Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

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Geosystems and Geoenvironment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geogeo

Karst collapse and gypsum-filled veins in Eocene outcrops, Dammam

Dome, Saudi Arabia: Causes and implications
Mohammad A. Alkhalifa∗, Clay Kurison
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A recent road cut through a Dammam Formation outcrop on the Dammam Dome in Dhahran, Saudi
Received 11 January 2022 Arabia, exposed an array of open fractures and gypsum-filled veins. The discontinuities were mostly con-
Revised 16 July 2022
tained within the Saila Shale member and consisted of horizontal, vertical, and inclined extensional frac-
Accepted 21 July 2022
tures, most of which were filled with gypsum. The veins were of varying thickness with the largest ex-
ceeding 2.5 inches. Vertical gypsum veins, similar to those encountered at the road cut, were found in
Handling Editor: E. Shaji adjacent areas. A thin layer of gypsum (about 1 inch) was also observed in the Upper Rus Formation. The
open vertical and horizontal fractures, in the Saila and Midra Shale members, were devoid of gypsum
Keywords:
Dammam Dome fill, and were interpreted to be recent with indications of being triggered by the excavation work. The
Dammam Formation open fractures and filled veins covered a stretch of about 250 ft. across the road cut that also exposed
Geomorphology what was interpreted as a local karst collapse. Horizontally-layered and continuous rocks overlying the
Salt tectonics collapse indicated that it was a paleo structure. The causal mechanism for fracture formation and sub-
Gypsum-filled veins sequent fill was associated with deformations accompanying post-karst collapse. Here, natural fracturing
Karst and fluid transport were not synchronous events. Insights from this interpretation offered an explanation
for widespread surface structures with major and subtle morphologies on the Dammam Dome. These
insights also highlighted the significance of collapse in the modification of the Dammam Dome over a
geological timescale. The unstable nature of gypsum, prevalent in Dammam Formation in the Dammam
Dome, has potential implications for integrity of anthropogenic structures such as roads and building
foundations.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction a naturally occurring mineral chemically denoted as CaSO4 2H2 O,

the hydrated form of anhydrite (CaSO4 ), another common evapor-
The Earth’s crust harbors fractures of multiple scales with ite mineral (Cagatay, 1990; Al-Shayea, 20 0 0). Both commonly oc-
veins being among the most common (Fossen, 2016). Quite of- cur in evaporitic sedimentary deposits that form in arid conditions,
ten, veins are a geological indication of paths for past fluid flow where gypsum precipitates from saline fluids first, and is followed
(Gasparrini et al., 2014; Ameen, 2016; Sibson, 2020; Ukar et al., by anhydrite and later halite. These deposits dissolve easily when
2020). Recent excavation at a Dammam Formation outcrop on the they come in contact with undersaturated fluids, such as rainwa-
Dammam Dome in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, provided an opportu- ter. Because this is common at the surface, gypsum is typically
nity to observe a fresh vertical section. Horizontal, vertical and poorly preserved in outcrops. Due to this instability, fractures de-
low angle veins, filled with gypsum, were observed in this outcrop veloped in exposed rocks enhance the weathering process. This can
(Figs. 1, 2 and 3). The veins are in close proxmity to a karst col- have a significant impact on the area’s geomorphology. The out-
lapse. In this study, the term “collapse” is used to refer to a past crop provided an excellent opportunity within a limited time frame
event where sudden subsidence occurred in the Earth’s surface due to study gypsum-filled fractures in pristine conditions. Other im-
to physical and chemical processes that took place in the area’s ge- plications for understanding such fracture systems include gauging
ological past. From visits to areas in close proximity to the road the integrity of civil engineering structures.
cut (Fig. 4), similar veins were observed. The vein-filling gypsum is In this study, the gypsum-filled veins observed in the Saila
Shale member were assessed to understand the processes for the
∗
fracturing mechanisms and the factors that may have influenced
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Alkhalifa).
their filling. Several causal mechanisms for the gypsum-filled frac-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2022.100109
2772-8838/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 1. Map of Saudi Arabia with an inset (small red box) showing the location of the Dammam Dome in the Eastern Province. The larger inset shows an outline of the
dome (source: Google maps).

tures were considered. Among these were fracture formation re- Previous studies of the geology of the Eastern province of
sulting from natural hydraulic fracturing with highly pressurized Saudi Arabia provide detailed lithological descriptions of the for-
mineral-saturated fluids, and post-deformation fracturing followed mations exposed on the Dammam Dome. Based on this work, the
by external fluid invasion and mineral precipitation. geological sequence present within the Dammam Dome consists
of the following formations: Rus (Early Eocene), Dammam (Mid-
dle to Late Eocene), Hadrukh (Early Miocene), and Dam (Middle
2. Overview of the study area
Miocene; Steineke et al., 1958; Powers et al., 1966; Tleel, 1973;
Weijermars, 1999). Cagatay (1990) reported that Upper Rus rocks
The outcrop under study is located on the Dammam Dome
contained gypsum as bands and veins as well as vugs fill. In addi-
in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Dammam Dome has an
tion, the Midra and Saila Shale members of the Dammam Forma-
oval shaped structure that is bounded approximately by longitudes
tion were found to contain gypsum veins (Cagatay, 1990). Based
50°00 and 50°14 N and latitudes 26°12 and 26°26 E and covers
on Tleel’s (1973) detailed surface mapping (Fig. 2), exposed rocks
an area close to 500 km2 . The highest point, commonly referred to
in the area are primarily of the Rus and Dammam Formation
as Jabal Umm er Rus, is located at the center of the dome, at an
(Fig. 5).
elevation of 492 ft (150 m) above sea level. The dome is histori-
Weijermars (1999) documented fractures observed in Dammam
cally significant because it is the location of the Dammam-7 well,
Dome outcrops within the campus of King Fahd Univer-
drilled in 1937 and credited as the first commercial oil discov-
sity of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM). Subsequent studies
ery in Saudi Arabia (Alfahmi, 2012). Since then, surrounding areas
(Hariri, 2006, 2013; Al-Fahmi et al., 2014) confirmed well devel-
undergone urban development, including the head office of Saudi
oped fracture systems exposed in outcrops in other parts of the
Aramco, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM),
Dammam Dome. Using size, trend, and extent, Hariri (2013) de-
and many commercial and residential areas.
fined three fracture types: Category I: major fractures (regional
Dammam Dome geomorphologic features such as Jabal Um Er
extent over Dammam Dome), Category II: minor fractures (with
Rus are thought to be a result of salt tectonics (Chapman, 1971;
local extents in the Damam Dome), and Category III: very small-
Tleel, 1973; Weijermars, 1999). Other salt-related structures in the
sized fractures (localized fractures that exist sporadically over
Gulf region include the Awali Dome in Bahrain and Dukhan An-
the Dammam Dome). Category III fractures have shallow average
ticline in Qatar, associated with fields discovered in 1932 and
depths and narrow widths varying from three inches to less than
1939, respectively. These structures are attributed to episodic
one inch (Hariri, 2013). Randomly distributed with no preferred
upward movement of deep-seated infra-Cambrian Hormuz Salt
orientation, their existence was associated with compaction and
(Beydoun, 1991; Weijermars, 1999). In the Dammam Dome, salt
rheological characteristics (Hariri, 2013). Based on the character-
growth is posited to have started in the Triassic period, due to
istics of the open and filled fractures observed in the study areas,
tectonic extension in the Arabian plate, and accelerated in the
the authors concluded that these fractures match category III as
Miocene Epoch (Weijermars, 1999). Tleel (1973) undertook detailed
per Hariri’s classification.
mapping of the Dammam Dome and noted slumps with local-
ized, steeply-dipping anticlines and synclines observable at sur-
face. Since then, studies on the dome’s morphology, have been lim- 3. Mechanisms for natural fracturing and fracture filling
ited. Due to urban development in the past 50 years, some of the
features mapped by Tleel (Fig. 2) underwent drastic modification Orientations of fractures may or may not be related to stress
(Alhowaish, 2015; Al-Shihri, 2016). regimes (Ameen, 2016; Sibson, 2020). Gypsum veins similar in

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 2. Detailed geological map of the Dammam Dome from Tleel (1973). The map shows structural dips and geological boundaries between different rocks exposed at the
surface and the location of the study area. Cross section A-A’ and B-B’ are shown in Figs. 13 and 14 with current structural profile of Dammam Dome.

nature to those described in this study have been considered mineral deposition (Ramsay, 1980). Understanding the crack-seal
to be byproducts of natural hydraulic fracturing (Philipp, 2008). mechanism can provide insights into the history and timing of
This phenomenon is common in fault belts and source rocks fluid migration. Fractures developed in exposed rocks enhance the
(Ameen, 2016; Sibson, 2020; Ukar et al., 2020). Other factors such weathering process, which can have a significant impact on the
as tectonic activity, hydrocarbon migration, and post-collapse fail- area’s geomorphology. Other implications for understanding such
ure are widely reported (Philipp, 2008; Ameen, 2016; Sibson, 2020; fracture systems include gauging the integrity of civil engineering
Ukar et al., 2020). structures.
The region under study has been affected by salt tectonics
(Alavi, 2004; Perotti et al., 2011, 2016; Razaghian and Arian, 2015).
Salt deforms like a viscous fluid, whereas the surrounding sedi- 4. Field observation
ments typically deform by brittle and/or viscous and elastic mech-
anisms (Fossen, 2016; Grunnaleite and Mosbron, 2019). Salt move- A panoramic section of the Dammam Formation outcrop on the
ment may be triggered by factors such as local faulting or regional Dammam Dome in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia is shown
extension, compression or strike-slip, differential loading, erosion in Fig. 3. Three members were identified: Midra Shale, Saila Shale
and dissolution (Stewart and Clark, 1999; Alsop et al., 2018). Min- and Alveolina Limestone members. Below are other identified fea-
erals in veins might arise from successive fluid fracturing and tures:

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 3. (a) Panoramic view of the exposed road cut in the Dammam Formation on the Dammam Dome in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. At the ground level, the
collapse section is 90 ft. in length. The lower images, (b), (c) and (d), are zoomed-in sections indicated in the upper panoramic view.

1.2 inches. There was no evidence for vein contraction and thrust-
ing (Fig. 6).

4.3. Crack-seal texture (gypsum-filled veins)

Gypsum in multiple veins (example in Fig. 7) exhibited no

layering to be linked with incremental precipitation. This dif-
fered from other fractures (Gasparrini et al., 2014; Ameen, 2016;
Sibson, 2020) whose crack-seal texture showed incremental filling
or opening. At the time of writing this paper, it was not clear
if the supposed uniform bulky fill arose from multiple episodes
(Gasparrini et al., 2014) sourcing fluids of the same geochemistry.

4.4. Thicknesses and orientation of open fractures

Fig. 4. Aerial view of the study area (N 26°21 38 , S 50°06 07 ) showing the two
sides of the road cut with different lithology on each side. The collapse feature is
visible on Section-A, while Section-B shows continuous layering. (Base map source: Midra Shale, Saila Shale and Alveolina Limestone members had
Google Earth). an array of open fractures devoid of gypsum fill. The horizon-
tal, oblique, and vertical open fractures on the excavated wall are
shown in Figs. 3, 6 and 8. The open fractures range in thickness
4.1. Paleo-collapse
from 0.1 to 4 inches with an average of 0.2 inches.
The left side of Fig. 3 shows a collapse section with a width of
90 ft. Most of the fractures were concentrated in the Saila Shale 4.5. Observations in other outcrops and surrounding areas
members and the gypsum veins are pervasive and abundant in the
study area (Fig. 6). Gypsum veins were found in the Saila Shale member around
the road cut and other areas on the Dammam Dome. It should
4.2. Thicknesses and orientation of gypsum-filled veins be noted that the high solubility of gypsum renders it elusive in
studies undertaken on outcrops exposed for a longer period. The
The fracture network consist of horizontal veins that are longer dissolution in deeper layers might be facilitated by introduction of
and thicker than those that are vertical or inclined. The gypsum fluids. Around the Dammam Dome, micro faults (Fig. 9), potential
veins ranges in thickness from 0.2 to 3.4 inches with an average of conduits for unsaturated fluids, are common.

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 5. Generalized stratigraphy of Rus and Dammam formations associated with the authors’ observations at the study area. The gypsum veins were observed in the Saila
Shale member and almost absent in the bounding units. Modified after Sharland et al. (2001).

5. Discussion Transport of mineral-saturated water was interpreted to have oc-

curred after maximum fracturing or deformation in the mudstone,
5.1. Open fractures with no gypsum fill as there was no fracture growth after the veins formed. This was
supported by absence of any gaps between gypsum and host rocks.
These fractures may have existed in the formation, however, The very low density of gypsum veins in the Midra Shale and Alve-
their growth was induced by the excavation becasue of the fresh olina Limestone members, indicated that these layers were more
fracture surfaces. After a period of nine months, some of these competent than the Saila Shale. Based on interpretations from pho-
open fractures continued to grow in width and length as the civil tographs such as Figs. 6 and 8, the almost single-fill crack-seal
work continued at the site. texture implied that the intrusion of fluids was likely a one-time
event and fluid cycling since the initial fill, likely did not occur.
5.2. Linking gypsum veins and crack-seal causal hypothesis to
observations 5.3. Evaluation of observations to validate hypotheses for paleo-karst
collapse and gypsum vein formation
Evaluation of the color and contents of vein-filling gypsum did
not indicate age differences in its genesis. There are almost no After assessing field observations and previous studies, it was
host rock remnants within the filling gypsum. Thus, fracture filling proposed that fractures were created by subsidence and differ-
and veins formation were not linked to hydraulic fracturing events. ential deformation, a process referred to as subsidence-driven

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 6. Fractures encountered in the outcrop range from wide cross-cutting frac-
tures that are completely filled with gypsum to recent open fractures with varying
widths and without indications of prior cementations. (a) Fresh fractures that were
recently created as a result of the road cut civil work. (b) Vertical and horizon-
tal fractures with varying widths. (c) An example of a large gypsum-filled fracture Fig. 8. Horizontal, oblique, and vertical open veins (a and c) on the excavation
with width reaching 3 inches. wall.Black arrows point to the recently opened fractures based on the fresh frac-
ture surfaces due to the civil work at the study location. (b) Gypsum veins on the
surface of a nearby graded (flattened) site.

fracturing (Alfahmi, 2012). Through this process, fracturing oc-

curs without fluid overpressure. Subsequently, mineral-saturated
fluid invaded the open fractures and led to deposition of the
observed gypsum. This has been observed in other sedimentary
rocks overlying evaporites where gypsum is a common vein-fill
mineral (Gustavson, 1980; Gustavson et al., 1994; Goldstein and
Collins, 1984; El Tabakh et al., 1998). Based on this, hydraulic frac-
turing cannot be considered an option. Fractures in areas proximal
to karst sites were interpreted to be gravity-driven due to rock col-
lapse. Alfahmi (2012) interpreted these fractures to have been cre-
ated by changing local stresses associated with rocks sliding to-
ward sinkholes.
The source fluids, saturated with calcium sulfate, invited mul-
tiple mechanisms (Philipp, 2008). One indication is that the spa-
tial discontinuity interpreted in Fig. 4, hinted at uplift of the
Rus Formation to be adjacent to the Dammam Formation. Flu-
ids might have locally sourced gypsum through dissolution of Up-
per Rus minerals (Cagatay, 1990) and transported them to ad-
jacent subsidence-driven fractures in the Saila Shale member.
Alfahmi (2012) observed similar small and large karst features
within the rocks of the Rus and Dammam Formations.

5.4. Regional morphology controls

Given evidence of salt tectonics in the area and the fact that the
Fig. 9. (a) A micro-fault off a highway cut showing a vertical displacement that is
outcrop sits on a dome, a hypothetical scenario was suggested. Salt approximately 2.5 feet. (b) Close-up view of the micro-fault off a highway cut. Such
flow leads to features such as central pillows, domes, or diapirs faults could be conduits for transporting rain and anthropogenic water to deeper
(Jackson and Talbot, 1989; Twiss and Moore, 2007; Fossen, 2016; formations raising the potential for epigenic karst formation.
Grunnaleite and Mosbron, 2019). The upward movement of salt ap-

Fig. 7. Close-up photographs of extracted vein-filling gypsum indicating potentially single fill crack seal texture. Absence of layering in the gypsum indicated that it was not
incrementally precipitated. However, multiple filling episodes sourcing fluids of the same geochemistry could lead to the supposed single bulky fill.

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 10. Left – hypothetical illustration of Hormuz salt tectonics and diapirism. Right –faulting induced by salt diapers provides conduits for flow of both meteoric and paleo
water. Images modified after Grunnaleite and Mosbron (2019).

Fig. 11. Left – karstification due to dissolution of subsurface carbonates. Right –

ollapse of paleo karsts was followed by differential settlement and extensive vein
formation. Images modified after Grunnaleite and Mosbron (2019). Fig. 12. Left - Collapse of paleo karsts was followed by differential settlement and-
vein formation. Right – Extensive veins are infiltrated by paleo and meteoric fluids
which deposit gypsum. Images modified after Grunnaleite and Mosbron (2019).

plies an upward force on the sedimentary overburden and triggers

faulting (Grunnaleite and Mosbron, 2019). This effect can create
fractures that act as conduits for meteoric and paleo water to enter 5.5. From outcrop observation to insights on Dammam Dome
dissolution-prone rocks. Fig. 10 shows a hypothetical illustration of morphology
Hormuz salt tectonics, subsequent diapirism and induced faulting
based on images from Grunnaleite and Mosbron (2019). Chapman (1971) stated that most of the current shape of the
Fig. 11 shows a hypothetical cycle of events that might have led Dammam Dome, took place during the wet phase of the Late
to the observed paleo-karst collapse and vein formation. Karstifi- Pleistocene coupled with variable uplift rates of the Dammam
cation is an epigenic process of calcite dissolution in the course Dome. During the Holocene, the dome had very minor morpho-
of infiltration of water including CO2 from the atmosphere and logical changes due to arid climate and absence of salt tectonics.
soil. The collapse in this study was interpreted to be dissolution- Sadiq et al. (2002) stated that from 325,000 BP to 560,000 BP
driven. Rainfall, surface water, regional floodwater, and ground wa- (Middle Pleistocene), karstification formed in the Arabian Gulf area
ter could have percolated through joints in the limestone (Fig. 12), due to prevalent wet climate conditions. Based on observations of
dissolved part of the carbonate rock from the subsurface, and karsts in Qatar, Sadiq et al. (2002) concluded that rock uplift leads
gradually caused depressions to form. Aggressive dissolution could to fracturing that increases secondary permeability of the rocks.
have been focused in high permeability pathways, such as along Despite the above mentioned wet conditions, one of the key fac-
fractures and bedding planes (USGS, 2017; Sibson, 2020). Upon tors in carbonate rock dissolution is water acidity (i.e., increased
collapse of the karst, surrounding rock is destabilized. This trig- carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration; Walth et al., 2005). Rain fall
gers differential settling which results in fracturing in the non- has a CO2 concentration of about 0.03% in the open atmosphere,
competent shale layers. Dissolution within an evaporitic unit could which is not enough to dissolve carbonate rocks. In soil, CO2 is
occur at higher rates and spread faster compared to other litholo- produced biogenically from organic matter decay, enriching soil’s
gies. (Gutiérrez et al., 2013). The cycle of gypsum dissolution and water with CO2 at concentrations in the range of 1 and 10%. Vege-
re-deposition might have occurred multiple times with fluctua- tation cover development requires specific weather conditions such
tions in groundwater table and influx of meteoric water through as precipitation, temperature, sunlight and nutrients (Walth et al.,
discontinuities. Therefore, dissolution of vein-filling gypsums is a 2005). Therefore, to develop karst in the Gulf area, sustained pe-
potential process for enhancing the system permeability of hosting riods of wettability were required to develop vegetation cover for
rocks of low matrix permeability. enhancing CO2 concentration in the soil.

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

Fig. 13. NW-SE cross section over the Dammam Dome showing the current elevation profile and Eocene Formation exposed at the surface. Modified after Tleel (1973).
Location shown in Fig. 2, cross-section A-A’. Note the widespread surface structures with major and subtle morphologies.

Fig. 14. W-E cross section over the Dammam Dome showing the current elevation profile and Eocene formation exposed at the surface. Modified after Tleel (1973). Location
shown in Fig. 2, cross-section B-B’. Note the widespread surface structures with major and subtle morphologies.

The authors speculate that during the Pleistocene, climate con- the crest of the dome in an area suspected to be a sinkhole com-
ditions facilitated sporadic vegetation growth that enriched the pared to adjacent strata. However, this does not explain why the
soil’s water with CO2 . Cracks arising from subsurface salt move- Dam Formation is absent on the top of the Dammam Formation
ments or karst formation across the surface of the dome became at this locality and yet it exists on the top of the dome. Further-
conductive paths for CO2 -enriched water seepage, thus, dissolving more, the Dammam Dome shows an asymmetrical erosion profile
subsurface rocks. Subsequently, soft layers such as Rus Formation’s where Upper Rus has more exposure on the South-East side com-
chalk and/or marl units, dissolved resulting in localized cavities pared to the other sides. This could be explained by higher erosion
under the weather-resistant layer (i.e., Dolomite). Eventually, this rates from steeper flanks on the South-East side or irregular salt
leads to collapse as observed in Figs. 3 and 4. This in turn exposes growth rates over the Dammam Dome area. This warrants detailed
more dissolvable layers to invasion by CO2 -enriched waters and lithostratigraphic assessment to identify exposed formation(s) and
expedites dissolution and the collapse process. The resultant sat- map their lateral and vertical continuity.
urated fluids could be the source for gypsum that eventually filled
fractures resulting from rock collapse. These physical and chemi- 5.6. Implication of local karst collapse and gypsum veins for
cal processes offer an explanation for the variable outcrop eleva- anthropogenic activities (civil engineering structures)
tions as well as the collapse features observed on the surface of
the Dammam Dome. Urbanization on the Dammam Dome resulted in new buildings,
This study re-visited Tleel’s (1973) two cross-sections and pro- roads, water pipes, sewage lines, and highway overpasses. The in-
jected surface structural dips on the current elevation profiles tegrity of these structures depends on the stability of geomaterials
(Figs. 2, 13, 14). Cross-sections, shown in Figs. 13 and 14, illus- in the area. Karstification of carbonates may cause the gravitational
trate how the Dammam Dome does not follow the expected ideal deformation of the overlying rocks and the development of a wide
chronological exposure comprising oldest rocks at the center and variety of subsidence structures with geomorphic expression
youngest at the edges. In fact, the Dam Formation, made up of (Gutiérrez et al., 2013). Where brittle deformation is the dominant
the youngest rocks in this area, is exposed at the center of the subsidence mechanism, two extreme situations may occur: (1)
dome and overlies the Rus Formation at Jabal Um Rus (Fig. 13 and subsidence of blocks bounded by well-defined failure planes and
Fig. 14). This boundary represents a missing section of about 35 with scarce internal deformation; (2) subsidence accompanied by
million years. The Dammam Formation seems to be preserved near intense deformation of the foundered strata. The first situation

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M.A. Alkhalifa and C. Kurison Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2 (2023) 100109

• Gypsum is sourced from older units that are in blocks uplifted

by tectonics to elevations equal or above the Saila Shale Mem-
ber in other blocks such that the two formations get in lateral
hydro-communication.
• Karst development in the near surface across the Arabia Gulf
area during Middle Pleistocene require existence of vegetation
cover that increased CO2 concentration in the soil, thus, high
acidity for seeping water.
• Extensive field studies, including quantitative measurements
such as gypsum vein geometries and crystal fiber orientations,
should be carried out to further illuminate causal mechanisms
and their timing.
• Geological phenomena that led to the Dammam Dome’s fea-
tures, notably widespread irregular surface outcrops and asso-
ciated unconformities, deserve further investigation.

Author statement

We, the authors, confirm that the manuscript has been read and
a approved by all authors and that there are no other persons who
satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further
confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been
approved by all of us. Also we certify that we have participated
sufficiently in the content of the paper as follow:
Mohammad Alkhalifa: paper concept and layout, literature
Fig. 15. Extensive anthropogenic activity illustrated by distinctive layer of recent search, data collection and analysis, geological and tectonic
depositions. Note the abundance of gray materials at the fracture surfaces and lack
overview, Dammam Dome geomorphology, anthropogenic activi-
of gypsum filling in this site. This is an excellent indication that this area was far
from the source of the gypsum filling fluids. ties, field trips organizer and lead, photographer, writing and re-
viewing the manuscript.
Clay Kurison: paper concept and layout, literature search, data
commonly occurs in competent rocks with preexisting fractures collection and analysis, fractures and fillings characteristics, Review
able to accommodate most of the subsidence deformation. For of potential causal mechanisms of fracturing, anthropogenic activi-
the second, the affected rocks undergo intense deformation and ties, writing and reviewing the manuscript.
vertical displacement . The discovery of pervasive networks of
gypsum-filled veins and surface-reaching faults (Figs. 8 and 9) Declaration of Competing Interest
calls for risk assessment to supplement soil testing (for example,
Al-Shayea, 20 0 0). With anthropogenic activity becoming more ev- We confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associ-
ident(Fig. 15), dissolution of carbonate layers could be detrimental ated with this publication and there has been no significant finan-
to civil structure integrity. As mentioned previously, dissolution of cial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.
vein-filling gypsum enhances the system permeability of hosting
rocks of low matrix permeability. Here, subsurface water dis- Acknowledgement
posal might enhance gypsum dissolution and extend conductive
conduits to deeper karst-prone sediments. The highlighted local The authors thank colleagues, anonymous reviewers and jour-
paleo-collapse provides evidence of the likely influence of meteoric nal editors for critical and constructive reviews that improved the
water seeping through conductive faults and other discontinuities. manuscript.

6. Conclusion References

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tions for civil structure integrity were also discussed. Outcrop char- crop fractures: case study for fracture development in salt-cored structures.
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