Sanjeev P.

Sahni
Poulomi Bhadra Editors

Criminal
Psychology and
the Criminal
Justice System in
India and Beyond
Criminal Psychology and the Criminal Justice
System in India and Beyond
Sanjeev P. Sahni · Poulomi Bhadra
Editors

Criminal Psychology
and the Criminal Justice
System in India and Beyond
Editors
Sanjeev P. Sahni Poulomi Bhadra
Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences
O.P. Jindal Global University O.P. Jindal Global University
Sonipat, Haryana, India Sonipat, Haryana, India

ISBN 978-981-16-4569-3 ISBN 978-981-16-4570-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4570-9
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Preface

The role of psychology in the criminal justice system has been increasingly real-
ized in the last few decades, with criminal psychology and behavioural profiling
gaining prominence in public interest and media attention. Since the 1800s, criminal
psychology and profiling has evolved as an investigative tool, whether in fiction, from
Doyle’s Sherlock to Poe’s Dupin, or in academic practice, from Freud to Bowlby.
Since then, many distinguished scholars have published many books in this field, their
works documenting and furthering the interdisciplinarity between law, psychology,
and crime studies. Criminal Psychology and the Criminal Justice System in India
and Beyond attempts to advance this area of study by introducing a comprehensive
resource for understanding the theoretical foundations of criminal psychology, and
expanding the purview of discussion from the Global West to the Global South,
specifically India, to illustrate how they apply to different investigative regimes.
This book is especially designed to convey the knowledge simply and succinctly,
so that it may cater to the interests of all kinds of readers, whether it be the student
interested in enrolling for criminal psychology or forensic psychology programmes or
the professional intending to begin a career in law enforcement or looking to expand
their knowledge in alternative investigative approaches. The need and use for criminal
psychology in legal processes, criminal jurisprudence, and corrective rehabilitation
is expanding in many countries and becoming increasingly interdisciplinary. At the
same time, there is an increasing need for trained scholars and practitioners who
are adept at translating various alternative approaches from theory to practice. The
purpose of this book is to provide valuable contribution in training and education by
proving to be an indispensable resource on important topics such as detecting deceit,
eyewitness testimony, juvenile delinquency, jury and judiciary decision-making,
cognitive biases in forensic examinations, and psychology as applied to law and
policy. To this end, we have curated this volume with contributions authored and
co-authored by accomplished scholars and practitioners in their respective areas.
These authors have endeavoured to address the enduring issues at the interface of
psychology and the criminal justice system, and frame these issues in the light of
contemporary research and prevailing conceptual formations.

v
vi Preface

The content of this volume has been divided into three parts, preceded by an
abridged introduction to the evolution of psychological theories, to set the back-
ground for an independent study. The sequence of the chapters has been framed in
order of their relevance to the three aspects of the criminal justice process—investiga-
tion, prosecution, and rehabilitation. Statutory case laws and case studies have been
abundantly incorporated to elucidate theories and emerging trends in forensic proce-
dures. We hope that all readers of this book will appreciate the collaborative efforts of
the authors and the editors to present an array of topics dealing with the theoretical,
systematic, and scientific processes involved in fusing psychological theories and
processes to criminal investigations and consequent restorative endeavours.

Sonipat, India Sanjeev P. Sahni

Poulomi Bhadra
Acknowledgements

It has been our pleasure and honour to work with many distinguished scholars from
various institutions whose valuable contributions have resulted in this engaging publi-
cation. We sincerely thank our contributors for their hard work, extensive efforts,
and commitment to deliver their chapters, despite the challenges that the pandemic
has presented towards our productivity. In this regard, we would also like to thank
the team at Springer Publication Singapore, especially Satvinder Kaur, Gowris-
hankar Ayyasamy and Lokeshwaran M., who have consistently supported us from
the conception to the publication of this book.
As editors of the book and faculty members of O.P. Jindal Global University, we
would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to the founding
Chancellor, Mr. Naveen Jindal, and to Dr. C. Rajkumar, founding Vice Chancellor,
O.P. Jindal Global University, for their continued support of academic freedom and
research opportunities. My appreciation also goes to those students and research
assistants who have rendered helpful assistance in completing this book, both to
the authors and to the editors. Editing a contributed volume can be an isolating and
tedious process, made more so by the challenges of 2020. On a personal note, we
would like to extend our appreciation to our families for their support towards our
academic efforts and a special thanks to Bhadra’s editorial companion, Cleo, for her
motivating purrs.
As editors, we have strived our best to incorporate a comprehensive and substan-
tiated outlook on the subject, while also valuing each author’s perspective and work.
We apologize for any shortcomings and hope that any errors made on our part do not
compromise your educational experience of the book. We look forward to hearing
any suggestions or feedback you may have for us or the authors.

Sanjeev P. Sahni
Poulomi Bhadra

vii
Contents

1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Kulpreet Kaur
2 Criminal Psychology: Understanding Criminal Behaviour . . . . . . . . 21
Sanjeev P. Sahni and Nisha Phakey
3 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Criminal Behaviour . . . . 31
Sanjeev P. Sahni and Akshaya Krishnakumar
4 The Science of Criminal Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Sanjeev P. Sahni and Tanni Choudhury
5 Mental Disorders, Violence, and Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Sanjeev P. Sahni and Karishma
6 Causes of Juvenile Delinquency and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Manjushree Palit and Bhavya Chhabra
7 Gender and Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Tanay Maiti and Lukus Langan
8 Serial Killings in India: Case Studies and Profiling Strategies . . . . . 133
S. A. Deepak
9 Perspectives on Internet-Based Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Sweta Lakhani
10 Mob Psychology and Crowd Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Swikar Lama
11 Psychological Approaches to Detection of Deceit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Sanjeev P. Sahni and Lukus Langan
12 Investigative Psychology Through a Forensic Victimology
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Poulomi Bhadra and Vipin Vijay Nair

ix
x Contents

13 Investigating the Eyewitness: Accuracy and Fallacies

of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Mohita Junnarkar and Sweta Lakhani
14 Is Forensic Evidence Impartial? Cognitive Biases in Forensic
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Poulomi Bhadra
15 Decision-Making in the Courtroom: Judiciary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Mohita Junnarkar and Kartik Adlakha
16 Decision-Making in the Courtroom: Jury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Shankey Verma
17 Criminal Psychology Through a Positive Psychology Lens:
From a Deficit to Asset Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Pulkit Khanna
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjeev P. Sahni is presently Professor at O.P. Jindal Global University
and Principal Director of the Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences (JIBS), Director
for the Center for Victimology and Psychological Studies and the Centre for Crim-
inology and Forensic Studies, Member of the Governing Body and Advisor to the
Vice Chancellor at O.P. Jindal Global University. He holds a Ph.D. in Psychology and
possesses an extensive and rich experience of over 32 years in academia, industry and
government sector. His work spans in the areas of criminal psychology, victimology,
policing and law enforcement. He has trained over 75,000 professionals in over 50
countries and was a visiting professor in criminal psychology to China several times.
Dr. Sahni has recently been nominated as Member of the Board of Directors to the
International Society of Criminology. He is also a UN Liaison Committee Member of
World Society of Victimology (WSV). Among his several academic endeavours, he
has been regularly representing India at United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC—Austria, Doha, Japan) and Academic Council on the United Nations
System. He has published more than 35 research articles in international and national
indexed journals and about 20 book chapters. He has also authored/edited 15 books,
some of the recent ones being: The Death Penalty (Springer), Internet Infidelity
(Springer), Piracy in the Digital Era (Springer).

Poulomi Bhadra is presently an Assistant Professor and Assistant Director at the

Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences (JIBS) and also Research Fellow at the Centre
for India China Studies (CICS). She founded the Centre for Criminology and Forensic
Studies (CCFS) at JIBS in 2020 in recognition of a need to integrate scientific and
legal education. She holds degrees in Forensic Science from King’s College London
and Criminology and Criminal Psychology from University of Essex, UK. Prior to
joining JGU, she has worked as a researcher with the Natural History Museum,
London, and the London Metropolitan Police. She is presently associated with the
South Asian Society of Victimology and Criminology, the International Society of

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

Criminology and the Chartered Society of Forensic Science, UK. She is also affiliated
to the research think-tank Centre for Forensic Studies in Criminal Justice. As an early
career academic, she has publications in national and international journals and
books ranging from a variety of topics such as forensic entomology to criminal
law in refugee jurisprudence. Her research interests are built on a multidimensional,
interdisciplinary profile that is predominantly focused at the intersection of forensics,
law, forensic psychology and criminology as well as cultural studies.

Contributors

Kartik Adlakha Student Researcher, Jindal Global Law School, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Poulomi Bhadra Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Bhavya Chhabra Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Tanni Choudhury Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
S. A. Deepak D.D.G.D. Vaishnav College, Chennai, India
Mohita Junnarkar Jyoti Dalal School of Liberal Arts, NMIMS Deemed Univer-
sity, Mumbai, India
Karishma Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global University,
Sonipat, Haryana, India
Kulpreet Kaur Jindal Global Business School & Jindal Institute of Behavioural
Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Pulkit Khanna Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global Univer-
sity, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Akshaya Krishnakumar Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal
Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Sweta Lakhani Jindal Global Law School, O.P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat,
Haryana, India
Swikar Lama Criminology and Police Studies, Sardar Patel University of Police,
Security and Criminal Justice, Jodhpur, India
Lukus Langan Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global Univer-
sity, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Editors and Contributors xiii

Tanay Maiti Department of Psychiatry, Jagannath Gupta Institute of Medical

Science and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Vipin Vijay Nair Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Manjushree Palit Jindal School of Psychology and Counselling, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Nisha Phakey Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global Univer-
sity, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Sanjeev P. Sahni Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Shankey Verma Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Chapter 1
Psychology: The Science of Mental
Processes

Kulpreet Kaur

Abstract The complexity of human behaviour has intrigued mankind because of

its conscious and subconscious motivations. Psychologists try to find the causes for
these complexities and reasons of individual differences. The best evolved definition
of psychology is that it is a scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. To
elaborate, psychology as a science uses systematic and objective scientific methods to
study overt (observable) behaviour like facial expressions, gestures, endocrine reac-
tions and such, and covert (hidden/unobservable) behaviour or cognitive or mental
processes like thinking, remembering, feelings and so on. This chapter summarizes
the fundamental theories of psychology to assist in understanding the chapters that
follow.

1.1 Early Influencers and Followers

Psychology, as a discipline, was influenced by ancient Greek philosophers such

as Plato (428-348 B.C.E) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E) who tried to explain the
connection of human mind to the physical body. While Plato spoke about psycholog-
ical problems which emphasized on innate characteristics rather than experiences,
Aristotle, also Plato’s favourite student, considered mind as a function of bodily
processes and experience. Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher, propagated
dualism by suggesting that mind and body are two distinctly different entities and
interact through a gland located within the brain.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), a physiologist known as the ‘founder of experi-
mental psychology’, established the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany, in 1879. This historic event gave psychology a modern experimental
beginning. He introduced the process of objective introspection with which one’s
own thought and mental activities could be objectively examined. Edward Titchener
(1867–1927) agreed with Wundt’s views that every individual experience can be

K. Kaur (B)
Jindal Global Business School & Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, O.P. Jindal Global
University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
S. Sahni et al. (eds.), Criminal Psychology and the Criminal Justice System in India
and Beyond, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4570-9_1
2 K. Kaur

broken down into its emotions and experience. He added that introspection can be
used on thoughts and sensations alike. He named his school as Structuralism. But
introspection as a procedure soon lost its influence due to lack of scientific verification
from outside observers.
Meanwhile, William James (1842–1910), who was influenced by Charles
Darwin’s theory of ‘natural selection’, came up with a different school of thought,
Functionalism, which focused on explaining how the mental state is a function of
sensory stimulation. Functionalism gradually faded away leaving behind only a few
traces on evolutionary psychology—one of the contemporary perspectives.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941) and Wolfgang Kohler
(1887–1967) devoted their efforts to study sensation and perception to propagate
Gestalt principles that focused on the tendency of organizing perceptual experi-
ences into whole rather than sum of its parts. Gestalt’s ideas are an important
part of a contemporary field of psychology called cognitive psychology. Cognitive
psychology focuses on how people perceive, store, think, and use information, and
became a widely accepted idea in 1960s. Extension of this view is the relatively new
field of cognitive neuroscience which includes the study of the working brain and
nervous system during various cognitive processes. Constructivism, a view in modern
cognitive psychology, propounded that human beings are constantly building up their
minds through continuous interaction and exploration into physical and social world.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) and Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) further used this view to
construct their theories of development.
While Structuralists, Functionalists, and Gestaltists were trying to promote their
perspective on the study of human mind and behaviour to different corners of the
world, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a neurologist, believed that unconscious left-
overs of earlier experiences accounted for neurotic behaviour. Later, neo-Freudians
like Alfred Adler (1870–1937), Carl Jung (1875–1961), Karen Horney (1885–1952),
and Anna Freud (1895–1982) modified the psychoanalytic viewpoints. Freudian
psychoanalysis has been the basis of modern psychotherapy. Contemporary psycho-
dynamic perspective focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind on the
development of self, social, intra-personal, and interpersonal relationships.
By the early 1900s, psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958) challenged all
the prevailing schools of psychology with his own school of Behaviourism which
explained behaviour as an outcome of stimulus–response relationship. His ‘Little
Albert’ experiment on the process of conditioning along with Ivan Pavlov’s exper-
iment on dogs called classical conditioning and B.F Skinner’s Operant condi-
tioning experiments became landmarks in the history of experimental psychology.
Behaviourism is still a major perspective in psychology and has influenced the field
of cognitive psychology and various techniques of psychotherapy.
A relatively new perspective focused on people’s freedom to choose their own
follow-up path and strive for self-actualization to unfold their inner potential. This
Humanistic perspective was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl
Rogers (1902–1987). Contemporary psychotherapy aimed at positive outlook of
human nature is inspired by the Humanistic views.
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 3

Table 1.1 Evolution and growth of psychology in India (Source: Baron & Misra, 2018)
Year Events
1916 First psychology laboratory established in Calcutta university with Dr. N. N. Sengupta as
founder in-charge
1922 Psychology was included in Indian Science Congress Association
1922 Indian psychoanalytic society was formed by Girindra Shekhar Bose
1924 Indian psychological association was founded by N. N. Sengupta
1940 Lumbini Park, The first Mental Hospital was founded at Calcutta
1954 Bureau of Psychology was established at Allahabad
1955 National Institute of Mental Health was founded in Bangalore
1968 Indian association of clinical psychologists is formed
1972 First survey of research in India is published by the Indian Council of social research
1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) established
1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) was established in Gurgaon, Haryana
2009 NAOP’s Journal of Psychological Studies becomes international (springer)

Another modern perspective which combines social psychology and cultural

psychology is the socio-cultural perspective. This perspective emphasizes on the
effect of the social (groups, surroundings, social roles, and relationships) and
the cultural (class differences, cultural ethnicity, cultural norms, values, and expec-
tations) on the behaviour of an individual. It also studies the contrast and compares
an issue between two or more cultures.
The evolutionary perspective, a combination of the sociocultural and the bio-
psychological perspective (behaviour seen as a result of physiological changes in the
body), focuses on the biological bases for explaining general mental strategies and
traits. Some of these disciplinary changes happened simultaneously globally, and
some ideas were slow in arriving to different parts of the world. Below is a summary
of the landmarks in the evolution and growth of psychology in India (Table 1.1).

1.1.1 Various Fields of Psychology

Intense exploration of psychology has led to advent of several sub-fields of study,

diversifying its scope. The American Psychological Association (APA), established
in 1892 by G. Stanley Hall, is the strongest professional body of psychologists,
and has more than fifty divisions of psychology. The major fields and their area of
concerns are listed below (Table 1.2).
The interdisciplinary focus on research and application of psychological theories
have found its way into varied areas like aviation psychology, military psychology,
engineering psychology, and psychology of women.
4 K. Kaur

Table 1.2 Overview of fields of psychology (Source: Baron & Misra, 2018)
Sub-fields Area of concern
Clinical psychology Studies diagnosis, causes and intervention of
mental disorders
Cognitive psychology Investigates all aspects of cognition-perception,
sensation, learning, memory, language
acquisition, thinking, decision-making, problem
solving, and so on
Counselling psychology Help people to deal with personal problems, mal
adjustment, and career choices
Criminal psychology The study of the views, thoughts, intentions,
actions, and reactions of criminals and all others
who are associated in the criminal behaviour
Cross-cultural psychology Studies variability in behaviour among cultural
groups around the world and investigates the
mutual correlation. It also explains that meanings
and practice of concepts not only vary across
cultures but are rooted in cultures
Developmental psychology Studies bodily, cognitive, social, and emotional
changes throughout the life process
Educational psychology Studies all aspects of teaching–learning process
such as increasing attention and memory, training
techniques for better understanding, improving
the performance of all the stakes holders of an
institute and so on
Experimental psychology Studies all aspects of perception, attention,
learning, perception based on experimental
research
Industrial/organizational psychology Studies all aspects of behaviour in work settings
such as group dynamics, team work, improving
the efficiency and so on
Positive psychology Studies optimal human functioning with a focus
on human virtues, well-being, and meaningful
life. The role of positive emotions, happiness,
etc., enhancing the quality of life is also its focus
Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology Investigates biological bases of behaviour and
role of evolution in human behaviour
Social/applied social psychology Studies social interaction as a function of social
thought and experiences and its application in
various fields like education, work, health, and so
on
Sports psychology It applies psychological principles to improve
sports performance by altering the perception and
in turn the motivation of the players
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 5

1.2 Evolution of Psychology via Research

Psychology is a diverse field with professionals working in various subfields which

require specialized trainings, focus, and entails different goals from the familiar
professional umbrella of a psychologist. A psychologist does not possess any medical
training but has advanced degrees (doctoral degree) in a specific area and undergoes
intense learning about different areas of psychology before choosing their special-
ization. A psychiatrist, on the other hand, has a medical degree and specializes
in diagnosis and treatment (prescription, medication, and therapy) of psychological
disorders. Although many psychologists help people through therapy, there are many
others who are involved in teaching and researching.
The goals of psychological enquiry are description, prediction, explanation,
control of behaviour, and application of knowledge. Various research methodolo-
gies are used to generate these goals in an objective manner. All research methods
used in psychology can be categorized as either quantitative or qualitative.
The aim of the quantitative research is usually to present trends and laws in form of
numerical data that characterize behaviour of large groups of individuals. Qualitative
research uses non-numeric data like texts and pictorial stimulations. Since internal
characteristics are not overtly observable, like violence, love, anxiety, they are called
‘constructs’ because constructs are constructed or defined based on the theories which
delineates it from similar constructs. For the purpose of research, these constructs
need to be operationalised. Operationalization of the construct means expressing
it in terms of observable behaviour. For example, to operationalize construct of
aggression, one might look at the ‘number of insulting comments per hour’ or to
operationalize anxiety, one might look at the scored on an anxiety questionnaire.
The three main types of quantitative research are Experimental research, Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental and Correlational research.
Experimentation is the scientific method that establishes cause and effect rela-
tionship through manipulation of a variables to identify any changes in behaviour.
The variable that is manipulated in the experiment is an independent variable (IV).
The change in the behaviour of the participants as an effect of change in indepen-
dent variable is known as dependent variable (DV). Besides independent variable,
confounding variable are those variables that may interfere with the cause-and-effect
relationship between IV and DV, and hence, they need to be controlled. The control
of confounding variables, also called controlled variable (CV), can be done either by
eliminating them or keeping them constant for all participants. Confounding vari-
ables can also be controlled by using two groups of participants, the experimental
group and the control group. The experimental group is exposed to independent
variable and controlled group gets no treatment or gets different treatment than the
experimental group.
Experimental design refers to allocation of participants to the different groups or
treatments (or IV levels) in an experiment. These are of three types:
1. Independent measures/between groups: Random distribution of different
subjects in each condition of the independent variable.
6 K. Kaur

2. Repeated measures/within groups: The same subjects take part in each condition
of the independent variable. This design is vulnerable to order effects (results
may differ depending on which condition comes first). To overcome this effect,
researchers use the techniques of counter-balancing.
3. Matched pairs: Each condition uses different subjects, but they are not randomly
distributed, instead they are grouped under various characteristics, e.g., gender,
age, intelligence, and other variable relevant to the experiment.
In causal–comparative/quasi-experimental, naturally formed, or pre-existing
groups are used to establish cause–effect relationships among the variables. An
independent variable is identified. The effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable are measured without any manipulation of the independent
variable.
When two or more variables are measured and the relationship between them
is mathematically quantified, it is a correlational research. A positive correlation
indicates the tendency for one variable to increase with increase in another variable.
A negative correlation signifies the inverse tendency: when one variable increases
the other decreases. When plotted on a graph, a perfect correlation of 1 or −1 is
a straight line with the slope of 45°. This happens when one variable increases or
decreases by exactly same unit as the other variable. A correlation close to zero is a
flat line which shows no relationship between two variables.
The most common qualitative methods are participant observation, in-depth inter-
views, case studies, and surveys. Each method is particularly suited for getting a
specific type of data.
Observation technique enables a researcher to gain first-hand knowledge by
observing into the studied phenomenon in depth, and at times, even becoming part
of it. Observation can be laboratory versus naturalistic, structured versus unstruc-
tured, or participant versus non-participant, each of which will have broad implica-
tion on credibility, reflexivity, generalization, and ethics. Participant observation is
appropriate for collecting data on natural behaviours in their natural settings.
In-depth interview is one of the most popular qualitative research methods that
enables direct contact between the interviewer and the interviewee. The sequence of
the question determines if the interview is structured, semi-structured, unstructured,
open-ended, or closed-ended. In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on
individuals’ personal histories, episodes, perspectives, and behaviours, particularly
when delicate topics are being explored.
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual and/or a group. Case
studies can involve a variety of other methods (observation, testing, interviews and
so on), which deepens the understanding of an individual.
Research in human development faces a constant challenge of age. Since the
scientific study of human development involves studying the changes that occur in
people throughout their lifetime, three special designs are used to study the age-
related changes. In longitudinal design, same group of subjects is repeatedly studied,
observed, and assessed to notice the changes over time as the group ages, whereas the
cross-sectional design can be used to study different age groups at one given time.
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 7

Features of both longitudinal and cross—sectional design are used in the cross-
sequential design.

1.3 Fundamentals of Psychological Theories

From the moment of foetal conception, we are each headed down individual path-
ways of physical, cognitive, and social changes. These changes are an interplay of
nature and nurture. The contribution of each has given rise to long-lasting debate
in psychology that attempts to establish whether human behaviour is determined
primarily by biological factors such as genetics and brain structure (nature) or envi-
ronmental factors such as education, parenting styles, friends (nurture), and how it
contributes towards the individual differences among each one of us. Genes provide
a distinguishable combination for the development of individual differences. Not
only genetics, but development occurs in relation to an individual’s environment as
well. This is what makes each one of us unique in the way we organize information,
interpret our world, and react to stimulus and sensations.

1.3.1 Reaction to Stimulus

Sensation occurs due to activation of receptors in the sense organs. The stimulus from
sense organs is converted into the neural signals in the brain through the process of
transduction. Based on one’s interests and motivations, as well as the nature of the
stimuli which impinge on us, we pay attention to a few things out of the innumerable
stimuli with which we are bombarded. Sensory modality, clarity of the stimulus,
temporal uncertainty, and spatial uncertainty can facilitate or inhibit an individual’s
sustained attention to what one hears, sees, smells, tastes, and otherwise experiences.
Furthermore, it is influenced not only by stimulating circumstances, but also by our
past experience and present psychological state. The process by which we identify,
organize, recognize, interpret, understand the information provided by the sense
organs is called perception. No matter how individually determined perception might
be, there are some similarities in how people perceive the world around them. These
similarities are called perceptual constancies of shape, size, and brightness.
Prominent Gestalt psychologists like Köhler et al. (1925) indicate that human
analytic processes are generally focused towards making the complex figures appear
simple through the perception of good figure or pragnanz. They explained basic
principles of human perceptual tendency to group objects into meaningful forms
and perceive the object as whole instead of sum of its parts. Humans’ impressive
capability to see the world in three dimensions is called depth perception. Different
monocular and binocular cues are used in forming the judgement of depth and
distance.
8 K. Kaur

Several psychologists have studied the processes of perception in different socio-

cultural settings. Sinha and Mishra (1996) have carried out several studies on pictorial
presentation using a variety of pictures with people with diverse cultural settings,
such as hunters and gatherers living in forests, agriculturists living in villages, and
people employed and living in cities. Their studies indicate that interpretation of
pictures is strongly related to cultural experiences and learning of people.

1.3.2 Behavioural Conditioning

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. It refers to the gamut of changes that
take place in behaviour because of one’s own experience. These changes are rela-
tively permanent. One type of learning is conditioning, which is a relatively simple
modification of behaviour. Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which
two stimuli when administered in a pattern gives rise to a new conditioned (learned)
response. Basic vocabulary in the area of classical conditioning originated with Ivan
Pavlov’s work in 1927 on the process of digestion on dogs. Salivation in response to
food placed is a natural response, an unlearned or unconditioned response (UCR).
Because it elicited the unconditional response, the food is called unconditional stim-
ulus (UCS). When Pavlov sequenced ringing of the bell followed by presentation
of food repeatedly, the dog learned to salivate in response to the sound of the bell
alone and this salivation was called conditioned response (CR), which indicated that
arousal of the response was dependent upon a stimulus (bell) other than the natural one
(food). Since salivation on ringing the bell was a conditioned response, hence the bell
was labelled as conditioned stimulus (CS). Although, psychologist initially believed
that conditioning was determined primarily by the number of conditioned–uncondi-
tioned stimulus pairing, several other studies revealed that delay conditioning, trace
conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning, and familiarity can
affect conditioning to a large extent.
Classical conditioning was concerned about involuntary responses elicited by
specific identifiable stimuli, but in everyday life, much of our behaviour are volun-
tary or ‘operant’ or under one’s control. Conditioning of operant behaviour is
called operant conditioning. Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was one of the first
researchers to explore the laws of learning on voluntary responses but the procedure
in operant conditioning is best illustrated by a typical training session used by B.
F Skinner (1904–1990). He used the research device known as ‘Skinner box’ by
placing the rat in this box and training it to press the lever inside the box to get the
food. In Skinner’s view, reinforcement or punishment is the reason that the rat learned
to press the lever after several trial and errors. Reinforcement is any event or stimulus
that increases the likelihood of reoccurrence of a response, whereas punishment is a
procedure by which the application or removal of a stimulus decreases the strength
of the behaviour.
Many behavioural psychologists further developed cognitive learning theories
to study the influence of thinkings, feelings, and expectations on the observable
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 9

behaviour. Tolman (1932) in his experiments on rats concluded that the group who
was given reinforcement soon after expected behaviour learned to navigate the maze
quickly. However, although the unrewarded rats had also learned the way out of the
maze during exploration, this unrewarded group never displayed their hidden leaning
to find the way out faster until reinforcement was provided. This hidden learning
was labelled as latent learning by Tolman. During the process of exploration, the
rats developed mental representation of the locations, paths, and directions needed
to reach the goal. These mental representations are called cognitive maps.
Another exploration of cognitive elements of learning that involved problem
solving was given by Wolfgang Kohler (1887–1967) when he experimented with
chimpanzees. In these experiments, when chimpanzee used boxes, tolls, and sticks
to reach the food placed beyond the reach of the animal, learning not only occurred as
a result of trial and error or reinforcement, but came out as sudden flashes of insight
which Köhler (1925) labelled as insight learning. Insight learning is the sudden
perception of relationship also called AHA experience among various parts of the
problem, allowing the solution of the problem to come as a flash suddenly. Such
rapid solutions depend upon the type of task involved, the subject’s level of mental
development, their prior experience, and their use of trial and error procedures.
Seligman (1975) discovered another form of avoidable situation caused due to
repeated failures in the past known as learned helplessness. Another kind of learning
through observing the actions of others is called observational learning. Albert
Bandura’s social learning theory refers to acquiring behaviour through social inter-
action. His bobo doll experiments showed that children displayed violent behaviour
towards their toy after witnessing, and hence imitating, a violent role model. Bandura
(1986) concluded from his studies that attention, memory, imitation, and motivation
were the four important elements of observational learning.

1.3.3 Memory Retention

Once the information is paid attention to, perceived, processed, and learnt, it is
important to retain and retrieve the information as well. Retention is one of the three
processes of memory. Memory is an active system that receives information from the
senses, organizes, and stores it away to retrieve when needed. Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968) noted that human memory must accomplish three basic tasks of encoding,
storage, and retrieval. This approach focuses on the way information is handled and
processed through three different systems of memory—sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory stores the information in form of
iconic (visual) memory and echoic (auditory) memory. Long-term memory stores
information of skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses and are called
non-declarative (implicit) memory. Declarative (explicit) memory stores facts and
knowledge which is conscious and known. Semantic memory and episodic memory
are types of declarative memory. Each of these systems must deal with three tasks
of encoding, storing, and retrieving the information (Fig. 1.1).
10 K. Kaur

SENSORY MEMORY
1. Temporary storage of sensory ATTENTION
informaƟon InformaƟon that passes through an
2. Capacity- High aƩenƟonal gate is transferred to short-
3. DuraƟon- less than one term memory
second(vision)or few seconds( hearing)

SHORT-TERM MEMORY ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL

1.Brief storage of informaƟon currently InformaƟon subjected to elaboraƟve
being used rehearsal or deep processing(e.g;
2. Capacity- limited consideraƟon of its meaning)is transferred
3.DuraƟon- less than twenty seconds to long- term memory

LONG- TERM MEMORY

1. RelaƟvely permanaent storage
2. Capacity- unlimited
3.DuraƟon: Long and permanent

Fig. 1.1 Overview of information—processing model of memory (2016) (Source: Based on model
by Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968 mentioned in Baron & Misra, 2018)

The levels of processing view of memory were given by Craik and Lockhart
(1972). This view suggested that level of retention of the information depends upon
the depth to which an information is processed (deeper the processing, better the
retention). This theory projects that the information can be encoded at the structural,
the phonetic, and the semantic levels. Semantic encoding is considered as the deepest
level of processing which leads to better retention (Fig. 1.2).
Parallel distribution processing model assumes that all memory processes take
place at the same time over a large matrix of interwoven neural connections. This
model, proposed by McClelland (1988), consists of simultaneous processing of the
information that enables people to retrieve many and different information from
memory all at once enabling faster reactions and decisions. Chunking method, deep-
level processing, minimizing interference, and forming enough retrieval cues are
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 11

Fig. 1.2 Overview of level of processing model of memory (Source: Based on view by Craik &
Lockhart, 1972 & suggested in Baron & Misra, 2018)

techniques of mnemonics using organization. These models formed the fundamental

research in eyewitness testimony, as you will read later in the book.
One of the most important and ultimate tasks of memory is to retrieve the stored
information. There are two types of retrieval of memory, recall and recognition.
During recall, the information is retrieved from storage with fewer external cues,
whereas recognition is an ability to match a piece of information with the stored fact.
Failure to retrieve an information is called forgetting. The first systematic attempt
to understand the nature of forgetting was made by Ebbinghaus (1885). He presented
forgetting in a graphical manner called forgetting curve, indicating a distinct pattern
in which forgetting happens predominantly within the first hour after learning, and
then the phenomenon tapers off gradually. One of the simplest views of forgetting is
that some things fail to get encoded which is known as encoding failure, i.e., failure
to process information into memory. The earliest view of forgetting was fading or
decaying of information in long-term memory within due course of time if not put in
use for a long time. Memory trace decay theory was not found verifiable on several
occasions when less used information could be recalled successfully. A possible
explanation of long-term forgetting is that though information in long-term memory
is relatively permanent, it may not always be accessible due to interference cause by
other information. Interference can come in form of retroactive inhibition or proactive
inhibition. Besides the cognitive causes, forgetting can occur due to biological causes
like amnesia and Alzheimer’s disease. Short-term memory is encoded in the form of
12 K. Kaur

sound and visual images, forming a mental image. These mental images or mental
representations of an object form an important tool for thinking process.

1.3.4 Cognition, Decision-Making, and Problem-Solving

The base of all cognitive processes is thinking that clearly differentiates human from
other species. Thinking is a higher mental process where already existing informa-
tion is manipulated and analysed. Such manipulation and analysis occurs during
formation of concepts and processes such as reasoning, imagining, problem-solving,
judging, and decision-making. Convergent thinking is a type of thinking in which all
paths of thinking lead to a single answer. Divergent thinking is a type of thinking in
which diverse possibilities and ideas are run through mentally for solving a problem.
Besides mental images, another important aspect of thought process is concept.
Concepts are the ideas that represent a class or categories of objects or events.
Concepts help in thinking and act as an important instrument for problem-solving.
Problem-solving is the process that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking
and behaving appropriately to the situation. The process of cognition that involves
identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives is called decision-
making. The simplest form of problem-solving is trial and error. A rule that guar-
antees a solution to a specific type of problem is called algorithm. Heuristics,
unlike algorithms, are less time consuming. Heuristics are rules of thumb, guided by
previous experiences. Finally, analogy is an approach of applying similar techniques
of problem-solving that were previously successful to similar problems.
Creativity is the process of solving a problem by combining ideas in new ways.
Study of creative thinking suggests four general aspects which are preparation—
the gathering of relevant information, incubation—a period of relative inactivity,
illumination—sudden insight and verification—the evaluation of idea. Sometimes
despite our best efforts, certain problems cannot be solved. Our strong tendency to
think of using objects only as they have been used in the past is one of the reasons for
this. This is called functional fixedness. Another factor that interferes in problem-
solving is mentality which involves sticking to tried-and-tested means even if better
alternatives are available.
Solving problems involves using one’s experience, knowledge, and resources
effectively. How effectively one solves the problem indicates one’s intelligence.
Intelligence is the ability to understand, think rationally, and use resources effec-
tively to adapt to new challenges. Several theories offer an explanation to a number
of intelligence-related abilities. Spearman (1904) proposed general intelligence or
g-factor as an ability to reason and solve problems where as specific intelligence
or s-factor was related to task-specific abilities. Gardner (1999), on the other hand,
proposed nine different types of intelligence. Sternberg (1988) proposed analytical,
creative, and practical as three types of intelligence. PASS theory of intelligence by
Das et al. (1994) proposes planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive as four
kinds of competence for intelligence. The more recent Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC)
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 13

theory of intelligence includes general intelligence, sixteen major abilities, and many
minor abilities within each broad area. Intelligence Quotient is a measure of intelli-
gence which is calculated by dividing the mental age with the chronological age and
multiplying by hundred. Individual tests of intelligence, such as the Standford–Binet
or Wechsler Scales, help identification of children at the extremes of the normal
probability curve. Extremes of normal distribution curves can be estimated through
classification of intelligence quotient. Extremes of normal distribution curves can be
estimated through classification of intelligence quotient which considers 90–110 as
an average IQ. Increase in IQ depicted on the right-hand side of the normal prob-
ability curve ranges between high average to very superior. Below average IQ is
depicted on the left side of the curve.

1.4 Motivation as a Causal Factor

Perceiving, memorizing, learning, thinking, and problem-solving using one’s intel-

ligence are all guided by the process of motivation. Motivation is the force that
initiates the activities, gives them a direction, and pushes to be continued for the
fulfilment of physical or psychological needs. When the motivation comes from
outside of oneself like awards, salary, or appreciation, it is called extrinsic motiva-
tion. Intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation in which a person performs an
action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying to one’s own self. Below are
discussed several approaches to understanding the key elements of motivation. These
form the foundational background on which theories of crime explained criminal
tendencies.
Early attempts to understand motivation focused primarily on innate patterns
of behaviour that were biologically determined called instincts. The next approach
to understanding motivation focused on drive—reduction of inner physical needs.
McClelland’s (1961) theory of affiliation, power, and achievement need focused
on importance of psychological needs. Another explanation for human motivation
involves the recognition of the need for stimulation. Incentive approaches to motiva-
tion involves behaviour as a response to rewards. The most acceptable approach to
motivation is the humanistic model based on Maslow’s theory, and places the needs
in a hierarchy of needs where primary needs are met before the higher order needs
(Table 1.3).
Motives are often accompanied by emotions, and emotions have tendency to influ-
ence motivational. Motivation and emotions are closely related concepts because
motives and the arousal of emotion activate behaviour. Emotions is the ‘feeling’
aspect of consciousness and includes affective, behavioural, and cognitive elements.
Physical arousal is associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system,
and the amygdala plays a key role in emotional processing. Early theory of emotion
was called common-sense theory as it believed that a feeling stimulates arousal,
which is followed by a response. Ever since, several theories have been proposed by
various psychologists. James–Lange theory proposed by James (1894) and Lange
14 K. Kaur

Table 1.3 Overview of approaches to motivation (Source: Based on information given by

Ciccarelli & White, 2018)
Approaches Proposed by Key elements
Instincts and the evolutionary McDougall (1908) Human beings are governed by
approaches instincts which are biologically
determined and are innate
patterns of behaviour
Drive-reduction theory Clark Hull (1943) Approach assumes behaviour
arises from internal drives that
push the organism to satisfy the
need to reduce the tension arising
out of need
McClelland’s theory McClelland (1961, 1988) Highlights the importance of
need for affiliation (nAff), need
for power (nPow), and need for
achievement (nAch) in
motivation
Dweck’s self-theory Carol Dweck (1999) Suggests that the need for
achievement is linked to a
person’s locus of control and
view of self
Arousal approaches Robert Yerkes and John Suggests level of tension ranges
Dodson (1908) from low to high depending on
individual differences. Optimal
level of stress leads to optimum
performance. Yerkes–Dodson
law states that when tasks are
less complex and similar, a
higher level of motivation leads
to better performance; and when
tasks are difficult and new, lower
level of arousal lead to better
performance
Incentive approaches Tolman(1932) and Kurt Early works by Tolman and
Lewin (1936s) Lewin focused on expectancy
values or how much importance
one attaches to beliefs and
thoughts affect our actions
Humanistic approaches Abraham Maslow (1943, Based primarily on Maslow’s
(Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) 1987) hierarchy of needs; i.e., primary,
basic needs must be met before
higher levels can be fulfilled.
Physiological needs are the most
basic needs followed by safety,
belongingness and love, esteem.
This is followed by cognitive
needs, aesthetic needs, and at the
top of the pyramid,
self-actualization needs
(continued)
1 Psychology: The Science of Mental Processes 15

Table 1.3 (continued)

Approaches Proposed by Key elements
Renovating the pyramid of needs Kenrick et al. (2010) This revision preserves several
Maslow’s ideas of need such as
physiological, safety, and esteem
and integrates life-history
development with it. It studies
human motives at three different
levels of analysis (a) their
ultimate evolutionary function,
(b) their developmental
sequencing, and (c) their
cognitive priority as triggered by
proximate inputs
The model also outlines the
subsequent developing goal
systems as overlapping with
earlier developing systems
Humanistic approaches (ERG Alderfer (1969) Condenses Maslow’s needs into
motivation theory) only three levels: existence,
relatedness, and growth
Humanistic approaches Richard Ryan and Edward Similar to Maslow’s hierarchy.
(self-determination theory) Deci (2000) States that the three universal
needs are autonomy,
competence, and relatedness

(1885) suggests that environmental stimuli give rise in physiological arousal, which
helps in labelling of the emotion. Later, Cannon (1927) and Philip Bard (1934)
propounded the Cannon–Bard theory that suggests that emotion and physiological
arousal occur simultaneously leading to a specific response. According to the cogni-
tive arousal two-factor theory, physiological arousal and its interpretation are based
on environmental clues known as labelling. Physiological arousal must occur before
experiencing emotion. The facial feedback hypothesis (Laird et al., 1974) suggests
that facial expressions (and other behaviours) provide estimation to the brain that can
cause or escalate experience of a specific emotion. Lastly, the cognitive mediational
theory by Lazarus (1991) suggests that the cognitive appraisal and interpretation of
the stimulus cause the emotional reaction. These theories are useful in laying the
background for lie-detection techniques in the future.
Motivation and one’s interaction with the psychological environment determine
the personality of the person. Personality is the unique and relatively stable ways in
which people think, feel, and behave. Personality, unlike other constructs, is difficult
to be measured precisely and scientifically, and hence, different perspectives on
personality has arisen.
The psychodynamic perspective had its beginnings in the work of Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939) and still exists today. It focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind
in the development of personality. The structure of mind, divisions of personality, and
16 K. Kaur

Table 1.4 Divisions of personality according to Sigmund Freud (Source: Based on structure of
personality suggested by Freud, 1933)
Divisions Level of consciousness Principle
Id Part of the personality from birth to early Pleasure principle-principle by which the
years and is completely unconscious id functions and aims for immediate
gratification of needs without
considering its consequences
Ego Part of the personality that develops deals Reality principle–principle by which the
with reality in conscious, rational, and ego functions and enables gratification of
logical manner the demands of the id only when it will
not result in negative consequences
Superego Part of the personality that acts as the Conscience part of the superego that
moral police produces guilt during unacceptable
behaviour

the psycho-sexual stages given by Freud show the causes of differences in person-
ality during the process of development. Defence mechanisms are sub-conscious,
psychologically manipulative behaviour or thoughts that reduce the anxiety arising
out of guilt and shame. These behaviours can be in form of denial or distorted reality
to defend against unacceptable impulses.
According to the psychodynamic theory, the structure of the mind can be divided
in threefold. The preconscious mind contains memories, information, and events of
which one can easily become aware of through focusing. Conscious mind consists of
one’s present awareness, whereas the unconscious mind contains thoughts, feelings,
memories, and information that are not easily brought into the consciousness. Id,
ego, superego are in constant state of conflict in Freud’s view of how personality
works. When anxiety created by their conflict gets unbalanced, abnormal behaviour
arises. In order to deal with stress, psychological defence mechanisms unconsciously
distort one’s perception of reality (Table 1.4).
Freud (1933) believed that personality is a product of tension and pleasure build
around libido (sexual energy) and over or under satisfaction of the energy leads to
fixation to a particular stage. While this may not be held true at the moment, the
sexual tension Freud researched forms the basis of interrogating motivations and
offender behaviour in sexual crimes.

1.5 Conclusion

The behaviourist and social cognitive perspectives are based on the theories of
learning. This approach focuses on the effect of the environment on behaviour. For
behaviourists, personality is a set of learned responses and habits, gained through
classical and operant conditioning, including reinforcement and punishments, indi-
vidual social learnings and imitation (social processes) and cognitive processes (such
as anticipation and memory) are important. The humanistic perspective focuses on the