STUDY MATERIAL

ON

DAE 223
AGRICULTURAL PROCESS ENGINEERING-II

Dr. P.SREEDEVI
SCIENTIST (AG. ENGG.)

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LAM, GUNTUR – 522 034
DAE 223 AGRICULTURAL PROCESS ENGINEERING – II 2(1+1)

Objective:
 This course provides knowledge on cleaning, grading, sorting, size reduction,
parboiling, milling of cereals and pulses, oilseed processing to minimize post
harvest losses to enable the students to acquire skills and to understand the various
processing operations.

Lecture Outlines
THEORY
Lecture Topic Reference
No.
Unit 1
1 Cleaning and grading – definition; screening; types of 2,3
screens; particle motion; screen openings; ideal and actual
screen; effectiveness of screen.
2 Size reduction – principles; laws; procedures and fineness 3
modulus; Crushers – jaw crusher; gyratory crusher; crushing
rolls; grinders; attrition mills; hammer mills; ball mills;
cutting machines.
Unit 2
3 Rice milling – definition; terminology related to rice; rice 1,3,4
processing; modern rice milling process flowchart; layout of
modern rice mill.
4 Rice milling equipment- types of cleaners, destoner and 1,3,4
shellers.
Unit 3
5 Rice milling – Types of whiteners-Abrasive and frictional. 1,3,4
6 Types of graders- paddy separator (Satake type) and colour 1,3,4
sorter.
Unit 4
7 Parboiling of paddy – Introduction; advantages; 1,3,4
disadvantages; process variables; physico-chemical changes
during parboiling, traditional parboiling methods.
8 Modern paddy parboiling methods-CFTRI, Jadavpur and 1,3,4
pressure parboiling.
Unit 5
9 Wheat milling – introduction, unit operations (cleaning, 4
conditioning/tempering, grinding/milling and blending)-
Components of wheat mill.
 10 Maize shelling-Introduction, shelling, types of shellers 4
(spring type and cylinder type), dehusker cum sheller.
Unit 6
11 Milling of pulses – introduction; important unit operations in 3,4
pulse milling; cleaning; conditioning; dehusking, splitting,
polishing and grading.

12 Flow charts of wet milling and dry milling of red gram, 3,4
traditional milling of Bengal gram – Mini-dal mill –
Problems of pulse milling in industry – Factors affecting
pulse milling outturn.

Unit 7
13 Oilseed processing – importance; various post-harvest 3,4
operations of oil seeds; handling; drying, grading and
storage.
14 Pre-treatments–cleaning; dehusking; size reduction and 3,4
flaking; heat treatment.
Unit 8
15 Processing of oilseeds – mechanical expression devices – 3,4,5
hydraulic press and screw press.
16 Groundnut oil seed processing – stripping, grading, drying– 3,4,5
decortications principle, separation of kernels from shells.

PRACTICALS
1 Determination of shelling efficiency of groundnut thresher
2 Performance evaluation of power thresher;
3 Determination of shelling efficiency of sunflower thresher
4 Determination of shelling efficiency of castor sheller
5 Determination of winnowing efficiency of winnower
6 Performance evaluation of rubber roll sheller
7 Visit to modern rice mill
8 Determination of oil content of rice bran
9 Visit to rice bran oil extraction plant
10 Determination of bulk density and porosity of grains
11 Measurement of physical properties of wheat
12 Measurement of physical properties of redgram
13 Determination of drying rate of grains
14 Performance evaluation of maize sheller
15 Performance evaluation of groundnut decorticator
16 Practical examination
REFERENCES

1 Rice Post Harvest Technology Araullo E V De Padua D B and Graham M

1976. IDRC, Canada

2 Processing Equipment for Hall C W and Davis D C 1979. AVI

Agricultural Products Publishing Co. Inc., Westport; Connecticut

3 Unit Operations of Agricultural Sahay K M and Singh K K 1994. Vikas

Processing Publishing House PVt. Ltd., New Delhi

4 Post-Harvest Technology Cereals, Chakravarthy A 1988. Oxford and IBH

Pulses and Oilseeds Publishing Co. Ltd. Calcutta

5. Oil seed processing Technology Shukla, Prabhat K. Srivastava Ram,

K.Gupta
 Contents

S.No Topic Page No.

1. Cleaning and grading – definition; screening; types of screens; 1-13
particle motion; screen openings; ideal and actual screen;
effectiveness of screen.
2. Size reduction – principles; laws; procedures and fineness 14-26
modulus; Crushers – jaw crusher; gyratory crusher; crushing
rolls; grinders; attrition mills; hammer mills; ball mills; cutting
machines.
3. Rice milling – definition; terminology related to rice; rice 27-31
processing; modern rice milling process flowchart; layout of
modern rice mill.
4. Rice milling equipment- types of cleaners, destoner and shellers. 32-38
5. Rice milling – Types of whiteners-Abrasive and frictional. 39-42
6. Types of graders- paddy separator (Satake type) and colour 43-49
sorter.
7. Parboiling of paddy – Introduction; advantages; disadvantages; 50-54
process variables; physico-chemical changes during parboiling,
traditional parboiling methods.
8. Modern paddy parboiling methods-CFTRI, Jadavpur and pressure 55-58
parboiling.
9. Wheat milling – introduction, unit operations (cleaning, 59-63
conditioning/tempering, grinding/milling and blending)-
Components of wheat mill.
10. Maize shelling-Introduction, shelling, types of shellers (spring 64-67
type and cylinder type), dehusker cum sheller.
11. Milling of pulses – introduction; important unit operations in 68-70
pulse milling; cleaning; conditioning; dehusking, splitting,
polishing and grading.

12. Flow charts of wet milling and dry milling of red gram, 71-75
traditional milling of Bengal gram – Mini-dal mill – Problems of
pulse milling in industry – Factors affecting pulse milling
outturn.
13. Oilseed processing – importance; various post-harvest operations 76-78
of oil seeds; handling; drying, grading and storage.
14. Pre-treatments–cleaning; dehusking; size reduction and flaking; 79-81
heat treatment.
15. Processing of oilseeds – mechanical expression devices – 82-84
hydraulic press and screw press.
16. Groundnut oil seed processing – stripping, grading, drying– 85-92
decortications principle, separation of kernels from shells.
 LECTURE 1
Cleaning and grading – definition; screening; types of screens; particle motion;
screen openings; ideal and actual screen; effectiveness of screen.

1.1 CLEANING AND GRADING

Cleaning and grading are the first and most important post-harvest operation undertaken to
remove foreign and undesirable material from the threshed crops/ grains and to separate
the grains into various fractions. The comparative commercial value of agricultural
products is dependent on their grade factor. These grade factors further depend upon
1. Physical characteristics like size, shape, moisture content, colour, etc.,
2. Chemical characteristics like odour, free fatty acids content and
3. Biological factors like germination, insect damage.
Cleaning in agricultural processing generally means the removal of foreign and
undesirable matters from the desired grains/ products. This may be accomplished by
washing, screening, hand picking etc.
Grading refers to the classification of cleaned products into various quality fractions
depending on the various commercial values and other usage.
Sorting refers to separation of cleaned product into various quality fractions that may be
defined on the basis of size, shape, density, texture and colour.
Scalping refers to the removal few large particles in an initial process.

1.2 SCREENING
Screening is a method of separating grain/seed into two or more fractions according to size
alone. For cleaning and separation of seeds, the most widely used device is screen. When
solid particles are dropped over a screen, the particles smaller than the size of screen
openings pass through it, whereas large particles are retained over the screen or sieve.
When the feed is passed through a set of different sizes of sieves, it is separated into
different fractions according to the size of openings of sieves. The screens are generally
suspended by hangers, and when this unit is oscillated by an eccentric unit they have a
horizontal oscillating motion and at the same time a smaller vertical motion. These two
motions cause grain to travel downward to the screen and at the same time the grains are
thoroughly stirred during the passage.
1
1.2.1 Screen motions
The purposes of screen motion are
1. To spread the material over the surface of screen
2. To cause the fine particles to settle at the sub-surface.
3. To discharge the oversize particles.
1.2.2 Screen fractions
The material which is retained over the screen surface is called oversize or plus material,
while the material which passes through the screen is the undersize or minus material. The
material which passes through a screen and retained over the subsequent screen is the
intermediate material.
1.2.3 Mesh and Space cloth
The wire mesh is usually specified by ‘mesh’ which is the number of openings per linear
inch, counted from the centre of any wire to appoint exactly 1 inch distant, or by an
openings specified in inches or millimeters, which is clear opening or space between the
wires. When the openings are limited to 2 or more in an inch it is called a mesh, whereas
in space cloth the openings are i/2 inch or more than ½ inch.
1.2.4 Aperture
It is the minimum clear space between the edges of the openings in the screening surface
and is generally specified in inches or millimetres.
The open area of square mesh wire cloth may be determined by the following equation

𝑂2
P =(𝑂+𝐷)2˟100 = (OM)2 ˟ 100

Where,
P= open area, %
M=mesh
O=size of opening
D=wire diameter

2
1.3 TYPES OF SCREENS
In most screens the grain/seed drops through the screen opening by gravity. Coarse grains
drop quickly and easily through large opening in a stationary surface. With finer particles,
the screening must be agitated in some way. The common ways are,
1. Revolving a cylindrical screen about a horizontal axis and
2. Shaking, gyration or vibrating the flat screen
a) Grizzly
The grizzly is used for coarsest and rough separations. The grizzly is a simple device
consisting of a grid made up of metal bars, usually built on a slope, across which the
material is passed. The path of material flow is parallel to the length of bars. The bars
are so shaped that the top is wider than the bottom.
b) Revolving screen/ cylinder sorter
Trammel or revolving screen is a cylinder that rotates about its longitudinal axis. The
wall of the cylinder is made of perforated steel plate or some time the cloth wire on a
frame, through which the material falls as the screen rotates. The axis of cylinder is
inclined along with the feed end to discharge end. Sizing is achieved by having
smallest opening screen at the feed end with progressive larger opening screens
towards discharge end. This type of sorter is simple and compact with no vibration
problem. The inclination of the cylinder sorter for dry granular material is kept upto
125mm/m. Effective screening area is calculated by multiplying the length of cylinder
by 1/3 of the diameter. The capacity, bed depth and efficiency of these screens can be
changed by changing the speed of operation and the inclination of the cylinder.
c) Shaking screen
Shaker is a rectangular surface over which material moves down on an inclined plane.
Motion of the screen is back and forth in a straight line. Unlike the vibrating screen,
the shaker does not tumble or turn material enroute except that some shaking screens
have a step-off between surfaces having different size openings, so that there may be
two or three tumbles over the full length of the screen. The shaker is widely used as
combined screen and conveyor for many types of bulk material.
d) Rotary screen
Rotary and gyratory screens are either circular or rectangular decked. Their motion is
almost circular and effects sifting action. These are capable of accurate and complete

3
 separation of very fine sizes but their capacity is limited. These screens are further
classified into two categories.
1. Gyratory screens: This is generally a single decked machine. It has horizontal plane
motion, which is circular at feed end and reciprocating at the discharge end.
2. Circular screens: These are also rotary screens but their motion in horizontal plane is
circular over the entire surface. Similar to the gyratory screens, the screening surface
of circular screens are also little bit tilted for allowing the material to move over them.
e) Vibratory Screen:
For separation of undesirable foreign materials from feed mass and sorting the
materials into various size groups according to desired quality standard or grades, the
vibratory screens are extensively used. The vibratory screens are agitated by an
eccentric unit. When materials to be separated are put on a vibratory screen, because
of this vibration, materials are also agitated and separated during their transit over the
screen.
The eccentricity is usually of two types, (1) a shaft to which off centre weights are
attached, and (2) a shaft that itself is eccentric or off centered. In the latter case the
eccentricity is balanced by a fly wheel for providing uniform vibration. Generally, up
to three decks are used in vibrating screens. The capacity of vibrating screen is higher
than any other similar sized screen and is very popular for cleaning and grading of
granular agricultural products.
The vibration of screen is responsible for performance of the following functions, (1)
it helps in providing passage to particles through the openings of screen, (2) it restricts
clogging of the screen by particles that become trapped in the opening, (3) because of
vibration the particles are stratified over the screen surface and each particle has a
chance to meet the screen opening and (4) a continuous flow of particles along the
screen is possible.
f) Horizontal screen
Horizontal screens are special case of vibrating screen. These are designed for
operation with low head room. These operate absolutely flat without the aid of gravity.
All sorting, stratification and materials transportation take place on the strength of the
sharp forward thrust which imparts motion to particles with a missile like trajectory,
while the return stroke pulls the deck out from underneath the bed. Effectiveness of

4
 these screens is higher because material is kept on the screen for a longer period in
comparison to inclined screens.

1.4 PARTICLE MOTIONS

These are four different regime motions that can take place for the rigid particles
placed on a moving trough depending upon the frequency of oscillation:
1. Particles stationary with respect to trough
2. Particles slip during part of cycle and remain adherent to the trough during the rest
of cycle.
3. As regime (2) with slip and gliding motion.
4. Particles purely in stick and slip motion.

The particle path in cleaner and separators are described below:

1. Reciprocatory: This can be either purely in horizontal plane or in an inclined plane.
Depending upon the plane, the motion of particles is different as given below
a) Horizontal reciprocating motion: This motion is obtained with an eccentric and a
connecting rod and usually in a path parallel to the horizontal projection of the path of
material as it moves from inlet to outlet as shown in Fig.1.1

Fig. 1.1 Horizontal reciprocating motion

b) Inclined reciprocating motion: The screen can be moved in an inclined plane

reciprocating by eccentric ad connecting rod unit. Such motion would have vertical
and horizontal components parallel to the horizontal projection of path of moving
material. Combined horizontal and vertical motion can also be achieved by a rotary
drive attached directly to the screen and operating in a vertical plane parallel to the
path of the material flow. The vertical component lifts the material from the screen
5
 surface for a fraction of time. The vertical motion can loosen the mass of material thus
dislodging finer particles to settle at the bottom. This technique of combined vertical
and horizontal motion is useful in coarse sifting or where screen openings are
substantially larger than the particle size.

Fig.1.2 Inclined reciprocatory motion

2. Combined horizontal and reciprocating motion: In this, an eccentric drive is used to

change the horizontal reciprocating motion into a rotary motion in a horizontal plane
at inlet end, whereas the other end has reciprocating motion.

Fig.1.3 Combined horizontal and reciprocatory motion

3. Horizontal rotary motion: If the screen surface is rotated in a horizontal plane, the
material will travel in the over lapping loop path during the passage from inlet to
discharge end. Rotary motion is provided by an off-centred weight attached to the
screen through the frame and it is rotated at proper speed in horizontal plane. The
speed of eccentric and the amount of eccentricity control the frequency and amplitude
of motion

6
 Fig.1.4 Horizontal rotary motion

1.5 SCREEN OPENINGS

Screens are generally constructed by perforated sheet metal or oven wire mesh. The
openings in perforated metal sheet may be round, oblong or triangular. The openings in
wire mesh are square or rectangular. The size and shape and their combination of the
screens available in market are identified by some trade numbers.

1.5.1 Perforated metal screens

i) Round openings: The round openings in a perforated sheet metal screen are measured
by the diameter (mm or in.) of the opening. For example, 1/18 screen has round
perforation of 1/18 in. in diameter or 2 mm.

Fig.1.5 Perforated metal screen

a. Round holes, b. oblong holes, c. triangular hole

ii) Oblong opening: The oblong or slotted openings in a perforated sheet metal screen are
designated by two dimensions, the width and length of the opening. While mentioning
the oblong openings the dimension of width is listed first then the length as 1.8×20 mm.
7
iii) Triangular openings: There are two different systems used to measure triangular
perforations. The most commonly used system is to mention the length of each side of the
triangle in mm, it means, 9 mm triangle has 3 equal sides each 9 mm long. The second
system is to mention openings according to the diameter in mm that can be inscribed
inside the triangle. This system is identified by the letter V as 9V, 10V etc.
1.5.2 Wire mesh screens
i) Square mesh: The square openings in wire mesh are measured by the number of
openings per inch in each direction. A 9×9 screen has 9 openings per inch.
ii) Rectangular mesh: The rectangular opening in wire mesh screens are measured in the
same way as square wire mesh screen. A 3×6 rectangular wire mesh screen will have 3
openings per inch in one direction and 6 openings per inch in other direction.

Fig. 1.6 Wire mesh Screen

1. Square openings 2. Rectangular openings

1.6 IDEAL AND ACTUAL SCREENS

The basic purpose of any screen is to separate the feed consisting of a mixture of particles
of different sizes into two distinct fractions. These fractions are, (1) the underflow, the
particles which pass through the screen, and (2) the overflow or oversize, the materials that
are retained over the screen. A screen can be termed as ideal screen which separates the
feed mixture in such a way that the largest particle of underflow is just smaller than the
screen opening, while the smallest particle of overflow is just larger than the screen
opening. But in practice no screen gives perfect separation as stated above, and is called
actual screen. The underflow may contain material coarser than screen size, whereas the
overflow may contain smaller particles than screen size as shown in Fig.1.7.

8
 Fig. 1.7 Graphical representation of various flows of a screen

1.7 EFFECTIVENESS OF SCREEN

The screen effectiveness may be defined as the ability of a screen is closely separating the feed into
overflow and underflow according to the size. If the screen functions properly, all material ‘O’
would be in the overflow, while all the material ‘U’ would be in the underflow. The material
balance in a screening operation can be derived as follows
F = mass flow rate of feed, kg/hr.
O = mass flow rate of oversize, kg/hr.
U = mass flow rate and undersize, kg/hr.
Mf = mass fraction of material in feed
Mo = mass fraction of material in overflow
Mu = mass fraction of material in underflow

The total quantity of feed is the sum of overflow and underflow

F = O+U
Fmf = Omo+ Umu
Substituting, O = F-U
And U = F- O

9
O 𝑚𝑓 − 𝑚𝑢
=
F 𝑚𝑜 − 𝑚𝑢

𝑈 𝑚𝑜 − 𝑚𝑓
And =
F 𝑚𝑜 − 𝑚𝑢
A common measure of screen effectiveness is the ratio of actual amount of oversize
material in the overflow to the amount of oversize material entering with the feed.

𝑂𝑚𝑜
Thus, Eo =
𝐹𝑚𝑓

𝑈(1−𝑚𝑜)
And Eu =
𝐹(1−𝑚𝑓 )

Overall effectiveness E = Eo× Eu

𝑂𝑈𝑚𝑜 (1−𝑚𝑢)
=
𝐹 2 𝑚𝑓 (1−𝑚𝑓 )

𝑂 𝑈
Substituting the values of and
𝐹 𝐹

(𝑚𝑓 −𝑚𝑢 )(𝑚𝑜−𝑚𝑓 ) 𝑚𝑜( 1−𝑚𝑢 )

E=
(𝑚𝑜 −𝑚𝑢 )2 𝑚𝑓 ( 1−𝑚𝑓 )

10
Problem: Wheat was milled in a burr mill. The ground product was later on analysed in a
set of IS screens. The screen analysis is given in the following table. Calculate the screen
effectiveness of 1) IS 50 mesh and 2) IS 30 mesh.

Screen analysis for milled wheat

% material retained over each screen

IS Screen Width of opening, mm
Feed Over flow Under flow
100 1.00 ---- ---- ----
70 0.708 2 9.8 ----
50 0.500 14 51.7 3.0
40 0.420 27 19.0 9.0
30 0.296 32 15.0 49.0
20 0.211 18 3.5 23.2
15 0.1157 4 1.0 7.8
Pan ---- 3 ----- 8.0

Solution: Solving for the cumulative mass fraction of material smaller than screen opening
retained over each screen. This is presented in the following table.

Cumulative mass fraction of material retained over each screen

% material retained over each screen

IS Screen Width of opening, mm
Feed Over flow Under flow
100 1.00 ---- ---- ----
70 0.708 0.02 0.098 ----
50 0.500 0.16 0.615 0.030
40 0.420 0.43 0.805 0.120
30 0.296 0.75 0.955 0.610
20 0.211 0.93 0.990 0.842
15 0.157 0.97 1.000 0.920
Pan 0.000 1.00 ----- 1.000
i) For IS 50 mesh the cumulative mass fractions of feed (mf), overflow (mo) and
underflow (mu) are 0.16, 0.615 and 0.030 respectively.

11
 (𝑚𝑓 −𝑚𝑢 )(𝑚𝑜 −𝑚𝑓 ) 𝑚𝑜 ( 1−𝑚𝑢 )
The screen effectiveness E =
(𝑚𝑜 −𝑚𝑢 )2 𝑚𝑓 ( 1−𝑚𝑓 )

(0.16−0.03)( 0.15−0.16) 𝑜.615( 1−0.03)

=
(0.615−0.03)2 (1−0.16) 0.16

= 0.767

ii) For IS 30 mesh; mf = 0.75, mo= 0.955 and mu = 0.610

iii)
(0.75−0.61)( 0.955−0.75)0.955( 1−0.61)
The screen effectiveness E =
(0.955−0.61)2(1−0.75) 0.75

= 0.478

The effectiveness of screening or cleaning efficiency for an air screen grain cleaner as
suggested by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is given below

E(F−G)(E−F)(1−G)
Cleaning efficiency = F(E−G)2 (1−F)

Where
E= fraction of clean seed at clean seed outlet
F= fraction of clean seed in feed
G= fraction of clean seed at foreign matter outlets

Problem: During the evaluation of an air screen grain cleaner with two screens the
following were observed.
i) The impurities present in feed were 6.5%
ii) The impurities present in clean grain were 0.5%
iii) The outflow of blower contained 0.2% clean seed
iv) The overflow of the Ist screen contained 1% claen seed

12
v) The underflow contained 0.5% clean seed. Compute the cleaning efficiency of the
cleaner
Solution:
i) fraction of clean seed in feed = 100-6.5
= 93.5% or 0.935

(ii) fraction of clean seed in clean grain outlet = 100-0.5

= 0.995
0.2 1 0.5
(iii) fraction of clean seed in foreign matter outlets=100 + 100 +100

= 0.002+0.01+0.005= 0.017
Then E=0.995; F=0.935; G= 0.017
0.995(0.935−0.017)(0.995−0.935)(1−0.017)
Cleaning efficiency = 0.935(0.995−0.017)2(1−0.935)

=91.8%

13
 LECTURE 2

Size reduction – principles; laws; procedures and fineness modulus; Crushers – jaw
crusher; gyratory crusher; crushing rolls; grinders; attrition mills; hammer mills; ball
mills; cutting machines.

1.8 SIZE REDUCTION

The term size reduction is associated with all the means by which solid particles are cut or
broken into smaller pieces. In processing stages solids are reduced in size and shape by
various methods for different purposes. In this process, uniformity in size and shape of the
individual grains or resultant product is desired, but it is very difficult to attain. Reduction
in size is brought about by mechanical means without change in chemical properties of the
materials.

1.8.1 Principles of size reduction

Crushers and grinders are the equipment mostly used for size reduction of agricultural
products. An ideal size reducer should fulfill the following conditions, such as, 1) large
capacity, 2) should yield a predesired sized product or range of size, 3) small power input
requirement per unit of product handled and 4) easy and trouble free operation.
Size reduction results in the production of small particles which may be required either for
larger surface area or because of their definite shape, size and number. Amount of power
required to create smaller particles is one of the parameter of the efficiency of operation.
Second parameter is the desired uniformity of size. The major expenditure involved in
crushing and grinding operation is the power requirement. Therefore, the factors
controlling the power requirement are important. Work required to stain the material is
temporarily stored in it in the form of mechanical energy of stress. When external force
exceeds the amount of stored mechanical energy, the material is disturbed beyond its
strength and finally broken into fragments. It results in generation of new surface.

1.8.2 Size reduction laws

a) Rittinger’s law: A crushing law proposed by Rittenger states that the work required in
crushing is proportional to the new surface created. Rittinger assumed that size reduction is
essentially a shearing procedure. Therefore, energy requirement is proportional to the
14
square of the common linear dimension and thus the value of ‘n’ becomes 2. The energy
requirement is given as

E=c [𝑋1 𝑝
−
1
𝑋𝑓
]

Where, Xp and Xf = length of product and feed respectively.

b )Kick’s law: Kick proposed another law which based on stress analysis of plastic
deformation within the elastic limit. He assumed that the energy requirements for size
reduction is a function of a common dimension of the material, therefore, the value of n
becomes 1, and the energy requirement can be given by the following equation

E = c ln [𝑋𝑋 ]
𝑓

Kick’s law can also be expressed as the work required for crushing a given quantity of
material is constant for the same reduction ratio within the elastic limit irrespective of the
original sizes. The reduction ratio of crushers is often expressed as the ratio of the feed
opening to the discharge opening.

c)Bond’s law: Bond reported a method for estimating the power required for crushing and
grinding operation. According to this law the work required to form particles of size ‘D p’
from very large feed is proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume ratio of the
product.
𝑆𝑝 6
Since, =
𝑣𝑝 𝜙𝐷𝑝

𝑃 𝐾
=
𝑓 √𝐷𝑝

Where, K = Constant, depends on machine type and material being handled.

Problem: In a wheat milling experiment it was found that to grind 4.33 mm sized grains to
IS sieve 35 (0.351 mm opening), the power requirement was 8 KW. Calculate the power
requirement for milling of wheat by the same mill to IS sieve 15 (0.157 mm opening) using
1) Rittingers law and 2) Kick’s law. Feed rate of milling is 200 kg/hr.

15
Solution: i) According to Rittinger’s law

𝑃
𝑓
=c [𝑋1 𝑝
−
1
𝑋𝑓
]

8 1 1
0.2
=c [0.351 −
4.33
]
40 = c (2.618)

C = 15.278

By putting the value of ‘c’ for second condition

𝑃 1 1
0.2
= 15.278 [0.157 −
4.33
]
P = 18.75 KW

(ii)According to kick’s law

E = c ln [𝑋𝑋 ]
𝑓

𝑃
𝑓
= c ln [𝑋𝑋 ]𝑓

8 4.33
0.2
= c ln [0.351 ]
40 = c × 2.5125

C = 15.92

By putting the value of ‘c’ for second condition

𝑃 4.33
0.2
= 15.278 [0.157 ]
P = 10.56 KW

16
1.8.3 Size reduction procedures

The size of agricultural products may be reduced by several ways, but mainly the
following four methods are used in size reduction machines,

(a) Compression or Crushing,

(b) Impact,
(c) Shearing and
(d) Cutting.
a) Crushing: When an external force applied on a material excess of its strength, the
material fails because of its rupture in many directions. The particles produced after
crushing are irregular in shape and size. The type of material and method of force
application affects the characteristics of new surfaces and particles. Food grain flour, grits
and meal, ground feed for livestock are made by crushing process. Crushing is also used to
extract oil from oilseeds and juice from sugarcane.
b) Impact: When a material is subjected to sudden blow of force in excess of its strength,
it fails, like cracking of nut with the help of a hammer. Operation of hammer mill is an
example of dynamic force application by impact method.
c) Shearing: It is a process of size reduction which combines cutting and crushing. The
shearing units consist of a knife and a bar. If the edge of knife or shearing edge is thin
enough and sharp, the size reduction process nears to that of cutting, whereas a thick and
dull shearing edge performs like a crusher. In a good shearing unit the knife is usually
thick enough to overcome the shock resulting from material hitting. In an ideal shearing
unit the clearance between the bar and the knife should be as small as practicable and the
knife as sharp and thin as possible.
c) Cutting: In this method, size reduction is accomplished by forcing a sharp and thin
knife through the material. In the process minimum deformation and rupture of the
material results and the new surface created is more or less undamaged. An ideal cutting
device is a knife of excellent sharpness and it should be as thin as Practicable. The size of
vegetables and fruits are reduced by cutting.

17
1.8.4 Fineness modules

The fineness modulus indicates the uniformity of grind in resultant product. It is

determined by adding the weight fractions retained above each sieve and dividing the sum
by 100.
The average particle size, Dp in mm represented in terms of fineness modulus can be
estimated by the following equation
Dp = 0.135 (1.366)F.M

1.9 SIZE REDUCTION MACHINERY

Size reducing devices are grouped as follows:
a. Crushers
b. Grinders
c. Fine grinders
d. Cutting machines
a) Crushers: These type of reducing machines squeeze or press the material until it
breaks. Crushers are used in industrial operations, like mines etc. Use of crushers in
agricultural operations is limited. The crushers in use are, (1) jaw crushers, (2) gyratory
crushers, and (3) crushing rolls.

1.9.1 Jaw Crushers

Lime and other stones are first reduced by the jaw or gyratory crushers. In a jaw crusher
feed is admitted between two jaws, which are open at the top like 'V', One of the jaws is
fixed and somewhat vertical while the other is the swinging jaw. This jaw reciprocates in a
horizontal plane, and makes and angle of 20 to 30° with the fixed jaw.

Fig. 1.8 Jaw crusher

18
The movable jaw is operated by an eccentric unit so as to impart great compressive force.
The solids which has to be broken is caught between the two jaws. Large lumps of solid
materials are caught between the upper parts of the jaws and subsequently broken and
dropped into the narrower space below (Fig. 1.8). The broken pieces are further reduced
next time when jaws come closer. The number of strokes given to the movable jaw by
eccentric unit ranges between 250 to 400 times per minute.

1.9.2 Gyratory Crusher

In a gyratory crusher the jaws between which the solid materials fed, are circular. In such
crushers the material is being crushed at all times at some point. Solids are caught between
'V' shaped space between the head and casing. The material is repeatedly broken in
sufficiently small pieces to pass out from the bottom. The crushing head is rotated by an
eccentric unit. The speed of crushing head ranges between 125 to 425gyrations per minute.
The discharge from the gyratory crusher is continuous; hence the driving motor is
uniformly loaded. Less maintenance is required as compared to jaw crusher, also the power
requirements is low.

Fig. 1.9 Gyratory crusher

1. Feed 2. Discharge 3. Maximum opening 4. Minimum opening 5. Eccentric

unit
19
1.9.3 Crushing rolls
In agricultural operations crushing rolls are mainly used for extraction of juice from
sugarcane. The crushing rolls are of two broad types; (1) smooth-roll crusher and (2)
serrated or toothed-roll crushers.

Fig. 1.10 Schematic diagram of a smooth roll crusher

Two heavy smooth-faced metal rolls rotating towards each other at same speed on parallel
horizontal axes are the working elements of the smooth-roll crusher. The size of the
particles/material that can be caught by the rolls depends upon the coefficient of friction
between the material and the roll surface and can be estimated by the following equation

dp=0.04R+g

Where, dp = maximum size of particle

R = roll radius
g = half of the width of gap between the rolls
The rolls exert great force and to avoid any damage to roll surface because of some
unbreakable material coming with the feed, at least one of the rolls should be spring
loaded.
Apart from extraction of juice the smooth-roll crushers are used to make grits or meal from
food grains. These are also extensively used for making food grains flakes.

1.9.4 Serrated or toothed-roll crushers

In such crushers the rolls are serrated as per need. Toothed-roll crushers are much more
versatile than smooth-roll crushers. The best example of such type is the break and
reduction rolls of a wheat flour milling plant. The size reduction in serrated-roll crushers is
by compression, impact and shear, and not by compression alone, as in the case of smooth
20
roll crushers. The serrated-roll Crushers can also accommodate largerparticles than
smooth-roll crushers.

1.10 GRINDERS
The grinders are used to mill the grains into powder. The grinder comprises a variety of
size-reduction machines like attrition mills, hammer mills, impact and rolling compression
mills.
1.10.1 Attrition mills
In an attrition mill the grains are rubbed between the grooved flat faces of rotating circular
disks. These mills are also known as burr or plate mills.

Fig. 1.11 A vertical disc attrition mill

The axis of the roughened disks may be horizontal or vertical. In attrition mill one plate is
stationary and fixed with the body of the mill, while other one is rotating disk. The
material is fed between the plates and is reduced by crushing and shear. Mills with
different patterns of grooves, corrugations on the plates perform a variety of operations. In
attrition mills the materials are slowly fed, overfeeding lowers the grinder's performance,
also heat generation during milling increases. The disks of burr mills are usually 20 to 137
cm in diameter and are operated at 350 to 700 rpm. These mills are used for making whole
grain and dehusked grain flour, but their use in spices grinding is limited. Double runner

21
disks type attrition mills are also available. These are used for grinding of soft materials. In
these mills both disks are driven at high speed in opposite directions. Feed enters through
an opening in the hub of one of the disks, it passes outward through the narrow gap
between the disks and discharges from the periphery. The disks are operated between 1200
to 7000 rpm, hence the capacity of such mills is large. The fineness of grinding in burr
mills is controlled by the type of plates and the gap between them. The spacing between
the plates is adjustable and usually the arrangement is spring loaded to avoid damage to
plates in case of over loading or to overcome the damage to plates by foreign material
coming along with the feed. The salient features of a burr mill are its lower initial cost and
lower power requirements.

1.10.2 Hammer mills

Hammer mills are used for various types of size reduction jobs. These mills contain a
high-speed rotor, rotating inside a cylindrical casing. The shaft is usually kept horizontal.
Materials are fed into the mill from the top of the casing and is broken by the rotating
hammers and fall out through a screen at the bottom. The material or feed is broken by
fixed or swinging hammers which are pinned to a rotor. The hammers are rotated between
1500 to 4000 rpm, strike and grind the material until it becomes small enough to pass
through the bottom screen. Fineness of grinding is controlled by the screen size.

Fig. 1.12 Hammer mill

22
Hammers are either rigidly fixed to the shaft or swinging. In case of swinging hammer mill
there is less chances of damage of hammer if some unbreakable solid material comes to
milling chamber along with feed. There are several designs of striking edge of the
hammers. Hammer mill can grind almost anything like tough fibrous solids, steel chips,
food grains, sticky clay, hard rock etc. The hammer mill is assumed to reduce size by
impact. The kinetic energy of the rotating hammers is used to disintegrate the feed. Most of
the size reduction is achieved by impact of hammers, though some amount of shear also
takes place between the feed and screen and other mill parts. The salient features of
hammer mill are their simplicity and versatility in design and work, freedom from damage
during empty operation and less chances of damage of mill due to foreign objects. The
capacity and power requirements of hammer will depend on the nature of feed to be
ground. Commercial mills reduce solids between 60 to 240 kg /kWhr of energy
consumption. Hammer mills are used for poultry feed grinding, spices grinding. It was also
found suitable for grinding of wet sorghum and millets and also for potato, tapioca, banana
and similar flour making.

1.10.3 Ball mills

The ball mill is a cylindrical or conical shell slowly rotating about a horizontal axis. Half
of its volume is filled with solid grinding ball. The shell is usually made of steel lined with
high carbon steel plate, porcelain or silicarock. For medium and fine-reduction of abrasive
materials ball mills are used. In a ball mill size reduction is achieved by impact of the balls
when they drop from near the top of the shell. The balls are carried up the side of the shell
nearly to the top. By gravity the balls drop on the feed underneath. The energy consumed
in lifting the balls is utilised for grinding job. When the ball mill is rotated, the balls are
carried by the mill wall nearly to the top, where they are released by gravitational pull and
drop to the bottom and picked up again.

23
 Fig. 1.13 Ball mill

Centrifugal force keeps the ball in contact with the mill wall. Most of the grinding is done
by the impact of balls. Due to centrifugal force, if the speed of rotation of mill is faster, the
balls are carried to more distance. In case of too high speed, balls stick to mill wall and are
not released. This is a stage of centrifuging. The rotational speed at which centrifuging
occurs is known as critical speed. At this speed as the balls are released from the top, no
impact occurs hence little or no grinding results. Therefore, the operating speeds must be
kept less than the critical speed. The critical speed can be determined by the following
equation

1 𝑔
nc = √
2𝜋 𝑅−𝑟

Where,
nc = critical speed, revolutions/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.80 m/s2
R = radius of the mill, m
r = radius of the ball, m
The rotational speeds of the ball mills are kept at 65 to 80%f the critical speed, with the
lower values for wet grinding in viscous suspension.

24
Problem: What would be the operating speed of rotation in revolutions per minute of a
ball mill of 2,000 mm diameter charged with 100 mm balls? The ball mill is grinding solid
matter.
Solution:
1 𝑔
The critical speed, nc = √
2𝜋 𝑅−𝑟

1 9.8
= √
2(3.1416) 2−0.1

= 21.58 rpm
Therefore the operating speed for solid matter grinding
= nc × 0.8
= 17 rpm.

1.11 CUTTING MACHINES

Size reduction of fruits and vegetables are mostly performed by cutting operation. To
make thin slices of fruits and vegetables knife cutters are used. Few types of knife cutters
have been developed for cutting slices/chips of potatoes, cassava, banana etc.
Rotary knife cutters contain a horizontal rotor rotating at 200 to 900 rpm inside a
cylindrical chamber. Several knives are fixed to the rotor. Feed enters the chamber from
the top and are cut by the rotating knives afterwards discharged from the bottom of the
equipment.

1.11.1 Rietz mill or disintegrator

Rietz mill consists of a rotor inside a circular screen enclosure. The rotating shaft is
usually vertical. The rotor includes a number of hammers running at a fairly close
clearance. The hammers are generally rigidly fixed to the shaft, but in some cases swing
hammers are also used. Feed enters the milling chamber parallel to the axis as in disk type
attrition mill. The product is discharged radially out through a perforated sizing screen
which surrounds the rotor. Rietz mill's many applications are on wet materials. The
advantage of this mill was found in those cases where solid content in the range of 40 to 80
per cent. Rietz disintegrator keeps running because the close hammer clearance keeps the

25
sizing screen open. Therefore, more fine and uniform grinding is possible. Rietz mill is
able to grind materials below 15 micron size.
Rietz machines are normally supplied in rotor diameters from 10 to 60 cm (4 to 24 inches).
The hammer tip speeds are in the range of 5.2 to 111 m/s and horsepower ranges from 0.5
to 200.

Fig. 1.14 Rietz mill

1.11.2 Dispersion and colloid mills

Colloid mills are used for fine grinding. Where very little breakdown of individual
particles and disruption of weakly bonded clusters are required, colloid mills are used.
Purees, food pastes pulps and other similar products are processed by this type of mill.
Colloid mills fall into four main groups; the hammer or turbine, the smooth surface disk,
the rough surface type and valve or orifice devices.
1.11.3 Concentric cylinder abrasive mills
Such types of mills are mostly used for scouring of husk or seed coverings of pulses and
cereals. These work on frictional properties principle. Inside a larger drum (preferably of
metal) an abrasive roller rotates. The outer cylinder can be made by a perforated pipe or
from a metal sheet. The outer metal cylinder may also be fabricated as bottom half
perforated, whereas the upper half portion is made from plain m.s. sheet.

26
 LECTURE 3

Rice milling – definition; terminology related to rice; rice processing; modern rice milling
process flowchart; layout of modern rice mill.

2.1 RICE MILLING

Paddy or rice grain consists of husk and brown rice. Brown rice, in turn, contains bran
which comprises the outer layer and the edible portion. Rice milling is removal or
separation of husk (dehusking) and bran to obtain the edible portion for consumption. The
process has to be accomplished with care to prevent excessive breakage of the kernel and
improve recovery of paddy or rice. The extent of recovery during milling depends on many
factors like variety of paddy, degree of milling required, the quality of equipment used, the
operators, etc. Milling is the process wherein the rice grain is transformed into a form
suitable for human consumption, therefore, has to be done with utmost care to prevent
breakage of the kernel and improve the recovery. Brown rice is milled further to create a
more visually appealing white rice.

After harvesting and drying, the paddy is subjected to the primary milling operation which
includes de-husking as well as the removal of bran layers (polishing) before it is
consumed. In this process the rice which is obtained after milling is called raw rice.

Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic objective of a rice milling
system is to remove the husk and the bran layers, and produce an edible, white rice kernel
that is sufficiently milled and free of impurities. Depending on the requirements of the
customer, the rice should have a minimum of broken kernels.

2.1.1 Rice kernel composition

Today rice has become one of the most important and major food grains of the world.
Nearly ½ to 2/3 of total world population has partially or totally adapted rice as their main
food. Paddy grain contains large amount of micro and macro capillaries through which
water can move out or inside of the grain surface.

Paddy undergoes certain processing treatments prior to its conversion into edible form. The
various unit operations are cleaning, drying, storage, parboiling (optional) and milling. The
27
edible portion of paddy is called rice. The kernel is enclosed by hull or husk. The weight of
hull is 18-22% of the total weight of paddy grain. The endosperm weights about 70 to
72%, where 4-6% bran is removed during polishing. The by-products in rice milling are
rice hull, rice germ and bran layers, and fine brokens.

Rice milling machinery was broadly classified into two groups (1) traditional and (2)
modern rice milling machinery. Traditional rice mills include hand pounding equipments,
single huller, sheller cum hullers and sheller mills. Clean and good quality paddy can
give an yield of 74% rice. But due to several reasons it has not been possible to achieve
74% yield of rice by traditional methods and machines. Use of modern machines like
rubber roll Sheller along with improved methods of drying, paddy separation, bran
removal and graders can give higher out turn.

2.1.2 Rice milling Terminology

Fig.2.1 Paddy grain

a) Head rice: It refers to the milled whole rice of 6/8 and more of actual kernel size.
b) Broken rice: Rice kernels which are lesser than 6/8 of the actual size are called
broken rice.
It is further divided into three categories
(1) Big brokens , these include 4/8 to 6/8 of kernel portion
(2) Small brokens, these include 1/8 to 4/8 parts of kernel and
(3) Points- lesser than 1/8 part of rice grain.
(c) Total rice: It includes both head and broken rice.
28
Table 2.1: Various unit operations and equipment used in a modern rice milling

Cleaning/cleaner : for removing foreign matter from paddy

Shelling/rubber-roll Sheller : for separating husk from the paddy grain

Husk separation/husk : for separation of husk from the product obtained

aspirator from sheller

Paddy separation/paddy : for separation of paddy from brown rice

separator

Bran : for removal of bran layers from brown rice

removal/polisher/whitener

Bran aspiration/bran aspirator : for removal of bran adhering to the rice kernel

Grading/grader : for separation of broken rice from head rice

Handling equipment : for conveying of paddy-rice to various processing

units

29
Fig.2.2 Flow chart of Modern rice milling process

30
Fig. 2.3 Layout of Modern rice milling process
31
 LECTURE 4

Rice milling equipment- types of cleaners, destoner and shellers.

2.2 RICE MILLING EQUIPMENT

The major operations performed by modern rice mills are as follows
1. Storage
2. Cleaning
3. Husking
4. Separation
5. Whitening and
6. Grading

2.2.1 Cleaning
The paddy procured from the farmer is cleaned with the help of paddy cleaners. The
removal of impurities from the grains is very much essential to protect the subsequent
milling machinery from unusual wear and tear and to improve the quality of final product.
Principles of cleaning
Difference in physical characteristics such as size, specific gravity, weight and sometimes
length of impurities compared to paddy grain is utilized in cleaning operation. Light
impurities can be removed by aspiration or by sieving. Impurities larger and smaller than
paddy are removed by sieving whereas impurities of the same size but heavier than paddy
are removed by gravity separation. Iron parts or particles can be removed with the help of
sieve or magnetic separators.
a) Open Double-Sieve Precleaner
In many rice mills in India prior to parboiling, precleaning is performed through open
single or double layer oscillating sieves. Sometimes, single sieve type precleaners are
equipped with suction fans for aspiration of light impurities.

32
 Advantages
(1) Low cost
(2) Can be manufactured locally

Disadvantages
(1) It is open sieve, dust formation in the mill premesis takes place
(2) As no self-cleaning device is there, the bottom sieves with small perforations are often
clogged, resulting in lower separation efficiency.
(3) The separation of impurities having same size of paddy grain is not possible.

b) Single Scalper drum cleaner

This machine can be used for precleaning of either harvested paddy or rough paddy from
the impurities such as straw, ear chaffs, big stones, dust and light impurities, sand etc.
Basically it consists of a horizontal rotating scalper drum, an aspirator and vibrating sieves
(Fig.2.4).
The dispersing plate (1) disperses the paddy evenly on the whole width of vibrating screen.
The paddy input is controlled by a feed roll(2) and a valve(3). An inclined vibrating
screen(4) helps the paddy grain in getting them into loose form and removing large
impurities. The paddy is then fed to the rotating scalper drum (5). The scalper drum,
covered with hexagonal slotted screens, removes the large impurities such as straw, big
stones etc. The paddy with small impurities enters through the hexagonal slots of the
scalper drum and is then discharged from the drum uniformly with the help of the device
(6). The speed of the falling grain is equalized by an inclined plate (7). When the grain
falls from the inclined plate as a film, an air stream is sucked through the grain film by
suction fan (8) to aspirate the lighter impurities like dust etc., from the grains. The paddy
with remaining impurities is fed through hopper (9) to the reciprocating sieve (10). The top
sieve of the large mesh removes large impurities through the outlet (12) while the bottom
sieve of small mesh separates heavier and smaller impurities such as sand.
The scalper drum is continuously cleaned by cleaners made of rubber and the
vibrating screen is cleaned by a special moving scrapping device to prevent clogging.

33
 Fig. 2.4 Single Scalper drum type cleaner

2.3 STONER
Stones of about same size as paddy grain can be separated by the gravity separation
method.
2.3.1 Stoner with aspirator
The machine consists of an inclined reciprocating tray having convex slots all over the
surface (Fig.2.5). A large amount of air is blown from underneath through the slotted
separating tray. When a mixture of grain, stone etc., is fed at the top of the tray, the stones
having higher specific gravity slowly go down and occupy the bottom layer of the mixture
and thus come in contact with the reciprocating tray. The heavier stones are carried to the
top by its movement. Paddy being lighter floats on the stone and moves downward by
gravity. Any paddy grain in contact with the stones is separated and returned or blown
back to the tray with the help of another smaller blower installed underneath the tray. The
stones collected under a flap can be unloaded either manually or by an automatic device .

34
 Fig.2.5 Paddy stoner with aspirator

2.3.2 Paddy cleaner with stoner

The purpose of this machine is to remove large impurities, light impurities, sand stones and
metallic parts. The machine consists of a rotating drum with sieve having hexagonal slots
(roto scalper), a suction fan and a slant vibrating tray with convex perforations. Under the
separating tray, a blower is installed. Large impurities are removed by the roto scalper and
light impurities are aspirated by the suction fan. Stones and other heavy impurities of same
size move upwards towards the upper part of the tray and are separated. Cleaned paddy
moves downward by gravity and is discharged.

35
Advantages
(1) The rotoscalper and the aspirator is capable of removing about 30% impurities.
(2) Large impurities, light impurities , stones, sands and metallic parts are separated by
the same machine
Disadvantages
(1) The separating capacity of the stone separating tray is limited up to 2 percent stone
content only.
(2) Careful operation and maintenance are necessary.
2.4 HUSKING
Husking or de-hulling is a process for removing the rice hull from the paddy without
damage to the bran layer and rice kernel. Husking machines are known by different names
such as huskers, dehuskers, shellers and hullers.
2.4.1 Types of huskers
a) Impact type paddy husker
The working principle of the impact or centrifugal type husker is based on the utilization of
impact and frictional force for husking of paddy. In the impact type husker, paddy is
thrown against a rubber wall by a rotating disc (Fig 2.6). The impact on the rubber wall
due to the centrifugal force of the rotating disc causes cracking to the hulls with a
minimum damage to the kernel.

Fig. 2.6 Impact type paddy husker

36
b)Rubber-roll Sheller:
Rubber-roll Sheller consists of two rubber rolls rotating in opposite direction at different
speeds. A feeder feeds paddy uniformly to the machine. Paddy is fed in thin layers between
the rotating roll by the feeder (Fig.2.7). One of the roll is fixed while the other is adjustable
to obtain desired clearance between them. The rolls are driven mechanically and the
adjustable roll normally runs about 25% slower than the fixed one. Difference in surface
speeds of rolls develop a shearing force on grain surface resulting in the opening and
breaking of husk.

The clearance between the roll is kept smaller than the thickness of paddy grain. This
clearance should be about half the thickness of paddy and may be adjusted subsequently by
judging the shelling efficiency. If the gap between rolls is properly adjusted, this
equipment can shell upto 95% of paddy fed to it. At decreasing gap excess pressure results
which cause more breakage of grain and can also cause colouring of shelled rice. In
modern machines, the gap between the rolls is adjustable by suction methods, as per need
this gap is automatically maintained.

1. Paddy 2.Brown rice paddy husk mixture 3.Immature grain 4.brown rice 5.husk
Fig. 2.7 Working principle of rubber roller husker

37
Advantages

(1) High percentage of sound and whole husked rice is produced as the risk of breaking
the kernel is small.
(2) The mixture of different sizes and varieties of paddy can be used without any
significant increase of brokens in husked rice.
(3) It does not remove germ.
Disadvantages

(1) Operation costs are high due to wear of rubber rolls.

(2) Storage life of rubber roll is limited as storage deteriorate its quality and shortens
working life.
(3) Requires skilled labour to operate the machine.
(4) The husking capacity of the rubber rolls in tropical countries is low due to high
temperatures and humidity, structure and large surface area of long husk.

38
 LECTURE 5

Rice milling – Types of whiteners – Abrasive and frictional.

3.1 WHITENING
White rice is produced from brown rice by removing the bran layer and the germ. The bran
layer is removed from the kernel by applying friction to the grain surface either by rubbing
the grains against an abrasive surface. It is also termed as "whitening". The amount of bran
removed is normally between 8-10% of the total paddy weight but this will vary according
to the variety and degree of whiteness required. The process used to whiten brown rice can
be classified as either abrasive or friction.

3.1.1 Abrasive whitening

In this process the grain is whitened by the abrasive action of the rice kernel passing
between a moving abrasive surface and stationary screen. The hard rough surface is usually
stone or a carborundum type material. The abrasive process peels off the bran layers from
the brown rice and applies less pressure on the grain than a friction process and is therefore
better suited for long grain varieties. Abrasive polishers can be either vertical or horizontal
in design. The vertical cone whitener is very common in many Asian countries.

3.1.2 Friction whitening

In the friction whitener the grain kernels are forced against each other and a metal screen
by a steel-ribbed cylinder rotating inside a metal-plated cylinder. The frictional forces
created between individual rice grains and between the grains and the metal screen surface
remove the bran layer from the grain. Friction polishers are always horizontal in design
and apply more pressure on the grain than an abrasive whitener.

Three kinds of whitening machines are widely used in the rice processing industries, (1) the
vertical abrasive whitening cone, (2) the horizontal abrasive Whitening machine and (3) the
horizontal jet pearler.

39
a) The Vertical whitening cone

This machine basically consists of a cone shaped cast iron cylinder with an abrasive
coating. The entire rotating cone is encased within a fixed perforated metal sheet known as crib. The
gap between the abrasive surface and the crib is about 10 mm. It is provided with rubber brakes,
placed vertically and spaced equally which protrude into the gap between the abrasive cone and the
crib. The clearance between the rubber brake and crib is about 2-3 mm. The pressure inside the
whitening chamber can be adjusted by pushing in or pulling out the rubber brakes.
Brown rice is fed into the centre of the machine through a hopper. Feeding of brown rice is
adjusted by a sleeve which also uniformly distributes the brown rice to entire surface of cone.
The centrifugal force generated by rotation of cone feed the brown rice between the cone and
wire mesh. Rubber brakes restrict the movement of rice, thus, applies pressure. As a result of
pressure, brown rice is pressed against the abrasive coating of the cone. This friction removes
bran layer, and partly or fully whitened rice leaves the cone through a self unloading
discharge spout (Fig.3.1).
The peripheral speed of the cone should be about 13 m/s, thus larger the diameter of
cone, lower the speed of shaft. Vertical whitening cone removes the bran from the
brown rice by friction, and the friction produces heat. For removing all the bran in one pass,
the residence time of the grain is increased and the clearance between cone and screen
is reduced. This results in generation of heat and causes much breakage and reduces total rice
recovery. It is therefore, recommended that the bran layer be removed in three or even more
passes.

Fig. 3.1 Vertical Whitening Cone

40
b) Horizontal abrasive whitener

The machine consists of an abrasive roll operating in a cylindrical metal perforated

screen which is horizontally mounted (Fig.3.2). The screen cylinder covers the emery roll
leaving a uniform gap where brown rice is fed through a small screw conveyor. The
emery roll rotates while the screen cylinder remains stationary. Polishing is obtained
due to rubbing of grains with emery roll, screen and rice grain. At the delivery end of
polishing chamber one adjustable weight is placed by which degree of polishing is
controlled. Adjustable brakes are also fitted to screen cylinder, to help in obtaining required
polishing. Bran removed from rice escapes through holes and is aspirated out by a blower. The
blower which collects and carries the bran also provides cooling to rice grains, emery roll and
screen cage.

Fig. 3.2 Horizontal abrasive whitener

1. hopper 2. abrasive roller 3. screened steel cylinder 4. White rice 5. brakes 6. bran

3.2 JET PEARLER

The jet pearler is used to remove the final part of the bran layer and simultaneously cool the grain
through an air stream of ambient temperature.It consists mainly of a horizontal partly hollow
perforated shaft on which a cast steel cylinder with friction ridges is clamped (Fig. 3.3). Just
behind the two ridges the cylinder has a long opening which allows the passage for air. The
cylinder runs inside a hexagonal chamber consisting of two halves hexagonal screens with
slotted perforations. A feeding screw with horizontal shaft feeds the rice in to the press chamber

41
of the machine. The clearance between the hexagonal screen and the cast steel cylinder is
adjustable by a screw controlling the distance between the two halves of the screen.

The rice produced by this machine is free from bran and cool. However for medium and long
grain varieties its performance is not as good as for short grains varieties and there is
considerable increase in brokens.

Fig. 3.3 Cross section of a Jet pearler

1. Screen 2. Milling roller 3. Bran

42
 LECTURE 6

Types of graders- paddy separator (Satake type) and colour sorter.

3.4 TYPES OF GRADERS

3.4.1 Grading

Grading of rice is done according to the size of the grain kernel (full, half or brokens).
Grading allows achieving a better yield of head rice and retains broken rice for further
processing. Conventional rice mills use screens to separate brokens from head rice. The
perforations often gets clogged thereby brokens are not separated from head rice
effectively.

Three machines are used for grading of milled rice, 1) adjustable reel graders 2)
indented cylinder graders and 3) oscillating sieves

3.4.2 Rotating reel grader

This consists of a rotating cylinder made up of wire screen reels or slotted metal sheet. The
dimensions of these perforations are decided as per the varieties of rice (Fig. 3.4). Milled
rice is fed to the machine from one end through hopper. The rice slowly advances to the
other end. The rotating cylinder is divided in three or more parts with different size of
perforations. Different sizes of brokens fall out through these perforations where as head
rice is delivered out of the machine at the other end.

43
 Fig. 3.4 Rotating reel grader
1 &2. Small brokens 3. Big brokens 4. Head rice
3.4.3 Rotating indented cylinder
The machine consists of a cylinder having cup like indents on its inner wall. This cylinder
rotates at a low speed of about 30-40 rpm. It is installed on a slight inclined plane (Fig 3.5).
At the centre of the cylinder, a screw conveyor is fitted along with an adjustable trough.
The indented cylinder grades rice according to length. As the mixture of head rice keeps on
sliding downwards through the inclination. Rotary motion of the cylinder carries the
brokens up inside the cups and throws them out as the cup positions become inverted.
Thrown outs are collected by the adjustable trough and a screw conveyor delivers them
out.
For best performance of indented cylinder graders two precise adjustments are necessary,
1) as per varieties of rice decision regarding appropriate cup sizes and 2) adjustment of
rotational speed of the cylinder.

Fig. 3.5 Indented cylinder rice grader

1. Indented cylinder 2. Trough 3. Screw conveyor
44
3.4.4 Oscillating grading sieves

An oscillating sieve is a slightly inclined sieve supported by flexible wooden or steel bars.
This is moved back and forth by a vertical electric drive from a transmission shaft.
Frequency of stroke varies between 200 to 400 cycles/ min.

The sieves are made from a perforated steel sheet or wire screen of desired sizes. The
brokens are separated with the help of these sieves and the head rice is retained on the
sieves and delivered outside through a spout.

Expressions used to estimate the milling efficiency of rice mill and equipment are :

weight of brokens
1. Broken garins % = × 100
weight of paddy

husked grains
2. Husked rice % =total weight of paddy × 100

weight of total rice

3. Milling recovery % = × 100
weight of paddy

weight of head rice

4. Head rice % = × 100
weight of milled rice

weight of broken rice

5. Broken rice % = × 100
weight of milled rice

6. Milling efficiency % = Coefficient of hulling × Coefficient of wholeleness

of kernel × 100

weight of brown rice

7. Coefficient of hulling = weight of paddy fed to machine × 100

weight of brown head rice

8. Coefficient of wholeness= × 100
weight of total brown rice

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3.5 PADDY SEPARATOR

The output from the huller is a mixture of paddy rice, brown rice, husk, broken
paddy, and sometimes bran. The huller aspirator removes the lighter material such as husk,
bran and very small brokens. The remainder passes onto the paddy separator where
the unhulled paddy rice is separated from the brown rice. The amount of paddy present
depends on the efficiency of the husker, and should not be more10%. Paddy separators
work by making use of the differences in specific gravity, buoyancy and size between
paddy and brown rice. Paddy rice has a lower specific gravity, higher buoyancy, and is
physically bigger, longer and wider than brown rice

 The average weight of paddy is lighter than brown rice.

 The paddy grain is more buoyant than the brown rice.
 The paddy grains are longer, wider and thicker than the brown rice.

Unshelled paddy is separated from the brown rice kernel with the following equipment.

3.5.1 Compartment Separator

The compartment type of paddy separator uses the difference in specific gravity and the
buoyancy to separate paddy and brown rice (Fig 3.6). When paddy and brown rice move over
an inclined plane, they move at different speeds depending on their specific gravity, their shape
and contact area, smoothness of inclined surface and the co-efficient of sliding friction. Brown
grains are smaller, heavier, rounder and smoother and will slide faster than paddy grains. The
processing capacity of the compartment separator is dependent on the compartment area.
For a 2-ton/hr capacity rice mill, a 45-compartment separator made up of 15 compartments
on each of three decks is used.

46
 Fig. 3.6 Operational principle of compartment separator

3.5.2 Tray separator (Satake type)

The tray separator consists of several indented trays mounted one above the other about 5 cm apart,
and attached to an oscillating frame. The front portion of the machine is provided with slight
inclination and is not changed during operation, whereas the side inclination can be changed as
per need. The tray moves up and forward, giving the assembly a low jumping movement (Fig
3.7).

47
Paddy moves into each tray from the inlet hopper at uniform rate. As it moves across the tray, the
brown rice separated from the paddy. The brown rice has a smoother surface and a greater bulk
density and moves to the top of the trays whereas paddy moves to the lower part of the tray.
Inclination of the table or tray is adjusted according to varieties and other conditions to achieve
maximum separation capacity.

Fig: 3.7 Tray type paddy separator

1. Paddy-brown rice 2. Hopper 3.Paddy 4. Dust 5.Brown rice 6.Paddy-brown rice

mixture7.Paddy 8.Mixture 9. Brown rice 10. Tray slope 11. Dust 12. Hand wheel to adjust
the slope of tray assembly
3.6 COLOUR SORTER
The colour sorter separates the fruits, vegetables or grains due to difference in colour or
brightness. The colour separators are generally used for larger crop seeds like peas and beans.
These seeds differ in colour because of varietal differences and also due to immaturity or disease.
The mud balls and discolored or defective seeds can be removed with the help of electronic
separator.
The grain mixture is fed uniformly into the optical chamber of the separator. Two photo cells are
fixed at a particular angle which directs both beams to one point of the trajectory of the grains. A
needle is placed on the other side which is connected to a high voltage source. When a beam falls
on a dark object through photoelectric cells, current is generated on the needle. The needle end
receives a charge and imparts it to the dark seeds. The grains are then passed between two
electrodes with a high potential difference between them. The seed is compared with a selected
48
background or colour range, and is separated into two fractions according to difference in colour.
Since each grain is viewed individually by this machine, the capacity is low.

Fig. 3.8 Schematic of a colour separator

1.Hopper 2. Belt conveyor 3.Amplifier 4.Charging needle 5. Optical chamber

6. Deflecting electrodes 7. Foreign material 8. Desired material

49
 LECTURE 7

Parboiling of paddy – Introduction; advantages; disadvantages; process variables; physico-

chemical changes during parboiling, traditional parboiling methods.

4.1 PARBOILING
Parboiling is a pre-milling (optional) treatment given to paddy for improving rice quality
and to achieve maximum head rice recovery with minimum breakage. It consists of
soaking, steaming and drying of the rough rice. The major reasons for parboiling rice
include higher milling yields, higher nutritional value and resistance to spoilage by insects
and mold. The paddy grains are mainly composed of polygonal starch granules. The voids
or intergranular spaces are filled with air and moisture. Due to these voids, cracks develop
and it cause breakage during milling. This breakage may be reduced by gelatinizing the
starch. During gelatinization process starch swells and fills the voids.

During soaking of paddy, water penetrates into starch granules and results in swelling of
grains. In heating the energy weakens the granule structure and more surfaces becomes
available for water absorption and results in irreversible granule swelling. This
phenomenon is called gelatinization of starch.The temperature at which gelatinization
takes place is known as the gelatinization temperature and it is specific for particular
variety in near hood of 70 0C.The main objectives of parboiling are (1) To increase the
total head rice yield of paddy (2) to prevent the loss of nutrients during milling (3) to
salvage wet or damaged paddy and (4) to mill the rice according to requirements of
consumers.

4.1.1 Parboiling of paddy is carried out in three steps

1. Soaking
2. Steaming
3. Drying

50
 Fig. 4.1 Various steps in parboiling
I.Soaking II. Steaming III. Drying

Theoretically soaking of paddy can be done at or below its gelatinization temperature. The
lower the temperature used, slow is the process and vice-versa. Soaking period can be
reduced by subjecting the paddy to vacuum for a few minutes before soaking and /or
soaking under pressure in hot water. Parboiled paddy may be dried in the shade or in sun
or with hot air. Shade drying takes longer time but gives excellent milling qualities. Rapid
drying in sun or with hot air causes higher breakage during milling. The most convenient
practice is to dry in two passes with a tempering period in the moisture range of 15-19%
(wet basis).
4.1.2 Advantages of parboiling
1. The milling yield increase and the quality is increased, as there are fewer broken
grains.
2. The grain structure becomes compact and vitreous, even if some kernels were
entirely or partially chalky.
3. The milled rice becomes translucent and shining.
4. The shelf life of parboiled paddy and milled parboiled rice is longer than in the raw
state, as germination is no longer possible and the kernel becomes hard enough to
resist attach by insects and to adsorption of atmospheric moisture.
5. The grain remains firmer during cooking and less likely to become sticky.
6. A greater amount of water is absorbed during cooking causing the rice to swell.
7. After cooking the rice absorbs less fat from added condiments, the rice keeps longer
and does not become rancid easily.
8. Parboiled rice retains more proteins, vitamins and minerals.
9. Shelling of parboiled paddy is easier.

51
 10. Parboiled rice is more digestible and fewer solids are left behind in the cooking
water.
11. Bran of parboiled rice has more oil.
4.1.3 Disadvantages of parboiling:
1. The heat treatment during parboiling destroys some natural anti-oxidants, hence
rancidity developed in parboiled rice during storage is more than in raw rice.
2. Parboiled rice takes more time to cook than raw rice and may have characteristic
off-flavour which may not be liked by raw rice eaters.
3. Parboiling needs extra capital investment.
4. Parboiling adds to the cost of drying.
5. As paddy is soaked for a longer time during parboiling, it may be attacked by
spores which may cause health hazard.
6. More power is required for polishing of parboiled rice. The process becomes
difficult and lowers the capacity of polisher.
Inspite of the above disadvantages 1 to 2 percent extra rice is obtainable by parboiling
than raw rice milling.

4.2 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING PARBOILING

4.2.1 Effect of parboiling on milling
Cracking of the kernel is one of the main factors for breakage. During shelling or
dehusking operation, breakage occurs. Parboiling of paddy results in reduction of
breakage. The improvement in milling quality is due to hardness imparted to the kernels
because of gelatinization of starch. It has been found that due to swelling of starch the
cracks, incomplete grain filling, and chalkiness are completely healed. Such phenomenon
improves milling quality of paddy. The most advantageous aspect of parboiling is the
increase in the head yield of rice.
4.2.2 Effect of parboiling on nutritional qualities
The bran of parboiled rice contains less starch and more oil than raw rice bran as it comes
out in the form of flakes. Therefore, separation of bran without loss of endosperm is
possible. The nutrients of rice are found in large quantity in top layers than endosperm.
Parboiled rice contains more protein, vitamins and minerals. Better nutrients availability in

52
parboiled rice is attributes to the following factors (1) due to hydrothermal treatment the
nutrients from upper layers penetrate to endosperm (2) parboiled rice needs lesser degree
of polishing.

4.2.3 Effect of parboiling on cooking qualities

Cooking qualities of rice are generally represented by time of cooking, swelling capacity,
expansion ratio, gruel quality and pastiness. Parboiled rice takes longer cooking time for
required softness. Parboiled rice needs roughly double time than raw rice to attain same
level of softness in cooking. Water absorption capacity of parboiled rice is more than raw
rice when it is fully cooked. But the expansion ratios both along the length and breadth of
parboiled rice were found to be less than that of raw rice. The loss of solids into gruel was
also reported to be less in case of parboiled rice. Parboiled rice cooks more flaky than raw
rice.
4.3 PARBOILING METHODS
The method of parboiling may be classified as follows:
A. Traditional method
B. Modern method.
4.3.1 Traditional parboiling methods
1. Single boiling

2. Double boiling

a) Single Boiling Method

Paddy is soaked in ordinary water for 24-72 h and then transferred to cylindrical iron
kettles for steaming in small batches under atmospheric pressure (Fig. 4.2). The parboiled
paddy is then dried in the sun before milling.

b) Double Boiling Method

In this method, steam is injected into the raw paddy in the steaming kettle before soaking.
This hastens the soaking process. The hot paddy raises the temperature of the soak water to
45-50 °C, which reduces the soaking time to 24 h. Thereafter, soaked paddy is steamed as
in the single boiling method. Sometimes, the soak water itself is heated to about 50 ° C

53
before the raw paddy is dumped into it. In this case, the first steaming of the raw paddy is
not required.

Fig. 4.2 Traditional parboiling

54
 LECTURE 8
Modern paddy parboiling methods- CFTRI, Jadavpur and pressure parboiling.

4.4 DIS-ADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL PARBOILING

METHODS
The traditional method of parboiling has the following disadvantages
(1) During prolonged soaking, fermentation starts and the paddy acquires a smell;
(2) It is conducive to the development of mycotoxins, such as alfatoxins, which are known
to be quite harmful to humans;
(3) In the process of drying, loss due to manual handling and consumption by birds,
rodents, and insects occurs and may amount to about 1.5-2.0%;
(4) Sun drying is quite uncertain and is dependent on bright sunny weather;
(5) Sometimes an entire batch of parboiled paddy is spoiled because of delayed drying;
(6) Unhygienic conditions exist as a result of people treading on the paddy and
contamination by dust and birds.
(7) It requires a large area of land for drying; and
(8)Labour requirement is high.

The main hazards that can be expected in traditional methods are the retention of a
fermented smell in the parboiled rice after milling and the possible development of
mycotoxins. However, parboiled rice is always good in other aspects. The modern methods
being used in different countries have been very successful in overcoming the above
limitations.

B. Modern method
1. Jadavpur university method.

2. CFTRI method.

55
 3. Avorio process.

4. Converted process.

5. Malek process.

6. Cristallo process.

7. Fernandes process.

8. Schule process.

9. Rice grower’s association of California process.

10. Pressure parboiling process.

4.5 MODERN METHODS

Some of the earlier listed modern methods of parboiling are described below.

4.5.1 CFTRI method

This system was developed by CFTRI(Central Food Technological Research Institute) . it
primarily aimed at improving the yield and quality of rice with a lower capital investment.
The soaking and steaming of paddy are done in same cylindrical tank. The base of the
tank is cone- shaped and is closed at the bottom by a water tight hatch. At the side of the
hatch there is a valve for draining of the steeping water. In this process, parboiling tanks

are filled with clean water and heated to a temperature of about 85oC by passing steam
through the coils placed inside the tank. Sometimes hot water is pumped from other
sources into parboiling tanks. The resultant temperature of paddy water mixture in tank

stays around 70oC. After soaking paddy for 3 to 3.5 hrs, water is drained out. The water
discharge value is kept open in order to remove condensed water during steaming. Soaked

paddy is exposed to steam at a pressure of about 4 kg/cm2 through the open steam coils.
The parboiled paddy is taken out by opening the bottom door and dried either under sun or
by mechanical drier.

56
 Fig.4.3 Inside details of parboiling tank

4.5.2 Jadavpur University method

All the operations of this method is fully automatic and average processing time is five to

six hours (Fig 4.4). Soaking of paddy is completed in high temperature water (60-70oC)
within 1-03 hours, while the steaming time is limited to 3.5 minutes. After steaming and
before drying, the paddy is rapidly cooled. Drying taken place in a rotary steam jacketed
high temperature Air dryer. In this process two different systems may be applied. With the
first, the soaking and steaming take place in the same tank, where as in the second, these
two operations are performed separately in a horizontal apparatus. In both the cases

57
saturated steam is used. The steamed paddy is rapidly cooled in a drought of cold air.

Fig. 4.4 Flow diagram of Jadavpur method of parboiling

4.5.3 Pressure parboiling method

This method of parboiling was developed at Tiruvarur in Tamil Nadu. The parboiling is
achieved by penetration of moisture into the paddy in the form of water vapour under
pressure. This results in gelatinization of starch of the kernel. The paddy is soaked for 40

minutes at 85-90 oC. There after it is steamed under pressure for 18 minutes. The water
vapor which penetrates the kernel drives out entrapped air. It is reported that the whole
process is completed in 1 to 1.5 hrs. the rice obtained by this method has a slightly
yellowish uniform color. Reduced soaking period of paddy is the main advantage of this
method. It was also observed that such parboiled paddy has better shelling, has more fat in
bran and increased storage life of rice grain.

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 LECTURE 9

Wheat milling–introduction, unit operations (cleaning,conditioning/tempering,

grinding/milling and blending)-Components of wheat mill.

5.1 WHEAT MILLING

Introduction

Wheat is the principal food grain in many countries of the world. It is one of the most
important cereals and is used as staple food in the form of flour. In India, a large portion of
wheat is used as the familiar atta and maida (wheat flour).The hard wheat are also ground
into suji (semilona).Whole wheat is ground into atta by the traditional stone grinder
without prior separation of bran and germ from it.

Milling is the process by which wheat is ground into flour. The yields of white flour and
byproducts (called mill feed) from wheat milling are about 70 percent and 30 percent by
weight respectively. Wheat consists of bran (12percent), germ (3 percent) and
endosperm(85 percent).The objective of modern flour milling is to obtain maximum
amount of white flour from the wheat endosperm without any bran or germ content.
Modern flour milling consists of six steps:
1. Receiving, drying and storage of wheat
2. Cleaning
3. Conditioning
4. Milling into flour and by products
5. Packaging and storage of finished products
6. Blending
Out of these, the most important operations are selection, cleaning, conditioning and
milling.

59
5.1.1 Cleaning
Wheat is thoroughly cleaned to remove all fine impurities and the dirt sticking to the
surface of the grain. Small pieces of sticks, stones, sand, etc., are removed by sieving and
the light impurities like chaff, etc., are removed by aspiration. Then the wheat is allowed to
pass over powerful magnetic separators to remove pieces of ferromagnetic materials. The
seeds of other food grains, defective grains and weed are removed by disc separators.
For removal of dirt sticking to the surface, wheat is moved by paddles against stationary
emery coated surface. Then the dirt and loose outer coating are aspirated off. The scratches
and cracks formed in wheat help in increasing the rate of moisture absorption at the time of
washing and conditioning. The final cleaning step is washing by water which allows the
dirt and bits of metal to sink. The moisture content of the wheat is increased by one percent
during washing.

5.1.2 Conditioning /hydrothermal treatment

Conditioning of wheat by hydrothermal treatment prior to milling, helps in the separation
of bran and germ from the endosperm. The conditioning of wheat can be done either at
room temperature, elevated temperature or at high temperature. But the temperature of
wheat grain should not be raised above 47 °C otherwise the gluten quality will be affected
which deteriorates the baking quality of the flour. Generally the moisture contents of soft
and hard wheat are increased to 15 to 17 percent and 16 to 19 percent respectively by
soaking and then the moisture of the grain equilibrated by tempering for 18 to 72 hours in
the tempering bin.
The conditioner mainly consists of three sections, namely, preheating section, moistening
section and cooling section. In the first section wheat is preheated to the proper
temperature, in the second section wheat is moistened to the desired moisture level and in
the third section soaked wheat is cooled to the room temperature. Finally the treated wheat
is kept in a separate tempering bin for 18 to 72 hours.

Hydrothermal treatment of grain by direct steaming has been popular for the last few years.
It has many advantages over heating by air because both moistening and heating are
carried out simultaneously in a single operation. Moreover, the grain is heated within 20
to30 seconds to about 47 °C. but the grain temperature above 47 °C may adversely affect
the quality of the flour. The rapid rate of heating weakens the intermolecular bonds in
60
various parts of the grain to a considerable extent resulting in easier separation of bran,
more effective grinding of endosperm and stronger action on proteins and enzymes.

5.1.3 Grinding (milling)

Milling of wheat is carried out by roller mills. The roller milling system is mainly divided
in to the break roll and reduction roll systems (Fig. 5.1). The surface of the reduction roll is
smooth whereas the surface of break roll is corrugated. In the break rolls, the bran is
cracked, the kernel is broken open. The endosperm adhering to bran is milled away
successively in a few steps. Generally a series of four set of rolls takes to stock from the
proceeding one. After each break, the mixture of free bran is sifted and separated. The
endosperm adhering to bran is passed through the next break roll while the middle size
endosperms called middlings are sent to the reduction rolls for proper size reduction to
flours. Therefore, the break rolls are mainly used for grinding of free middlings in to
proper flour size. After each reduction of endosperm (middlings) the flour is sifted away
from the bigger size middlings and the remaining middlings are passed to the next
reduction rolls. The above operations are continued until the desired products are obtained.
As many as 12 to 14 reduction rolls are used in most flour mills.
The flour and the mill feed (bran, germ and shorts) are bagged in water proof bags, stitched
and stored in cold dry condition in flat godowns.

61
 Fig. 5.1 Wheat milling process

5.1.4 Blending
It is the combination of mixing grain of the same or different variety or grade to achieve a
desired result of a consistent quality product.
5.2 COMPONENTS OF A WHEAT MILL
5.2.1 Break roll
Break roll consists of twin pairs of corrugated steel rolls one roll of apair revolves
faster than the other, differential speed being in the proportion of 2.5 to 1.
5.2.2 Break sifting system
This can be divided into two parts-plan sifter and purifiers.
5.2.3 Plan sifter
Plan sifter is a scalping system removing large bran pieces adhering with endosperm
at the top. The next series, which are finer, remove the bran and germ. The next
layer of still finer sieve removes the endosperm middling and the bottom rough
flow.

62
5.2.4 Purifier
The middling containing finer bran particles are removed by purifier before they
move to reduction roll.
5.2.5 Reduction roll
The reduction roll comprises of two smooth rolls. The rolls in the reduction system
are further divided in to coarse rolls and fine rolls depending on the clearance
between the rollers.
5.2.6 Reduction sifting system
The same plan sifting system is used here. After each reduction the product is
separated by plan sifter where the finished flour is sifted by 120 mesh sieve (silk)
and removed and oversized material is sent back to the reduction rolls for further
processing.
5.2.7 Scratch system
If the mill is functioning properly, i.e., good release of endosperm is obtained on the
break rolls, the scratch system can be by passed, if not, the scratch system is
employed to maintain proper release of endosperm from bran. The scratch system is
an extension of the break system and thus used as stand- by system only.

63
 LECTURE 10

Maize shelling-Introduction, shelling, types of shellers (spring type and cylinder type),
dehusker cum sheller.

5.3 MAIZE SHELLING

Maize is one of the largest cereals produced in the world with a trend of rising production
in India. Maize is cultivated mainly for food, fodder, feed and Industrial use. Maize
shellers are used to separate grain from cobs. Before shelling, the foliage is removed
manually. Maize shellers are either manually operated or power operated. A power
operated maize Sheller uses 30-36 cm diameter cylinder of 80-100 cm lengths (Fig. 5.1 ).
On the periphery of the cylinder, there are pegs that remove the grain from cobs using axial
flow movement. The cylinder speed is maintained in between 500-600 rpm. The cob
moves toward the end of shellerfrom feeding side and during this process grains are rubbed
against drum and posses through the concave. Blower is provided to remove lighter
material. Concave clearance and cylinder speed can vary and adjusted as per
recommendation.

Fig. 5.1 Power operated maize sheller

64
Maize shellers are of two types’ (1) spring type and (2) cylinder type.
5.3.1 Cylinder –type maize sheller
The cylinder-type sheller consists of a cylinder with lugs, concave assembly and a blower
unit. Spiral ribs are provided in the cylinder for smooth movement of cobs. Cobs are fed in
between cylinder and concave and kernels are removed by the action of lugs. Blower
cleans the lighter materials and small pieces of cobs and clean grain is collected. The 5-10
hp electric motor or tractor can operate the machine. It can give output of 5-15 q/h
depending upon the size of power sources and machine.
5.3.2 Spring-type maize sheller
The spring maize sheller consists of a bevel gear fixed adjacent to the shelling disc, which
pulls the cob inside, while a spring loaded tongue which is provided above the bevel gear
holds the cob tight against the shelling disc as shown in Fig 5.2. Shelling is accomplished
with beating and shearing action of the cast iron projections present in the rotating shelling
disc. The shelled kernels with dust are passed through an air stream produced by a blower
which separates the kernels. The cleaned kernels are collected at the bottom. The capacity
of the unit is 500 kg of cob/h and it is operated by an one hp electric motor.

Fig. 5.2 Spring type maize sheller

65
5.3.3 Tubular hand maize sheller Maize
Harvesting and de-husking of corn (maize) is done manually. De-husking of maize cobs is
necessary for use on shellers. Octagonal hand maize sheller (Fin type) is used for shelling
of dehusked maize cobs, especially for seed purposes. It is a manually operated simple
device to remove maize grains from the dehusked cobs. The sheller consists of 4 mild steel
fins tapered along their length, one edge of the fin is taper (Fig 4.3). The fins are joined
together with rivets. The assembled sheller has thus four tapered projections inside the
sheller body that accomplishes removal of the grain from the maize cob. In order to avoid
corrosion, the sheller is powder coated which also increases its working life.

For operation, the cob is inserted in the sheller and is given forward and backward twist or
given clockwise and anticlockwise strokes repeatedly. The tapered edges of the fins dig
into the space between the rows of the grains in the cob and with the forward or backward
stroke the grains are released from the cob. After grains are separated from one end of cob,
the other end is inserted in the sheller to complete the removal of grains from cob.
Working capacity maize sheller is 15 to 20 kg/h and weight of the machine is 0.22 kg.

Fig. 5.3 Maize Sheller (Hand operated)

5.3.4 Maize dehusker cum sheller

The machine consists of a hopper, rotor, sieve, blower, auger and an elevator (Fig.5.4).
The removal of sheath and shelling of cob take place in the rotor sieve assembly. The
shelled kernels are carried by the auger to one end and then elevated to the desired level for
direct collection in bags. The capacity of the unit is 100 quintals per day. It is operated by
7.5 hp electric motor.

66
Fig. 5.5 Maize dehusker cum sheller

67
 LECTURE 11

Milling of pulses – introduction; important unit operations in pulse milling; cleaning;

conditioning; dehusking, splitting, polishing and grading.

6.1 PULSE MILLING

Introduction

Pulses are the main source of proteins for vegetarians in India, where about 15-30%of
daily protein needs are supplied from edible legumes or pulses. India is the largest
producer of pulses in the world, the annual yield nearly 25 million tonnes. Pulses are
consumed mostly in the form of dhal, dehusked and split kernel. Nearly 75% of total
legumes production is converted into the dhal. The world health organization has
recommended 80g per person per day considering the Indian food habits. Variety,
agronomic conditions of pulses production, the seed size, its maturity and uniformity are
few factors which influence the milling outturn. Apart of these factors, improper
conditioning of pulses and machine parameters cause lower yields of dhal by 10 to 20
percent. Dehusking is the primary process which involves removal of the fibrous seed
coat. Considerable amount of breakage and powdering of the kernel occurs in dehusking
and during milling operations. The efficiency of conversion of legumes to dhal by
traditional milling is low. Losses of dhal can be minimized to 8 to 10 percent by adopting
improved technologies.

Milling of edible pulses for the production of dhal is an age old process. There are more
than 10000 pulse mills with average processing capacity of 10-20t/day. Milling procedures
vary widely from place to place. The recovery of dhal varies from 60 to 75% depending
upon the type of pulses and techniques adopted by the millers. There is no standard process
for milling different pulses where various parameters involved are optimized. The amount
of oil mixed with pulses varies from 150 to 500g/q of grain. Similarly addition of water
also varies from region to region from 4 to 20 kg /100 kg of grain. For loosening of husk
and its complete removal 3-8 passes through emery rollers are given. This action causes
breakage and powdering of kernel.
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6.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PULSES

Pulses contain 17 to 25% of protein by weight. The protein content of pulses is about
double of the cereals and more than meat and egg. The pulses contain lipids and fats in low
quantities. Pulses are good source of thiamin, niacin, calcium and iron. Pulses contain
about 60% carbohydrate mainly starch, which in general is well-absorbed and utilized. The
fat content of dhal is between1 to 2 percent.

6.3 IMPORTANT UNIT OPERATIONS OF PULSE MILLING

6.3.1 Cleaning/grading of raw grains
In this process the raw grains received in a milling plant is first cleaned and graded. In
cleaning, various inorganic and organic impurities present in the grain mass is removed
with the help of air draft and screens. Destoners are also used toseparate mud and stones.
The cleaned grains are then graded as per their size mostly by a reel grader. The presence
of impurities lower the quality of dhal and the impurities may also damage the milling
machines.
6.3.2 Conditioning
Food legumes in India are consumed mostly in the form of dhal, the dehusked and split
grains. A layer of gum between cotyledons or kernel and outer husk is present in most of
the pulses. This gum layer may be thin or thick which in turn governs influences the degree
adherence of the seed coat to the cotyledons. The nature of gums influences the adherence
of husk to kernel while the amount of gum effects the duration and severity of the
conditioning process. The main objective of the conditioning is to loosen the husk to
facilitate its separation from the kernel, thus reducing the milling losses. The conditioning
process is done by various methods. There is no standard method. Conditioning of grains
can be achieved by water treatment ,hydrothermal treatment, use of salts and chemicals
and of heat alone. Insufficient conditioning results in incomplete loosening of husk,
therefore, greater abrasive/scouring forces are necessary for complete removal of the husk.
6.3.3 Dehusking and splitting
The conditioned grains are subjected to abrasive/scouring forces for removal of husk and
for splitting of cotyledons into two equal halves. Dehusking and splitting is the most
69
important and major unit operation of any pulses milling process. In some pulse milling
plants, vertical stone chakki is also used to dehusk and split the grains. For splitting of the
dehusked and moistened grains, vertical disk burr mill is used or the grains are allowed to
fall on a hard or cemented surface from sufficient height. Due to impact with hard surface
the dehusked grains are splitted.
6.3.4 Polishing of dhal
This is done to impart desirable shine and lusture to dhal. During this process a predesired
quality of edible oil and water is mixed with dhal by passing them through a screw
conveyor. The presence of oil and water imparts desirable colour and shine
to milled pulses.
6.3.5 Grading of dhal
Separation of dhal is carried mainly as per their size and soundness. The separation is
usually achieved by rotating reel graders, in which separate compartments have different
opening sizes of screens. Various sizes of dhal fall through the openings of these screens.
Graded dhal are bagged separately as per their grades.

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 LECTURE 12

Flow charts of wet milling and dry milling of red gram, traditional milling of Bengal gram
– Mini-dal mill – Problems of pulse milling in industry – Factors affecting pulse milling
outturn.

6.4 MILLING OF PULSES

In India, there are two conventional methods of pulse milling. Wet milling method and dry
milling method. The wet milling method is more popular and used in commercial mills. In
wet milling method, the grains are steeped in water for few hours, the water is then drained
off, and red earth is added to it. The grains are then dried under sun in thin layers for 2
days. Such conditioned grains are milled by manual chakki. Dehusking and splitting take
place simultaneously. In dry milling method, pulses are mixed with edible oil and dried
under sun for a day or two. Then the moisture is added in small amounts. It is then heaped
for few hours and then milled in hand operated stone chakki.

6.4.1 Wet milling method of Pigeon-pea (red gram)

This method of processing is adopted by comparatively smaller units. This method is
mostly practiced in Southern India. The milling quality of the wet milling method was
found to be good and an average 72 percent dhal recovery is obtained. Wet milled dhal
reported to be better taste than dry milled dhal, but it takes longer cooking time to get same
degree of dispersion. Cooking time mainly depends on the steeping time. More the
steeping time, better dehusking results but dhal will take longer time to cook. Treatment
with red earth imparts yellow colour and also provides mild abrasiveness and helps in the
removal of husk from cotyledons. Wet method of dhal milling is labour consuming and
longer processing time of 4-5 days is needed. A batch of 6-7 tonnes is possible by this
method. The flow chart for wet milling of pigeon pea is shown in Fig.6.1.

6.4.2 Dry milling method of red gram

This method of milling is mostly adopted in central and northern India. Dhal from dry
milling method is said to have better cooking quality than wet milling method. The edible

71
oil requirement in pulse processing varies from 150 to 500 grams per 100 kg of grain
processed. The expenditure on oil alone constitutes about 38% of the total processing cost.
The energy requirement of dry milling method is more than wet milling method. The flow
chart for wet milling of redgram is shown in Fig.6.2.

Fig. 6.1 Flow diagram of wet milling of red gram

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Fig.6.2 Flow diagram of dry milling of redgram

6.5 TRADITIONAL MILLING OF BENGAL GRAM (CHICK PEA)

Bengal gram are cleaned and graded, and then the grains are scratched in a roller mill. The
scratched grains are sprayed with 8-10% water and heaped for 12 hour(overnight). After
overnight tempering, the grains are dried under sun for 2 to 3 days. The grains are
normally dried to 10% moisture content. The conditioned grains are then dehusked and
splitted in a roller mill. After cleaning and aspiration the dhal is recovered.

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6.6 Mini dal mill

In the need of finished product, pulses produced in rural areas, are transported to urban
areas, where commercial dal mills are situated. If the pulses are processed at rural level, the
transportation cost on producer can be reduced by installation of mini dal mills. In order to
have solution to these problems a small enterprise at rural level is necessary for which the
PKV Mini dal mill is developed (Fig 6.3). The mini dal mill is used for multipurpose use
such as cleaning, grading of grains and polishing of split dal. It operates using two horse
power single phase electric motor. Almost all pulses can be dehulled with this machine and
the products are quite comparable with that of the available commercial dal mills. This
plant is commercially manufactured and available in the market. The processing capacity
of this dal mill is 100- 125 kg/h for pigeon pea and 125-150 kg/h for green and black gram.
The respective recoveries are 72-75% and 82-85%, which is higher to the tune of existing
burr mill. It avoids dusty atmosphere and provides easy operation.

Fig. 6.3 Mini dhal mill

6.7 PROBLEMS OF THE PULSE MILLING INDUSTRY

1. Batch process which is in use, involves excessive material handling which can be
reduced by introducing continuous type processing system.

74
 2. As sun drying is not reliable and during rainy days mill has to be closed, some
economical and reliable mechanical drying system is needed.
3. Improved marketing system where the millers could purchase clean and graded raw
materials. It will reduce the cost of processing of dhal.
4. During milling, lot of dust is generated inside the mill. Development and use of
dust collecting and diffusing devices is needed. Dust inside closed mill causes
pollution and is hazardous to workers.
5. Separation of gota (whole dehusked kernel) from pulse grain after each passes
through abrasive roller.
6. Non standardization of milling processes and equipment. BIS should prepare
standards for milling techniques and machinery.
6.8 FACTORS AFFECTING PULSE MILLING OUTTURN

Theoretically the endosperm of pulse accounts for maximum 87-89 percent of the whole
grain legumes. But in practice, it is not achievable. Some of the important factors
responsible for lower recovery of dhal are given below:

A) Grain parameters
(i) Type of grain
(ii) Species or strain of grain legume
(iii) Chemical constituents
(iv) Moisture content of the grain endosperm
(v) Shape of the grain
(vi) Size, bold, small
(vii) Seed coat surface texture
(viii) Thickness of the gum layer
B) Machine parameters
(i) Size of roller
(ii) Peripheral speed of the roller
(iii) Texture of the abrasive material
(iv) Hardness of the abrasive material
(v) Clearance between the roller and cage
(vi) Inclination of the roller

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 LECTURE 13

Oilseed processing – importance; various post-harvest operations of oil seeds; handling;

drying, grading and storage.

7.1 OIL SEED PROCESSING

Fats and oil are one of the five essential ingredients of human diet and the other are
protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Oil seed and animals are the main sources
of fat.

7.1.1 Present status of oil seed crops and vegetable oils in India
Oil seed crops are the 2ndmost important determinant of agricultural economy next to
cereals. The self sufficiency of oil seeds obtained through “Yellow Revolution” during
early 1990’s could not be the sustained beyond a short period. India is also one of the
largest importers of vegetable oils today.
Post-harvest Technology plays a key role in minimizing losses during handling, processing
and preservation of oil seeds and their products. By adopting proper post harvest
technology, the input cost in processing of oilseeds is reduced and oil yield is increased.
Besides several value added products can also be produced even at rural level by
introduction of appropriate post harvest technology and thus farmers can be motivated to
grow more oil seeds.

7.1.2 Sources of Vegetable oils in India

Primary Sources
Nine oil seed are the primary sources of vegetable oils in the country, which are largely
gain under rain fed conditions over 26 million ha. Among these soya bean (34%),
groundnut (27%) rapeseed and mustard contributes (27%).
Secondary Sources
In addition to nine oil seed, 3 million tonnes of vegetable oil is being harnessed from
secondary sources like cotton seed, rice bran, coconut, tree burn oils(TBS’s) and oil
76
palm.The need per head per day is 30g oil to meet the minimal dietary requirement
whereas at present the availability is only 11g per head per day with per capita availability
of 4-5 kgs.

7.2 VARIOUS POST-HARVEST OPERATIONS OF OILSEEDS

7.2.1 Handling
Proper handling and storage of oilseeds is important for their processing into quality
products since oilseed are prone to auto catalytic deteriorative process, enzyme action,
microbial spoilage, etc. Immature seeds harvested before their enzymes have become
dormant, deteriorate more rapidly than normal seeds during storage.
7.3.2 Drying
The moisture content of oilseeds at the time of harvest is usually high and uncongenial for
their safe storage. Consequently all the oil seeds need to be dried prior to their storage. Sun
drying is the traditional method used, however its limitation cannot be ruled out.
Mechanical drying of oil seeds at 105-1100C is preferable to minimize the quantitative and
qualitative losses. The dried seeds also require adequate cleaning to remove sand, dirt,
dust, leaves stems, weed seeds, stones, metal pieces, and other extraneous matter storing.
7.3.3 Grading
Grading of oil seeds is required to establish their general quality based on soundness,
moisture content and freedom from impurities and also to evaluate their oil milling quality
based on yield and quality of oil. The grade specifications of different oilseeds are based
on
(1) Quality of non-prime seeds including damaged, insect-infested seeds, slightly
damaged seeds, shrivelled and immature seeds.
(2) Type and quantity of impurities or foreign matter
(3) Moisture content of seeds
(4) Oil content and
(5) Color, acid value, iodine value and other indices of quality of extracted oil.

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7.3.4 Storage
The most important factor in proper storage of oil seeds is their moisture content. In case
of inadequate storage, the try glycerides may be decomposed, especially under the
influence of ferments, microorganisms as well as the chemical processes due to the
increased temperature. In order to avoid these negative processes, the seed should dry
below critical moisture point above which the ferments are activated and which depends on
the oil content of seed. The critical moisture contents for sunflower, ground nut, linseed
and soya bean are 8.5, 9.0, 10.5, and 13.0 percent respectively. Besides, a relative
humidity of less than 65% is required for safe storage of oil seeds.

Higher moisture and relative humidity conditions favor the activity of lipolytic enzymes
that increases the FFA content of oils under these conditions. The non- glyceride
constituents of these seeds also degrade and produce oil soluble pigments which darken the
color of the oil. Besides ill -effects on oil quality, extensive deterioration of oilseeds during
improper storage makes their mechanical processing difficult and leads to a low recovery
even if no oil is actually destroyed.

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 LECTURE14
Pre-treatments–cleaning; dehusking; size reduction and flaking; heat treatment.

7.4 PRE-TREATMENTS
There are three methods in vogue to accomplish oil extraction. Each of them is based on a
different principle. The three methods are:
1. Emulsion method
2. Pressure extraction method and
3. Solvent extraction method
Irrespective of the method used, certain pretreatment of raw seeds are essentials, if highest
possible recovery of quality oil at an economical rate is to be obtained.
Following pre treatments improve oil yields and their quality.

7.4.1 Cleaning
Normally, the oil seeds are mixed with a variety of foreign materials viz. sand, stones,
stalks, foliage etc., during harvesting, handling and transportation. It is ideal to clean seed
before putting it into store. Stone, iron and wood pieces mixed with seeds can disrupt
mechanical equipment during processing. Foreign matters may lower protein content and
increase fiber content of meal residue after extraction of oil. Moreover, foreign matters
mixed with oilseeds may be having high moisture content which may initiate overheating.
The local hot spots in the oilseeds damage the quality and constitute a fire hazard if not
properly detected and corrected by aeration or rotation. In short, proper cleaning of
oilseeds can increase in crushing capacity of oil expelling units, reduce in-plant
maintenance and improve quality of oil and cake.

7.4.2 Dulling (Decortication)

The hull of oil seeds are fibrous and have low oil content. Its proportion varies from
oilseed to oilseed and the approxiamate proportion of hulls and kernels of important

79
oilseeds was shown in Table7.1. Dehulling of oilseeds extraction is advantageous as the
hulls, reduce the total oil yields and the capacity of extraction equipment.

Table 7.1 Approximate proportions of hulls and kernel in important oilseeds of India.
Oil Seed Kernel (%) Hull (%)

Groundnut 75 25

Rape seed mustard 80-82 18-20

Soyabean 93 7

Sunflower 60-70 30-40

Saffflower 50 50

Castor 70-80 20-30

Cotton Seed 62 38

Seasmum 82-86 14-18

Linseed 57 43

7.4.3 Size Reduction and Flaking

The extraction of oil from oilseed, either by mechanical expression or by means of solvent,
is facilitated by reduction of seed in small particles by grinding or rolling. Hence the size
reduction of oilseeds is important for efficient recovery of oils. Hammer mills/attrition
mills are used for the preliminary reduction of size of large seeds while milling rolls are
used for final reduction. The flake size of 0.13-0.25 mm obtained by rolling is satisfactory
for hydraulic pressing of groundnut, cotton and linseed than irregular shape obtained by
grinding.
In the preparation of oilseed for expression in expellers or screw presses, the production of
thin particles or flakes is not essential as heat is generated and seed particles are broken by
shearing stress developed in the barrel of the expeller during oil expression. Small oilseed
like sesamum, rapeseed/mustard and linseed as well as medium size oilseeds such as
cottonseeds are usually rolled before expeller processing in large scale commercial plants.

80
7.4.4 Heat Treatment
Almost all the oilseeds yield oil more readily if cooked adequately prior to their
mechanical expression and or solvent extraction. The cooking process coagulates the
proteins present in seed causing coalescence of oil droplets and making the seed preamble
to the flow of oil. The cooking process also helps in imparting proper plasticity to seed
mass. The cooking process destroys the moulds and bacteria to improve the micro-
biological as well as keeping quality of oilcake. Normal cooking of oilseeds has little effect
on oil color, rather it reduces impurities in oil and improves processing quality of oil and
nutritive values of cakes. However, over cooking of oilseeds produces oil and cake of dark
color. Oil thus obtained is difficult to bleach and has low nutritive value. The flow chart
for oil process is shown in Fig.7.1.

Fig. 7.1 Flow chart for oil processing

The moisture content of cooked oilseeds is critically important in efficiently of their oil
expression/extraction process. If the moisture content is more than the optimal, it results in
slippage of material in the expeller. If such oilseed is solvent extracted the excessive
moisture prevents the proper diffusion of the solvent in to oilseeds as well as creates non-
percolation problems.

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 LECTURE 15

Processing of oilseeds – mechanical expression devices – hydraulic press and screw press.

8.1 OIL EXTRACTION

Extraction may also be said as a process to extract oil from oil bearing materials through
process of diffusion with the help of low boiling point solvent. This process give a higher
recovery of oil and a drier cake than expression. Extraction processing or solvent
extraction is capable of removing nearly all available oil from oilseed meal or flakes. Apart
from giving higher yields of oil the extraction process provides meal of better preservation
qualities and with higher protein quantities.
8.1.1 Expression
It is the process of mechanically pressing liquid out of liquid containing solids. Screw
presses, roll presses and mill are some of the examples used for expression of liquids. The
advantage of mechanical expression system over chemical extraction is that it gives the
liquid free of dissolved chemicals and thus a safer process.

8.2 MECHANICAL EXPRESSION DEVICES

8.2.1 Hydraulic Press
The hydraulic press is considered of a series horizontal corrugated iron plates (Fig 8.1).
These plates are separated by 4 to 14 premoulded oil seed cakes. Pressing is completed in
two stages. In the first stage the oil samples are pressed at approximately 5MPa for 15-20
minutes. Afterwards a pressure of 28 MPa is applied for 5-10 minutes to complete the
expression process. The output of the press varied depending on the sizes and seed being
processed. In recent times at commercial level processing the hydraulic press has been
replaced by screw type presses.

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 Fig. 8.1 Hydraulic press
8.2.2 Screw Press
A screw press for oil expulsion is shown in Fig.8.2. The press has horizontal main shaft.
The screw assembly is formed integrally with this shaft. This screw rotates with in cage or
barrel. The barrel is made of case hardened, tool steel bars or this may be made out of
assembly of rings. Spacers are used between the line bars or rings to allow drainage of oil
as the pressure on the feed material is increased. At the discharge end, a movable coke or
cone controls the operating pressure. It is achieved by changing the width of annular space
through the oil cake pass. The choke is adjusted by a hand wheel on the opposite end of the
screw.

83
Fig. 8.2 Screw Press

84
 LECTURE 16

Groundnut oil seed processing – stripping, grading, drying–decortications principle,

separation of kernels from shells.

8.3 GROUNDNUT OIL PROCESSING

Groundnut is an important oilseed crop in India which occupies first in terms of area and
second position in terms of production. China is the largest producer as well as consumer
of groundnut in the world with 166.24 lakh tonnes followed by India (68.57lakh tonnes),
Nigeria (30.28 lakh tonnes) and United States (25.78 lakh tonnes). The major groundnut
growing states are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Rajasthan. Gujarat is the largest producing state accounting for 40%of total groundnut
produced in the country.

8.4 STRIPPING
The process of removing groundnut pod from the plants or haulms is known as stripping.
The most common method of stripping is to pull out the pods from the plants manually,
yielding 9 kg pods per hour with stripping efficiency of 91%. TNAU, Coimbatore has
developed two types of manually operated strippers namely; comb type and drum type
(Fig.8.3 and 8.4).

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Fig. 8.3 Comb type Fig. 8.3 Drum type

The comb type groundnut stripper consists of a square frame of vertical legs and a
horizontal strip of expanded metal fixed on each side of the frame in the form of comb.
The stripping of the pods is accomplished by drawing a handful of vines across the comb
with a slight force. The structure facilitates its use by four women simultaneously. A small
adjustable stool was fabricated for the operator to sit and perform the stripping operation.
Higher output i.e. 350 kg of pods/day can be obtained as against 200 kg in case of
conventional stripping.
In drum type groundnut stripper, Stripping is done by holding the pod portion of a bunch
over the cylinder. The vines along with the groundnuts are held over the spiked cylinder
and the pods get removed.
8.4.1 Power operated Groundnut stripper
TNAU, Coimbatore has developed power operated groundnut stripper as shown in the
Fig.8.4. It consists of a hopper, double crank lever mechanism, an oscillating sector with
sieve bottom and a blower assembly, all fixed on a frame. A number of cast iron peg
assemblies are fitted in the oscillating sector unit. The groundnut pods are shelled between
the oscillating sector and the fixed perforated concave screen. The decorticated shells and
86
kernels fall down through the perforated concave sieve. The blower helps to separate the
kernels from husk and the kernels are collected through the spout at the bottom. The shells
are thrown away from the machine.

Fig 8.4 Power operated groundnut stripper

8.5 GRADING
A power operated groundnut grader has been developed at TNAU, Coimbatore. Fig. 8.5
shows this grader with a capacity of 600kg/hr. The grader consists of slotted oscillating
sieves which run by one hp electric motor. During operation, groundnut is fed into the
grader through the upper sieve that also serves as the hopper. The pods travel towards the
lower part of the grader by gravity through the perforated sieve that was greater than its
major diameter and drops into the lower sieve for further grading. The pods with major
diameter larger than the sieve diameter were retained on the sieve. It thus allows evenly
kernels through the shaking sieve into the collecting trays that were fitted at the front of the
grader. The pods that are retained on a particular tray determine its grade.

87
 Fig. 8.5 Groundnut grader

8.6 DRYING
In majority of groundnut producing countries, the drying process is simple and most often
consists of standing the filled sacks, top open, until the pods are dry enough to be shelled,
stacked or transported. In case of mechanical driers, portable trailer bins, radial drying bins
and vertical flow bins are all suitable for unshelled groundnuts. Continuous flow dryers are
normally suitable for larger producers or cooperatives.
In India, groundnut is traditionally dried in sun which requires 4-6 days for reducing the
moisture content of groundnut pods from 26% to 13% on mud floor. On cement floor, the
drying takes place faster and reduces about 1/3 of total drying time in comparison to
earthen floor. However, Mechanical dryers were developed for drying of groundnut on
large scale. During drying of groundnut, moisture passes quickly from kernels to pods and
since the process continues after drying has ceased, over drying of pods must be avoided.
Overheated kernels are extremely brittle, can change color and lose their flavor, all of
which reduces their value. Slow drying is preferable to fast in terms of final quality.
8.7 DECORTICATION
The process of obtaining kernels from the stripped groundnut pods is known as
decortication. Mostly decortication is usually done by breaking the shell by hand pressure
88
under the thumb. Manual decortication by hand is laborious, expensive and less
productive. But now, the commercial hand and power operated groundnut decorticators are
being used in the country. Both these machines work on the same principles. The main
difference lies in their capabilities. After decortication, separation of grain from a mixture
of grain and split shells is done in an air stream. The separation is achieved by allowing the
air stream created artificially or naturally and passing the mixture vertically down,
perpendicular to the air blast. The grain being heavier gets collected almost at the place of
dropping, whereas the lighter material (split shells) is blown away to a greater distance.
The hand operated one has a capacity of about 200 kg/h and the mechanical decorticator
has 500 kg/h capacity.
The Groundnut decorticator performs essentially three operations namely 1) Feeding
groundnut to the shelling unit, 2) Shelling groundnuts and separating nuts from the shell
and 3) Cleaning the nuts from the mixture.

8.7.1 Types of decorticators

The groundnut decorticators are classified into two types based on principle of operation:
(1) Rotary decorticators (2) Rocking decorticators
8.7.1.1 Rotary decorticator
It consists of a rotating shelling cylinder which is mounted on a shaft and a grate. Shelling
of pods is effected by the crushing action between the cylinder and the grate.
8.7.1.2 Rocking decorticator
It consists of a number of detachable rectangular beaters having conical studs made of cast
iron in a slotted or perforated trough. The pods struck between the beater and the trough is
crushed and broken. The shell and nut mixture pass down through the slots of the trough.
The groundnut decorticators are classified into two types based on source of power:
(1) Manual type (2) Power operated

8.7.2 Classification of manual type decorticators

Manual type groundnut decorticators are further classified into:
(a) Hand operated rotary decorticator
(b) Pedal operated rotary decorticator.
(c ) Hand operated ‟ rocking type” decorticator.
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8.7.2.1 Hand operated rotary type decorticator
It consists of a wooden or cast iron shelling drum and a steel grate. Shelling of the nuts is
accomplished in the clearance between the drum and the grate. The output of the machine
is 0.4 to 0.6 quintals of pods/hour.
8.7.2.2 Pedal operated rotary type decorticator
It is operated by foot. The motion from the foot pedal is transmitted to the cylinder through
a connecting rod and a set of spur gears. This machine provided with a fan. The fan is
operated by means of pulley mounted on the cylinder shaft. The kernels are separated from
the shell by the winnowing fan.
8.7.2.3 Hand operated ’’rocking type” decorticator
It consists of the following parts: (a) angle iron frame, (b) trough of radius 28 cm (c) steel
handle, and (d) beaters. The beaters are fixed to the handle at the bottom and operate in to
and fro motion. The pods are put into the trough and the handle is operated to and fro to
decorticate the pods. The decorated pods are collected beneath the through. It requires two
persons to operate and can shell 1 to 1.25 quintals of pods/hour. It can also be run by a
small 1.5 Hp engine (Fig.8.6 ).

Fig. 8.6 Hand operated groundnut decorticator

8.7.3 Power operated rocking type decorticator

A power operated groundnut decorticator require 8 hp engine to shell about 75 to 80 bags
( 1875 to 2000 kg ) of groundnut per hour (Fig.8.7). The machine has to perform the
following functions: (a) Feeding of groundnuts to the shelling unit, (b) Shelling of
90
groundnuts and separating nuts from the shell and (c) Cleaning the nut from the mixture. It
consists of the following main parts: Feeder mechanism, Shelling unit and Crushing
section. The feeder mechanism consists of a hopper, feeder shaft and pawl and ratchet
wheel to drive the shaft. Groundnuts are fed to the machine at a uniform rate. Feed rate can
be varied by adjusting the stroke of the pawl. The shelling unit is provided with two main
parts, namely crushing plate and a grate. The crushing plates are made of close grained
semi steel. Six small externally grooved channels are mounted on radial arms of the main
rotor shaft which rotates at about 110 rpm. As the main rotor shaft is operated, the external
grooved surface channels, roll and shell groundnuts.

The crushing plates are bolted to the externally grooved channels and mounted at an angle
resulting in unequal gaps on both ends between the plates and the grate. The minimum
uniform gap of 2.5 to 3.2 cm between the lower edge of the plates and inner surface of the
grate gives satisfactory operation. The grate is composed of a flat steel bars placed
horizontally on their edges with a small space between the bars can be done by changing
the thickness of the washers used on them, to suit any size of pods. A fan, which is
operated at 450 rpm by the main rotor shaft, is the basic part of the cleaning section. The
blades of the fan are made of iron sheets bolted to angle iron arms on both sides. The blast
of air created by the fan is strong enough to blow away the broken empty shell, so that the
heavy nuts fall into the bottom pan by gravity.

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Fig. 8.7 Power operated rocking type decorticator

92