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How is culture defined?
What if someone told you their culture was the internet? Would that
make sense to you? Culture is the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and
other characteristics shared by groups of people. Given this, someone
could very well say that they are influenced by internet culture, rather
than an ethnicity or a society! Culture could be based on shared
ethnicity, gender, customs, values, or even objects. Can you think of
any cultural objects? Some cultures place significant value in things
such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry, or even clothing. For example,
Christmas trees can be considered ceremonial or cultural objects. They
are representative in both Western religious and commercial holiday
culture.
In addition, culture can also demonstrate the way a group thinks, their
practices, or behavioral patterns, or their views of the world. For
example, in some countries like China, it is acceptable to stare at
others in public, or to stand very close to others in public spaces. In
South Africa, if you board a nearly empty bus or enter a nearly empty
movie theater, it is regarded as polite to sit next to the only person
there. On the other hand, in a recent study of Greyhound bus trips in
the US, a researcher found that the greatest unspoken rule of bus-
taking is that if other seats are available, one should never sit next to
another person. Numerous passengers expressed that “it makes you
look weird”. These are all examples of cultural norms that people in
one society may be used to. Norms that you are used to are neither
right nor wrong, just different. Picture walking into a nearly empty
movie theater when visiting another country, and not sitting next to the
only person in the theater. Another person walks up and tells you off
for being rude. You, not used to these norms, feel confused, and
anxious. This disorientation you feel is an example of culture shock.
Some people worry that the concept of culture can also be abused
and misinterpreted. If one culture behaves one way, does that mean
all cultures can behave that way as well? For example, many
countries and international organizations oppose the act of whaling
(the fishing of whales) for environmental reasons. These
environmental organizations say that there are not many whales left
and such fishing practices should be stopped. However, other
countries argue that whaling is a cultural practice that has been
around for thousands of years. Because it may be part of a country’s
oceanic culture, this country may say that such a cultural practice
should not be opposed based on cultural differences, say, by an
inland country that does not understand. Who gets to define what a
moral cultural behavior is? Is whaling immoral? Two different cultures
may have very different answers, as we saw in the above example.
Another more extreme instance would be female genital cutting in
some parts of the world. Locally, it is argued that the practice has
cultural roots, but such a practice has raised concerns among many
international human rights organizations.
1. "Universalists" believe that the same human rights should apply to everyone, regardless of their
culture or background.
2. “Cultural relativists ” believe human rights should take account of cultural differences.
Cultural relativism states that values are defined by local culture as opposed to global ideology.
Cultural relativists argue that human rights were developed by Western countries and are based on
Western morality. They should therefore not be imposed on non-Western societies that have
different histories, cultures and levels of development.
Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture, are
all equally valid and no one system is really “better” than any other. This is based on the idea that
there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so every judgment about right and wrong is a product of
society. Therefore, any opinion on morality or ethics is subject to the cultural perspective of each
person. Ultimately, this means that no moral or ethical system can be considered the “best,” or
“worst,” and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be considered “right” or “wrong.”
In response, universalists argue that ideals like liberty and security belong to all of us. They are
critical of cultural relativist arguments, which they see as an attempt to justify oppression of
minorities or defend harmful cultural practices.
Cultural relativism has been criticized as a means for nations to pick and choose which rights they
are willing to uphold.
SO, there is a tension between human rights as entirely universal and not subject to modifications
due to culture, on the one hand, versus human rights as affected by the cultural demands of specific
contexts, on the other.
This tension (perhaps "collision") between the idea of "universal human rights" as an objective truth,
and the cultural relativism of diverse communities throughout the world brings up all sorts of
complicated arguments about imperialism and colonialism, objective versus subjective truths,
ethnocentrism and xenophobia.
READ: Attached below is a PDF extract from the entry on "Human Rights" in the online Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. James Nickel briefly discusses the issue of "Universal Human Rights in
a World of Diverse Beliefs and Practices."
Here are some examples where universalists and cultural relativists have
clashed.
1. In 2010, Europe and the US put pressure on Malawi to free jailed homosexuals. This sparked
widespread anger in Africa, where some people believe homosexuality is not part of African culture
and so should be outlawed.
2. Female genital mutilation (FGM) occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and South America.
Arguments for FGM are sometimes religious, sometimes cultural. But FGM is considered a violation
of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community and is outlawed in some
countries.
3. In parts of the Muslim world where Sharia law is practiced, clashes with the international human
rights movement are frequent. For example, in late 2000, a 13- or 14-year-old unmarried girl in
Zamfara state in northern Nigeria was accused of having sexual relations. Zamfara had adopted a
very strict interpretation of Sharia and the girl was sentenced to be flogged. The case caused
international controversy over differing interpretations of who is considered a “child” and what
constitutes “cruel, unusual or degrading punishment.”
Gender equality is controversial. In many parts of the world girls do not have the same access to
education as boys.
4. In some Maasai communities in Kenya and Tanzania, parents do not want to send their children
to school, although primary schooling is compulsory in both places. Some Maasai believe boys
should be herding cattle and girls should be helping in the house, and that this is sufficient education
for them. Is this a violation of the child’s right to education?
5. Should people living with disability have the same rights as everyone else? Many families and
communities appear to disagree, and people living with disability – especially mental disability – are
hidden away and stigmatized.
6. In some societies, women may not inherit or own property. Is this discrimination and a violation of
women’s rights? Or is it a legitimate and acceptable part of those societies’ way of life?
The chart below provides other case studies illustrating how the two claims manifest themselves in
particular issues in particular places: Islamic (Sharia) law in Iran, women drivers in Saudi Arabia,
female genital mutilation in African countries, homosexuality in Uganda.
There are four types of justice that people can seek when they have been
wronged.
Distributive justice
Distributive justice, also known as economic justice, is about fairness in what
people receive, from goods to attention. Its roots are in social order and it is at
the roots of socialism, where equality is a fundamental principle.
If people do not think that they are getting their fair share of something, they will
seek first to gain what they believe they deserve. They may well also seek other
forms of justice.
Procedural justice
The principle of fairness is also found in the idea of fair play (as opposed to
the fair share of distributive justice).
If people believe that a fair process was used in deciding what it to be
distributed, then they may well accept an imbalance in what they receive in
comparison to others. If they see both procedural and distributive injustice, they
will likely seek restorative and/or retributive justice.
Restorative justice
The first thing that the betrayed person may seek from the betrayer is some form
of restitution, putting things back as they should be.
The simplest form of restitution is a straightforward apology. Restoration means
putting things back as they were, so it may include some act of contrition to
demonstrate one is truly sorry. This may include action and even extra payment
to the offended party.
Restorative justice is also known as corrective justice.
Retributive justice
Retributive justice works on the principle of punishment, although what
constitutes fair and proportional punishment is widely debated. While the intent
may be to dissuade the perpetrator or others from future wrong-doing, the re-
offending rate of many criminals indicates the limited success of this approach.
Punishment in practice is more about the satisfaction of victims and those who care about
them. This strays into the realm of revenge, which can be many times more severe than
reparation as the hurt party seeks to make the other person suffer in return. In such cases
'justice' is typically defined emotionally rather that with intent for fairness or prevention.
MID-Term
Moral principles are standards of right and wrong that a person has.
Moral philosophy is branch of learning that deal with the nature of morality and
the theories are used to arrive at decision about what one ought to do and why.
Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or
wrong, strange or normal.
Cultural relativism is the position that there is no universal standard to measure cultures by, and
that all cultural values and beliefs must be understood relative to their cultural context, and not
judged based on outside norms and values.
Micro ethics
Macro ethics