) Empty Fruit Bunches ± 22-25% of F.F.B. weight.

b) Fibrous matter ±13-15% of F.F.B. weight.
c) Shell material ±4-6% of F.F.B. weight.
d) Solids ex centrifuges ±0.5-1.0% of F.F.B. weight.
e) Solids ex Decanters ±1.5-2.5% of F.F.B. weight.
Processing F.F.B. to the stages of C.P.O. and P.K. continuously generates these
solid products, whilst the liquid effluent treatment generates "wet" (sludge)
solids.
These solids are removed from the anaerobic ponds and/or settling tanks with
periodic intervals depending on the load of the system.
(see 31.11 solids from effluent treatment)
The Empty Fruit Bunches (E.F.B.) can be dealt with in two different ways:
31.2. The incinerator
31.2.01 E.F.B. from the mills process is transported directly from the outlet of the
threshing machine to the inlet of the incinerator usually by means of open, slat
type conveyors.
Various types of incinerators have evolved over the years, but the underlying
principle remained the same, i.e. a slow, low temperature "burning" or
incineration of the (still wet) bunches on an inclined grate.
The combined effect of a thick layer of E.F.B. and only natural draught
conditions cause a slow and steady process of converting the E.F.B. into ashes.
Section #4
The Factory [Waste Product & Pollution ] # 130
Palm Oil Process
The combustion efficiency is seldom optimum under these circumstances and

the resulting stack plume from the incinerator chimney stack is characteristic.
(see also under 33. air pollution)
31.2.02 Bunch ash is rich in potassium and has an ameliorating effect on acid sulphate
soils and improves the soil pH.
31.2.03 Average nutrient values of bunch ash from incineration
E.F.B. produces about 4.5 % ash on wet bunch weight, or an equivalent of about
10 % ash on dry bunch weight, with an approximate value of:
30-40 % K2O
3-5 % P2O5
±7.5 % CaO
The basic nutrient requirements of an oil palm are Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

Potassium or Magnesium.
The ratio will depend on the soil type and the area, thus the rate of application
also varies, pending local conditions.
(A soil inclined to leach will require a heavier application then one of a more
colloidal structure)
Mature oil palms, planted at a density of 135 palms per hectare remove from the
soil annually approximately in K = ±40 kilograms, in N = ±15 kilograms, in P =
±6 kilograms and it would therefore be a powerful soil which could sustain such
depletion without some return of the elements used.
31.3 The direct field disposal
31.3.01 E.F.B. are also rich in plant nutrients, making mulching an alternative method of
disposal.
Mulching E.F.B. utilizes the full potential nutrient and soil enriching properties,
whilst there is no source for air pollution.
On analysis of E.F.B. it is usually found that the values are approximately:
N = ±14 %, P2O5 = ± 0.03 % and K2O = ± 0.45 %.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
A complete ground cover in the inter rows of planting can take as much as 200
tonnes of E.F.B. per hectare, returning to the soil an approximate nutrient value
of:
N = 250 kg/ha, P2O5 = 50 kg/ha and K2O = 800 kg/ha, which is quite a valuable
dressing.
Added to this are the physical benefits if humus to the soil and soil water
conservation.
(Whole) bunches are placed in between the palm trees and allowed to
decompose naturally.
In relative flat terrain, mulching in this way can be easily effected using standard
tractor trailer units or their normally used equivalent to transport the E.F.B.
The economic consideration, i.e. the cost of mulching per hectare versus the
fertilizer cost per hectare may be the decisive factor.
31.3.02 It is possible to convert from a mill with conventional incineration to a direct

field disposal system for E.F.B. with minimal direct cost to the mill, but the cost
of the possibly required extra transport units to transport the quite
considerable bulk of the E.F.B. (average = ±25 % of F.F.B weight).
31.4 The use of E.F.B as supplementary fuel
31.4.01 The very high moisture content of the E.F.B. necessitates pre drying, if these
bunches are effectively to be used as additional fuel in the boiler furnace, since
their calorific value when wet is low (±1050 kcal/kg)
The calorific value of dried E.F.B. varies considerably with the oil content of the
material and on average (with an oil content of 3 %) can be taken as between ±
2300 and 2350 kcal/kg.
31.4.02 Most factories do not use the E.F.B. as fuel, since the combined fibrous matter
and shell provide sufficient fuel to operate and create a surplus which can be
used for starting up periods etc.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
31.5 The fibrous material
31.5.01 All fibre produced by the process is normally used for boiler fuel.
Pending the steam/power/fuel balance, this is normally sufficient to ensure
adequate fuel supply, more so since it is mixed with the available shell.
Surplus fuel is normally stored near the boiler(s) for reserve purposes during
periods of low production, start up periods and, if sufficient reserves can be
accumulated, to maintain boiler operation during part of the non producing
periods to reduce the costs of power generation by means of diesel oil fuelled
diesel generating sets.
31.5.02 Fibre is "dry" when oil has been extracted and free moisture flashed off during its
transportation from the pressing station to the boiler feeding or storage area, but
still has a certain moisture content. (between 30 and 35 %)
It requires no further treatment and can be directly utilized as fuel in the boiler
furnace.
31.5.03 Fibre when burned as fuel produces approximately: 10% ash on dry matter and
this contains approximately: 20-30% K2O , 4-6% P2O5 and 10% CaO.
The ashes can be conveniently disposed of in various ways, usually as a road

topping for the non sealed roads in the mill/plantation areas and are thus not
considered as an environmental threat.
31.6 The fuel value of fibre
31.6.01 The moisture content of the fibre used for fuel and the oil content of the fibre
largely determine the calorific value available from this material.
The oil loss on dry fibre is on average about 8 %, whilst the moisture content can
vary between 30 and 40 %.
Thus the calorific value available from this material can vary considerably, but on
average remains between 2500 and 3600 kcal/kg which is sufficiently high to
be used in the boiler furnace, but on it’s own is insufficient to generate
sufficient heat to produce the required amounts of steam.
31.6.02 It is for this reason that this fuel must be mixed with the shell which is produced,
or mixed with other suitable fuel to enable sufficient heat to be generated.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
31.7 The shell material
31.7.01 After the cracking of the palm nuts and the separation of the shell and kernel,
the shell is transported to the boiler fuel feed or storage area and mixed with
the fibrous material.
The mixing can quite simply be achieved by feeding the shell to one or more of
the conveyors which transport the fibrous material.
31.7.02 The shell (after the drying process of the nuts, the cracking and the usually
pneumatic transportation) have moisture content varying between 12% and 18%
although this can vary considerably depending on whether wet or dry separation
of the shell and kernel is practised.
The oil content, for the purpose of fuel, is negligible.
31.8 The fuel value of shell
31.8.01 There has been a difference established between the calorific values of "old" shell
and "fresh" shell.
For the purpose of determining the fuel value this can be ignored.
Shell has on average a calorific value of between 3500 and 4000 kcal / kg and it
will be noted that this is quite a lot higher than that of the fibrous material.
31.8.02 Under the normally prevailing conditions in a boiler furnace, shell burns very hot
and its silica content produces a hard, solid slag/clinker which is difficult to
remove from the furnace grate bars etc.
It is for this reason that a mixture of fibre and shell is used and that the ratio of
this mixture is controlled by regulating the quantity of shell added to the fibre
and regularly analyzing samples taken from this mixture.
31.8.03 Shell produce approximately 2% ash and this contains approximately :
55-85% Silicic acid , 4-5% P2O5 and 2-3 % K2O.
The ashes, being mixed with the ashes from the fibrous material, are disposed of
as described above.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
31.9 The sludge centrifuge solids
31.9.01 Centrifuge sludge has a good plant nutrient value and can be disposed of
together with the E.F.B, if mulching is practised.
Sludge (evaporated sludge) has an ash content of about 10 % and contains

approximately:
20-30% K2O , 4-8% P2O5 and 10% CaO.
The advantage of disposal with the bunch mulch is that the sludge becomes
trapped by the bunches and is not readily washed off by the surface run off.
31.9.02 If mulching is not practised, these solids can be applied directly to the land.
31.10 Solids from Decanter systems
31.10.1 A typical C.P.O. factory generates a total effluent of ± 70 % from the

clarification processes.
The basic principle of a decanter system is to reduce or eliminate the effluent

discharge either partially or totally, in order to reduce the total effluent volume.
31.10.2 Some decanter systems do not require the reduction of the viscosity of the
crude oil by means of dilution and thus the resulting solids phase has a very low
moisture content.
Evaporation and flash off of this moisture produces a virtually "dry" cake which is
easily handled.
The dried cake, known as "palm oil meal" has been used both as a fertilizer and as
a component in animal feed.
This system usually utilizes the waste heat from the boiler flue gases to dry the
solids from both the decanter and the nozzle separators.
Such driers simultaneously serve as a "scrubber", thus reducing the particle

emission in the flue gases of the boilers.
31.10.3 The obvious benefits are the reduced effluent load to be treated, possible benefits
from the sale value of the dried cake and (if applicable) the reduced particle
emission of the flue gases.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
However, initial capital costs are quite high and the recurring maintenance costs
and skills required are also quite high.
Thus, the economics often dictate against the use of these systems.
31.11 The solids from liquid effluent treatment
31.11.1 These solids can also be directly applied as fertilizer to the oil palm plantings, but
since the wet volumes are large, the sludge is first de-watered usually on sand
beds, to reduce the volume and facilitate handling.
31.11.2 De-watering occurs by evaporation under natural sunlight and by percolation

and/or drainage of the (free) water into the sand beds.
The resulting solids "cake" can then be applied to the land, a typical application
would be:
for anaerobic sludge cake : 0.1 tonne per tonne of F.F.B.

for aerobic sludge cake : 0.05 tonne per tonne of F.F.B.
Again, economic considerations are often the deciding factor, although with the
increased emphasis on environmental and pollution control over the last decade,
the choice has become more limited.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #32
DISPOSAL OF "WET" MATERIAL
32.1 General parameters for Palm Oil Mill liquid Effluent. (P.O.M.E.)
PARAMETER 1989 1991 1993 1995
B.O.D. 1000 500 200 100
C.O.D. 2000 1000 400 200
TOTAL SOLIDS 2000 1500 1500 1500
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 600 400 400 400
OIL 75 50 50 50
N-NH3 20 10 5 2
pH 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9
These standards are acceptable for the industry and are approximately equal to
those set in major oil palm growing areas. (Malaysia / Indonesia).
32.2 Terms and conventions used for general effluent descriptions:
32.2.01 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.)
The calculation used to measure in milligram per litre, for percent mixtures:
B.O.D.(mg/l) = [ ( D.O.b - D.O.i ) 100 : % ] - ( D.O.b -D.O.i)
D.O.b , D.O.i = Dissolved Oxygen values found in blank (contains dilution water
only) and dilutions of sample, respectively , at end of incubation period.
D.O.s = Dissolved Oxygen originally present in undiluted sample.

With B.O.D. > 200 mg/l, D.O.s is nearly = D.O.b and the second part of the
formula becomes negligible.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
32.2.02 Biochemical oxidation is a slow process, theoretically infinite.
Within a 20-day period, oxidation is approximately 95 to 99 %, and in the 5 -

day period used for the B.O.D test is plus/minus 60 to 70 % complete. (the 5 day
period is commonly notated as B.O.D.5 )
Tests can be either (in laboratory) by a Warburg Respiro meter (for slow and
small samples ) or by an electrolytic respiro meter, usually with multiple
electrolysis cells.
The advantage is:

1) usage of a large (1 litre) sample, minimizes the errors of "grab sampling" and
pipetting in dilutions.
2) value of B.O.D is directly available.
32.2.03 B.O.D testing has severe limitations:
1) a high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is required

2) pretreatment is needed for toxic wastes and the efforts of nitrifying
organisms must be reduced.
3) only the bio degradable organisms are measured
4) test is not valid after the soluble organic matter present in the solution has
been used.
5) Arbitrary, long period required to obtain results.
32.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.)
32.3.01 Used to measure the content of organic matter of both waste water, (effluent)
and natural water.
The oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized is measured by
using a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic medium. (Potassium di-
chromate for example)
A catalyst (silver sulphate) is required.

Some organic components interfere, care must be taken to eliminate these.
C.O.D is also used to measure the organic matter in wastes that are toxic to
biological life.
32.3.02 The C.O.D of a waste is generally higher then the B.O.D. , because more
compounds can be chemically oxidized then can be biologically oxidized.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Usually it is possible to correlate C.O.D. with B.O.D., which is useful, since C.O.D.
can be determined in about 3 hours.
Once a correlation has been established, it can be used to advantage for
treatment control and operation.
32.4 Total Organic Carbon (T.O.C)
32.4.01 This is used for measuring organic matter present in water and is especially
applicable to small concentrations of organic matter.
The test is performed by injecting a small, known, quantity in a high temperature

furnace, where the organic matter is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the presence
of a catalyst.
The CO2 is measured quantitatively by means of an infra red analyser.

Test is very quick, but certain organic compounds resist being oxidized and the
measured T.O.C. value will be slightly less than the actual amount.
32.5 Total Oxygen Demand (T.O.D.)
32.5.01 Organic matter are converted to stable end products in a platinum - catalysed
combustion chamber.
T.O.D. is determined by monitoring the oxygen contend present in the carrier

gas (nitrogen)
Rapid testing and the results can be correlated with C.O.D. results.
32.6 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.D.)
32.6.01 If the chemical formula is known, then Th.O.D. may be computed from this
formula, expressed usually in gram O2/mol.
32.7 Correlation among the various measurements.
32.7.01 This depends primarily on the nature of the waste water, effluent and its source.
If a good correlation can be established, then because of the rapidity of the

C.O.D., T.O.C. and the T.O.D. tests, this can be very useful and eliminates or
reduces the time to get B.O.D results directly.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
32.7.02 Example ratios' for untreated wastes are:

B.O.D.5 / C.O.D. = 0.4 - 0.8 , B.O.D.5 / T.O.C = 1.0 - 1.6 etc.
Once established, these ratio's can be used to calculate the B.O.D content to a
close enough degree for control of plants etc. quite quickly.
32.8 Biological treatment: definitions
32.8.01 AEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur in the presence
of oxygen.
Certain bacteria that survive only in the presence of dissolved oxygen are known
as obligate (restricted to special conditions in life) aerobes.
32.8.02 ANAEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur in the
absence ofoxygen.
Bacteria that can only survive in the absence of any dissolved oxygen are known
as obligate anaerobes.
32.8.03 ANOXIC DENITRIFICATION is the process by which Nitrate nitrogen is

converted biologically into nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen.
The process is also known as Anaerobic denitrification.
32.8.04 FACULTATIVE PROCESSES are biological treatment processes in which the

organisms are indifferent to the presence of dissolved oxygen.
These organisms are known as facultative micro organisms.
32.8.05 MICRO AEROPHILS are a group of micro organisms that grow best in the
presence of low concentrations of oxygen.
32.8.06 CARBONACEOUS B.O.D. removal is the biological conversion of the

carbonaceous organic matter in effluent into cell tissue and various gaseous
end products.
In this conversion it is assumed that the nitrogen present in the various
compounds is converted to ammonia.
32.8.07 NITRIFICATION is the two stage biological process by which nitrate is

converted to nitrogen and other gaseous end products.
32.8.08 STABILIZATION is the biological process by which organic matter in sludge

produced from primary settling ponds and the biological treatment of effluent is
stabilized, usually by conversion to gases and cell tissue.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Depending on whether this stabilization is carried out under anaerobic or aerobic

conditions, this process is known as anaerobic or aerobic digestion.
32.8.09 SUBSTRATE is the term used to denote the organic matter or nutrients that are
converted during biological treatment or that may be limiting in biological
treatment.
( for example: carbonaceous organic matter in waste water is called the substrate
that is converted during biological treatment.)
32.8.10 SUSPENDED GROWTH processes are the biological treatment processes in

which the micro organisms responsible for the conversion of the organic matter
or other constituents in the effluent to gases and cell tissue are maintained in
suspension within the liquid.
32.8.11 ATTACHED GROWTH processes are the biological treatment processes in which
the micro organisms responsible for the conversion of the organic matter or
other constituents in the effluent are attached to some medium, such as rock,
slag or specially designed ceramic or plastic materials.
Attached growth processes are also known as: fixed film processes.
32.9 AEROBIC SUSPENDED GROWTH treatment
32.9.01 The processes are:

1) Activated sludge
2) Suspended growth nitrification process
3) Aerated lagoons (ponds) (as used in P.O.M's)
4) Aerobic digesters (also used in P.O.M's)
5) High rate oxidation ponds
32.9.02 AERATED LAGOONS:
evolved from facultative stabilization ponds when surface aeration was installed
to overcome the odours from organically overloaded ponds.
Description:
The aerated lagoon process is essentially the same as the conventional extended
aeration activated sludge process (with Hydr. Retention Time = +> 10 days),
except that an earthen basin is used for the "reactor" and the oxygen required by
the process is supplied by surface or diffuser aerators.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Note:
In an aerated lagoon all solids are maintained in suspension
32.9.03 AEROBIC DIGESTION
Alternate method of treating organic sludge, produced from various treatment

operations.
Description:
In conventional aerobic digestion, sludge is aerated for an extended period of
time in an open, unheated tank using conventional air diffusers or surface
aeration equipment.
Either continuous or batch mode, with separate tank for decanting and/or
concentration.
32.9.04 AEROBIC STABILIZATION PONDS
In their simplest form, large - shallow earthen basins, used for the treatment by
natural processes involving both algae and bacteria.
Description:
An aerobic stabilization pond contains bacteria (and/or algae) in suspension and
aerobic conditions prevail throughout its depth.
There are mainly two types:

1) Objective to maximize the production of algae (very shallow, limited to 6-18
inch depths)
2) Objective to maximize the amount of oxygen produced and pond depths up
to 5 feet (1.6 m) are used.
In both types, oxygen in addition to that produced by the algae, enters the liquid
through atmospheric diffusion.
For best results, contents must be mixed periodically, (pumps, surface aerators
etc.)
32.9.05 AEROBIC PONDS
Used for the treatment of high strength organic effluent, which also contain a
high concentration of solids.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Typically an aerobic pond is a deep earthen pond, with appropriate inlet and
outlet piping.
To conserve heat energy and to maintain anaerobic conditions, anaerobic ponds

have been constructed to depths of > 6 metres.
The wastes added to the pond settle to the bottom.
The partially clarified effluent is discharged to further treatment ponds.
Usually these ponds are anaerobic throughout their entire depth, except for an
extremely shallow surface zone.
Stabilization is brought about by a combination of precipitation and anaerobic

conversion of organic wastes to C.O.2, C.H.4, other gaseous end products,
organic acids and cell tissues.
B.O.D.5 conversion efficiency up to 70% are routinely obtainable.

Under optimum operating conditions removal efficiency up to 85% is possible.
32.9.06 FACULTATIVE PONDS
Ponds in which the stabilization of wastes is brought about by a combination of

aerobic, anaerobic and facultative bacteria, are known as facultative (aerobic -
anaerobic) stabilization ponds.
Description:
Basically three zones exist in facultative ponds:
1) A surface zone, where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in a symbiotic
relationship.
2) An intermediate zone that is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic, in which
the decomposition of organic wastes is carried out by facultative bacteria.
3) An anaerobic bottom zone in which accumulated solids are actively
decomposed by anaerobic bacteria.
In practice, oxygen is maintained in the upper layer by the presence of algae, or

by the use of surface aerators (in which case there are no algae required)
The advantage of surface aeration is that a higher organic load can be applied.
However, the organic load MUST NOT EXCEED the amount of oxygen that can
be supplied by the aerators without completely mixing the ponds contents, or
the benefits from anaerobic decomposition will be lost.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
32.9.07 TERTIARY MATURATION PONDS
Low rate stabilization ponds, designed to provide secondary effluent "polishing"

and seasonal nitrification.
The biological mechanisms involved are similar to the other aerobic suspended
growth processes.
Operationally the residual biological solids are endogenously respired and

ammonia is converted to nitrate using the oxygen supplied from surface aerators
(and where exist from algae)
Minimum 20 days H.R.T to provide for complete endogenous respiration of the
residual solids.
To maintain aerobic conditions, the applied loading must be kept quite low.
The efficiency of low rate ponds decreases with decreasing waste water
temperature (all biological Nitrification systems suffer from these phenomena)
To provide a reliable nitrified effluent that is low in B.O.D. 5 and suspended solids,
an efficient and reliable effluent solids removal process will be required.
32.9.08 SOLIDS SEPARATION
Probably the most important aspect of biological effluent treatment is the design
of the facilities to separate The biological solids from the treated waste water;
for it is axiomatic that if the solids cannot be separated and returned to the
aeration tank, the activated sludge process will not function properly.
32.10 The control methods and technology
32.10.1 The choice of an appropriate effluent system depends on various factors, such as
the characteristics of the effluent, (physical, chemical and biological), the local
environment, the degree of treatment before disposal stipulated by the
regulating authorities and the economic considerations.
32.10.2 Since C.P.O. factories are usually located in the more remote areas, high levels of
skill for the operation and maintenance are often not available or achievable and
the preferred choice of suitable treatment must take this into account.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
C.P.O. factory liquid effluent can be said to be composed off:

i) Clarification wastes (± 60 - 70 %)
ii) Sterilizer condensate (± 30 - 40%)
iii) Other liquid wastes (± 5%)
A correctly operated C.P.O. factory, under proper control, will typically produce
about 2 to 2.5 tonne of effluent for every ton of C.P.O. produced.
This figure varies according to the design, i.e. conventional continuous settling
versus decanter systems etc., but is seldom lower than that suggested above.
32.10.3 The effluent produced has typically a B.O.D. value of between 20,000 and
25,000 mg/litre, but is not (or very seldom) toxic.
The effluent of the clarification process of the C.P.O. is the most difficult to
treat, due to its viscosity caused by a high proportion of suspended solids.
32.11 Treatment types
32.11.1 A number of systems have been developed over the past decade, to treat this
effluent.
Most are biological processes, dictated by the bio degradable nature of the
effluent.
The processes are usually combinations of anaerobic and aerobic processes.
32.11.2 Before these processes, the proper screening, filtering and centrifuging to reduce
the suspended solids as much as possible must be maintained, so that the "final"
effluent to be treated
has the lowest possible quantity of suspended solids.
32.11.3 Appropriate methods include the following:

a) Anaerobic / facultative ponding
b) Anaerobic / extended aeration ponding
c) Anaerobic tank digestion / extended aeration ponding
d) Anaerobic treatment followed by land application
All methods must have the anaerobic stage, for the following reasons:
i) High destruction efficiency (including lipids and pathogenic bacteria)

ii) Lower sludge production
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
iii) Low power requirement

iv) Possible recovery / utilization of the methane gas produced.
32.11.4 Anaerobic processes can be either thermophilic or mesophyllic.
Thermophilic reactions are generally more efficient but are highly sensitive to
temperature variations (hence mainly used in "tank type digesters")
Owing to the above, the processes that take place in anaerobic ponds are usually
mesophyllic.
32.12 The anaerobic / facultative pond system
32.12.1 Essentially the components are:
: the de - oiling tank

: the acidification ponds
: the methogenic ponds
: the facultative ponds
: the sand beds
32.12.2 The raw effluent firstly enters the (usually concrete) de - oiling tank, which
should have a Hydraulic Retention Time (H.R.T.) of ±1.5 days.
Free oil is trapped and some solids settle out.

The effluent is homogenized, cooled to a degree and flows to the anaerobic
ponds.
32.13.1 The anaerobic ponds have two distinct phases:

: the acidification phase
: the methogenic phase
By keeping these processes separated, by using two separate ponds, the optimum
individual environment for both the acidification and the methogenic reactions
are ensured.
32.13.2 The acidification ponds are two ponds in series (with 2 days H.R.T. each), where
the bacteria convert organic components into volatile fatty acids, which lower
the pH of the liquor.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Two ponds in series are used in order to restrict the bonded oil released to the
first pond.
The raw effluent is mixed with liquor from the primary anaerobic ponds (of the
methogenic phase), this cools the effluent further, decreases the pH further and
facilitates "seeding" (ratio 1:1)
32.13.3 The methogenic phase takes place in two ponds in series, with a typical H.R.T. of
30 and 15 days respectively.
Here the volatile fatty acids are converted to methane, Co2 and other gases.
32.13.4 The partially treated liquor is then aerated in facultative ponds in series, with a
total H.R.T. of 16 days, before being allowed to flow to the final discharge.
32.13.5 The sludge solids will build up in the anaerobic ponds.

When this is de-watered on sand beds a cake can be recovered which can be
utilized as plant nutrient.
32.13.6 This type of system is generally good with a final B.O.D. level well below 200 mg
per litre and will handle "shock loads" from the factory.
Other systems have been developed, basically similar to the one described above,
but with different features (see sketch 2)i.e.:
: de-oiling as part of the first acidification pond
: longer retention times in the anaerobic ponds ( 70 days)
(the longer period tends to even out fluctuations in loading rates and
inefficiencies caused by poor maintenance of the system).
Here also B.O.D. levels can be well below 100 mg/litre.
32.14 The Anaerobic / Extended aeration ponding system
32.14.1 This system is similar to that described under 32.13 above, but here the
facultative ponds are replaced by extended aeration lagoons.
The reason for this is that the facultative ponds with their retention time of 12 to
16 days and shallow depth (less than 1.5 metre) occupy rather large areas.
An aerated lagoon, with its greater depth will cover substantially less area,
retention time however will increase to 20 days.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
32.14.2 The extra, mechanical, aerators will increase the capital costs, the recurring
maintenance costs and the power requirements.
Unlike the anaerobic/facultative ponding system, this system is sensitive to

shock loads and the oxygen transfer in the aerated lagoon.
The aerated liquor needs to be settled in an aerobic sedimentation tank or pond
with at least a one day retention prior to final discharge.
32.15 Anaerobic Tank Digestion/Extended aeration system
32.15.1 This system has tank digesters, coupled with aerated lagoons.
The closed type is suitable for tapping the bio gas produced which can be used as
an energy source.
Tank digesters are capital intensive, but do have a number of advantages; i.e.:
a) compact, thus requiring little land area
b) High loading rates and shorter retention time
c) Easier for corrective measures (and sampling)
d) Bio-gas production as energy source
e) good mixing of (tank)contents possible
32.15.2 Tank digestion may be mesophyllic or thermophilic, the latter generally produces
better digestion conditions.
The anaerobic liquor discharged from the digester does require further
treatment.( see sketch 3 & 4)
32.15.3 The raw effluent is acidified with anaerobic liquor from the tank digester,
(H.R.T.= 1 day ), ratio 1:1 (by volume)
The acidified effluent is then fed to a (mild) steel tank digester.
Typical reduction in B.O.D. levels are 90 to 95 %.
The tank contents are mixed or stirred with a "gas mixing" system.
Gas mixing requires about 12% of the power required by a mechanical stirring
device and costs about 25% less as there are no moving parts.
Compressed bio gas from the digester process is directed to an emitter in the
digester which allows escape of gas through a draught tube.
The motion of the gas bubbles sets up a circulating current in the effluent that
helps mixing.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
H.R.T. for these digesters is ±10 days.

(Open tank digesters are not stirred, typical retention time +/- 20 days)
32.15.4 In un stirred tank digesters the solids sink/settle to the bottom and are drawn
off.
Typical solids reduction is about 40%.
The anaerobic liquor is then decanted to an anaerobic settling tank that further
settles out solids (60 to 80% )
32.15.5 The supernatant is then fed to an extended lagoon ( typical H.R.T.= 20 days).
The anaerobic liquor is settled for one day in an anaerobic settling tank before
allowing final discharge.
Final B.O.D. of < 100 mg / litre are possible, however variations in effluent feed
rates, B.O.D. input levels and suspended solids from the tank digesters and the
settling efficiency of the anaerobic settling tank all affect the final B.O.D. level.
32.15.6 The settled solids are rich in nutrients and can be utilized as fertilizers.
The final discharge from these type of systems has been used to recycle to the
factory as process water.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Typical performance of the tank digester/aeration pond system:

(Parameters all except pH in mg/l)
RAW EFFLUENT FINAL DISCHARGE REDUCTION %
pH 4.8 8.1 N/A
B.O.D. 30800 120 99.6
C.O.D. 76090 1460 98.1
TOTAL SOLIDS 57030 6720 88.2
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 27920 1060 96.2
VOLATILE SOLIDS 43490 2160 95.0
OIL , GREASE 10450 30 99.7
NH3 - NITROGEN 50 3 94.0
TOTAL NITROGEN 1030 100 90.3
32.16 Land application of partially treated effluent.
32.16.1 Because of its rich nutrient content, the anaerobic liquor can be utilized as a
fertilizer resource in the oil palm plantations.
Raw effluent can also be used, but the high B.O.D. levels usually create an
unpleasant odour and a fly / insect nuisance.
The possibility of surface run off during heavy rain periods contaminating
existing fresh water streams can also not be discounted.
32.16.2 Partially treated anaerobic liquor, with B.O.D. level not more than 5000 mg/l is
suitable for land application and may also at the same allow the production and
utilization of bio gas.
32.16.3 Partial digestion does not appreciably change the nutrient contents of the
effluent, (which is related mainly to the nitrogen content) but complex organic
molecules are broken down and are thus easier to be assimilated by the plants.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
32.17 Methods of land application
32.17.1 Although the physical land application is generally outside of the area of
responsibility of the technical mill staff, a basic knowledge of the methods used
to apply partially or fully digested effluent to the "fields" enhances the overall
appreciation of the total effluent control system.
There are a number of different methods to distribute this (still liquid) effluent,
i.e.:
I ) Fixed spray lines, moveable spray lines with sprinkler system
In fixed spray line sprinkler systems the effluent is pumped through buried
pipe lines direct to the sprinklers.
Sprinklers are generally fixed every third row of palm trees and at about 27
metres intervals.
Capital costs are high and maintenance costs are high.
In moveable spray line sprinkler systems the basic principle is the same, but as
a result of using moveable lines, the capital costs are substantially lower.
Fast lock, clip lock type couplings facilitate the removal of the spray lines, at
which time clogging etc. can be detected and cleared.
II ) Flat beds
Flat, bunded beds constructed between rows of palms are connected by

channels which run from the top end to the bottom end of the slopes.
Effluent is pumped to the top and allowed to run down the channels and each
bunded bed is filled to a shallow depth, starting with the lowest. As each bed is
filled, the feed is closed and directed to another channel.
III) Furrows
Here the effluent is pumped to high points and allowed to drain down the
slopes in furrows of about 20 to 30 cm deep and about 30 cm wide.
The velocity of the flow should be slow enough to allow percolation into the
soil. Zig-Zag configuration on steeper slopes reduces the flow velocity and
prevents erosion.
The zigzag configuration will cause problems of uneven distribution, silting is
also common.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
IV) Percolating trenches or pits
Trenches and pits dug along the slopes are usually the silt pits dug to contain
the sediments transported by surface erosion.
The effluent is discharged into these pits and allowed to percolate into the
soil.
32.17.2 The rate of application is decided and affected by various factors, i.e.:
a) Characteristic of effluent, the concentration of solids (size of solids as well)

The presence of "large" solids will frequently block or clog sprinkler nozzles.
b) Type of vegetation between rows of palms
c) Soil characteristics, the acidity, the porosity, normal water table etc.
Over application may result in anaerobic conditions due to the formation of
an impervious layer of organic matter on the soil surface.
d) Age of palms, since palms of different age require different rates of
application, which are usually determined by experimentation.
32.18 Effects of the application of digested effluent
32.18.1 Although the effects vary from place to place and the optimum for a particular
plantation area is largely determined by experimentation, on average the yield of
oil palm increases with the use of digested effluent.
32.18.2 The nutrient value of the soil improves, especially the phosphorus, the potassium
and the magnesium values.
The resulting leaf growth has proved to have increased values of nitrogen,
phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, all assisting in a higher F.F.B. production
per palm.
The effect on underground water has been shown to be negligible and surface
drainage is not polluted, provided the application method and the application
rates are controlled.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
CPO MILL EFFLUENT
Palm Oil Mill Effluent, POME, has a high organic polluting load and if released
untreated into natural watercourses would result in a severe depletion of the
dissolved oxygen level in the stream or water course.
The organic pollution load is measured by the Biological Oxygen Demand, BOD of
the effluent.
By definition BOD is the amount of oxygen required for biological oxidation of
waste over a stated period of time. (which in the tropical regions is usually
interpreted as 3 days at 30 deg. Celsius)
The higher the BOD load, the greater will be the polluting effect on the receiving
water course.
Depending on the frequency of discharge and the type / size of the water course it
could lead to anaerobic conditions causing the death of the aerobic eco system and
the destruction if the water course in terms of social and amenity value.
Acceptable levels vary from country to country and should be checked with the
authorities, but is almost always expressed in terms of the BOD level.
(BOD levels for direct land application are usually much higher, up to 50 times as
high)
Treatment to an acceptable level of BOD before discharge is therefore required.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION:
The cellulosic nature, high BOD and high temperature of POME practically
precludes the effective use of aerobic methods of biological treatment.
Anaerobic treatment, because of its ability to utilize combined oxygen and not
dissolved oxygen is ideally suited to the treatment of high organic strength POME.
Also, because of the use of combined oxygen, the higher temperatures, as high as
60 deg.C are not harmful but are actually beneficial in stimulating the rapid growth
of the anaerobic micro-organisms.
This fact, coupled with the very high rate of decomposition of oils and greases and
cellulosic solids by a number of anaerobic activities, make it very attractive as a first
treatment for POME.
The biochemistry of Anaerobic digestion is a two stage process, with both stages
occurring simultaneously and in balance with each other.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
The first or acidogenic stage is dominated by a diverse group of facultative and

anaerobic bacteria which have the ability to hydrolyze the POME constituents to
soluble, less complex organic mixtures which are subsequently fermented to
volatile acids for the most part , whilst some carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas is
also produced.
Very little COD stabilization occurs at this stage as the only COD leaving the system
is the small amount of hydrogen gas that is formed and escapes.
The second or methanogenic stage of the anaerobic digestion is dominated by a

diverse group of strictly anaerobic bacteria which will oxidize hydrogen and reduce
carbon to form methane and water, and /or ferment volatile acids to form
methane and carbon dioxide.
4H2 + CO2 forms CH4 + 2 H2O

CH3OOH forms CH4 + CO2
COD stabilization which occurs as methane and is insoluble in water is formed and
leaves the system
Operating requirements:
Compared with the acidogenic bacteria the methanogenic ones are particularly
slow growing and sensitive to changes in their environment.
Therefore conditions have to be created that are favorable to methanogenic
bacteria.
pH, temperature and toxic materials have the greatest effect on the micro
organisms rate of growth and on its metabolic activities.
The optimum operating pH for the anaerobic biological process is around the
neutral mark, 7.
pH values below 6 and above 8 are not favorable and may even be toxic to the
methanogens.
The digestion process can be carried out at either the mesophilic range of 25 - 45
deg.C or the thermophilic range of 45 - 85 deg.C.
A number of substances, such as chlorinated hydro carbons, heavy metals,

synthetic detergents etc., have been reported to have an inhibitory effect on the
process.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
POME does not normally contain these substances, or if they are present they are
not present at inhibitory levels.
The major buffering in an anaerobic digestion is the CO2 - HCO3 system.

During the digestion process bicarbonate alkalinity is formed from ammonia which
reacts with H2O and CO2. The ammonia is produced through the de-amination of
the protein present in the POME and the bicarbonate alkalinity serves to prevent
rapid changes in the pH and in a properly operating system treating POME it
should be > 2,000 mg/l as CaCO3.
In a well balanced system the volatile acids (VA) produced during the first stage of
the digestion are utilized as a major substrate by the methane producers without
accumulation of the acids in the system. Under this normal digesting condition the
VA concentration is usually less then (or about) 400 mg/l expressed as acetic acid.
However when the digestion process becomes overloaded, the slower methanogens
cannot cope with the amount of VA produced. (popularly stated, the mixture turns
'sour')
Depending on the buffering capacity of the system and the extend of the
overloading the accumulation of the VA may deplete the buffering capacity of the
digestion process totally, leading to a depression of the Ph to such an extent as to
impair the activities of the more sensitive methanogens and the whole process turns
"sour'.
pH by itself is not a good control parameter as the pH does not decrease

significantly in an adequately buffered digestion system until the system is already
seriously affected. The best control parameter to use is the VA concentration and
this should be used along with the pH and the alkalinity.
These three parameters should be determined daily (preferably before feeding of
the system starts) Any sharp increase over the normal VA concentration of the
system is an indication of an impending failure and this should be immediately
followed by feed reduction or even total stoppage.
For POME the normal range is as follows:
pH = or > 7
Alkalinity = > 2,000 mg/l
VA = < 400 mg/l
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
In some cases one may have to add neutralizing agents such as NaHCO3 to arrest
the pH falling further to a level where the methanogens are inactivated.
Basic criteria for anaerobic digestion systems:
The most commonly used for POME is the Anaerobic lagoon type treatment,
although the conventional tank type digesters are also used.
Anaerobic contact, anaerobic filtering and anaerobic sludge blanket type are
sometimes used in the municipal waste water treatment systems.
Anaerobic lagoon:
This is basically a large holding unit, usually in an earthen basin.

Mixing of the lagoon contents is not provided and the retention time is long
(minimal 40 days) in order to allow degradation of the POME to take place, gas to
be produced and released and solids to settle down.
Lagoons are always made as deep as possible (min. 3 - 4 meter) in order to

minimize surface area and hence reduce the oxygen transfer from the atmosphere
to the anaerobic system.
Anaerobic lagoons are normally subject to low organic loading of 0.65 - 1.3 kg
VS/cubic meter lagoon capacity per day.
The advantages are generally the 'ease' of construction and the 'low' capital cost.
The disadvantages are the long retention time; thus requires a large area, the need
to de-sludge the lagoon to maintain its effective volume, the extensive need to
monitor over a large area, requiring manpower and time.
The system does not allow the capture and storage of any bio gas produced.
Retention time for anaerobic treatment of POME varies from 20 to 100 days,
depending on the degree of treatment wanted and the variability of the 'influent'
feed.
Recycling of the anaerobically digested overflow by mixing with the raw effluent
will improve the pH of the influent feed into the anaerobic pond and depletes the
oxygen content in the influent, which is desirable for anaerobic digestion.
The use of anaerobic digestion alone would not be able to meet the standards as
required or as stipulated, further treatment of the effluent from the anaerobic
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
ponds is necessary and this is usually done in facultative ponds, where sufficient
oxygenation to the water is introduced.
The effluent after sedimentation in these ponds is allowed to discharge into the
drains river, stream etc.
Ponds should be located there where there is minimum effect on the surrounding
environment and habitation.
The required size of the ponds can be calculated from a number of given factors
and flow rates, such as:
Effluent ex sterilization station = ± 0.15 m3/tonne FFB

Effluent ex clarification station = ± 0.45 m3/tonne FFB
Effluent ex hydrocyclone plant = ± 0.05 m3/tonne FFB
Spillages , wash water etc = ± 0.10 m3/tonne FFB
———————————
= 0.75 m3/tonne FFB
The above example is about correct for a conventional, static tank type clarification
system operated palm oil mill, with dynamic type clarification it can be reduced to
about 0,45 m3/tonne FFB.
For a 60 tph factory @ 0.75 tonne effluent/tonne FFB, the effluent to be handled
in a 20 hour work day :
= 20 x 60 x 0.75 = 900 tonnes/day.
The BOD in the raw effluent can be assumed to be around 25,000 to 30,000
mg/l. For calculation the worst should be prepared for, i.e.the maximum BOD load
per day:
= 900 x 30,000/1000 = 27,000 kg/day.
At a maximum loading of 0.4 kg BOD/m3, the effective pond volume required

would be 27,000 kg BOD/day divided by 0.4 kg BOD/m3 = approximately 67,500
cubic meter.
Allowing for a 20 % silting up factor, and realizing that ponds should not be filled
to their maximum level in order to prevent unexpected overflows etc., the actual
pond capacity should be around 67,500 x 1.3 = 87,750 cubic meter.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
The initial minimum retention time in these primary ponds will thus be 87,750
cubic meter divided by 900 cubic meters/day = about 97.5 days, which will steadily
reduce as the solids built up in the ponds and the effective volume reduces.
The effluent leaving the anaerobic ponds is expected to have a BOD of between
500 and 1000 mg/l.
For the anaerobic maturity pond(s) at 900 cubic meter/day and a maximum
loading of 0.1 kg BOD/m3 , the effective pond capacity required will be
(900 : 0.1) x 1.2 = 10,800 cubic meters,
or equivalent to about 12 days retention time.
The effluent leaving from this treatment should have a BOD between
200 and 500 mg/l.
Facultative ponds:
The total maximum BOD load/day will be approximately: (900 x 500) : 1000 =
450 kg/day.
At a maximum loading of 0.3 kg BOD/cubic meter, the effective pond capacity

required for a 12 day retention will be approximately 21,500 cubic meter.
These should be shallow ponds with an operating depth of about 1.25 meter only , a
total depth of about 1.75 meter should be sufficient.
The effluent leaving these ponds is expected to have a BOD of less than 100 mg/l.
Anaerobic "Conventional" system:
The tank type digester can be "low-rate" or "high-rate" designs.

In the low-rate type the digester contents are not mixed, thus there is stratification
in the digester.
The solids retention time (SRT) is only partially dependent on the hydraulic
loading, the process operates at a long hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 30 to 60
days
The high-rate digester is a completely mixed digester where the SRT equals the
HRT.
Mixing of the contents is either by a mechanical stirrer or by gas recirculation
Power requirements are low (±1.8 Kw/cu.m capacity) with a bio gas recirculation
rate of about 2 cu.m/min.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
The advantages of a high rate digester are that the formation of a scum layer in the
digester is prevented. Uncontrolled scum formation will lead to an appreciable
reduction of the digester's capacity and will affect the sampling results if samples are
drawn quite close to the surface.
Thermal stratification in the digester is avoided, particularly when the POME

influent temperature is kept around 70 - 80 deg.C.
There will be good contact between substrates and micro organisms and a shorter
retention time, i.e. a smaller digester capacity, is required.
Solids in the digester are kept to a minimum, as uncontrolled solids settlement will
reduce the digester capacity.
The advantage of the high rate is the ability to operate on low HRT (about 10 days)
with high organic loading of up to 4.8 kg VS/cu.m digester capacity/day.
It requires a much smaller area (about 20% of the lagoon type) and allows the
capture and harnessing of the bio gas produced.
The initial capital cost however is high as the digester's construction is usually in
mild steel with the internal surfaces in contact with bio gas sand blasted and coated
with epoxy.
Unless there is an economical application of the bio gas produced, or other
compelling external reasons, the system is not commonly used for the treatment
of POME
Common operational problems:
The successful operation of an anaerobic system requires a basic understanding of

the process, its limitations and an effective monitoring system from which one can
predict (and thus can prevent) impending failures.
Unfortunately, it is often seen by otherwise responsible mill engineers and staff as a
nuisance and "the less they know about it the better it suits them".
POME is ideally suited to anaerobic treatment:
1) it is available at 70 - 80 deg.C and hence can be digested "as is" at the

thermophilic range and temperatures as high as 55 deg.C can be achieved
without any external, additional heating.
2) the high buffering capacity in the system allows digestion of the POME
without neutralizing prior to feeding.
3) no toxic substances are present in inhibitory levels to the micro-organisms.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Despite this , digester failures do occur and can almost always be attributed to
overloading of the anaerobic system, mainly arising from:
a) overfeeding; this could be due to putting too much effluent into the pond
(hydraulic loading) or the organic content of the effluent is too high (organic
loading)
b) reduction in operating capacity, either from lowering of the operating levels, or
from sludge built up.
The use of a reliable flow meter, or a reliable basculator should help to prevent the
pumping of too much effluent into the system.
A difference must be made between hydraulic loading and organic loading.
HRT is obtained by dividing the effective digester capacity (in cub.m) by the actual
feed input/day (cub.m/day).
Whilst HRT can be maintained by ensuring a constant feed rate, the organic
loading may not be so easily maintained as this is mostly affected by oil present in
the POME.
Example:
digester capacity : 4200 cub.m

feed to digester : 420 cub.m
TVS in POME : 45,000 mg/l
oil content : 10,000 mg/l
HRT = 4200/420 = 10 days
organic loading = 420 x 45/4200 = 4.5 kg VS/cub.m/day
if the oil content increases to 20,000 mg/l:

TVS : 55,000 mg/l
HRT = 10 days
organic loading = 5.5 kg VS/cub.m/day
In other words, in order to maintain the organic loading of 4.5 kg, the feed to the
digester must be reduced to 4.5 x 4200/5.5 = 343 cub.m/day, a reduction of 18%
of the designed maximum HRT.
Characteristics of digested effluent:
With the high rate digester system, the BOD removal can be as high as 95 % and to
obtain the final effluent quality suitable to return to any water course discharge,
Section #4
The Factory [Waste Product & Pollution ] # 1 60
Palm Oil Process
the digested effluent can be settled with the resulting supernatant going into an
aerobic system.
The underflow of the settling tank can be recycled to the digester.
Digested effluent is rich in N, P and K and can be used in the estates to supplement
or replace the normally used inorganic fertilizers, the fertilizer value is
approximately: (for 60 tph mill, at ± 20 hrs/day)
Ammonium Sulphate (21 % N) 2.00 tonne/day

Rock Phosphate (36 % P2O5 ) 0.75 tonne/day
Muriate of Potash ( 60 % K2O) 2.25 tonne/day
Kieserite ( 26 % MG O) 2.25 tonne/day
The high rate digester also produces approximately 25 cubic meter bio gas with a
calorific value of approximately 22,400 KJ/cubic meter, from 1 cubic meter of
POME digested. The direct use of the bio gas as a heat source is probably the most
economical way of using it.
EFFLUENT FROM CPO MILLS
BEFORE TREATMENT
TEMPERATURE 70 - 80OC
pH 4
VOLATILE ACIDS 1,000
COD 80,000
BOD 30,000
TOTAL SOLIDS (TS) 60,000
TOTAL VOLATILE SOLIDS (TVS) 45,000
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 38,000
AMMONIAL NITROGEN (NH3-N) 40
TOTAL KJELDAHL NITROGEN (TKN) 900
PHOSPHORUS 200
POTASSIUM 2,000
MAGNESIUM 600
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
AFTER TREATMENT
DISCHARGE TO WATER COURSE LAND APPLICATION

BOD 100-5000
SUSPENDED SLOIDS 400 N/A
OIL & GREASE 50
AMMONIACAL NITROGEN 150 (1)
TOTAL NITROGEN 200 (2)
pH 5-9
TEMPERATURE 45OC
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGESTED POME
HIGH DIGESTER RATE
TEMPERATURE 43
pH 7.15
VOLATILE ACID 265
ALKALINITY 2,300
BOD 1,900
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 3,725
AMMONIACAL NITROGEN 55
TOTAL KJELDAHL NITROGEN 175
OIL & GREASE 175
FERTILIZER VALUE OF DIGESTED POME

EXAMPLE FOR 60 TON PER HOUR FACTORY OUTPUT
FERTILIZER SUBSTITUTE DIRECT LAND HIGH RATE DIGESTER

AMMONIUM SULPHATE (21% N) 0.65 1.92
ROCK PHOSPHATE (36% P2O5) 0.17 0.62
MURIATE OF POTASH (60% K2O) 1.55 2.18
KIESERITE (26 % MgO) 1.05 2.10
NOTES:
Items (1) and (2) measured from filtered samples All values in mg/l, exept
pH.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
NUTRIENT CONTENTS OF OIL PALM WASTE PRODUCTS

POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent): (at 5% dry matter)
On average per
From literature Own analisis
1000 liter
% % In kg
N 2.4 N 1.7 N 1
P 0.3 P 0.35 P 0.17
K 4.8 K 2.7 K 1.9
Mg 1.4 Mg 0.58 Mg 0.5
Ca 0.8 Ca 1.1 Ca 0.5
S 0.24 S 0.12
Cl 1.0 Cl 0.5
Dried decanter sludge

(% on dry matter)
N 2.3
P 0.2
K 0.7
Mg 0.3
Ca 2.9
S 0.2
Cl 0.1
EMPTY BUNCHES
as empty bunches as empty bunches

as bunch ash
(70% moisture, 30 % dry matter)
(in kg per 1000 kg
(%) (% on dry matter)
Empty Bunches)
N 0.05 N 0.79 N 2.4 kg
P 1.5 P 0.08 P 0.24 kg
K 30.0 K 2.0 K 6.0 kg
Mg 3.0 Mg 0.12 Mg 0.35 kg
Ca 4.0 Ca 0.25 Ca 0.75 kg
S 0.08 S 0.24 kg
Mn 300 ppm Cl 0.21 Cl 0.63 kg
B 120 ppm
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #33
A I R PO L L U TI O N
33.1 Boiler smoke
The gases emitted from the chimney stacks of the boilers and the incinerators of
C.P.O. factories contain particulates of condensed tar droplets and soot and
other contaminations from 20 to 100 microns in size.
33.1.1 Boiler smoke is dark in colour due to the soot resulting from incomplete
combustion of the mixture of fibre and shells used as fuel.
The control of this smoke emission depends largely on the type (and the age) of
the boiler(s) in use.
33.1.2 Some form of control over the combustion conditions may be achieved by
efforts to maintain as much as possible a "steady state" condition.
The main options for control measures are:
i) Adequate and accurate instrumentation.
Indicative instruments, such as steam pressure gauges, air pressure gauges,

CO2 meters, smoke density monitors etc. should be installed and maintained
in a functional condition.
These will indicate if complete, or as near as possible complete combustion is

taking place.
Optimum levels of CO2, compatible with "steady state" operations are about
15 to 20%.
ii) Automated control of fuel feed rates.
The steam demand by the factory varies and thus maintaining a "steady state"
condition compatible with the fluctuating demand requires continuous
control.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
A closed loop control of the fuel feed rate and air supply can assist or ensure
a steady state combustion in tandem with the steam demand.
iii) Modifications to boilers to improve the combustion conditions can include:
a) prevention of (secondary) air leaks into the furnace (for instance through
furnace doors)
b) increasing the air volumes by using larger capacity draught fans
c) promoting secondary air flow in furnace by directional nozzles
d) mechanical fuel feed control
e) increased chimney stack height to facilitate dispersion.
33.1.3 The control of particulates in the boiler smoke can be effected by baffle plates
and secondary nozzles blowing down in the furnace.
Dust collectors can be installed to cope with the particular conditions such as:
- size of particles to be removed
- required efficiency
- flow rate of flue gases
- composition of flue gases
Dust collectors can be mechanical (cyclones) or cloth collectors (bag filters) or

liquid scrubbers.
33.1.04 Cyclones may be single stage or multi stage.

The single stage has an efficiency factor of about 40 to 50%, whilst the
multistage can be as high as 85%.
Cyclones require gas velocities of 7 to 20 metres per second in order to operate
properly.
Some cyclones have a water feed at the inlet (irrigated cyclone) to further assist
in the collection of fine dust particles.
33.1.5 Bag filters simply trap the particles in the fabric when flue gases are drawn
through the bag.
The cost of bags and the maintenance cost is usually prohibitive and unless very
strict pollution control measures are the norm, not generally used.
Section #4
Palm Oil Process
33.1.6 Liquid scrubbers are quite effective particle removers, but are also quite
expensive, both in capital expense and maintenance costs.
Economic considerations and particular local circumstances may be the deciding
factor.
33.2 Smoke from incinerators for Empty Fruit Bunches
33.2.1 The control of smoke/particulate emission from incinerator stacks can also be
improved by improving combustion efficiencies with regulated feed rates.
33.2.2 The nature of the operation of incinerators ,i.e. the slow and "low" temperature
burning also results in low gas exit velocity and precludes the use of dust
collection equipment .
33.2.3 The "stack plume" is high in moisture content and thus has little buoyancy,
therefore aerial dispersion is usually minimal.
Visual observation of the colour of the smoke emitted from the stack can usually
give a fair indication of the combustion condition.
33.2.04 The Ringelmann smoke charts may be used to determine either the increase or
decrease in combustion efficiency by comparing the relative blackness of the
smoke against these charts.
Since each chart (6 in total) indicates a change of 20 % in the observation, an

estimate can be made of the altered combustion condition and controls adjusted
to achieve optimum conditions.
Section #4
SECTION #5
THE FACTORY
STEAM & ELECTRICITY GENERATION

MONITORING & EVALUTION
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #34
GENERATION OF STEAM AND ELECTRICITY
34.1 General boiler water information.
34.1.01 The most common components of boiler water deposits are:

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE; CALCIUM CARBONATE (in low pressure boilers).
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE; MAGNESIUM SILICATE; various forms of IRON
OXIDE; SILICA (absorbed on previous mentioned precipitates and ALUMINA.
34.1.02 EXPECTED AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF BOILER SLUDGE
CONSTITUENT COAGULATION TREATMENT PO4 RESIDUAL TREATMENT
Calcium carbonate HIGH USUALLY < 5%
Calcium phosphate USUALLY < 15% HIGH
Calcium silicate USUALLY < 3% TRACE OR NIL
Calcium sulphate NIL NIL
Calcium hydroxide NIL NIL
Magnesium phosphate NIL USUALLY < 5% (except in H.P. boilers)
Magnesium hydroxide MODERATE MODERATE
Magnesium silicate MODERATE MODERATE
Silica USUALLY < 10% USUALLY < 10%
Alumina < 10% USUALLY < 10%
Oil NONE NONE
Iron oxide USUALLY < 5% USUALLY < 5% (except in high purity feed water)
Sodium salts USUALLY < 1.5% USUALLY < 1.5%
Copper TRACE USUALLY LOW
Other metals TRACE LOW
Loss on ignition USUALLY < 5% USUALLY 8 - 12 % (except in very pure feed water)
Section #5
The Factory [Steam & Electricity Generation Monitoring & Evaluation] # 130
Palm Oil Process
34.1.03 If phosphate salts are used to treat the boiler water, calcium will preferentially
precipitate as the phosphate before precipitation as the carbonate and calcium
phosphate becomes the most prominent feature of the deposit.
At the high temperature found in boilers, deposits are a serious problem causing
poor heat transfer and potential tube failures.
In low pressure boilers with a low heat transfer deposits may build up to a point
where they completely occlude the boiler tube.
Normally , water circulating through the tubes conduct the heat away from the
metal, preventing the tube from reaching the stage whereby the metal structure
weakens.
34.1.04 Deposits insulate the tube, reducing the rate at which this heat can be removed,
which leads to overheating and eventual tube failure.
If the deposit is not thick enough to cause such a failure, it can still cause a
substantial loss in efficiency and disruption of the heat transfer load in other
sections of the boiler.
Deposits can be SCALE, precipitated in-situ on a heated surface, or previously

precipitated chemicals, often in the form of a sludge.
These "drop out" of the water in low velocity areas (circulating velocity),
compacting to form a dense agglomerate similar to scale. but retaining the
features of the original precipitate.
34.1.05 The second major water related boiler problem is CORROSION, the most
common being the attack by oxygen.
This occurs in virtually every part of the system, from tanks, pipelines, valves,
boiler condensate lines etc., every where oxygen is present.
Oxygen attack is speeded up by high temperatures and by a low pH of the water.

There is also an alkali attack , corrosion mainly in high pressure boilers, where
caustic can concentrate in a local area of steam bubble formation because of the
presence of porous deposits.
34.1.06 The third major problem is the carry over from the boiler into the steam system.
This may be a mechanical effect, such as boiler water spraying around a broken
baffle, it may be due to the volatility of certain boiler water salts (such as silica
and sodium compounds) or may be caused by foaming.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.1.07 Carry over is most often a mechanical problem and the chemicals found in the
steam are those originally present in the boiler water, plus the volatile
components that distil from the boiler, even in the absence of spray.
There are three basic means for keeping these major problems under control:
1) EXTERNAL TREATMENT OF THE WATER ,

make up, condensate or both, BEFORE it enters the boiler, to reduce or
eliminate chemicals (such as hardness or silica) gases or solids. (see 34.2 here
under)
2) INTERNAL TREATMENT OF THE BOILER (FEED) WATER,

boiler water, steam or condensate, with corrective chemicals.
3) BLOW DOWN,
Control of the concentration of chemicals in the boiler water by "bleeding"
of a portion of the water in the boiler.
34.2 EXTERNAL TREATMENT.
34.2.01 Broad classification, the aim is to control:

a) suspended solids
b) hardness
c) alkalinity
d) silica
e) total dissolved solids
f) organic matter
g) gases
a) Suspended Solids
The removal is accomplished by coagulation/flocculation, filtration or

precipitation.
Other processes (except "direct reaction") usually require prior removal of
solids
Example:
Ion exchange water should contain less than 10 mg/l suspended solids to
avoid fouling of the exchanger and cause operating problems.
Section #5
b) Hardness
A number of unit operations remove calcium and magnesium from water, summarized in the table below:
Impurity to Direct addition Coagulation Solids liquid Precipitation Adsorption Ion ex Evaporation Degasification Membrane
be removed (note 1) flocculation separation change separation
Suspended 10 mg/l Pre

n/a <1mg/l 10 mg/l treatment Is required for all of these
solids
part note 4 note 5

Hardness n/a n/a n/a n/a note 3 note 6
removal note2
Decreasing creasas
Alkalinity note 7 n/a note 2 n/a note 8 note 4 n/a note 6
require
Silica n/a slight removal slight removal note 9 part removal note 10 note 4 n/a note 6
note 9
Total may increase

Dissolved note 11 n/a n/a note 2 n/a note 12 note 4 n/a note 6
Solids
part removal part removal

Organics note 13 n /a note 13 5-10% note 4 n/a note 6
note 13 note 14
can be decreased may increase

Gas n/a note 15 note 16 note 8 note 4 note 17 note 6
to zero note 8
Palm Oil Process
NOTES:
1) Direct addition is application of chemicals directly to water, where by-

products remain in solution.
2) In the precipitation process, hardness can be reduced by a controlled

amount, depending on the line dosage.
In partial lime softening - only Ca is removed by adding just enough lime to
react with bicarbonate alkalinity plus free CO2.
The reduction of Calcium equals the reduction of alkalinity, since CaCo3

forms as a precipitate. More hardness removal requires enough lime to react
with magnesium as well to produce a hydroxide alkalinity of 10mg/l.
The reduction of total solids equals the hardness reduction with coincident
reduction of silica and organic matter.
3) The residuals after ion exchange vary with the water analysis, the regenerant
dosis and the application method.
4) Make up to an evaporator is similar to a boiler water, treatment is similar.
5) If water is de-gasified for CO2 removal, the chemical balance may be

disturbed and hardness may precipitatein the degasifier.
6) Degree of purification varies with the membrane characteristics.
7) Alkalinity may be reduced by coagulation with alum or iron salts it may be

increased by aluminate and remains constant if dosage of alum and
aluminate are balanced.
8) Alkalinity is reduced by blending the effluent of sodium and hydrogen

zeolite units, to any required residual.
The reduction produces Co2 gas which can be degassed to 5 - 10 mg/l at
ambient temperature or to 0 at 100 degr. C.
9) The residual silica can be predicted from the water analysis and the dosage of
absorbent applied in the treatment process.
10) Silica is removed in ion exchange processes only by strong base anion resins,
regenerated with caustic.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
If the anion unit follows a sodium zeolite the residual may be 10 % of the
feed.
If the anion unit is part of a demineralizer, residuals as low as 0.01 mg/l can
be achieved.
11) Some reactions, such as sodium sulphite and oxygen produce a soluble
byproduct (sodium sulphate), which increases T.D.S.
12) The reduction of (T).D.S. by ion exchange varies with different cation and
anion exchange processes.
With sodium zeolite T.D.S. is unchanged on a CaCo3 equivalent basis, with
hydrogen zeolite (H2X), T.D.S. reduction equals the alkalinity reduction,
with a demineralizer removal is essentially complete and the residuals
depend on the combination of units in the system.
13) Organic matter is reduced by both coagulation/flocculation or lime

softening.
Efficiency varies with the selection of coagulants, chlorine, permanganate or
powdered activated carbon.
14) Special ion exchange resins can be used to remove colour (activated carbon)
Organic matter tends to accumulate irreversibly on anion and must be
removed ahead of demineralization.
15) Carbon dioxide is removed by lime in cold process softeners and by de-
gasification in the spray section of hot process softeners, which also reduces
dissolved oxygen to a residual of about 0.5 mg/l.
H2S may be removed by adding a heavy metal precipitant such as iron or zinc
salt.
16) Taste and odour removed by activated carbon. (also removes chlorine, by
chemical reaction)
17) De-gasifiers, using air stripping reduce CO2 and H2S by 90-95 % if the pH is
kept below 7.
Vacuum de-aerators do as well on CO2 and H2S and also reduce dissolved O2
to less than 1.0 mg/l.
Steam heated de-aerators will remove all free CO2 and reduce dissolved O2 to
0.005 mg/l.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
c) Alkalinity
It is desirable to have some alkalinity in boiler water, so complete removal of

this is seldom practised, except in demineralization.
Some alkalinity is also needed to provide optimum pH in the feed-water to

prevent corrosion of piping and equipment.
The degree of alkalinity reduction is dictated by the boiler-water control

limits and the steam quality goals.
d) Silica
The normally permissible concentrations of silica at various operating

pressures are:
Drum pressure in Recommended limit in Silica concentration producing 0.02 mg/l

kg/cm2 mg/l SiO2 in saturated steam at
upper limit
0 - 20 150 150
20 - 30 90 90
30 - 42 40 55
42 - 52 30 35
52 - 62 20 20
62 - 70 8 15
Silica reduction is not always necessary, but is very necessary when operating
turbines.
Low concentrations of silica can produce a sticky sludge in low pressure

boilers treated with phosphate.
Treatment selection to the proper degree of silica reduction required by the
steam system.
e) Total Dissolved Solids
Usual reduction achieved by a reduction of several individual contaminants.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Treatment will result in residuals produced by processes which reduce T.D.S.

as under:
RESIDUAL
PROCESS T.D.S. ALKALINITY SILICA
HARDNESS
Original water 275 160 135 10
Split steam 170 nil 20 10
Partial cold lime 190 75 50 9
Hot lime - soda 145 17 40 1
Hot lime - zeolite 155 nil 30 1
Demineralization 1-2 nil 1-2 0.05
f) Organic matter
A quantitative term, includes wide variety of compounds, seldom a problem.
g) Dissolved gasses
Commonly used to remove gas mechanically rather than chemically.

Blower types, vacuum types, steam scrubbing types (de-aerating heaters), all
reduce CO2 and O2 concentrations.
34.3 INTERNAL TREATMENT.
34.3.01 Scale formation in a boiler is controlled mainly by four chemical programmes:
1) Coagulation (carbonate)
2) Phosphate residual
3) Chelation
4) Coordinated phosphate
1) COAGULATION
Sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide or both are added to the boiler water to
supplement the alkalinity.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
The carbonate causes deliberate precipitation of calcium carbonate under

favourable, controlled conditions, preventing depositions at some subsequent
point as scale.
Under alkaline conditions, magnesium and silica are also precipitated as

magnesium hydroxide and magnesium silicate.
There is usually a fairly high concentration of suspended solids in the boiler water
and precipitation occurs on the solids.
Only used on boilers with high hardness feed-water and operating below a
pressure of 18 kg/cm2.
2) PHOSPHATE
Where the pressure is above 17.5 kg/cm2, high concentrations of sludge are
undesirable.
Feed-water hardness to be limited to 60 mg/l.
A sodium phosphate compound fed either to feed water or direct to boiler
drum, quantity depending on water analysis.
Magnesium and silica are precipitated as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium
silicate, or calcium silicate.
The alkalinity is usually adequate for magnesium precipitation.
3) CHELANT PROGRAMME
A chelant is a molecule similar to an ion exchanger, low in molecular weight and

soluble in water.
The sodium salts of Ethylene Diamin Tetra-acetic Acid (EDTA) and Nitrilo-tri-
acetic Acid (NTA) are chelating agents.
These chelate (=form complex ions with) calcium and magnesium, because the
resulting complex is soluble, this treatment is advantageous in minimizing blow-
down.
Usually limited to boilers operating below 100 kg/cm2.
4) CO-ORDINATED PHOSPHATE PROGRAMME
Only used in high pressure, high heat transfer rate boilers.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.4 BLOW DOWN.
34.4.01 Basically it is a process of diluting boiler-water solids by withdrawing water at a

rate that induces a flow of feed-water into the boiler in excess of the steam
demand, i.e.:(example):
Steam 900.000 kg/day,

solids essentially zero
Feed water 1.000.000 l/day

solids 100 mg/l Boiler Water Solids Level1000 mg/l
solids added per day=100 kg
Blow down 100.000 l/day

Solids content 1000 mg/l
Solids removal= 100 kg/day
Blow down may be intermittent or continuous, to maintain concentration level

of solids in boiler water.
When level is reached, blow down is opened for a short period to reduce the
concentration, water is filled and boiler operated until control limits are reached
again. It is common to express the blow down rate as a percentage of feed water.
BLOW DOWN = 100 : CRf = % feed water.

CRf = Control Ratio factor
i.e.: if silica concentration is 1.5 mg/l in feed-water, and the allowable limit is 10
mg/l, the concentration ratio factor will be 10 : 1.5 = 6.7
The concentration ratio factor is calculated for each of the constituents , the
lowest CRf determines the blow down rate.
Example:
FACTOR MAKE-UP FEED- BOILER- MAX. CRf

WATER LIMIT
T.D.S. 150 75 2000 26.7
SiO2 3 1.5 10 6.7
ALKALINITY 20 10 150 15
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Blow down = 100 : 6.7 = 15 % of feed water.

High blow down losses can be reduced by treating water to reduce the
constituent making the lowest CRf.
Therefore careful sampling of both the feed water and the make up water is
required to determine the correct blow down rate.
Boiler water must be cooled before analyzing it.
Although one of several constituents may determine the required blow down
rate, it is general practice to determine all of the critical concentrations on a
regular basis.
Each can be related to the T.D.S as measured by a conductivity meter and actual
blow down can be related to this. (Chloride test may also be used for this)
Continuous blow down, at a calculated, controlled ratio is usually cheaper than
the intermittent type blow down. (chemical usage)
34.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF DE-AERATION
34.5.01 When dealing with de-aeration problems, it is usual to refer to dissolved oxygen
content in millilitres per litre or in part per million (1 ml/l = 1.43 ppm)
The volume of oxygen being corrected to the normal temperature and pressure
(N.T.P.), i.e. 0 0C and 1 atmosphere.
It is assumed that the source of all dissolved oxygen is the atmosphere which
contains approximately 20 % of oxygen and 80 % of nitrogen, measured by
volume.
By the Law of Partial Pressures it follows that the pressure exerted by the oxygen
constituent in air is 20% or one fifth of the total air pressure.
The solubility of oxygen in water follows Henry's Law which states that the
weight of gas dissolved in water is proportional to the pressure of the gas.
The graph below shows the solubility of pure oxygen in water for varying
temperature at a constant oxygen pressure of 1 kg/cm2.
From this curve, it is possible to calculate the maximum dissolved oxygen
contents of water for any temperature and pressure conditions.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.5.02 Example:
Calculation for the maximum dissolved oxygen content of water at atmospheric
pressure and at a temperature of 82 oC.:
From the saturated steam tables,
Internal vapour pressure of water 0.5 kg/cm2

Thus, total pressure (1 atm) 1.0 kg/cm2
Vapour pressure 0.5 kg/cm2
——————
Difference (air pressure) 0.5 kg/cm2
Oxygen pressure (1/5 x air) 0.1 kg/cm2
From the graph,
Solubility of oxygen at 82 oC 18 ml/litre

Therefore,
oxygen in solution at 82 oC 18 x 0.1 : 1 = 1.8 ml/litre
A series of curves as shown below are derived and drawn, through this
calculation, indicating the maximum oxygen contents at varying temperatures
and total pressure.
The upper curve for atmospheric pressure is useful to ascertain the maximum
oxygen content of open feed tanks at various temperatures.
It is noted that the pressure lines reach the zero oxygen line at a temperature
corresponding to the boiling point, but the oxygen contents increase
rapidly as temperature falls below boiling point.
When de-aerators are introduced, an oxygen content not exceeding 0.1 mg/l is
usually specified.
In most cases to water tube boilers and their economizers when the working
pressure does not exceed 18kg/cm2, this allowable limit gives adequate, sufficient
protection.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.5.03 For modern, (high pressure) boilers plant, the following table may be taken as a
guide:
MAX.PERMISSIBLE OXYGEN
BOILER PRESSURE STEAM TEMPERATURE
CONTENT
( KG / CM2 ) (DEGR. CELSIUS) ( MG / LITRE )
18 320 0.05
32 400 0.03
42 430 0.02
62 480 0.01
OVER 62 OVER 480 0.005
The most simple method of de-aeration is by thermal, by operating at the

boiling point of the water under vacuum or pressure.
Under vacuum, the operating temperature is lower.
34.6 PROCEDURE FOR BOILER BOIL-OUT
34.6.01 REQUIRED CHEMICALS:
Na2CO3 = SODA ASH , or
Na3PO4 = TRI SODIUM PHOSPHATE (ANHYDROUS,=NO WATER=IN DRY FORM)

Or
Na3PO4(+12 H2O)= TRI SODIUM PHOSPHATE (PRE MIXED IN WATER)
34.6.02 USAGE OF CHEMICALS:
PER 1000 LITRE WATER IN BOILER:
Na2 CO3 = 9 KG
Na3 PO4 (+12 H2O) = 5 KG
Na3 PO4 = 2,5 KG
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.6.03 METHOD OF WORK:
FIRST DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with the chemicals already mixed in, to the normal
operating water level.
2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 15 % of the normal working pressure, then
stop firing and "rest" the boiler. (i.e. 12 hours firing; followed by 12 hours
rest.)
3) There after, drain out the boiler water.
SECOND DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the normal
2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 30 % of the normal working pressure, then
maintain pressure for 12 hours in total.
3) Let boiler cool down
4) after cool down, drain out the boiler water.
THIRD DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the normal
2) Fire up boiler to a maximum of 50 % of the normal working pressure , then
maintain pressure for a total of 12 hours.
3) Blow down boiler while under pressure but maintain sufficient water level in
boiler to let it cool down.
4) Leave water in boiler until cooled down completely.
5) When cold, drain out all water, refill with clean water and wash out all sludge,
deposits etc.
6) Open and inspect headers, drums etc.
7) If found O.K. and no loose deposits etc., Close up boiler and refill with water
and the normal water treatment chemicals.
Section #5
Common Chemicals Used to Treat (Boiler) Water
Bulk density Appr H in 1%

Chemical Common name Typical specifications Equiv weight Solubility
kg/m3 solution
Aluminium Sulphate Alum Lump - 17% Al2O3 100* 960 3.4 64kg/m3 @15oC
[Al2(SO4)3 .14H2O] Liquid - 8.5% 180
Bentonitic clay Bentonite 960 - Insoluble
Calcium carbonate
Limestone 96 % CaCO3 50 1280 9 Insoluble
( CaCO3 )
Calcium hydroxide Hydrated lime,

96 % Ca(OH)2 40* 640 12 Insoluble
[Ca(OH)2] Slaked lime
Calcium hypochlorite
HTH 70 % Cl2 103 880 6-8 3% @15oC
[CA (OCl)2.4H2O]
Calcium oxide Burned lime,

96 % CaO 30 * 960 12 Slake at 10-20%
(CaO) quisk lime
Calcium sulfate
Gypsum 98 % Gypsum 86* 880 5-6 Insoluble
(CaSO4.2H2O)
Chlorine (Cl2) Chlorine Gas - 99.8% Cl2 35.5 gas - 1.1 kg/m3 @5oC
Copper sulfate
Blue vitriol 98 % pure 121 * 1200 5-6 32 kg/m3 @15oC
(CuSO4.5H2O)
Dolomitic lime
Dolomitic lime 36-40% MgO 67# 640 12.4 Insoluble
[Ca(OH)2.MgO]
Ferric Chloride Lump-20% Fe 91* 1120 3-4 45% @15oC
Iron chloride
(FeCl3.6H2O) Liquid-20% Fe 210
Ferric sulfate
Iron sulfate 18.5 % Fe 51.5* 1120 3-4 30% @15oC
[Fe2(SO4)3.3H2O]
Ferrous sulfate
Copperas 20% Fe 139* 1120 3-4 16kg/m3 @15oC
(FeSO4.7H2O)
Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid 30% HCl,20oBaume 120* 155 1-2 35% @15oC
Sodium aluminate Flake-46%Al2O3 100* 800 11-12 40% @15oC

Aluminate
(NaAlO2) Liquid-26%Al2O3
Sodium chloride Rock salt,

98 % pure 58.5 960 6-8 42 kg/m3 @15oC
(NaCl) salt
Sodium carbonate Soda ash 98 % pure 53 960 6-8 42kg/m3 @15oC

(NaCO3) 58 % Na2O
Sodium hydroxide Caustic, Flake-99% NaOH 1040 11 24kg/m3 @15oC

(NaOH) Lye Liquid-50-70 % 40 190 12.8 70% @15oC
Sodium phosphate
Disodium phosphate 49% P2O5 47.3 880 9 20% @15oC
(Na2HPO4)
Sodium Metaphosphate
Hexamata phosphate 66% P2O5 34 750 5-6 16kg/m3 @15oC
(NaPO3)
Sulfuric acid
Oil of vitriol 94-96 % 66 o Baume 50* 240 1-2 Infinite
(H2SO4)
* Effective equivalent weight of commercial product

# Effective equivalent weight based on Ca(OH)2 content
Palm Oil Process
34.7 STEAM REQUIREMENT CALCULATIONS
34.7.01 Steam required for mill capacity of 20 ton ffb/hr, 25 ton ffb/hr and 30 ton
ffb/hr at the peak load of sterilizer.
At capacity 1ton FFB/hr 20 ton FFB/hr 25 ton FFB/hr 30 ton FFB/hr

20/25/30 ton
Steam consumption Kg steam/hr kg steam/hr kg steam/hr kg steam/hr
3 peak sterilizer at the peak 256/240/224 5.120 6.000 6.720

load*
Digester 20 400 500 600
Crude oil heater*, tank & 82/74/66 1.640 1.850 2.000

clarification
Process water heating * 36/38/40 720 950 1.200
Cake breaker conveyor* 90/72/60 1.800 1.800 1.800
Nut silo dryer* 60/48/40 1.200 1.200 1.200
Kernel silo dryer* 42 840 1.050 1.260
Vacuum oil dryer* HP 6/4.8/4 120 nil 120 nil 120 nil
Steam driven feed pumps HP 30 LP nil 600 nil 750 nil 900 nil
De-aerator HP 50 LP nil 1000 nil 1250 nil 1500 nil
High pressure 1720 2120 2520
Sub total 11.760 13.350 14.720
Losses 5 % 588 667 736
Grand total 12.348 14.017 15.456
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.7.02 TABLE OF FUEL / STEAM / POWER BALANCE
1. AVAILABLE FUEL PER HOUR
Basic of 20 T FFB 25 T FFB 30 T FFB
Shell 6%* 1.200 kg 1.500 kg 1.800 kg
Fibre 13%* 2.600 kg 3.250 kg 3.900 kg
*) based on average data under average conditions
2. AVAILABLE HEAT FROM FUEL PER HOUR
a) 20 T FFB:
Shell = 1.200 x 3.850** kcal/kg = 4.620.000 kcal
Fibre = 2.600 x 2.570***kcal/kg = 6.682.000 kcal
————————
Total = 11.302.000 kcal
b) 25 T FFB:
Fibre = 3.250 x 2.570***kcal/kg = 8.352.000 kcal
————————
Total = 14.127.500 kcal
c) 30 T FFB:
Fibre = 3.900 x 2.570***Kcal/kg = 10.023.000 kcal
————————
Total = 16.953.000 kcal
HEAT AVAILABLE FROM STEAM GENERATION
Basic of 20 T FFB/hr 25 T FFB/hr 30 T FFB/hr

Heat quantity of fuel (fibre
11.302.000 kcal 14.127.500 kcal 16.953.000 kcal
+ shell) (100% DxP)
**) with moisture content 16%
***) with moisture content 34%
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
3. STEAM OBTAINABLE FROM FUEL AVAILABLE (FIBRE + SHELL).

(Steam is generated by a Water Tube Boiler)
Technical Data
Working pressure Bar.g 20
Temperature at superheated outlet oC 260
Feed water temperature oC 105
Boiler efficiency % 73
Blow down rate % 4
Heat required to produce 1 kg of steam 616 kcal
Hence, steam obtainable due to combustion of fuel (Fibre+Shell only)
STEAM OBTAINABLE
11,302,000 x 0.73
20 TON FFB ————————— = 13,394 kg steam/hr
616
14,127,500 x 0.73
616
16,953,500 x 0.73
616
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
AVAILABLE STEAM FOR ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION AFTER

DIRECT HIGH PRESSURE CONSUMPTION.
A) 20 TON FFB/hr → 13,394 - 1,720 = 11,674 kg steam/hr

Losses 3% (installation losses) = 350 kg steam/hr
—————————
—
11,324 kg steam/hr
B) 25 TON FFB/hr → 16,742 - 2.120 = 14,622 kg steam/hr

——————————
14,182 kg steam/hr
C) 30 TON FFB/hr → 17,570 - 2.520 = 17,570 kg steam/hr

——————————
17,043 kg steam/hr
4. AVAILABLE ELECTRIC POWER

Total kW obtainable from available steam
TOTAL kW OBTAINABLE FROM AVAILABLE STEAM
11,324
20 TON FFB/hr ———— = 566 kW
20
14,182
25 TON FFB/hr ———— = 709 kW
20
17,043
30 TON FFB/hr ———— = 844 kW
20.18
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
(*) High efficiency steam turbine characteristic

Output power : 500/600/750 kW
Specific steam consumption : 20 kg/kW H
Inlet steam pressure : 18 bar (g)
Exhaust steam pressure : 2.8 bar (g)
Inlet steam pressure : 260 oC
(**) High efficiency steam turbine characteristic

Output power : up to 940 kW
Specific steam consumption : 20.18 kg/kW H
Inlet steam pressure : 18 bar(g) max.21 bar(g)
Exhaust steam pressure : 2.8 bar(g) max.3.5bar(g)
Inlet steam temperature : 260 oC max.300 oC
5. HORSE POWER & KILOWATT REQUIREMENT

A load factor of 70% could be assumed as full load.
20 TON FFB & 25 TON FFB (Almost equal power requirements)
ELECTRIC POWER
For processing 996.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 520 kW
Additional
- Factory light
- Work shop 59 x 0.746 = 44 kW
- Office & lab.
- Domestic
TOTAL 564 kW
30 TON FFB
ELECTRIC POWER
For processing 1,102.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 576 kW
Additional 59 x 0.746 = 44 kW
- Factory light
- Work shop
- Office & lab.
- Domestic
TOTAL 620 kW
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
STEAM AND POWER BALANCE
Steam (kg/hr) Balance Electric Power (kW) Balance

Capacity
Available Required +/- Available Required +/-
20 T FFB 11324 12348 - 1024 566 564 +2
25 T FFB 14182 14017 + 165 709 564 + 145
30 T FFB 17043 15456 + 1587 844 620 + 224
FINAL ANALYSIS
I. STEAM POWER
I.a. For 20 TON FFB:

- Steam required for processing : 12348 kg/hr.
- Steam available : 11324 kg/hr.
- Steam balance : 1024 kg/hr.
i.e. Fuel (Fibre + Shell) are not enough to generate the required steam for this
reason, thus supplementary fuel (for example empty bunch) has to be used.
I.b. For 25 TON FFB:

- Steam required : 14182 kg/hr
- Steam balance : + 165 kg/hr.
i.e. surplus of fuel.
I.c. For 30 TON FFB:

- Steam available : 17043 kg/hr.
- Steam balance : +1587 kg/hr.
i.e. surplus of fuel.
II. ELECTRIC POWER
II.a. For 20 TON FFB:

- Electric power required for processing : 564 kW
- Electric power available for processing : 566 kW
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
- Power balance is : + 2 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power.
II.b. For 25 TON FFB:

- Power balance is : +145 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power
(surplus).
II.c. For 30 TON FFB:

- Power balance is : + 224 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power
(surplus).
SUMMARY
A. Mill capacity 20 TON FFB/hr:

1. To obtain sufficient steam/power for processing, shredded and dried empty
bunches could be utilized as fuel.
2. Boiler capacity: 15 T/hr
3. Turbo alternator output: 650-700 kW (in order to cover additional power
requirement for empty bunch treatment plant).
B. Mill capacity 25 TON FFB/hr:

1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available.
3. Turbo Alternator output: 600-700 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam
available).
C. Mill capacity 30 TON FFB/hr:

1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available.
3. Turbo Alternator output: 700-950 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam
available).
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
NOTE 1:
The above figures are merely shown as an example and should not be taken
literally when calculating the requirements for a particular plant/factory.
Each factory has its own specific needs and these should be taken into
consideration when calculating its requirements.
NOTE 2 :
From the working results of palm oil mills which utilise empty bunches mixed
with fibre and shell as fuel, it has been shown that as a consequence of burning
the bunches a large part of the other wise available potassium salts are wasted.
Regular boiler ash analysis for K20, have given percentages of 4, 9, to even 12%
thus, not all potassium salts are wasted.
It must be noted that the figures of low K20 content concerned boilers on full
load and the high K20 figures concerned boilers on low load.
Further more, the K20 content of fly-ash from the flues and chimneys in its
turn is higher then the K20 content of ashes from the furnace grate, for
instance:
In HCl soluble K20

grate ash flue ash
1st sample 12.04% 16.38 %
2nd sample 7.06% 12.75 %
3rd sample 9.28% 14.92 %
Thus a part of the potassium salts is carried along with the smoke gasses in some
form and later on, when these gasses cool down, it will crystallize as fine dust and
deposit with soot and other particles on various places in the smoke gas flues.
Investigation in to the reasons for (violent) corrosion have comprised a

qualitative chemical analysis of the acid liquid between the "iron blisters" and
corroded parts.
The tests showed that the existence of Mg - K - NH4 - iron Cl and SO4 could be
determined.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Unless the burning of empty bunches in the boiler furnace is absolutely

necessary in order to maintain a positive fuel - steam – power balance, it is
therefore not recommended.
34.8 ELECTRICITY
34.8.01 Since a palm oil mill utilizes the expelled fibre, shells etc. for fuelling its boilers
and generating steam, it is obvious that it is advantageous to generate electricity
for normal processing by steam driven alternators.
34.8.02 In order to be able to start-up the boilers and the process, there has to be
electricity available before sufficient steam is raised to operate the steam driven
equipment and this is commonly achieved by generating electricity with diesel
driven alternators.
34.8.03 In a well designed and correctly operated palm oil mill these diesel driven units
should never be used to operate the main process lines and in fact the capacity of
these units should be chosen such that there is sufficient power generated to
allow for a correct start-up (and stopping) of the boilers and auxiliary
equipment, but definitely insufficient to "run" the factory.
34.8.04 Steam turbines have now largely replaced all other types of steam drive units for
alternators in palm oil mills.
The steam turbine type most commonly used is designed to operate on the full
steam pressure as generated by the boiler(s) and has a "back pressure" (or exhaust
steam pressure) which is sufficiently high to be utilized for the sterilization
process and the various heating applications in the oil mill.
34.8.05 The introduction of the water tube type steam boiler with super heated steam
etc. has aided the introduction of a fairly large assortment of steam turbines into
the industry, each with their own particular characteristics, their good point sand
their "failings".
34.8.06 As for many other (specific) machinery in the mill, it would be outside the scope
of this book to enter into too much detail for particular machines as it is far
better to extract specific information from the manufacturers instruction
manuals and hand books.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
34.8.07 Correct operation of these machines consists mainly of correct starting and
stopping procedures to be observed and correct load balancing when these
machines are operating.
Ideally this load balancing should be automatic and not manually controlled, so
that actual kW loads and power factors etc. are equally shared out on the system,
if more then one unit is operating in parallel with others.
34.8.08 Good and continuous supervision is the key word here and can save considerable
amounts of money, by ensuring that correct operating procedures are followed
and that diesel driven generator usage is restricted to the start - stop periods of
the mill only.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
GENERAL STEAM PIPE & BOILER CALCULATIONS
Steam pipe diameter
To calculate the diameter of a pipe to pass a stated quantity of steam:
Area of pipe in square inches
Steam quantity in lb/h x specific volume in ft3/lb x 1728 cu.inch

= ——————————————————————————
Velocity in ft/sec. x 3600 sec x 12 inches
0.25 x area in inches

Diameter of pipe in inches =square root of : ————————————
3.14(=pi)
N.B.: The velocity of dry saturated steam through a (main) pipe should not normally exceed
100 ft/sec.
Steam velocity
To calculate the velocity of a stated quantity of steam passing through a given pipe diameter:
steam quantity in lb/h x spec.vol. in lb3/lb x 1728 cu.inch

velocity in ft/sec = ———————————————————————
Diameter of pipe in sq.inches x 3600 sec. x 12 inches
Feed water pipe diameter
To calculate the required diameter of a pipe to pass a stated quantity of boiler feed water:
water quantity in lb/hr x 144 sq.inch

Area of pipe in sq.inch = ——————————————————
velocity in ft/secf. x 62.5 lb/ft3 x 3600 sec.
N.B.: The area calculated should be increased by at least 30% to permit quick filling of the
boiler(s) in emergency situations.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
0.25 x area + 30%

Diameter of the pipe in inches =square root of: ——————————
3.14 (=pi)
The usual velocity in a main feed pipe should not be more then about 3 ft/sec. and in a
branch of the feed pipe about 2 ft.sec.
Feed water velocity
To calculate the velocity of a stated quantity of feed water passing through a feed water pipe
of given diameter:
water quantity in lb/hr x 144

velocity in ft/sec. = ———————————————————
(pipe area in sq.inch. + 30%) x 3600 x 62.5
Pipe expansion
The linear expansion of steam pipes (or feed pipes if in long stretches) can be calculated :
E = ( T - t) x C x L
where :
E = expansion in inches
C = coefficient in linear expansion
L = pipe length in inches
T = temperature of steam in oF
T = ambient temperature in oF
The linear coefficient of expansion per oF for the various metals various somewhat and
should be obtained from the boiler or pipe manufacturer, but on average the following may
be assumed:
Mild steel = 0.0000065

Cast iron = 0.0000063
Copper = 0.0000093
Wrought iron = 0.0000069
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Equivalent evaporation
For purposes of comparison it is assumed that feed water is supplied and evaporated at a
temperature of 212oF.
If W = weight in lb. of steam produced at any given temperature or pressure;
H = total heat in Btu of 1lb. of steam at this temperature or pressure;
t = temperature of feed water in oF;
Wi = equivalent weight of steam at 212oF from feed water, then
Wi = (1150.7 - 180)
= W [H - (t - 32)] , or
W [H - ( t - 32 )]
Wi = ———————
970.7
Factor of evaporation
The factor of evaporation for either saturated or superheated steam can be calculated:
total heat of steam - (feed temperature - 32)

—————————————————————
970.7
Gross boiler efficiency
May be roughly calculated:
furnace temperature – flue gas exit temperature

Boiler efficiency % = —————————————————————
furnace temperature
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #35
REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
35.1 Maintenance and maintenance Scheduling.
35.1.01 Most maintenance seen to date at older mills is either on a : "repair when
breakdown" basis or on a scheduled time preventative basis.
Both systems have considerable failings; the first one needs no explanation, it is
always too late, the second one depends on scheduled inspections of the installed
equipment in order to discover (and remedy) the condition that leads to the
breakdown, damage etc.
With the knowledge acquired over many years of mill operation in many different
mills and under equally as many different circumstances various systems have
evolved to control and "manage" maintenance.
35.1.02 One of the more successful ones can be termed:"break down fore cast" or a
predictive system.
Such a system requires the proper recording of machine/ equipment utilization (i.e.
running hours, operating loads, through put rates etc.) and the proper recording of
repairs effected in terms of time, parts etc.
Once the above recording system is established, usually the cost of maintenance
and the total spare part inventory cost decrease, resulting in a lower overall total
cost of production.
35.1.03 More efficient maintenance control by management will reduce the stock holding
levels of the three major areas :
- consumables (which is about 15% of total)
- materials, pipes, valves, fittings etc. (which is about 25 % of total) and
- machinery spare parts (which represent about 60 % of total stock holding).
Usually maintenance cost operate in cycles,i.e. a very heavy cost this year is
followed by fairly moderate costs the following one or two years.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
35.1.04 The main area for (initial) attention is good and consistent recording, so that
trouble areas can be identified and analyzed to attempt to predict (the cause of)
failure of the machine.
Once this is in place, essential decisions in the following areas can be made:
a) Establish priorities
b) Plan, Schedule work
c) Prepare time schedules
d) Prepare work orders
e) Make cost estimates
f) Keep track of costs
g) Control of both material and spares holding
h) Scheduling for preventative maintenance
i) Record historical data of repairs etc.
j) Train personnel
35.1.05 All above have a specific function and apart from the actual physical repair work
most of the above administrative tasks can be assisted to a high degree with the
introduction of the computer in the workshop/store environment, for the
recording, sorting and linking the gathered data.
Suitable interpretation of the data as noted above allows the following:

a) better control by the engineering staff
b) identification / reduction of excessive R&M costs
c) early indication of equipment problems / failure
d) improved planning / scheduling options
e) repetitive failures can be identified / analyzed, leading to
f) improvements in re design, lay out, replacements etc.
g) less emergencies, more reliability
h) less paper work (computerized records)
i) better inventory control through instant access to updated data
j) lower overall stock holding, lower costs
Computer utilization to assist in the record keeping and the data bases should be
on at least the following:
35.1.06 Individual machine records.
Ideally if a machine has a nameplate, all data on that should be transferred to a data
base that contains all equipment information, including equipment number (a
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
code cross reference number to the stock inventory), original cost, replacement
cost, (updated), warranty data, service agent information, service location,
engineering drawings and specifications, parts descriptions and technical
performance data.
Spare parts must be cross referenced to interact with an inventory control data base.
35.1.07 Machine history.
This should consist of a complete history of all equipment, assembled in accordance

with machine and station.
It should interact with work orders (job cards), inventory control, maintenance
data base and generate reports of corrective actions taken.
35.1.08 Work orders (job cards).
These should interact with the inventory control, equipment history and the
maintenance data base, to produce on line reports of status of all equipment in
total cost, including labour and parts in accordance with the allocated code
numbers.
It should be capable of producing up to date station status reports on demand.
35.1.09 Maintenance data base.
These are basically activity schedules to be produced and to interact with work
orders.
(This data can also be interfaced to accept data from a condition monitoring
device).
35.1.10 Inventory control.
A coding system to accept inter changeability within a group of mills (general

standardization, if planned for can thus be achieved).
Stock holding to be categorized and to have the ability of "purchase order

tracking", order printing (on a specified time basis) and maintain necessary lowest
stock levels.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
35.1.11 The concept of what is termed "condition monitoring" should be introduced in all
mills, old or new, and regular monthly full inspections should be done and the
results recorded.
This however requires a high level of skill and competence for the carrying out of
the inspection and the necessity to shut down and dismantle machinery for
inspection.
Although this type of monitoring is often the only one available,(virtually all larger
companies have their own "visiting" engineers or employ consultants to monitor
monthly, there are ways to mechanize this monitoring and reduce the reliance on
individual levels of skill and competence.
Condition monitoring by recording the machine inherent vibration levels, for
instance, can give a very clear indication of a machine condition and whether it is
heading for a breakdown or not.
Such measuring/recording devices are not cheap but will, if used consistently,
achieve the major aim, which remains:
- reduce costs
- improve reliability.
Meanwhile it is strongly recommended that a regular full mill inspection is carried

out, mill questionnaires are completed and an accurate record is kept of all the data
gathered to build up an "historical data bank" for the existing mills.
A central engineering division to control this and associated mill technical

problems should be created, if not already in existence.
A check list for mill visits and a questionnaire for completion by the mill staff
before the inspection visit are the essential beginnings of a maintenance orientated
recording system.
35.1.12 Monitoring machines / equipment.
An effective preventative system leads to an equally effective predictive system,

where action can be taken in time to prevent complete breakdown.
As noted above, the major draw back is the high level of skill and competence
required by the staff which carry out the routine inspections and the necessity to
shut down and dismantle machinery for proper inspection.
The personal relationship between the engineer or plant attendant and the
machines under their care is no longer economically feasible.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
The modern integral machinery, totally enclosed and running at high speeds are
designed to run automatically with only occasional, minimum attention from
attendants.
In the past the attendant assessed the machine condition by feeling by hand and
listening to any changes in the running noises of the machine.
This relationship was dependant on a continuous association with the machine on a
day to day basis.
Sensitive instruments are nowadays commonly available to monitor machinery,

basically by a vibration measurement and an interpretation thereof, i.e.:
An ideal machine would produce no vibration, a good designed well

maintained machine will produce low levels of inherent vibration.
As machines wear, parts deform, shafts un align, moving parts

become unbalanced etc., clearances increase or decrease and an
increase in vibration will be the result.
This increase will create a resonance, an increased dynamic load on all

moving parts and eventually this will lead to a machine breakdown.
Instruments based condition monitoring can prevent this breakdown

by indicating at what stage of vibration it becomes critical, so that
repairs may be effected before that time.
Generally maintenance methods fall into two categories:
1) Break down / replacement maintenance.
In expensive machinery with the important ones duplicated allow operation to

breakdown without a significant loss.
As long as safety standards are maintained there is no economic advantage in

knowing when it will break down.
2) Predictive, time based maintenance.
Built up by statistical study and manual inspections, set out on a calendar based
schedule or on an operating hours basis.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Experience has shown that the reliability of newly serviced machines is not
guaranteed and often subject to post repair failures or failures after machine
inspection, the result of incorrect workmanship or non genuine spares etc.
Skill and training are a very important pert of maintenance and merit separate
attention.
35.1.13 Condition monitoring maintenance.
The basic idea of this is that maintenance is only permitted when measurements
show it to be necessary.
The question as to when and why this should be introduced is best answered by a
list of pro's and con's, since it is difficult to immediately quantify an economic
attractive balance.
SAVINGS COSTS
Increased average time between overhauls Initial investigations, selecting of monitoring

points, establishment of limits
Virtual elimination of break down Selection, purchase of instruments
Elimination of secondary damage Instruction, training of staff
Elimination of component waste Instruction of engineers in the evaluation of

the measurements
Reduction of the spare part costs
Reduced repair duration
The reduction in maintenance staff will be a saving, but is not shown above since
costs will be taken up in training those with the ability to absorb the new technique
and the upgrading of the existing maintenance staff.
In the long term a general, significant, reduction in overall maintenance costs can
be expected.
Introduction of the system can be either "step by step" or "instant".
Both will require the KEEPING OF GOOD RECORDS as the FIRST and most
IMPORTANT measure.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
That way the inventory control is more effective and stock levels can be set based
on the inter changeability of parts etc. between mills, resulting in overall lower
levels and less capital tied up in stock.
35.1.14 Staff training
On a group basis a team of Engineers / Technicians could cover all mills within one
year, achieving a comprehensive monitoring system which would have the ability
to be linked at some time to a computer based maintenance programme.
This however will require training towards this goal, which could / should start well
before the system is introduced.
A Central Engineering division should have as one of its main tasks a "Technical
Training Centre", to upgrade and teach technical skills.
This would include trade skills, for (younger) tradesmen who will form the nucleus
of future maintenance personnel.
Training should blend in with the other training programmes operated within the
group.
35.2 CHECK LIST FOR REPORTING ON PALM OIL MILLS.
In order to be able to check the machinery and equipment in the factory and its
ancilliated areas of operation engineers should prepare a check list which can be
used as a basis for a variety of monitoring purposes.
An example of a checklist is as under:
1. FACTORY
Reception area
: condition of mill internal roads
Weighbridge : condition, operational procedures

: recording methods, accuracy
Loading ramp : condition, operational procedures

: fruit spillage, overall cleanliness
Rail tracks : overall condition
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Transfer tracks : overall condition, operational procedures

Marshalling yard : type/condition of cage moving device
Cages : number operational

: number under repair
: total number available
Bogies : number operational
: number under repair
: total number available
Capstans & Ropes : condition, operational procedures
Sterilization
Check : chart recorders

: door wear and door joints
: door safety devices / measures
: wear plates/internal rail tracks
: hinged rail pieces
: condensate drainage
: condition silencer/pit
: condition valves , pipes , etc
: thermal insulation
Operation : pressures , cycle times (door open-door close)
: sequence of usage , automatic system operation
Building : check roof , rafters, columns, floor
Crane & Thresher
Crane : condition of: beam

: hoist cables
: tipping chains
: power cables
Thresher : condition of feeding device , RPM

: thresher drum, RPM
: bar clearance , spider arms
: threshing action, effectiveness
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Palm Oil Process
Unstripped bunch count 100 bunches

Check : all drive units, chains and sprockets
: machinery guards
Empty bunch/incinerating
Check : condition of MT bunch conveyors, horizontal and
inclined
: chutes etc.
: incinerator roofs
: incinerator grates
: external and internal brickwork
: drive units conveyors, machinery guards
: method of operation, sequence of usage
Digesters /Presses
Check : condition of bottom fruit conveyors

: fruit elevator chains and buckets
: top fruit conveyors
: feed chutes
: return fruit conveyors
: drive units and machinery guards
Digesters : overall condition shaft, arms, wear plates

: operating temperatures
: electrical loading
: operational method
Presses : press settings / electrical loading

: operating temperatures
: dilution rates / temperatures
: average throughput rates
: general performance/condition (visual)
Crude oil
Check : crude oil gutters and tank
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Palm Oil Process
: tank operating temperature

: all drive units and machinery guards
Vibrating screens : type

: condition and operation
: solids carry over / effectiveness
: dilution rates (at screens)
: tank heating type (closed coil or live steam)
Crude oil pumps : type , condition , method of operation
Clarification
Check : clarifier tank operation , levels and temperatures

: underflow composition and oil content
: pure oil skimming and operational procedures
: sludge tank operation
Decanters : feed rates, feed temperatures , electrical loading

: overall condition
Oil centrifuges : feed rates , feed temperatures , electrical loading

: type used , sequence of usage , condition
Sludge centrifuges : type used , sequence of usage, condition

: nozzle sizes, electrical loading
General station operation
Check : condition of valves ,pipelines and fittings

: vacuum driers → overall condition/ operation
: station working temperature
: station overall cleanliness
: special tools for centrifuges (available / condition)
: all drive units and machinery guards
Fibre / nut recovery
Cake Breaker Conv. : condition / operation
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Palm Oil Process
Primary Depericarper : ducting condition

: fan condition , electrical loading
: fibre cyclone condition
: rotary sluice condition
: nut/fibre separation effectiveness
Nut elevators : condition chains / buckets

: electrical load
Check : drives and machinery guards
Nut silos : overall condition, cleanliness
: average loading, operating temperatures
Check : heaters , filters , fans
: cleaning frequency
Nut grading drums : drum condition, drive, machinery guards
Nut cracking : feeding rates and methods

: overall cracker condition
: cracker loading (electrical)
: cracker effectiveness
: uncracked nut return, quantity, where
Pneumatic separation : ducting condition , fan condition

: feed conveyor condition, loading rates
: rotary sluice condition, cyclone condition
Hydro cyclones : overall operation, drum condition
: separation effectiveness , pump condition
: water supply and waste discharge method
Clay bath Separators : overall operation , clay condition , quantity

: gravity tests , pump condition
: water supply and discharge , clay recovery
: conveyor / elevator condition
: recovery rate
Kernel recovery
Kernel silo : overall condition, cleanliness
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Palm Oil Process
: average loading, operating temperatures

Check : heaters , fans , filters
: cleaning frequency
: conveyors , belts , etc
: vibrating screen , secondary separation
2. BOILER HOUSE AND POWER HOUSE
Boiler house
Fuel : check fuel storage space

: stored fuel condition ,shell content , dryness etc
: distribution of fuel, firing method
Boiler : operating pressures

: operating procedures
: operating frequency (period before change over)
Cleaning interval : furnace

: tubes
: chimney and soot collectors
Check : condition of: firing equipment

: fans, draught regulation and doors
: furnace and grate (visual)
: gauge glasses , indicators
: other instrumentation
: chimney temperatures
: ash and soot removal procedures
: blow down equipment and Procedures
Feed water pumps : overall condition

: operational procedures
: frequency of rotation
Check : all drive units and machinery guards
Feed water plant
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Palm Oil Process
: chemical dosing equipment condition /operation

: Deaerator condition, operation, temperatures
: manual/automatic/modulated feed supply
Demineralization plant
: General condition of vessels etc
: frequency of regeneration
: condition pumps, pipelines, valves etc.
: instrumentation check/calibration
: treated water storage system /quantity
: recording usage/chemicals etc.
Engine room
Prime movers : type and size of diesel driven alternators

: steam turbine driven alternators
condition of : diesel engines
: steam turbines
: alternators
Electrical switchboard
: overall condition, cleanliness
: condition of switch gear
: condition of instrumentation
: condition of safety devices
Back pressure vessel

: condition of pipelines, valves, fittings
: condition of instrumentation, gauges etc
: operational methods, pressures
: condition of safety equipment
Air compressors : condition, loading, operation

General : recording methods logbooks etc
: frequency of machine rotation / usage
: availability of safety devices etc
: overall cleanliness
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Palm Oil Process
3. OTHER OPERATIONAL AREAS
Raw-water treatment plant

Check : filters and pumps
: condition raw and treated water
: chemicals used , quantities
: methods of dosing etc
: frequency of cleaning
Effluent ponds / systems

Check : sludge pits / ponds
: screens , drains , pumps
: aeration devices , overflow alarms etc
: general conditions, safety measures etc
Laboratory
Check : equipment used ,condition
: chemicals used, correctness
: sub sampling room, recording methods
: sampling methods, analysis methods
: raw data results , data interpretation
: accuracy , overall cleanliness
Produce storage
Check : oil tank temperature recording
: method of calibration, measuring devices
: condition of tanks, pipelines, valves etc
: method of despatch , security etc
: tank cleaning interval
4. OTHER GENERAL MILL AREAS
Check condition/availability
: perimeter fencing
: station and factory lighting
: security
: lightning protection
: workshop equipment, material stock
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Palm Oil Process
: stores and spare part stock

: stores and spare part administration
Staff and labour housing

: water supply
: electricity supply
: housing availability
: overall power requirement
Staff and labour : Manager

: Assistant manager
: Shift staff
: Shift labour
: Workshop staff
: Workshop artisans
: Workshop labour
: Stores staff
: Administrative staff
5. OFFICE PROCEDURES /ATTENTION
General check/discussion
1 : FFB and production recording
: produce despatch recording
: factory efficiency / losses recording
: laboratory recording
: actual versus target results
2 : Factory maintenance planning/ recording
: own maintenance
: contract maintenance
: supplier maintenance
: other maintenance
3 : Workshop utilization
: repair work
: spare parts manufacture
4 : Stores procedures
: parts ordering
: parts receiving
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Palm Oil Process
: stock takes and checking

5 : Training of mill workers
: station supervisors
: station operators
: boiler attendants
: engine room attendants
: laboratory attendants
: samplers
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
SUMMARY OF MOST COMMON & MOST

ENCOUNTERED PROBLEMS IN CPO MILLS
The successful operation of a CPO mill depends for a large part on the ability of the
staff to recognize which or what problem is causing the lower than expected
performance of the mill.
Most oil mills have the same or similar common problems in the various areas of the
operation and each time the engineer "walks around" in the mill he must be alert to
these problems and put in an effort to eliminate or minimize the after effects of such
problems.
Most, if not all, problems have an effect on the process far beyond the station where
the problem exists or originated.
This " knock - on " effect is best illustrated starting from the sterilizer station, but is
equally applicable to all other stations in the mill.
The items listed hereunder are basically a reminder as to what to focus on, and where
to look for possible improvements.
STERILIZATION STATION
1. Equipment for the automatic cycle control
(including the chart recorders) : often and repeated break down

resulting in : manual operation, irregular cycles and sequencing of units
resulting in : excess steam consumption, higher oil losses on
condensate, irregular factory throughput, higher losses
overall.
the excess steam consumption
results in : higher and irregular steam demands on the boilers, higher
stresses on the boilers, higher fuel consumption, possible
fuel shortage.
The excess steam demand also
results in : using a dis-proportionate amount of "fresh" make up
steam from the boilers to the back pressure vessel, which
results in : an excessive amount of SUPERHEATED STEAM entering
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Palm Oil Process
the sterilizers, possibly causing scorching and overheating

of the exposed FFB
resulting in : poor bleach ability of the CPO produced, poor quality and
stability of the CPO produced (poor DOBI value)
Apart from the above there are a number of other directly or in directly related unfavorable
results from excessively fluctuating steam demands (frequent and more than necessary usage of
additional power supply from diesel driven alternator units is but one of them!) generally all
resulting in higher than necessary operating costs and maintenance requirements.
2. Other common problems in this station

a. Pipeline leakage, door seal leakage, poor instrumentation
b. Rail condition, both outside and inside the sterilizers
THRESHING STATION
1. Irregular feeding of the threshers, usually resulting in occasional over feeding of the threshers,
causing poor stripping of the fruit, high oil losses in EFB.
2. Overfeeding causes overloading of the subsequent conveyors and fruit elevators, unnecessary
compaction of the fruit during this transfer to the digesters, higher than necessary oil losses in
the conveyors and elevators.
3. All overfeeding/overloading causes additional stress to drive motors, gearboxes, couplings,
chains and sprockets etc. and will accelerate the wear and tear and increase the chancres of
breakdown.
PRESSING STATION
1. The irregular feeding pattern of the threshers has the effect of irregular feeding of the digesters,
causing irregular feeding of the screw presses.
This generally results in presses having to adjust the cone pressure to maintain an acceptable
percentage oil loss on press fibre.
With automatic controlled equipment this causes excessive usage of the controls, resulting in
accelerated wear and tear and increased chances of breakdown.
2. Poor automatic controls, or non functioning automatic controls resulting in higher than
necessary oil losses and/or higher than necessary nut breakage during pressing.
3. Poor instrumentation, resulting in a lack of control of the required optimum operating
conditions, such as temperatures, pressures, dilution rates etc.
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Palm Oil Process
NUT/KERNEL RECOVERY STATION
1. The most common problem here is usually a lack of maintenance. This is not necessarily due
to insufficient maintenance, but simply because the equipment wear rate is very high in this
station.
2. The lack of maintenance invites "short cuts" and improper operation of the equipment.
3. Improper operation usually results in reduced capacity, which then gets "overloaded" resulting
in high and higher than necessary losses in kernel and kernel of a lower overall quality.
4. The lack of cleanliness in this station is frequently the cause of breakdowns or a poor overall
performance.
Accumulated fibre, fibre dust, shell fragments etc. settling in chain drives, covering bearings
etc. cause increased wear and tear and increased chances of breakdowns.
CLARIFICATION STATION
1. Incorrect level control in tanks, possible overflows, spillage etc. is frequently the cause for high
losses.
2. Leakage from pipelines and equipment ditto.
3. Incorrect and/or improper operation of the equipment, i.e irregular usage, overloading,
incorrect temperatures etc.
4. Improper operation can usually be related back to a lack of training and a lack of operational
knowledge required by the operators in charge of this station.
5. Insufficient or unreliable instrumentation is frequently the cause of improper operation,
generally resulting in higher than necessary overall oil losses in this station and the production
of a lower than necessary quality of CPO produced and pumped to the storage tanks.
BOILER HOUSE & POWER HOUSE
1. Lack of instrumentation or instrumentation not functioning is frequently the cause for

incorrect operation.
2. The non functioning or the not correctly functioning of the automatic controls, ranging from
speed governors on generating sets, voltage regulators, power factor compensation, boiler feed
water modulating control equipment, boiler water level alarm equipment, demineralizer alarm
equipment, chemical dosing equipment etc. are all prime causes for incorrect operation, low
efficiency and high operating and maintenance costs.
3. Lack of operational knowledge by the key operators for boilers and engine room. lack of
training.
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Palm Oil Process
WATER TREATMENT
1. The most common problem is usually the lack of training of the key operators, resulting in
poor control and poor efficiency.
The indirect results of this can be disastrous, in the form of (frequent) boiler breakdowns, high
repair costs and extended down time or reduced factory operation.
2. This is another area where the "knock-on " effects can be very extensive indeed, for example:
Poor boiler water control will eventually lead to a much reduced output of the turbines, as
over a period of time the impurities carried over with the steam will have caused a build up on
the turbine rotor blades and also caused corrosion and extra wear on the stationary guide
blades of the turbine.
In other words, gradually the power delivered by the turbine appears to get less and less,
upsetting the steam/power balance, causing an apparent lack of power availability/generation
by the turbines and generally results in additional usage of the diesel driven generator sets to
compensate for that.
LABORATORY OPERATIONS
1. Calibration of instruments and equipment

2. Accuracy of the test results, consistency of accuracy of sampling and test procedures
3. Correct interpretation of the results of the tests, action recommended.
4. Lack of training of key operators, analysts, samplers
EFFLUENT TREATMENT
1. Maintenance and upkeep of the various treatment ponds

2. Re-circulating, de-silting and overflows
3. Incorrect operation of the ponds resulting from a lack of knowledge of the biological actions
taking place
4. Lack of interest of staff in this "dirty , unimportant" part of the operation, often resulting in
nobody wanting to take the responsibility for this operation.
WORKSHOP AND MAINTENANCE
1. Lack of suitably trained / skilled personnel

2. Lack of proper records for machinery / equipment
3. Lack of keeping records up to date
4. Lack of proper , preventative, scheduling of maintenance
5. Lack of proper tools/equipment to perform the maintenance, and/or the upkeep of such
tools. Lack of timely replacement of worn out equipment, either due to lack of funds (or
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Palm Oil Process
insufficient budgeting) or due to an indifferent approach i.e. to wait till equipment breaks
down or collapses before replacing it.
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
1. Frequently differs from operator to operator, from worker to worker.

2. No proper system established by management
3. Lack of direct involvement by management, too much left to the operators initiative.
GENERAL COMMUNICATION
1. Feed back often not accurate and / or on an irregular , ad-hoc basis

2. Responsibility for particular areas of operation not clearly outlined, too many "grey" areas.
3. Information flow in and out insufficient.
GENERAL TRAINING
1. Lack of systematic approach and follow up.

2. Lack of proper records / recording of training activities
3. Too often on ad-hoc basis, trainees too often used as "cheap" additional labour.
Obviously there are many more problem items and areas which deserve a similar
approach as the ones noted above and certainly there are specific problem for any
specific mill.
The above is not a definitive list, just an indication of how to develop a "feel" for the job
of "running a mill" and getting a grip on the most common problems!
The earlier issued paper called: "General contributory factors that influence quality, losses
and performance" (incorporated in the Palm Oil Mill Management Circulars on Quality)
should also be read in conjunction with the above notes.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #36
PROCESS CONTROL
36.1.01 The aim of process control.
The aim of process control is to detect the likelihood of a change in the conditions
under which the factory is operating before the change actually occurs so that
action may be taken to ensure that operation will continue at the maximum
economic extraction efficiency whilst producing products of the best possible
quality.
36.1.02 The F.F.B. ("raw material") to the mill can vary considerably, depending on: -
Planting material
- Age of planting
- Pollination
- Climatic conditions
- Soil conditions
- Fertilizer programmes
- Harvesting methods
- Transportation methods
- Reception systems (x)
(All of the above except the item marked (x) are noted under the various headings
in chapter 1, whilst the item marked (x) is referred to in chapter 24.)
36.1.03 Since in any one day the effect of the full range of these variables on delivered
F.F.B. can be experienced, it should be clear that a compromise has to be accepted.
This does not simply imply that, for instance, a set sterilizer cycle can be used
throughout the year, under the claim that it is impossible to cater for the variation
in the condition of the F.F.B.
The major variables that the mill should detect and cater for are:
- bunch composition
- ripeness standards
- oil content
- fruit to nut ratio
- shell to kernel ratio
- form (size) of nut
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Palm Oil Process
36.1.04 To achieve efficient process control requires a constant flow of data, most of which
is generated and calculated by the mill laboratory.
For process control purposes, laboratory data should be considered as a newspaper

rather then a history sheet, i.e. a report of "what is happening now".
It follows that at least some of the laboratory data should be used on the day it is
produced and not on the following day or days after that.
If tomorrow is good enough, there is no point in for instance using (expensive)

"Fosslet" equipment, when Soxhlets will give the same answer for less cost, but
slower.
36.1.05 Factory Engineers in charge should see the results as they are produced.
It is of no use waiting until tomorrow,for by then the oil or kernel will be lost,
never to be recovered.
36.2 Examination of F.F.B.
36.2.01 It is the primary responsibility of the (estate) field management to harvest F.F.B. at
optimum ripeness.
Given the wide spread of area of the plantation(s), the ratio of Supervisors to
workers and the desire of workers to increase immediate earnings, it is unrealistic
to expect that the optimum conditions will be achieved at all times or even at any
time.
36.2.02 To put the difficulty of control in perspective comparison with a mill operation is
perhaps valid and will illustrate the point.
Mill managers comments in reports often state, for instance, that the control of
the operators feeding the threshers is difficult.
The thresher operation is at a distance measured in meters from the mill office and
under the direction of shift engineers situated at a distance of a few steps away
from the operation.
Despite this control is difficult!
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Palm Oil Process
How much more so in the plantation, where distances are in kilometres and spread
over large hectarages!
36.2.03 In order to establish F.F.B. condition and from that enable the best or most suitable
sterilizer cycle to be established, F.F.B. should be examined to determine the
percentage "black and hard" bunches.
To achieve optimum yield, all bunches must be stripped and since there is a limit to
the percentage of bunches that can be recycled without loosing mill capacity, the
sterilizer cycles have to be selected to achieve at least say 95 % efficiency of
stripping.
36.2.04 Over the years various methods of F.F.B. assessment have been developed and
tried, each having their own peculiarities.
The data produced can be useful as an aid to harvesting control, even though this
data is "historic".
The method has to be simple and economic in order to survive and have the desired
effect.
36.2.05 It is important that the only parameter measured is :
"HARD AND BLACK BUNCHES" .
Attempts to include various other classifications such as "under ripe", "ripe", "over
ripe", "rotten", "long stalks" etc cannot be successful as they depend too much on
subjective assessment, whereas "hard and black" can be numerically defined and is
indisputable.
If necessary the cage or container in which these bunches are counted can be kept
apart and held for a later recheck.
36.2.06 As noted under 2.01 above, there will always be imperfections in the control of
harvesting and the component of major interest to the mill is the "hard and black"
bunch percentage.
If this is accepted and that regardless of the size of any bunch with less than 5 (five)
loose fruit on arrival at the mill this bunch is qualified as "hard", then by
transferring not less then 100 bunches from one cage to another under the
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Palm Oil Process
supervision of supervisor and two tally counters - one to count all bunches and -
one to counting "hard " bunches, a percentage hard bunch can be established.
This measurement should be made for each contributing division, twice per week
and the results recorded and reported.
36.2.07 The operator supervising the operation can be trained easily, the record allows
comparison between various areas / divisions, days, weeks, months and years.
If the hard bunch percentage is noted to be increasing, the frequency of checking

and reporting can be increased to keep track of this trend.
36.3 "EMPTY" BUNCH CHECKING
36.3.01 The largest possible source of product loss under normal operating conditions is
in UNSTRIPPED BUNCH
36.3.02 It follows that in order to establish what this loss is, the "empty bunch" conveyor
must be monitored continuously and at all times and any unstripped bunch (
U.S.B.) returned for further processing.
36.3.03 As the percentage U.S.B. is a measure of sterilizing efficiency and that a high recycle
rate of U.S.B. reduces the mill's through put, data must be gathered and the
accuracy of data on U.S.B. must be checked.
U.S.B. can be defined as: any bunch which has more than 5 (five) fruit still inside
the bunch.
36.3.04 U.S.B. can result from three causes:
a) Inadequate threshing
All U.S.B. to be re threshed, without re sterilizing.
A reduction in U.S.B. then shows the percentage resulting from inadequate
threshing.
b) Inadequate sterilizing
The balance U.S.B. from a) above is re sterilized and re threshed.
A reduction in U.S.B. shows the percentage due to inadequate sterilization.
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Palm Oil Process
c) Nature of the bunch

The balance can be taken as the percentage U.S.B. as a result of the nature of
the bunch.
(These used to be called "katte koppen" or "knot heads").
The results of these checks should be of interest to plant breeders, since there is
likely to be a genetic reason as to why these bunches remain hard and
unstrippable.
36.3.05 An effective method of measuring U.S.B. is to check not less than 100 "empty
bunches", every hour, using exactly the same method as for the "hard and black"
bunch count.
Again, the results are to be recorded and reported.
36.3.06 The method as described above does not replace the 100% monitoring of the
"empty" bunch conveyor and the recycling of the U.S.B.
Indeed it provides a basis for comparing the efficiency of the recycle operation,
i.e. the % measured should relate to the number of cages recycled per shift, which
figure should also be recorded.
36.3.07 The procedures are quite simple and if maximum oil and kernel recovery are to be
achieved they are essential and the cost is far less than operating a laboratory which
under normal conditions will provide data that monitor much smaller potential
losses.
36.4 SAMPLING.
36.4.01 It is self evident that samples should be representative of the product stream being
sampled.
It is also self evident that the various product streams vary in composition from
time to time and that some are more homogeneous than others and some are
heterogeneous.
Thus, the selection of sample frequencies and size is critical, if data obtained from
the sample is to be accurate and viable.
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Palm Oil Process
36.4.02 To illustrate the point:
All empty bunches were taken from the conveyor of a particular mill over a period
of time.
Each separately analyzed for oil content and the results subjected to statistical
analysis.
The results showed that to obtain a representative sample of the product stream not
less than 50 % of the bunches would have to be taken.
It also showed that a bunch taken once per hour gave a totally misleading result
for the operator takes an "average" bunch, i.e. one of medium size which seems to
well stripped.
Even instituting a system whereby the operator takes the tenth (or the twentieth)
bunch to leave the thresher after it arrives at the conveyor and thereby instituting
a degree of random selection hardly improves matters.
Empty bunches is the extreme example but illustrates some of the difficulties.
36.4.03 At the other end of the scale:
Two laboratories at two different mills were noted to obtain differing results on
dirt in oil.
Procedures at each laboratory were checked and no errors found, analyst and
equipment were transposed and the difference persisted.
The variability was tracked down to sub sampling errors, i.e. the drawing of a
sample from the sum of the daily samples.
Specks of dirt are distributed through the oil and unless it is well homogenized a
sub sampling error can occur.
This represents the other extreme of an apparently homogeneous product stream

which contains an unevenly dispersed minor constituent.
36.4.04 In general, the major sampling problem arises in the kernel station, especially in
cracked mixtures and admixture sampling.
The sample size must be large enough, but what is large enough?
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Palm Oil Process
Clearly 10 grams is too small, perhaps 5 kilogram is too large.

The sample will vary from mill to mill and from time to time.
A large primary sample should be taken and analyzed, re homogenized and split
into a number of sub portions and each separately analyzed.
If the several sub portions show similar analysis results then the sub portions size
could have been large enough for primary sampling and the process can be
repeated , using more sub portions.
If there are unacceptable differences between the analysis results then the sub
portions are too small for primary sampling purposes.
All re mixing must be done thoroughly to ensure satisfactory results.
The test has to be done many times to determine a satisfactory primary sample size.
36.4.05 Samples are normally drawn at a nominally one hour interval (for no better reason
than it seems reasonable!) For the liquid product streams it probably is, but for
kernel recovery stream it might not be and investigation into variability within the
hour is needed to establish this timing interval.
36.5 INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS:
36.5.01 It is of no use drawing samples and analyzing them if the data produced is not used.
Results should flow on to the operating staff, as they are produced.
Whilst average results can be used in some cases, in many areas they are misleading
and can cover inefficiency in operation.
36.5.02 If a one month average for one sludge centrifuge is 0.99% oil loss on wet basis and
for another is 1.05 % oil loss on wet basis, the former may be considered the better;
but if the range results is 0.77% to 1.22%, and 0.85 5 to 1.15 % respectively, the
second machine is probably the better one!
In both cases the process is anyway "out of control", i.e. the results are
unpredictable, probably because the dilution rate is out of control.
36.5.03 A very simple scientific calculator will allow the mean (average) result and the
standard deviation (degree of variability) to be calculated as quickly as the mean
alone can be calculated.
Reporting of mean and standard deviation should be adopted.

Any high variability should be investigated to determine the cause.
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Palm Oil Process
As some variability is inevitable, a method of checking trends is necessary.

A simple method is to take the average of a number of results, e.g. the last four
results, plot these on a graph and at the same time plot the range on the same
sheet.
This is historic to some extend, but will show when, for example, the sludge
centrifuge performance deteriorated and a nozzle change or an investigation is
needed.
36.6 GENERAL
The above only scratches the surface of process control but gives some idea of what
should be done to change the tendency of some to consider mills to be a disposal
system for F.F.B to considering them to be optimum extraction units.
An old mill is not to written off as beyond hope, some of the older mills are still
most efficient, with good process control, albeit that they have been modified and
extended over the years.
36.6.01 The introduction of computers into the oil mill office and laboratory environment
can assist to a large degree to keep, calculate and analyse data gathered from the
process and equipment.
36.6.02 Virtually all data produced by these areas can be "computerized" and a standard
quality output of analyses and reports can be generated by either professionally
written special software, or by making use of and adapting the already available
common software for spread sheets and data base manipulation.
36.6.03 Once introduced and "set-up", the risk of calculating errors, statistical analysis
errors etc. of considerable amounts of data can virtually be eliminated, whilst at the
same time reports can quickly and correctly be produced and used as a "tool" by
the engineers and management of the oil mill.
36.6.04 Laboratory data could be integrated with data as noted under Chapter 35-
Maintenance, which would further enhance the capability of effective control of the
processing of palm products.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #37
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control and Process control are inter dependent and thus one can not be
effective without the other being equally as effective and well controlled.
The majority of these monitoring processes rely on data gathered from the samples
taken during the process and from the samples taken from the final products of
C.P.O and P.K.
37.1 THE LABORATORY
Methods of sampling and analysis.
From the section on process control the following requirements can be noted:
a) the weighing or measuring of all material supplied and discharged during the
process of producing C.P.O and P.K. and of important semi - products (if
any).
b) standardized methods of analysis, which should be simple and easy

reproducible.
c) a good system of sampling , so that a representative set of samples is secured.
d) an efficient system for recording the data resulting from the various tests and
checks carried out.
37.1.01 The process control is intended in the first place for the technical
staff of the mill, who need the data obtained by the tests and checks for an efficient
and economic management of the mill.
More over, the process control enables the compilation of an accurate
record/account of the work done and the results produced by the mill.
By comparison of these (control) reports with those of similar or associated mills, it

will sooner or later be possible to track down any imperfections so that
improvements, modifications and or more efficient work methods can be
introduced earlier and with the greatest possible chace of success.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
37.1.02 The laboratory tests cover three distinct different areas:
I ) The QUALITY analysis of the products ( C.P.O. and P.K. )
II) The LOSSES sustained from processing F.F.B. into oil and kernel
III) The EFFICIENCY of individual items of machinery
It will be clear that on many cases the tests and checks performed under the
headings above can and will overlap, since an inefficient machine usually allows
high losses and vice versa high losses usually indicate a poor state of the machinery
involved.
I : Quality analysis of Crude Palm Oil ( C.P.O.)
The mill laboratory must routinely check at least the following three parameters on
the quality of the oil:
I.01 the Free Fatty Acid ( F.F.A.) percentage
I.02 the Volatile Matter ( V.M. ) or moisture percentage
I.03 the Dirt percentage
The sampling of the production oil must be done at a point after the purifier and
after the oil dryer and the following method should be used:
A one litre bottle, which can be closed air tight, calibrated at one centimetre
intervals is placed at each supply point.
At the end of each half hour one centimetre of oil is taken from the sample point.
The bottle is closed air tight again.
At the end of the production run or shift, the sample is taken to the laboratory.
(37 I).01 DETERMINATION OF F.F.A. % IN OIL :
i) 3 to 5 grammes of melted and homogenized oil are weighed accurately into a

250 cc chemical flask.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
ii) 50 cc of previously neutralized isopropyl alcohol (90-96%) are added and the
mixture warmed in a water bath for about 5 minutes.
iii) The solution is titrated against an NaOH solution in an accurate

concentration of 0.1N on phenolphthalein.
iv) From the number of cc of the NaOH solution consumed minus the number
of cc of NaOH used in the blank test, it is possible to determine the F.F.A. %,
expressed as free palmitic acid .
(molecular weight 256)
Thus F.F.A. can be calculated:
number of cc NaOH (minus blank) x normality NaOH x 256 x 100

FFA = ————————————————————————————
weight of sample in grammes x 1000
With pre prepared standard solutions, the following method is generally used:
i) Add three drops of 0.1% phenolphthalein indicator.
ii) Titrate N/10 Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) into the oil until the first
persistent pink colour is obtained.
iii) No attention should be paid to the subsequent fading of the pink colour.
iv) Record the number of ml of N/10 KOH required.
v) Calculate the F.F.A. % :
A x 2.56
FFA % = ———————
weight of oil
where A = number of ml of N10/KOH required.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
NOTE:
The reddish colour of the oil makes the recognition of the end point somewhat
difficult and a certain amount of practice is required.
The most important point to watch is the colour change in the upper layer of the
spirit and not in the lower layer of it.
In order to obtain an accurate indication of the acidity by this method, the alkali
should be added as quickly as possible.
If the analyst is not fast enough, a rough first titration , followed by an accurate
second titration should be practised.
The use of "standard solutions" is recommended, the results obtained are usually
more accurate and the work method becomes a routine which is easy to perform.
Basic chemicals required for analytical work are generally obtainable in accurately
pre measured and pre mixed (small) quantities, since most of these have only a
limited "shelf" life.
The preparation of standard solutions can be done as under:
a) Preparation of neutralized isopropyl alcohol
i) To 200 ml of isopropyl alcohol in a conical flask add three drops of

phenolphthalein.
ii) Titrate against N/10 KOH until a pink colour is obtained.
(a few drops only are required)
b) Preparation of 0.1 % Phenolphthalein from a 1.0 % phenolphthalein solution:

(the solution is normally supplied in a 1.0 % strength)
i) Put 10 ml of the 1.0 5 solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask.

(use a 10 ml pipette)
ii) Fill up the 100 ml volumetric flask to the 100 ml mark exactly.
c) Preparation of the 0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide solution

(N/10 KOH):
i) 0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide can be packed in various ways, in plastic packs

of a standard weight.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
ii) Check the size of the pack and if suitably sized, pour the entire contents of
the pack into a suitably sized volumetric flask and fill with distilled water.
iii) The usual standard size suits a 500 ml flask, which when filled with
distilled water to the 500 ml mark exactly gives the solution at the correct
strength.
(37 I).02 VOLATILE MATTER ( moisture content ) % IN OIL :
i) Weigh accurately 10 to 15 grammes of oil into a crystallisation dish ("watch

glass") and keep in a (conventional) oven for 3 hours at a temperature of 105
degree Celsius.
ii) Remove the sample from the oven, cool in desiccator and weigh accurately.
iii) Replace the sample in the oven, dry for 1 hour and weigh the sample again.
iv) Continue this procedure until a constant weight to the second decimal
point is obtained.
v) Record all weights and the time of drying accurately.
NOTE:
The use of a magnetron oven ( micro wave ) type is also practised and the in oven
drying times can usually be reduced considerably.
Example of recording:
Moisture determination of oil after purifier, or after dryer:
Date of sample : dd/mm/yy

Date of analysis : dd/mm/yy
Dish no : D1
Weight of dish : 40.1234 grammes
Weight of dish + wet sample : 51.2345 grammes
Time in oven Time out oven Weight of dish + sample
9.30 am 12.30 pm 50.6789
1.00 pm 2.00 pm 50.2345
2.30 pm 3.30 pm 50.2300
4.00 pm 4.30 pm 50.2300
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Calculation:
weight of moisture
V.M. % = —————————— x 100 %
weight of wet sample
(51.2345 - 50.2300)
—————————— x 100 %
(51.2345 - 40.1234)
(37 I).03 DIRT percentage on production oil
Method:
i) The filter paper must be well rinsed with Shellsol, (or equivalent) then
dried in oven for 15 to 20 minutes at 105 degrees Celsius, allowed to
cool in desiccator and then accurately weighed.
ii) About 40 to 50 grammes of oil is weighed accurately into a 250 ml
flask
iii) Heat for about 10 minutes and add 50 ml of shellsol, shake
vigorously to mix the contents.
iv) The solution is then filtered through a "Gooch" crucible, under
vacuum.
v) The filter paper is then washed thoroughly with solvent, from a jet of
a wash bottle.
The washing must be thorough to ensure that no trace of oil is left on
the filter paper.
vi) The weighed crucible and filter paper are then dried in the oven at 105
degr. C. for two hours.
vii) It is then left in a desiccator to cool down and weighed again.
This procedure is continued until constant weight to the second decimal point is
obtained.
Calculation:
Let A = weight of flask

Let B = weight of flask + sample
Let C = weight of crucible + filter paper
Let D = weight of crucible + filter paper + dry non-oily solids
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
weight of non oily solids

Dirt % = ——————————— x 100 %, or
weight of sample
(D - C)
= ———— x 100 %
(B - A)
37.1.03 There are a number of other factors which are also indicative of the quality of
C.P.O. but the tests for these are not normally performed by the oil mil
laboratory, but by the manufacturers of the products made from palm oil.
Such test usually include or concern the oxidation of the oil and the bleach-ability
of the oil.
The bleach-ability of palm oil has been found to be related to the degree of
oxidation of the oil.
37.2 Oxidation occurs largely as a result of processing methods, storage of oil, handling
of the oil and increases notably by:
a) Very high temperatures during the extraction (> 100 degr.C.)
b) Very high temperatures for drying oil, especially if in direct contact with hot
air. (hence the preferred use of a vacuum dryer, which operates at lower
temperatures )
c) Incorrect pumping, handling, where air is mixed with oil, or when it falls into
tanks with such a force that considerable turbulence is caused.
d) Storage at too high temperatures for too long periods.
e) During shipments, by over heating, incorrect placed heating coils etc.
37.2.01 In its natural state, palm oil contains anti oxidants (the most common being to
copherols) and the avoidance of the exposure of too hot oil to the atmosphere will
assist to keep oxidation levels low.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
The oxidation levels can be measured by determining the Peroxide Value (P.V.) of
the hydro peroxides formed during the initial stages of oxidation.
Continued oxidation will form saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and ketones.
37.2.02 A series of tests over a period of time will show the increase in P.V. (in m.e./kg),
but this test is not concensive and the later formed oxidation compounds are
measured using benzidine, giving the Benzidine Value (B.V.)
For practical quality estimation, the sum of the oxidation products us used,
commonly known as the total oxidation value ( TOTOX ) and is calculated as
follows:
Totox = 2 x P.V. + B.V.
Good quality oil should be at maximum P.V. = ± 3 m.e./kg and have a B.V. of ± 6
at the time of shipment.
37.3 Bleach-ability can be measured by treating an oil sample by a standardized method

and measuring the residual colour by comparison with a (Lovibond) tinto meter.
The residual colour is due to a combination of carotene and oxidized fatty acids at
high temperature and gives some indication of the amount of processing, refining
etc. that will be necessary to produce good quality, palatable food products.
37.4 QUALITY ANALYSIS OF PALM KERNEL.
37.4.01 Determination of Shell % in kernel
i) From a sample of 1000 to 1500 grammes of kernel the shell particles are
removed , by hand.
ii) If there are any half cracked or uncracked nuts present, then the kernels in
these nuts must be taken out of the shells first.
iii) The percentage of separated shell particles is determined by the weight of the
initial sample of the kernels.
Calculation:
weight of shells only
————————— x 100 %
total sample weight
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
37.4.02 Determination of Dirt % in kernels
As for the above , but dirt is understood to be any particles which cannot be
regarded as either kernel or shell , i.e. abortive fruit, fibrous matter, bunch particles
etc.
Calculation:
weight of dirt
————————— x 100 %
total sample weight
37.4.03 Percentage of broken kernels
i) From the sample that has been used to find the shells and dirt
percentages, the broken kernels are sorted out as well.
ii) The percentage of broken kernel is calculated by weight of the initial sample:
Calculation:
weight of broken kernel
——————————— x 100 %
total sample weight
37.4.04 Determination of kernel discolouration
i) Take one hundred kernels at random from the sample that has been taken for
the determination of shell. dirt and broken kernel.
ii) The kernels are each cut into two equal parts, perpendicularly to their
longitudinal axis.
iii) Of every bisected kernel one half is laid in a cut out of a special board
provided with 10 x 10 holes.
iv) Now the sections are checked for colour.
A distinction is made between marked discolouration, slight discolouration and no

visible discolouration.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
NOTE:
The distinction made is merely a subjective one and unless the check is always
performed by the same person, there can be considerable differences and the check
will be of little value.
37.4.05 Moisture percentage in kernels
i) Approximately 150 grammes of kernel , cleared of shells, dirt etc. are

ground or minced in a small grinding machine.
ii) This should be done as rapidly as possible, to prevent desiccation.
iii) 100 grammes of the ground substance are dried to a constant weight in a
drying oven, using exact similar techniques and methods as used for oil.
Calculation:
weight of moisture
—————————— x 100 %
weight of wet sample
37.4.06 Determination of F.F.A. in kernel
This can be determined by extracting some oil from the kernels of the sample taken
and by using similar methods os described for C.P.O.
37.4.07 Oil percentage in kernels
Although not necessarily a quality parameter, the laboratory can determine the oil
content.
From the ground sample used for moisture determination the oil content can be
established using similar techniques as for the determination of oil losses.
37.5 DETERMINATION OF OIL LOSSES.
37.5.01 During the process of extracting oil and kernel from the fruit, oil losses will occur in
a number of areas.
Samples are taken and tests are conducted to determine where oil is lost and how
much of it is lost.
In order of the process, the following losses can be calculated:

a) oil loss on sterilizer condensate
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
b) oil loss on empty bunches

c) oil loss on fibre ( ex pressing equipment)
d) oil losses sustained by clarification
e) oil losses on nuts
a) Oil loss on sterilizer condensate
A continuous sample should be drawn from the condensate discharge lines of the
sterilizers.
This can be achieved with the aid of a sampling tube, fitted with a "dropper".
From the average oil content of the condensate, the measured or calculated
quantity of the condensate and the quantity of F.F.B processed it is possible to
calculate the oil loss to F.F.B.
b ) Oil loss on empty bunches
(see also section on empty bunch checking and U.S.B. under the heading Process
Control)
i) From a representative sample of empty bunches, obtain two samples of 100

grammes each ( by the "mixing - quartering - mixing - quartering"
technique)
ii) Determine the moisture and oil content of the samples by the usual method
iii) The daily average or periodical average is calculated from the analytical figures
(i.e. the arithmetical mean of the replicate determinations) in proportion to the
total quantity of bunches processed.
iv) This will produce a "weighed" average.
v) Finally the ratio oil loss in empty bunches to F.F.B. is calculated via the weight of
the empty bunches.
c ) Oil loss on fibre.
Fibre samples can be taken at various points in the process, i.e. at the presses to
determine the individual press performance or at the end of the cake breaker
conveyor to determine the overall oil loss on fibre etc.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Sampling procedures and test procedures are similar.

Sampling:
i) Sampling must be done at hourly intervals during the mill operation, with the
first sample to be taken one hour after the mill (pressing station) has started.
ii) A good "hand full" of the sample is to be collected, including the fibre and the
fines.
iii) Store the sample immediately in an air tight container or bag, clearly labelled
to indicate the source of the sample.
iv) Store the container in the coolest convenient place near the sampling point.
Sub sampling:
The most suitable method for sub sampling is as follows:
i) Pour main sample onto a clean sheet of paper or plastic

ii) Sort out the kernels, shells and stalks etc. from the main sample
iii) Mix the remainder thoroughly, breaking up lumps etc. but ensure that no
spillage of fines or fibre takes place
iv) Quarter the main sample until a sample of about 500 grammes is left over,
again ensuring that all the fines are included.
v) Cut or chop the sample to uniform size with a suitable chopper or grinder.
vi) Mix this chopped up sample thoroughly and quarter to a final size of about 15
grammes for analysis.
Make sure that during the quartering fines divided for one quarter do not get
mixed with other quarters.
vii) The analysis of the fibre sub sample must include all the fines within that
sample and be carried out immediately after obtaining the final sub sample.
Analysis:
Moisture:
The method for moisture determination and recording is exactly similar to the one
as described for the moisture determination in oil ( see 1.02 )
Oil determination (using Soxhlet extraction method)
i) Transfer the properly dried sample (from above) and keep in desiccator.
ii) Extract the oil and continue to extract until a clear solution is obtained, i.e.
until no trace of oil left in the sample is observed.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
iii) The recording of weights should be recorded directly below the recordings of
the ( previously ) dried sample.
iv) The weight of the extracted oil and the weight of dried fibre without oil must
be recorded.
v) The method of dying is as for the moisture determination, but in this case with
hourly intervals.
Example:
Cake breaker conveyor:
MOISTURE DETERMINATION
Date of sample : dd/mm/yy

Date of analysis : dd/mm/yy
Thimble no : ........
A) Weight of thimble : .......
Weight of thimble + sample before drying : .......
Time in oven Time out oven Weight of thimble + sample after

drying
8.00 am 1.00 pm
2.00 pm 4.00 pm
5.30 pm 7.30 pm
B) Weight of dried sample + thimble : ...........
OIL DETERMINATION: (sample after extraction)
C) 22.00 - 24.00 ..........(thimble plus

24.00 - 01.00 ..........(extracted fibre)
D) 22.00 - 23.00 ...........( extracted

24.00 - 01.00 ...........( oil )
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Calculation:
Let A = weight of dry thimble

Let B = Weight of thimble + dry fibre (fibre + oil)
Let C = Weight of thimble + extracted fibre (without oil)
Let D = Weight of oil extracted
OIL LOSS ON DRY BASIS may be calculated by at least two methods:
D
i) O.L.D.B. = ————— X 100 %
B-A
D
ii) O.L.D.B. = ————— X 100 %
C+D-A
To decide which equation should be used, check the following:
If the analysis has been carried out perfectly correct then the equation C + D = B
will hold.
However, some error will usually occur, so that C+D is > B, or C+D is < B.
If C + D < B use equation ii)

If C + D > B use equation i)
If C + D = B use either i) or ii), the simplest being i)
The daily average or periodic average is calculated from the analytical figures
(arithmetical mean of the duplicate determinations) in proportion to the quantity
of bunches handled during the period.
From the figures, the quantity of fibre and the bunches handled, the ratio of oil loss
in fibre to bunch weight can be calculated.
d) oil loss on sludge:
Sludge samples can be taken from the outlet of the individual machines, for
checking their performance, or from the outlet for the "final" sludge before the
disposal to the effluent treatment, for the overall loss of oil on sludge.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
The sampling procedures and the analysis method for both samples is identical.
Sampling:
i) Sampling should start one hour after the clarification station has "started" and
thereafter at hourly intervals.
ii) Collect ± 500 ml from the sampling point into a suitable container and seal
airtight.
iii) Shake vigorously, then pour 100 ml of the well mixed sample into a measuring
cylinder.
iv) Pour the measured 100 ml into a 1000 ml bottle and seal air tight.
v) Sampling throughout the normal operating day of the mill should
produce at maximum 800 ml per shift which can all be kept in the 1000 ml
bottle.
vi) At the end of the day, maximum 3 bottles @ 1000 ml, clearly labelled with
the source and date can be taken to the laboratory.
Sub sampling and Analysis:
Each 1000 ml bottle should be graduated on a 100 ml scale.

The total quantity of the sample depends on the total time of operation of the mill.
Assuming a 3 shift operation:

There will be 3 bottles of samples
i) Shake each bottle vigorously and pour away ± half of the sample.
ii) Repeat above procedure once more
iii) Mix all three bottles into one
iv) From the total mixed sample, shaken thoroughly pour away half the sample
v) From the remainder, shaken thoroughly, pour out a final sample of about 60
grammes for analysis into a weighed, dry beaker.
Assuming a 2 shift operation:

There will be 2 bottles of samples
i) Shake each bottle vigorously and pour away exactly half of the samples by
means of a measuring cylinder.
ii) Mix the 2 bottles into one
iii) From the total mixed sample proceed as described for the 3 shift operation.
Assuming a 1 shift operation: (or individual machine samples)

i) Shake the sample vigorously and pour away half the sample
ii) Shake the other half and pour out a final sample of about 60 grammes for
analysis.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
ANALYSIS:
A) Moisture determination:
The method of moisture determination is the same as the method used for fibre
analysis, i.e. dry until constant weight is obtained, but in this case however the
drying is more critical.
B) Oil determination:
The final dried sample must be stored properly in a desiccator before oil extraction.
The oil is to be extracted as soon as possible to prevent absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere.
i) Final dried sample is quickly soaked in solvent

ii) With the aid of a spatula, the sample in solvent is scraped in to a porcelain
mortar.
The sample is properly and carefully ground and sheared, taking care that no
solvent or solids are spilled.
iii) The ground sample is then filtered, using the finest grade filter paper.
Suction filtration is necessary to reduce the filtration time.
iv) The dry weight of the filter paper is to be recorded.
The filter paper together with the solids should be placed in the thimble for
immediate extraction in the Soxhlet apparatus.
v) When extraction is complete, the thimble is to be dried in the oven under
similar procedures as described for the fibre analysis.
vi) The extracted oil is to be dried and weighed.
CALCULATION OF LOSSES:
Let a = weight of beaker

Let b = weight of beaker + wet sample (moisture-oil-solids)
Let c = weight of beaker + dry sludge ( oil + solids)
Let d = weight of thimble + filter paper
Let e = weight of thimble + filter paper + dry sludge (oil+solids)
Let f = weight of thimble + non-oily sludge
Let g = weight of extracted oil
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Calculation and recording of oil losses on both wet and dry basis can thus be made:
c-a
moisture % = ————— x 100 %
b-a
O.L.D.B. =
g
(method 1 ) ————— x 100 %
e-d
e-f
(method 2 ) ————— x 100 %
e-d
O.L.W.B. =
g
(method 1 ) ————— x 100 %
b-a
c-f
(method 2 ) ————— x 100 %
b-a
The methods 2 are usually preferred by the mill laboratories and reported in the
mill control records.
(With both methods recorded, there is sufficient data for statistical comparison
and determination of error)
e) Oil loss on nuts:
Sampling procedures:
Nut samples can be taken from the outlet of the depericarper, at hourly intervals
The sample size should be about 750 grammes and stored in an airtight container
until transferred to the laboratory.
Sub sampling
The final sample is obtained by mixing / quartering technique, until a sample of

about 125 grammes remains
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Analysis:
The nuts are cracked by hand and the kernels separated from the shells.
From an accurately weighed quantity of 100 grammes of shells the oil and
moisture contents are determined, using similar procedures as those used for other
oil and moisture determinations described previously.
Calculation:
The percentage of oil lost in / on nuts by weight of fruit bunches is:
axbxd
——————— %, in which
c x 100
a = percentage of shell to bunches

b = percentage of non-oily solids in shells produced
c = percentage of non-oily solids in shell used for analysis
d = percentage of oil to shell analyzed.
It is necessary to determine the moisture contents of the shells first in order to be

able to calculate the oil loss on nuts.
With the method described any kernel oil adhering to the inside of the shells is
included in the percentage palm oil lost on nuts.
This is a small and more or less constant error and can be accepted.
(It is not improbable that at least part of the oil at the inside of the shells is in fact
palm oil which during the sterilization process has percolated into the nuts through
the germination holes)
The weighed average of the analytical figures can be calculated for a period and
from this the oil loss on nuts can be established.
37.6 Other tests:
A number of other tests can be performed in the laboratory, usually at the request
of the mill management or engineers to determine the efficiency of the individual
machines or equipment.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
The frequency and the type of samples/tests are often depending of the available
laboratory skills and equipment.
Samples taken for such tests are usually "spot - check" samples, often "before" and
"after" a particular machine or piece of equipment.
The analysis methods for oil, sludge, fibre, nuts, kernel etc. are as described under
the various commodities, whilst special techniques for other tests are usually
described and expanded upon in the manufacturers manuals etc.
More recent innovations have seen the introduction of the Micro wave oven
(magnetron oven) and specialised equipments to determine oil losses (e.g.
"Fosslet" equipment)
These improvements have all resulted in data being available in a much shorter time
after the samples have been taken.
The improved methods, if used and utilised correctly, allow for more frequent
sampling/analysis and thus can be an important "tool" for mill management and
engineers to monitor and control the process more efficiently and reduce the
overall losses in the factory.
This type of frequent sampling / analysis can often also provide an early indication
of the physical state of certain machines and the degree of deterioration in their
performance, thus allowing planned and scheduled repairs and maintenance to be
adjusted accordingly and maintaining optimum usage of the machinery.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
General Data
Processed Material
Sterilizer condensate:
V.M. = 95%
N.O.S. = 4%
Oil/N.O.S. = 9.5%
Empty bunches:
V.M. = 67%
N.O.S. = 31%
Oil/N.O.S. = 6%
Bunch ash:
04. - 0.5 to F.F.B and contains aprroximately:
30 - 40 % K2O
2- 5% P2O5
+/- 7.5 % CaO
Press cake:
V.M. = 41 %
N.O.S. = 55 %
Oil/N.O.S. = 8%
Wet nuts:
Oil/N.O.S = 0.8 %
Oil loss = 0.5 %
Fibre: with V.M. of +/- 30 % has C.V. of +/- 2500 kcal/kg
Shell: with V.M. of +/- 15 % has C.V. of +/- 3800 kcal/kg
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
C.P.O.
ex continuous clarifier tank : V.M. = 0.40 - 0.50 %
after purifier centrifuge : V.M. = 0.15 - 0.20 %
after vacuum drier : V.M. = < 0.10 %
in storage : V.M. = < 0.10 %

: Dirt = < 0.010 %
Clarifier tank Under flow : V.M. = 85 %

: Oil = 10 %
: N.O.S. = 5%
After sludge centrifuge : V.M. = 95 %

: Oil = 5%
: Oil/N.O.S. = 12.5 %
Raw effluent:
N.O.S. = 5%
Oil/N.O.S. = 12 %
pH = 4
B.O.D. = 20.000 - 30.000 ppm
After treatment:
pH = 8
B.O.D. = < 200 ppm
C.O.D. = < 1000 ppm
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
CRUDE PALM OIL
Fatty Acid composition: (see also table 1, page 6-2)
Acid name C number Type %
LAURIC 12 Saturated Trace only
MYRISTIC 14 Saturated 1-2
PALMITIC 16 Saturated 40 - 43
STEARIC 18 Saturated 4 - 6.5
OLEIC 18(1) Un-saturated 38 - 40
LINOLEIC 18(2) Un-saturated 10 - 12
LINOLENIC 18(3) Un-saturated Trace only
The acid molecules combine together (in 3's) with a glycerine molecule to form a
fat molecule called: triglyceride.
The triglyceride composition can vary considerably, pending type and composition of
numerous bonds of the saturated and un-saturated acids.
Other constituents of C.P.O. are carotenes and tocopherols.
Carotenes give C.P.O. its characteristic orange colour, which is then removed by
bleaching the oil.
Carotenes are precursors of Vitamin A, which is primarily formed when the molecule
splits due to the addition of water.
Tocopherols are naturally occuring anti-oxidants and in C.P.O. may be as high as 800
ppm, pending the quality of the material and the process.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
PALM KERNEL OIL
Fatty Acid composition
Acid C number Type %
CAPRYLIC 8 Saturated 3
CAPRIC 10 Saturated 6
LAURIC 12 Saturated 50
MYRISTIC 14 Saturated 16
PALMITIC 16 Saturated 6
STEARIC 18 Saturated 1
OLEIC 18(1) Un-saturated 16
LINOLEIC 18(2) Un-saturated 1
P.K.O. % of dried P.K. is approximately 50 %, the residue cake composition is as under:
Carbo-hydrates 48%
Proteine 19 %
Fibre 13 %
Water 11 %
Oil 5%
Ash 4%
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
Chapter #38
ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING
This area can usually be split up into three distinct responsibilities, i.e: the administration of :
Quality control, Maintenance, stores and spare parts holding and the Financial control.
38-1. Quality control
38.1.01 This consists mainly of monitoring the quality of the palm products manufactured,
stored and distributed, but also the quality of the raw input material (F.F.B.), the
boiler feed water and water quality, the operation of the waste product sections
(effluent control) etc.
38.1.02 Many of the records required and kept are to a large degree "repetitive" type
records, requiring summary calculations etc. to be integrated with other
administrative records.
Here also the introduction of "computerized" records can provide a greater and
more accurate measure of control, all resulting in (where possible) a reduction in
the final cost of producing the palm products.
38-2. Repair and Maintenance control
38.2.01 As described in chapter 35, Repair and Maintenance, the keeping of records of the
machinery and equipment performance and the condition can be a positive aid to
the scheduling end execution of an effective repair and maintenance program for
the mill's machinery.
Here also the introduction of computerized records allow a large degree of record
integration and a better (cost) control of this important part of the overall
operation of an oil mill.
38.2.02 Spare parts and spare part stock holding can be kept at proven and accepted
minimum levels if good records are kept, all helping to keep the overall financial
requirements of the oil mill down to the minimum level required to sustain
effective and profitable operation.
Section #5
Palm Oil Process
38-3. Financial control
38.3.01. As for any other industrial operation, financial records of the cost of the operation
are to be kept and calculated.
These records may take the form of weekly, monthly or other time based accounts
and may vary with the individual factories, companies or corporations
requirements.
38.3.02 The introduction of computer based accounting can provide an option to

integrate some of the direct operational costs with for instance weigh bridge
records, repair and maintenance costs, transport and distribution costs etc, during
the time based period which is to be covered, thus virtually providing a day to day
financial control of the production cost per tonne of palm product.
38-4 General
The three sections above are just general descriptions, since each individual factory
will have its own, specific, requirements or system of administrative control.
It is however advisable that when there is more then one plant operating within a
group of plants owned by one company or corporation, that an as much as possible
"standardized" format for the generated accounts and reports is created and
adopted in order to allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when comparing
different factories and to allow the staff who produce and process these records and
reports to become familiar and competent with the recording and calculating
procedures.
Mill management should make full use of all the reports and records produced and
(as noted in chapter 36, Process control) should use this data as a "news paper"
rather than a "history sheet" in order to maintain full control and be able to alter /
modify the production process as required, when required and not at some
undetermined future date, usually after costs have already risen out of proportion,
or losses have already increased to intolerable levels.
Section #5

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Palm Oil Process

The Principle & Operational Techniques

PALM OIL PROCESSING

The Principles &

There are five major sections to this book.

These include: J.J.Olie; R.A.Gillbanks, MBE; ; T.Fleming; D.A.M.Whiting; K.L.Hammond; D.R.Hoare;

Admix. : Percentage foreign matter in kernel

SECTION #1 The raw material - F.F.B.

1. Fresh Fruit Bunches 1-1

SECTION #2 The Factory - Design considerations

16. Design 16-1

SECTION #3 The Factory - Extraction of C.P.O. and P.K.

23. General requirements 23-1

25.4 Steam consumption 25-9

26. Mash Passing to Digester 26-1

27. Digesting of sterilized fruit 27-1

28. Pressing of digested fruit 28-1

29. Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) 29-1

30. Palm Kernel (P.K.) 30-1

SECTION #4 Waste products and pollution.

31. Disposal of "dry" material 31-1

32. Disposal of "wet" material 32-1

33. Air pollution 33-1

SECTION #5 a) Steam and electricity generation

34. Generation of steam and electricity 34-1

35. Repair and Maintenance 35-1

36. Process control 36-1

37. Quality control 37-1

38. Administration and accounting 38-1

THE RAW MATERIAL

1.01 "Oil is made in the field, and lost in the factory."

1.15 The Pisifera palm fruit has a kernel but no shell.

3.03 The presence of Chlorophyll also contributes to the formation of carbohydrates.

3.09 An important product of the carbohydrate metabolism is "tannin" (acidic

3.11 The biosynthesis of lipids is the main feature exhibited by mesocarp.

The precursor for lipid synthesis is carbohydrate.

Possible parameters are:

Total oil content increases with the age of the plant.

b) Free Fatty Acid formation

The metabolism of biochemical substrate stops.

Lipases may be derived from within the mesocarp or contributed by bacteria,

It is very important when fruit is at the young stage, whereby development

Water is also the source of hydroxyl groups for biochemical reactions.

d) Carotene: Chlorophyll absorbency ratio

The formation of various biochemical palm products for example: lipids,

The products include chlorophyll and the all important Carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are converted to potential intermediates for lipid synthesis, as are

Carotenes are always present, even in the very young fruits.

The carotenes at this stage function as accessory pigment during the

The ratio of carotene to chlorophyll content at different stages of development is

e) Carotene : Carotene absorbency ratio

The biosynthesis of carotene in oil palm is similar to that of other plants.

This acetyl CoA will subsequently be converted to melavonic acid (m.v.a.),

Maximum absorbency is at 456 nm for mature and ripe fruits.

As the fruit develop to maturity, the absorbency at 432 nm decreases to a stage

Controversy of whether there is a need to allow all the fruits to be completely

Table#1 Fatty acid composition in %

C type AGE OF FRUIT IN WEEKS RIPE C.P.O.

14 0.62 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.7 0.2

16 27.8 38.9 37.2 39.6 44.9 44