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MPO Notes Sajin J

Managing people and organization (Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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MBAZG511 Managing People

& Organizations
MPO

Sajin John
2020HB58042

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Table of Contents
Module 1 – Introduction to Organizational Behavior (OB) ................................................................................................................. 3
What is Organizational Behavior ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Challenges and Opportunities in OB ................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Module 2 - Introduction to Human Resource Management (HRM) ................................................................................................. 6

Understanding the nature and scope of HRM................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Understanding the context of HRM ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Module 3 - Organization and individuals ................................................................................................................................................... 9

Diversity in organizations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction .............................................................................................................................................................................................10
Emotions and Moods ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Personality and Values ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Perception and Individual Decision Making .................................................................................................................................................................17
Motivation ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20

Module 4 – Organization and Groups ........................................................................................................................................................22

Foundations of Group Behavior ..........................................................................................................................................................................................22
Understanding Work Teams ................................................................................................................................................................................................24
Communications ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................26

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Module 1 – Introduction to Organizational Behavior (OB)

What is Organizational Behavior

• The ability to work with, understand, and
The Importance of Interpersonal Skills motivate other people, both individually and in
• Understanding OB helps determine manager groups
effectiveness Conceptual Skills
o Technical and quantitative skills are
important • The mental ability to analyse and diagnose
o But Leadership and communication skills complex situations
are CRITICAL
• Organizational benefits of skilled managers Luthan’s Study of Managerial Activities
o Lower turnover of quality employees Traditional Management
o Higher quality applications for
recruitment • Decision making, Planning & Controlling
o Better financial performance Communication
What Managers Do • Exchanging routine information & Processing
paperwork
They get things done through other people.
Human Resource Management
• Management Activities:
o Make decisions • Motivating, Disciplining, managing conflicts,
o Allocate resources Staffing & Training
o Direct activities of others to attain goals
Networking
• Work in an Organization
o A consciously co-ordinated social unit • Socializing, Politicking, & interacting with others
composed of two or more people that
function on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

Management Functions
Planning

• Define goals, establish strategy and develop

plans to co-ordinate activities
Organizing

• Determining the What, Where, Who, When & How

of the task to be accomplished Managers who got promoted faster (were successful) did
different things than did effective managers (those who
Leading
did their jobs well)
• Motivating employees, resolving conflicts,
directing employees and choosing effective Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
communication channels
Interpersonal
Controlling
• Figurehead, Leader, Liaison
• Monitoring activities to ensure on time
Informational
completion meeting set objectives.
• Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesperson
Essential Management Skills
Decisional
Technical Skills
• Entrepreneur, Disturbance handler, Resource
• The ability to apply specialized knowledge or allocator, Negotiator
expertise
Human Skills

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Organizational Behavior • Search for best available evidence

• Apply relevant information to case.
Organization: It is a group of people who are collected to
work for a common goal with collective efforts. Managers should use all three approaches.
Behavior: It is a verbal or physical response shown by a The trick is to know when to go with your gut
person as a consequence of the impact of his/her – Jack Welsh
surroundings. • Intuition is often based on inaccurate
Organizational Behavior is a field of study that information
investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and • Faddism is prevalent in management
structure have on behavior within organizations, for the • Systematic study can be time consuming
purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an
Use evidence as much as possible to inform your intuition
organization’s effectiveness.
and experience. That is the promise of OB.
The two complementary means of predicting behavior:
• Intuition Need and Importance of OB
o Gut feelings
o Individual observation • Skill Development – Abilities and knowledge of
o Common sense employees
• Systematic Study • Understanding level of motivation and
o Looks at relationships satisfaction of employees.
o Scientific evidence • Helps in increasing efficiency of the organisation.
o Predicts behaviours • To create healthy and ethical environment in the
organisation
An Outgrowth of Systematic Study • OB helps in utilising the resources
(Man/Money/Machine) to the optimum level.
Evidence-Based Management (EBM) • It helps in predicting behaviour of group and
Basing Managerial decisions on the base available individuals.
scientific evidence. • Overall, it improves the good will of the
• Pose a managerial question organization

Challenges and Opportunities in OB

• As Psychology focus on individuals while sociology
Contributing Disciplines studies people in relation to social environment and
Many behavioural sciences have contributed to the culture.
development of Organizational Behavior. • Organisational Culture, Organisational Structure, Power
& Politics, Organisational Communication,
Organizational Change, Organizational Technology,
Formal Organization technology.
Social Psychology

• Social Psychology is inherited from sociology and

Psychology.
• Social Psychology studies the influence of people on one
another. It is more oriented towards group Behavior.
• Group decision making, Communication, Behavioural
change, Attitude Change, Group processes, Power,
Conflict, Intergroup behaviour.
Psychology Anthropology
• It is a science that seeks to measure explain and • It is a field that seeks to study various societies to learn
sometimes change the behavior of humans (individuals) about human beings and their activities.
as well as animals • Cross Culture Analysis, Organisational Culture,
• Learning, Motivation, Perception, Personality, Attitude, Comparative Values, Organizational environment,
Job Satisfaction, Work Stress, Emotions, Training, Power, Comparative Attitudes,
Leadership effectiveness, Job satisfaction, Individual
decision making, Performance appraisal, Attitude
measurement, Employee selection, Work design, Work
stress.
Sociology

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Few Absolutes in OB Summary and Managerial Implications

Situational factors that make the main relationship • Managers need to develop their interpersonal
between two variables change (Contingency Variable) skills to be effective.
e.g.: the relationship may hold for one condition but not • OB focuses on how to improve factors that make
another. organizations more effective.
• The best predictions of behavior are made from a
combination of systematic study and intuition.
• Situational variables moderate cause-and-effect
relationships, which is why OB theories are
contingent.
• There are many OB challenges and opportunities
for managers today.

Challenges and Opportunities for OB

The major challenges and opportunities are:
• Responding to Economic Pressures
• Responding to Globalization
• Managing Workforce Diversity
Some other challenges and opportunities include:
• Improving Customer Service
• Improving People Skills
• Stimulating Innovation and Change
• Coping with “Temporariness”
• Working in Networked Organizations
• Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts
• Creating a Positive Work Environment.
• Improving Ethical Behavior.

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Module 2 - Introduction to Human Resource Management (HRM)

Understanding the nature and scope of HRM

HRM
New age HRM functions
• HRM stands for Human Resource Management.
• Visioneering and strategizing to gain competitive
• It is the application of management principles to
edge for the organization.
management of people in an organization.
• Aligning HR activities with corporate objectives
• It is an “umbrella term” that includes what was
• Focus on competency development
once known as “Personnel” “Admin” “IR”
• Redefining role of HR managers
• Increasingly organizations are aspiring to be
• Develop methods for aligning employee goals
doing HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT
and behaviours and organizational strategy
HRM objectives • Define, communicate and leverage organizations
key capabilities
Societal – To be ethically and socially responsible to the
needs and challenges of the society while minimising the Personnel Management and HRM
negative impact of such demands upon the organization.
Organisational – To recognise the role of HRM in Dimension Personnel Human
bringing about organizational effectiveness Management Resources
Management
Functional – To maintain the department’s contribution
at a level appropriate to the organization’s needs. Employment contract Careful delineation of Aim to go beyond
written contract contract
Individual – To assist employees in achieving their
personal goals, at least insofar as these goals enhance the Management Need Procedure Business need
individual’s contribution to the organization.
Perspective Monitoring Nurturing

HRM Functions Management role Transactional Transformative

Respect of employees Treated as a tool Treated as assets to

HR which is expendable be used for the
Philosop and replaceable benefit of an
hy organization.
Workforc Locus of control External Internal
HR
e
Metrics &
planning
Analytics Organising principles Mechanistic Organic
& staffing
Top-down Bottom-up
Centralised Decentralised

Sustainable HRM Models

HRM Learning
Rewards
and
and • Theoretical perspective on HRM
Benefits
Develop
ment
• Provide an analytical framework
• Characterise variables and relationships
• Help us discover and understand the world for
explaining the nature and significance of key HR
Talent Managing practices.
Managem Performa
ent nce • Popular modeles for HRM
o Fombrun, Harvard, Guest, Ulrich

Conventional HRM functions Guest Model

• Planning future HR needs

• Staffing
• Developing
• Monitoring
• Maintaining
• Managing relationships
• Managing change
• Evaluating
The New Human Resource Manager

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Effective HR skills
Transactio
nal • Giving trusted advice
Performance, Services
results, • Being decisive
evidence- Talent • Knowing the business
based Management • Leading courageously
practice • Supporting others
• Command of HR
The New • Employee advocacy
Human • Driving for results
Resource • Comfort in own skin
Employee Managers Competenci
Engagement es • Collaborating
• Championing change
• Listening
• Generating new ideas
• Speaking persuasively
Big
Ethics
picture • Coaching for success

Understanding the context of HRM

o Customers
Context of HRM • Level of development of the economy
External Forces • Industrial Labour
o Migration patterns
• Political-Legal
o Trade unions
o Legislature
• Diversity
o Executive
o Silent Generation, Gen X, Baby Boomers,
o Judiciary
Gen Y / Millennials,
• Economic
• Globalisation
o Suppliers
o Movement of skills, capital, technology,
o Competitors
information
o Customers
o Fungible
o Economic Growth
o Industrial Labour
Technological – Impact on HRM
o Diversity
o Globalisation • Demand for upgradation of technical skills
• Technological • Possibilities of new ways of work organization
• Cultural • Reduction on costs of HR services
Internal Forces • Supporting learning
• Issues of security, surveillance
• Strategy, Task and Leadership
• Unions HR and Technology
• Organisational Culture and Conflict
• Professional Bodies

Political Legal – Impact on HRM

• Laws, rules and legislation
• Their implementation
• Nature of Government
• Government policies

Economic – Impact on HRM

• Players in the economy
o Suppliers – employment exchanges,
universities, colleges, training institutes,
consulting firms, casual labour
contractors, competitors Cultural – Impact on HRM
o Competitors – other organizations • Attitude to work (work ethic)
looking for same talent
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• Attitude to time • Unions

• Expectations of work-life balance • Organisational Culture and Conflict
• Needs for individual achievement o Leadership vs followership
• Ethical relativism o Obedience vs self-respect
• Decision making styles o Personal ethics vs organizational ethics
• Restrictions on movement o Authority vs Accountability
o Cleverness vs wisdom
Internal Forces – Impact on HRM • Management attitude towards HR

• Strategy, Task and Leadership

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Module 3 - Organization and individuals

Diversity in organizations
Plant manager – Verbal comprehension
Diversity Management
- Ability to understand what is read or heard and
Process and programs by which managers make everyone the relationship of words to each other
more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of
Fire investigator – Perceptual speed
others.
- Ability to identify visual similarities and
• Surface-level diversity differences quickly and accurately
o Easily observable
o Age, Gender, Race Interior Decorator – Spatial Visualization
• Deep-level diversity - Ability to imagine how an object would look if its
o Aspect which are difficult to see position in space were changed
Individual differences shape preferences for rewards, Sales Person – Memory
communication styles, reactions to leaders, negotiation - Ability to retain and recall past experiences.
styles, and many other aspects of behaviour in
organizations. Market researcher – Inductive Reasoning
Increased diversity many also mean increases in - Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem
discriminatory practices. and then solve the problem.
Supervisor – Deductive Reasoning
Surface level diversity / Biographical - Ability to use logic and assess the implications of
Characteristics an argument.
Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.
Dimensions of Physical Ability
• Age – Older workers bring experience, judgment,
a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality • Strength Factors
• Gender – Few differences between men and o Dynamic Strength
women that affects job performance. o Trunk Strength
• Disability – Today’s organizations have started o Static Strength
making efforts to hire people with disabilities. o Explosive Strength
• Tenure – People with job tenure (seniority at a • Flexibility Factors
job) are more productive, absent less frequently, o Extent flexibility
have lower turnover, and are more satisfied. o Dynamic flexibility
• Race • Other Factors
• Religion o Body coordination
• Sexual Orientation o Balance
• Gender Identity o Stamina
• Cultural Identity
Role of Disabilities
Ability When focusing on ability, it can create problems when
An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a attempting to develop workspace policies that recognize
job. diversity in terms of disabilities.
Intellectual Abilities It is important to recognize diversity and strive for it in
the hiring process
• The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
• General Mental Ability’s (GMA) is a measure of An organization needs to be careful to avoid
discriminatory practices by making generalizations about
overall intelligence.
people with disabilities.
• No correlation between intelligence and job
satisfaction.
Implementing Diversity Management Strategies
Physical Abilities
Making everybody more aware and sensitive to the need
• The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, of others.
dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.
- Attracting, Selecting, Developing, and Retaining
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability the Diverse Employees
- Working with Diversity in Groups
Accountant – Number aptitude - Effective Diversity Programs.
- Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic
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Global Implications 1. Ability

Biographical Characteristics a. Directly influences employee’s level of

performance.
- Not much evidence on the global relevance of the b. Managers need to focus on ability in
relationships described in this chapter. selection, promotion, and transfer.
- Countries do vary dramatically on their c. Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities
biographical composition
2. Biographical Characteristics
Intellectual Abilities
a. Should not be used in management
- Structures and measures of intelligence decisions: possible source of bias
generalize across cultures.
3. Diversity Management
Diversity Management
a. Muse be an ongoing commitment at all
- Diversity management is important across the levels of the organization.
globe. However, different cultures will use b. Policies must include multiple
different frameworks for handling diversity. perspectives and be long term in their
orientation to be effective.
Summary and Managerial Implications

Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Attitudes Predicting Behavior from Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, • Important attitudes have a strong relationship to
people, or events. behavior.
Three components of attitude: • The closes the match between attitude and
behavior. The stronger the relationship:
o Specific attitudes predict specific
behavior
Cognitive Affective o General attitudes predict general
behavior
• The more frequently expresses an attitude, the
better predictor it is.
Behavioral
• High social pressures reduce the relationship and
may cause dissonance.
• Attitudes based on personal experience are
stronger predictors.

Attitude Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Leon Festinger – 1959
- Cognitive – The opinion or belief segment of an
attitude Cognitive Dissonance
- Affective – The emotional or feeling segment of Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or
an attitude. between behavior and attitudes
- Behavioural – An intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable
gap, or dissonance to reach stability and
Example: consistency
Negative attitude towards my boss Consistency is achieved by changing the
- Cognitive ( = evaluation) attitudes, modifying the behaviours, or through
o My boss is unfair rationalization
- Affective ( = feeling) Desire to reduce dissonance
o I dislike my boss depends on:
- Behavioural ( = action) o Importance of
o I’m looking for another job. elements creating
o I’ve complained about my boss to dissonance
everyone. o Degree of individual
influence over these
elements
o Rewards involved in
dissonance.

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What are the Major Job Attitudes? Negative people are usually not satisfied with
their jobs.
Job Satisfaction Those with positive core self-evaluation are more
A positive feeling about a job resulting from an satisfied with their jobs.
evaluation of its characteristics Job Conditions and CSR also play a part in Job
Satisfaction.
Job Involvement
Degree to which a person Identifies with a job Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
actively participates in it and considers Job Performance
performance important to self-worth.
Individuals with higher job satisfaction perform
Psychological Empowerment better, and organizations with more satisfied
Belief in the degree of influence over the job, employees tend to be more effective than those
competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. with fewer.
Satisfied workers are mor productive and more
Other Job Attitudes productive workers are more satisfied!
Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB)
Organizational Commitment
Moderate correlation between job satisfaction
Degree to which an employee identified with and OCB
his/her organization and its goals and wishes to The discretionary behaviour that is not part of an
remain a member in the organization. employee’s formal job requirements, and that
Perceived Organizational Support (POS) contributes to the psychological and social
environment of the workspace is cal OCB
Degree to which an employee believes an
Customer Satisfaction
organization values his/her contribution and
cares about his/her well-being. Job Satisfaction is reciprocal to Customer
Satisfaction. (i.e. directly proportional).
Employee Engagement Satisfied frontline employees increase customer
Involvement with, satisfaction with and satisfaction and loyalty.
enthusiasm for the work he or she does. Absenteeism

Job Satisfaction Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to

miss work.
One of the primary job attitudes measured. Turnover
Broad term involving a complex individual
summation of a number of discrete job elements. Satisfied employees are less likely to quit the job.
How to measure? Life Satisfaction
o Single global Overall happiness depends on our happiness in
rating (one our work.
question/one
answer) Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction
o Summation
Destructive Active
score (many
questions/one
Exit Voice
average)
Are people satisfied in •Behavior •Active and
directed constructive
their jobs? toward leaving attempts to
o In India, Yes. 71% of Indian employees the improve
o Surveyed are satisfied with their jobs organization conditions
o Results vary by employee facets of the
job
Constructive
o Compensation, benefits, and incentives
are the most problematic elements in Neglect Loyalty
India. •Allowing •Passively
conditions to waiting for
Causes of Job Satisfaction worsen conditions to
improve
Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point.
Once an individual reaches a comfortable level of Passive
living, there is no relationship between amount
pay and job satisfaction.
Personality can influence job satisfaction

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Global Implications Summary and Managerial Implications

Are Employees in some Cultures more Satisfied with their Managers should watch employee attitudes:
Jobs? o They give warnings of potential
According to some studies, Western workers problems
appear to be more satisfied than those in Eastern o They influence behavior
cultures. This may be because Westerners Managers should try to increase job satisfaction
emphasize positive emotions and individual and generate positive job attitudes
happiness more than do those in Eastern o Reduce costs by lowering turnover,
cultures. absenteeism, tardiness, theft, and
Another study showed that Indian employees increasing OCB
rated their satisfaction higher than other Focus on the intrinsic parts of the job: make
employees in the Asia-Pacific region. work challenging and interesting – Pay is not
enough

Emotions and Moods

o Low Negative Affect
Why are emotions ignored in OB? Different emotions “mark” different mood states.
The “Myth of Rationality” Moods affect perception and therefore perceived
reality.
Emotions were seen as irrational
Managers worked to create emotion-free
environments.
View of Emotionality
Emotions were believed to be disruptive
Emotions were thought to interfere with
productivity.
Only negative emotions were observed.

What are emotions and moods?

Affect

Sources of emotion and moods

Emotions Moods
Personality
o There is a trait component – affect intensity
Time of Day
Directed at Lack of Day of the Week
Intense someone or Less Intense contextual
something simulus o There is a common pattern for all of us
Happier in the midpoint of the daily
awake period
Basic Emotions Happier towards the end of the
Happiness week
While not universally Weather
Sadness accepted, there appear to be o Illusory correlation – no effect
Surprise six. Stress
Fear
All other emotions appear o Even low levels of constant stress can
Anger subsumed under these.
Disgust worsen moods
Social Activities
Basic Mood States – positive and negative affect o Physical, informal, and dining activities
increase positive moods.
Emotions cannot be neutral. Being neutral is Sleep
being non-emotional! o Poor sleep quality increases negative affect
Emotions are grouped into general mood states. Exercise
o High positive Affect o Does somewhat improve mood, especially
o Low Positive Affect for depressed people
o High Negative Affect Age

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o Older folks experience fewer negative Emotional Intelligence

emotions
Gender A person’s ability to
o Women tend to be more emotionally be self-aware (recognizing one’s own emotions
expressive, feel emotions more intensely, when experiencing them)
have longer-lasting moods, and express detect emotions in others
emotions more frequently than do men. manage emotional cues and information
EI plays an important role in job performance.
Emotional Labor
Emotion Regulation Techniques
An employee’s expression of organizationally desired
emotions during interpersonal transactions at work!
Emotional dissonance Emotional Supression
An employee has to display one emotion while
actually feeling another.
Cognitive Reappraisal
Can be very damaging and lead to burnout
E.g. Call centre agents response to an angry Social Sharing
customer
Types of emotions
Mindfulness
Felt emotions: the individuals’ actual emotions
Best route to a positive workspace is
Displayed emotions: emotions that are
o to recruit positive-minded individuals
organizationally required.
o train leaders to manage their moods, job
o Surface acting – Displaying emotions but
attitudes and performance
not feeling them internally
Best leaders manage emotions as much as they
o Deep acting – Changing internal rules to
manage tasks and activities
match display rules.
Best employees can use their EI to decide when to
Frameworks to understand emotions at speak up and how to express themselves
effectively.
workplace
AET – Affective Events Theory Applications of Moods and Emotions
EI – Emotional Intelligence Selection EI should be a hiring factor, especially for social
Process jobs
Affective Events Theory
Decision Positive emotions can lead to better decisions
An event in the workplace triggers positive or Making
negative emotional reactions.
Personality and mood determine response Creativity Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and
intensity creativity
Emotions can influence a broad range of work Motivation Positive mood affects expectations of success;
variables. feedback amplifies this effect.

Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of

messaages from organizational leaders

Negotiation Emotions, skillfully displayed, can affect

negotiations

Customer Emotions affect service quality delivered to

Service customers, affects customer relationships

Job Can carry over to home, but dissipate overnight

Attitudes
Employees and managers SHOULD NOT IGNORE
emotions or the events that cause them, even Work-Life
when they appear minor, because they Situations
accumulate.
Manager's Leaders who are in good mood, use humor and
EMOTIONS provide valuable insights into how Influence praises; increase positive mood in workplace
workspace events influence employee
performance and satisfaction. Deviant Negative emotions lead to employee deviance
Workplace
Behaviors
Health and
Safety

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Global Implications Summary and implications for managers

Do people experience emotionally equally? Recognize that emotions are a part of the
No, Culture can determine type, frequency and workplace.
depth of experienced emotions. Good management does not mean creating an
Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job emotion-free environment.
performance Model positive emotions and moods to foster
Do people interpret emotions the same way? effective decision making, creativity, and
Yes, negative emotions are seen as undesirable motivation in employees.
and positive as desirable Provide positive feedback to increase positivity
However, the values of each emotion varies across of employees.
culture. Understand role of emotions and moods to
Do norms of emotional expression vary? significantly improve your ability to explain and
Yes, Some cultures have a bias against expression predict your, co-workers and others behavior.
of emotions, some cultures demand some display
emotions.
How emotions are expressed may make
interpretation outside of one’s culture difficult.

Personality and Values

What is Personality? Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical system that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment. – Gordon Allport
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others, the measurable traits a person
exhibit.
Measuring Personality
Helpful in hiring decisions
Most common method: self-reporting surveys
Observer-ratings surveys provide an
independent assessment of personality – often
better predictors.

Personality Determinants • Very popular instrument in the world.

• Participants are classified on four axes to
Heredity determine one of 16 possible personality types,
Factors determined at conception: physical such as ENTP.
stature, facial attractiveness, gender, • Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, name, for instance:
energy level, and biorhythms o Visionaries (INTJ): original, stubborn,
This “heredity approach” argues that genes are and driven
the source of personality. o Organizers (ESTJ): realistic, logical,
Personality Traits analytical, and business-like

• Enduring characteristics that describe an

individual’s behavior
• The more consistent the characteristic and the
more frequently it occurs in diverse situations,
the more important the trait.
Two dominant frameworks used to describe personality:
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®)
• Big Five Model

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o Conceptualizers (ENTP):
entrepreneurial, innovative, Extroversion
individualistic, and resourceful •Socialable, gregarious and assertive
• Research results on validity mixed
o MBTI® is a good tool for self-awareness Agreeableness
and counselling. •Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting
o Should not be used as a selection test for
job candidates. Conscientiousness
•Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized

Emotional Stability
•Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus
nervours, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative)

Openness to Experience
•Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive

Other Relevant Personality Traits

• Core Self-Evaluation
The degree to which people like or dislike
themselves
Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job
performance
• Type A Personality
Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant
struggle to achieve more in less time
o Impatient: always moving, walking, and
eating rapidly
o Strive to think or do two or more things at
once
o Cannot cope with leisure time
o Obsessed with achievement numbers
Prized in today’s competitive times but quality of
the work is low
Type B people are the complete opposite of Type
A’s
Big Five Model • Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes
Research has shown this to be a better framework. action, and perseveres to completion
Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to Creates positive change in the environment
higher job performance:
Values and Its importance
• Highly conscientious people develop more job
knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to
performance. live a life that is personally or socially preferable – “How
To” live life properly.
• Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.
• Attributes of Values:
– Emotional stability is related to job – Content Attribute: that the mode of conduct
satisfaction. or end-state is important
– Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs – Intensity Attribute: just how important that
and have good social skills. content is
• Value System
– Open people are more creative and can be
– A person’s values rank ordered by intensity
good leaders.
– Tends to be relatively constant and
– Agreeable people are good in social settings. consistent
• Importance of Values
– Provide understanding of attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors
– Influence our perception of the world around
us

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– Represent interpretations of “right” and Millenni 2005 to Early 20s Comfortable

“wrong” als present with
– Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are technology,
preferred over others entrepreneu
rial; high
Classifying Values – Rokeach Value Survey sense of
• Terminal Values entitlement
– Desirable end-states of existence; the goals
that a person would like to achieve during
his or her lifetime
Linking Personality and Values to the
• Instrumental Values
– Preferable modes of behavior or means of workplace
achieving one’s terminal values Managers are less interested in someone’s ability to do a
• People in same occupations or categories tend to specific job than in that person’s flexibility.
hold similar values Person–Job Fit:
– But values vary between groups • John Holland’s Personality–Job Fit Theory
– Value differences make it difficult for – Six personality types
groups to negotiate and may create conflict – Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI)
• Key Points of the Model:
Generational Values – There appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality between people
Entered
Approxim
Dominant – There are different types of jobs
Cohort Workfo
ate
Work – People in jobs congruent with their
Current personality should be more satisfied and
rce Values
Age have lower turnover

Socialist 1950s to 55+ Hardworkin Relationships among Occupational Personality

s the late g, Types
1980s conservativ
e,
conforming;
loyalty to
the
organizatio
n; emphasis
on a secure
life

Liberals Early Mid-40s to Success,

1990s to mid-60s achievemen
2000 t, ambition,
dislike of
authority;
loyalty to Still Linking Personality to the Workplace
career
In addition to matching the individual’s personality to the
Xers 2000– Late 20s Work/life job, managers are also concerned with:
2005 to early balance, • Person–Organization Fit:
40s team- – The employee’s personality must fit with the
oriented, organizational culture.
dislike of – People are attracted to organizations that
rules; want match their values.
financial – Those who match are most likely to be
success; selected.
loyalty to – Mismatches will result in turnover.
self and – Can use the Big Five personality types to
relationship match to the organizational culture.
s

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Global Implications Hofstede’s Dimensions

Personality
• Do frameworks like Big Five transfer across
cultures?
– Yes, but the frequency of type in the culture
may vary.
– Better in individualistic than collectivist
cultures.
Values
• Values differ across cultures.
• Hofstede’s Framework for assessing culture – six
value dimensions:
– Power Distance
– Individualism vs. Collectivism
– Masculinity vs. Femininity
– Uncertainty Avoidance
– Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation
– Indulgence vs. Restraint Dimensions for national culture – Hofstede
Summary and Managerial implications
Personality
• Screen for the Big Five trait of conscientiousness
• Take into account the situational factors as well
• MBTI® can help with training and development
Values
• Often explain attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions
• Higher performance and satisfaction achieved when
the individual’s values match those of the
organization

Perception and Individual Decision Making

What is Perception? Factors that Influence Perception

• A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment.
• People’s behavior is based on their perception of
what reality is, not on reality itself.
• The world as it is perceived is the world that is
behaviorally important.

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Attribution Theory Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview
• Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants
• Formed at a single glance: 1/10th of a second!
Performance Expectations
• Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower
or higher performance of employees reflects
preconceived leader expectations about employee
capabilities
Performance Evaluations
• Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
An attempt to explain the ways we judge people perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job
differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a performance
behaviour, such as determining whether an individual’s • Critical impact on employees
behaviour is internally or externally caused.
Example: Perception and Individual Decision Making
Shivani, 21, a young MBA who has joined your
team six months ago is late for the meeting. Problem
• A perceived discrepancy between the current state of
i. Is she late for other things too? affairs and a desired state
ii. Are others late too? Decisions
iii. Has she always come late for meeting? • Choices made from among alternatives developed
from data
o Errors or biases distort attribution Perception Linkage:
o Fundamental Attribution Error • All elements of problem identification and the
o When we make judgments about the decision-making process are influenced by
behaviour of other people, we tend to perception.
underestimate the influence of external – Problems must be recognized.
factors and overestimate the influence of – Data must be selected and evaluated.
internal or personal factors.
o Self-serving bias
o The tendency for individuals to attribute Decision-Making Models in Organizations
their own successes to internal factors
and put the blame for failure on external Ideally decision-making is an objective process.
factors. But the wat we make decisions and the quality of choices
we make are influenced by perceptions.
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception Screen,
• People selectively interpret what they see on the Information Process, Decision
Interpret
basis of their interests, background, experience, and
attitudes
PRECEPTION
Halo Effect
• Drawing a general impression about an individual
on the basis of a single characteristic
Six-Step “Rational” Decision Making Process
Contrast Effect
• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are Define the problem
affected by comparisons with other people recently
encountered who rank higher or lower on the same Identify the decision criteria
characteristics
Stereotyping
Allocate the weights to the criteria
• Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that person belongs – a prevalent
Develop the alternatives
and often useful, if not always accurate,
generalization
• Profiling – A form of stereotyping in which members Evaluate the alternatives
of a group are singled out for intense scrutiny based
on a single, often racial, trait. Select the best alternative

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Organizational Constraints
Rational Decision Making o Organizations can constrain decision makers,
• The “perfect world” model assumes complete creating deviations from the rational model.
information, all options known, and maximum payoff o Managers shape decisions to reflect the
• Six-step decision-making process organization’s performance evaluation and
Bounded Reality reward system, to comply with formal
• The “real world” model seeks satisfactory and regulations, meet organizationally impose time
sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives constraints.
Intuition
• A non-conscious process created from distilled Performance Evaluation
experience that results in quick decisions o Managerial evaluation criteria influence actions
– Relies on holistic associations Reward Systems
– Affectively charged – engaging the emotions o Managers will make the decision with the
greatest personal payoff for them
Common Biases and errors in Decision Making Formal Regulations
o Limit the alternative choices of decision makers
• Overconfidence bias
System-Imposed Time Constraints
• Anchoring bias
o Restrict ability to gather or evaluate information
• Confirmation bias
Historical Precedents
• Availability bias
o Past decisions influence current decisions
• Escalation of commitment
• Risk-aversion
Global Implications
• Hindsight bias
• Randomness error Attributions
• Risk aversion • There are cultural differences in the ways people
attribute cause to observed behavior
Reducing Biases and Errors Decision Making
• No research on the topic: assumption of “no
• Focus on goals
difference”
• Look for information that disconfirms your
• Based on our awareness of cultural differences in
beliefs
traits that affect decision making, this assumption is
• Don’t try to create meaning out of random events
suspect
• Increase your options
Ethics
• No global ethical standards exist
Individual Differences in Decision Making
• Asian countries tend not to see ethical issues in
Personality “black and white” but as shades of gray
• Conscientiousness may affect escalation of • Global companies need global standards for
commitment managers
– Achievement strivers are likely to increase
commitment Summary and Managerial Implications
– Dutiful people are less likely to have this
Perception
bias
• People act based on how they view their world
• Self-Esteem
• What exists is not as important as what is believed
– High self-esteem people are susceptible to
• Managers must also manage perception
self-serving bias
Individual Decision Making
Gender
• Most use bounded rationality: they satisfice
• Women analyze decisions more than
• Combine traditional methods with intuition and
men – rumination
creativity for better decisions
• Differences develop early
– Analyze the situation and adjust to culture
• Mental Ability
and organizational reward criteria
– Be aware of, and minimize, biases

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Motivation
- Representative Participation
Job Characteristic Model
Job design suggests that the way elements in a job are Motivation – Action – Rewards
organized can influence employee effort.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations

• Intrinsic motivation is something we do simply for
the pleasure of doing it (for its own sake)
• Intrinsic motivation refers to any motivation that is
intrinsic to that activity
• Need not mean that what is intrinsic motivation to
me must be the same for you.
• However, these things will be common
Alternate Work Arrangements
Intrinsic Motivation – Characteristics
Flextime
Autonomy
• Flextime allows employees to choose the hours they • people have full control over when and to what level
work within a defined period of time. they want to carry out the activity
Job Sharing Mastery
• competence or progress people can get better at the
• Job sharing allows two or more individuals to split a
activity
traditional 40-hour-a-week job.
Relatedness
Telecommuting • people can relate to others who are also doing the
• Telecommuting allows workers to work from home activity
at least 2 days a week on a computer linked to the Purpose
employer’s office. • people recognize the importance meaning of the
activity
Social and Physical Context of Work
Extrinsic Motivation
Social Context
• Some social characteristics that improve job An extrinsic reward is an award that is tangible or
performance include: physical given for accomplishing something. It is a tangible
recognition of one’s endeavour.
o Interdependence
o Social support • Extrinsic motivations are all other reasons that drive
o Interactions with other people outside of work us to do something.
Physical Context • That is reasons other than the love of doing it.
• The work context will also affect employee • Extrinsic motivation refers to any motivation that
satisfaction is extrinsic to the behavior or activity.
o Work that is hot, loud, and dangerous is less • Examples - pay, rewards, status, influence, praise,
satisfying peer pressure, mitigate risk, avoid punishment, etc.
o Work that is controlled, relatively quiet, and safe • There is nothing wrong in doing something prompted
will be more satisfying by extrinsic motivation.

Employment Involvement Intrinsic Rewards

Employment involvement in a participative process that An intrinsic reward is an intangible award of recognition,
uses employees’ input to increase their commitment to a sense of achievement, or a conscious satisfaction.
organization’s success. Example:
Examples: • Completing tasks that are meaningful
- Participative Management • Letting employees be selective

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• Gaining a sense of competence • Pay a lump sum at the end of a designated period of
• Making noticeable progress time based on individual and/or organizational
• Feeling inspired to be more responsible performance.
• Being an important part of an organization or
team Flexible Benefits
• Feeling accomplished
• Mastery of knowledge or a skill Flexible benefits give individual rewards by allowing each
• Feeling pride employee to choose the compensation package that best
satisfies his or her current needs and situations.
Using Rewards to Motivate Employees
Employee Recognition Programs
• Although pay is not the primary factor driving job
satisfaction, it is a motivator. Employee rewards needs to be intrinsic and extrinsic.
– Establish a pay structure Employee recognition programs are a good method of
– Variable-pay programs intrinsic rewards.
- The rewards can range from a simple thank-you
Establish a pay structure to more widely publicized formal programs.
- Advantages of recognition programs are that
they are inexpensive and effective.
Internal External - Some critics say they can be politically motivated
Pay Equity Pay Equity and if they are perceived to be applied unfairly,
they can cause more harm than good.

Global Implications
Variable-Pay Programs
Job Characteristics and Job Enrichment
– Piece-Rate Pay • Studies do not yield consistent results about
– Merit-Based Pay applicability to other cultures
– Bonuses Telecommuting
– Skill-Based Pay • Increasingly common. Altered completely in 2020.
– Profit-Sharing Plans Variable Pay
– Gainsharing • Most believe variable pay systems work best in
– Employee Stock Ownership Plans individualistic cultures such as the United States.
• Fairness is an important factor
Types of Variable-Pay Programs Flexible Benefits
• Popular in all cultures
Piece-Rate Pay Employee Involvement
• Pays a fixed sum of money for each unit of production • Differ among countries
completed. For example: Workers selling peanuts
and soda get Rs.10 for each bag of peanuts sold. Summary and Managerial Implications
Merit-Based Pay • Recognize individual differences
• Pays for individual performance based on • Use goals and feedback
performance appraisal results. If appraisals are • Allow employees to participate in decisions that
designed correctly, workers performing at a high affect them
level will get more pay. • Link rewards to performance
Bonuses • Check the system for equity

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Module 4 – Organization and Groups

Foundations of Group Behavior

3. The process is not always linear
Defining and Classifying Groups 4. Several stages may occur simultaneously
Group - Two or more individuals interacting and 5. Groups may regress
interdependent, who have come together to achieve More importantly, it ignores the organizational context
particular objectives.
An Alternative Model for Group Formation
Formal Group
Defined by the organization’s structure with designated
work assignments establishing tasks
Command Group
- A group composed of the individuals who report
directly to a given manager
Task Group
- Those working together to complete a job or task
in an organization but not limited by hierarchical
boundaries.
Informal Group
- Alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined
- Appear naturally in response to the need for Temporary groups with deadlines don’t follow the five-
social contact stage model
- Deeply affect behavior and performance • Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
– Temporary groups under deadlines go
Interest Group
through transitions between inertia and
- Members work together to attain in a specific activity—at the halfway point, they
objective with which each is concerned experience an increase in productivity.
Friendship Group – Sequence of Actions
1. Setting group direction
- Those brought together because they share one
2. First phase of inertia
or more common characteristics.
3. Half-way point transition
Five Stages of Group Development Model 4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity

Group Properties

Norms
Roles Status

Group
Performance

Cohesiveness Size
But this framework assumes that the group becomes
more effective as it progresses through the first four • There are several properties of groups that help
stages shape group behavior and explain and predict
1. Not always true – group behavior is more complex individual behavior. They are roles, norms, status,
2. High levels of conflict may be conducive to high size, and cohesiveness.
performance

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Group Property - Roles – Diffusion of responsibility

– “exploitative” intent
• A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to • Ways to prevent social loafing
someone occupying a given position in a social unit. – Set group goals
• Our view of we’re supposed to act in a given situation – Increase intergroup competition
is role perception. – Peer evaluation
• Role expectations are the way others believe we – Select members with high motivation and
should act. those who prefer working in groups
• Role conflict – situation in which we are confronted – Base group rewards in part on individual
by two divergent role expectations contribution
Group Property - Norms Group Property - Cohesiveness
• Norms • Degree to which group members are attracted to
o Acceptable standards of behavior shared by each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
members • Relationship between cohesiveness and productivity
• Norms and conformity depends on group’s performance-related norms.
o Desire to be part of a group
o Groups place pressure on members to
change their attitudes and behaviour to
match the group’s standard.
• Norms and behaviour
o Role performance controlled by group norm.
• Positive norms and group outcomes
o Only if there are other factors
• Negative norms and group outcomes
o Deviant workplace behavior
• Norms and culture
o Collectivist versus individualistic cultures

Group Property - Status Encourage Group Cohesiveness by –

• A socially defined position or rank given to groups or • Make the group smaller
group members by others. • Encourage agreement with group goals
• Sources of status (status characteristics theory) • Increase the time members spend together
– Power • Increase the group’s status / perceived difficulty of
– Ability attaining membership
– Personal characteristics • Stimulate competition with other groups
• High-status and Norms • Give rewards to group rather than individual
– High status individuals more likely to deviate • Physically isolate the group
from norms
• Status and group interaction Group Property - Diversity
– More the desire to attain higher status in a • Diversity appears to increase group conflict esp. in
group, more assertive, more critical, early stages of a group’s tenure.
interrupt others • Effective team-oriented HR practices seem to offset
– Lower status individuals lesser participation, • Similar need for achievement – increase task
danger of being not represented. performance
• Status inequity • Need for power dynamics
– Important to believe the status hierarchy is • Faultline’s
equitable • Perceived divisions that split groups into two
– Groups generally agree on status criteria or more subgroups based on individual
– Form informal status order differences (race, gender, age, work
• Status and stigmatization experience and education)
– Stigma by association • Subgroups take time away from core tasks
• Group status • Results driven culture focuses on what’s important
– “us and them” for company than problems of subgroups
– Group polarization • Faultline’s split along task-relevant characteristics
may boost performance.
Group Property - Size and Dynamics • Diversity is a double-edged sword
• Size affects overall group behaviour/performance
– Diversity of inputs, fact-finding/idea
generating, productive output
• Social loafing

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Group Decision-Making vs. Individual Choice Group Decision-Making Techniques

Group Strengths: Made in interacting groups where members meet face-to-
• Generate more complete information and face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication.
knowledge Brainstorming
• Offer increased diversity of views and greater • An idea-generating process designed to overcome
creativity pressure for conformity
• Increased acceptance of decisions Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
• Generally, more accurate (but not as accurate as the • Works by restricting discussion during the decision-
most accurate group member) making process
Group Weaknesses: • Members are physically present but operate
• Time-consuming activity independently
• Conformity pressures in the group Electronic Meeting
• Discussions can be dominated by a few members • Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50
• A situation of ambiguous responsibility people

Group Think – Group Polarization Global Implications

• By-products of group decision making Status and Culture
• Groupthink • The importance of status varies with culture
– We find it more pleasant to be in agreement • Managers must understand who and what holds
– Groups more focussed on performance than status when interacting with people from another
learning more prone culture
– Occur when there is clear group identity, Social Loafing
hold a positive image • Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures
• Group polarization Group Diversity
– Members tend to take a more extreme view • Increased diversity leads to increased conflict
of the position they already held • May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale
• If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups
may perform better

Summary and Managerial Implications

Performance
• Typically, clear role perception, appropriate norms,
low status differences and smaller, more cohesive
groups lead to higher performance
Satisfaction
• Increases with:
– High congruence between boss and
employee’s perceptions about the job
– Not being forced to communicate with
lower-status employees
– Smaller group size

Understanding Work Teams

Why have Teams became so popular? Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams
• Great way to use employee talents
• Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes in
the environment
• Can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband
• Facilitate employee involvement
• Increase employee participation in decision making
• Democratize an organization and increase motivation

example of workgroups and work teams

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• A small business may have a client services group, – Good at backing up others, sensing when
but one person may focus on local clients, one person others need help
may focus on regional clients and a third person may • Openness
assist those individuals. – High levels tend to perform better,
• Before a small business creates a new product, it may constructive task conflict enhances the
organize a team composed of people from all effect; better communicators
departments – engineering, finance, legal, marketing, • Emotional Stability
etc. – to consider all aspects of the potential new – High levels deal better with task conflict and
product to avoid costly surprises down the road. leverage it for better performance
• Agreeableness
Types of Teams • Extraversion?
Problem-Solving Teams Turning Individuals into Team Players
- Groups of 5 to 12 employees from
the same department who met for a Selection
few hours each week to discuss • Make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the
ways of improving quality, hiring process.
efficiency, and the work Training
environment. • Individualistic people can learn
Rewards
Self-Managed Work Teams • Rework the reward system to encourage cooperative
- Groups of 10 to 15 people who take efforts rather than competitive (individual) ones
on the responsibilities of their • Continue to recognize individual contributions while
former supervisor still emphasizing the importance of teamwork
Virtual Teams
Beware! Teams aren’t always the answer
- Teams that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a Teams take more time and resources than does individual
common goal work.
- To be effective, virtual teams need Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:
- trust among members, 1. Is the work complex and is there a need for
- Close monitoring different perspectives – will it be better with the
- To be publicized insights of more than one person?
2. Does the work create a common purpose or set of
Cross-Functional Teams
goals for the group that is larger than the
- Employees from about the same hierarchical aggregate of the goals for individuals?
level, but from direct work areas, who come 3. Are members of the group involved in
together to interdependent tasks?
accomplish a task.
- Very Common Global Implications
- Task forces
- Committees Extent of Teamwork
• Although work teams are pervasive in India, some
A Team-Effectiveness Model evidence suggests that most Indians are individual
players rather than team players
Self-Managed Teams
• Do not work well in countries with low tolerance for
ambiguity and uncertainty and a high-power distance
Team Cultural Diversity and Team Performance
• Diversity caused by national differences interferes
with team efficiency, at least in the short run
• After about three months, the differences between
diverse and non-diverse team performance disappear

Summary and Managerial Implications

Effective teams have common characteristics:
– Adequate resources
– Effective leadership
– A climate of trust
Personality and Team Effectiveness – Appropriate reward and evaluation systems
– Composed of members with correct skills and roles
• Conscientiousness
– Are smaller

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– Do work that provides freedom, autonomy, and the Managers should modify the environment and select
chance to contribute team-oriented individuals to increase the chance of
– The tasks are whole and significant developing effective teams.
– Has members who believe in the team’s capabilities

Communications

Functions of Communications Nonverbal Communication

Communication Body Movement
– The transference and understanding of meaning – Unconscious motions that provide meaning
Communication Functions – Shows extent of interest in another and relative
– Control member behavior perceived status differences
– Foster motivation for what is to be done Intonations and Voice Emphasis
– Provide a release for emotional expression – The way something is said can change meaning
– Provide information needed to make decisions Facial Expressions
– Show emotion
The Communication Process Physical Distance between Sender and Receiver
– Depends on cultural norms
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in – Can express interest or status
the transference and understanding of meaning
Choice of Communication Channel
The model of “media richness” helps explain an
individual’s choice of communication channel
– Channels vary in their capacity to convey information
A “rich” channel is one that can:
– Handle multiple cues simultaneously
– Facilitate rapid feedback
– Be very personal
Communication Channels
Choice depends on whether the message is routine. High-
Channel – The medium selected by the sender through performing managers tend to be very media-sensitive
which the message travels to the receiver
Types of Channels Barriers to Effective Communication
Formal Channels Filtering
- Are established by the organization and transmit • A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will
messages that are related to the professional be seen more favorably by the receiver
activities of members. Selective Perception
• People selectively interpret what they see on the
Informal Channels basis of their interests, background, experience, and
- Used to transmit personal or social messages in attitudes
the organization. These informal channels are Information Overload
spontaneous and emerge as a response to • A condition in which information inflow exceeds an
individual choices. individual’s processing capacity
Emotions
Directions of Communications • How a receiver feels at the time a message is received
will influence how the message is interpreted
Language
• Words have different meanings to different people
Silence
• An absence of information due to employees’
apprehension of being belittled or ignored on voicing
divergent opinions or concerns
Communication Apprehension
• Undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication, written communication, or both
Gender Differences
• Men tend to talk to emphasize status while women
talk to create connections

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Global Implications A Cultural Guide

Cross-cultural factors increase communication difficulties To reduce your chance of making a faux pas in another
Cultural Barriers: culture, err on the side of caution by:
• Semantics: some words aren’t translatable • Assuming differences until similarity is proven
• Word Connotations: some words imply multiple • Emphasizing description rather than interpretation
meanings beyond their definitions or evaluation
• Tone Differences: the acceptable level of formality of • Practicing empathy in communication
language • Treating your interpretations as a working
• Perception Differences: language affects worldview hypothesis
Cultural Context:
• The importance of social context to meaning Summary and Managerial Implications
• Low-context cultures (like the U.S.) rely on words
for meaning • The less employees are uncertain, the greater their
• High-context cultures (like India) gain meaning from satisfaction; good communication reduces
the whole situation uncertainty!
• Communication is improved by:
– Choosing the correct channel
– Being a good listener
– Using feedback
• Potential for misunderstanding in electronic
communication is higher than for traditional modes
• There are many barriers to international
communication that must be overcome

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