I C Be Is S 2019 Conference Proceeding 1

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Proceeding: International Conference on
Business, Education, Innovation & Social
Sciences
ICBEISS 2019
Seri Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

29 June 2019
Asian Scholar Network (002903215-H)

eISBN: 978-967-16859-3-8
Proceeding: International Conference on Business, Education, Innovation & Social Sciences
(ICBEISS 2019)
(eISBN: 978-967-16859-3-8)
International Conference on Business, Education, Innovation & Social

Sciences
(ICBEISS 2019)
Copyright © 2019
Asian Scholars Network
All rights reserved. No part of this proceeding may be reproduced in any form, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in review, without permission in writing from the author/
publisher.
eISBN: 978-967-16859-3-8
Published By:
Asian Scholars Network (002903215-H)
Selangor, Malaysia
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. A CONCEPT PAPER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE

COURSE (MOOC) IN TRADITIONALLY TAUGHT COURSE OF EMERGENCY
NURSING AMONG NURSING STUDENTS ................................................................ 6
2. A STUDY ON PROTEAN AND BOUNDARYLESS CAREER ASPECTS AND
THEIR IMPACT ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL BEING OF INDIAN
MILLENNIALS .............................................................................................................. 20
3. ADDRESSING THE SKILLED WORKFORCE SHORTAGE: THE KEY TO
INCLUSIVE GROWTH AND TRANSFORMATION ................................................. 25
4. AN IMPACT OF CULTURAL CHANGE ON EMPLOYEES ENGAGEMENT AND
ORGANIZATION PERFORMANCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW ............................ 30
5. APPLICATION OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS IN REVIEWING THE EFFECT OF
STORE ATMOSPHERE ON THE PURCHASE DECISION PROCESS ..................... 36
6. CHANGING THE LEARNING WHEEL: GEN Z LEARNING STYLE ................... 46
7. COHERENCE AMONG THE SENSEMAKER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
BLACK RICE FARMING ............................................................................................. 57
8. CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK FROM COGNITIVE THEORIES PERSPECTIVE
(INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS, OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, & NOTICING
HYPOTHESIS) ............................................................................................................... 64
9. DESIGNING A SCIENCE CURRICULUM MODEL BASED ON STEM WITH AN
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE FOR 9TH GRADE TALENTED STUDENTS. ................. 70
10. DIVIDEND CHANGE, SEASONED EQUITY OFFERINGS, STOCK RETURNS
AND PROFITABILITY ................................................................................................. 76
11. EQUALIZATION VALUE ADDED TAX WITH THE INCOME STATEMENT
CASE STUDY AT PT. VNP IN 2017 ............................................................................ 83
12. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO WRITING IN AN ESL
CLASSROOM: A CASE STUDY IN A MALAYSIAN SUB-RURAL SCHOOL ....... 92
13. EXPLORING MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING OF HARMFUL ALGAL
BLOOM EVENTS IN MALAYSIA: GOVERNMENT SECTOR .............................. 101
14. FINTECH AND BANKING INDUSTRY ................................................................... 109
15. HAPPINESS AT WORKPLACE: JOB SATISFACTION AND
ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT ................................................................................ 117
16. INFLUENCE OF MARITIME SECURITY ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE
ACTIVITIES AMONG SEA COUNTRIES .............................................................. 127
17. INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT STANDARD REQUIREMENT ON
INTERNATIONAL TRADE PERFORMANCE ......................................................... 133
18. INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS THE ADOPTION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK........... 138
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19. ISLAMIC EDUCATION NOVICE TEACHERS’ JOURNEY IN TRANSLATING

STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING INTO CLASSROOM PRACTICE ................... 145
20. LAND E-MUTATION SYSTEM IN BANGLADESH: AN EXPLORATORY
STUDY OF A2I (ACCESS TO INFORMATION) PROGRAM ................................. 154
21. LIVED EXPERIENCES OF GAY MALE TEACHERS ............................................. 163
22. LIVED-EXPERIENCES OF MALES WITH OFW SPOUSES IN SELECTED
BARANGAYS IN INFANTA, QUEZON, PHILIPPINES .......................................... 169
23. MAPPING PRIVITY OF E-COMMERCE CONSUMER CONTRACTS FOR SALE
OF GOODS ................................................................................................................... 179
24. ORGANIZATION CULTURE AS THE SOURCE OF COMPETITIVE
ADVANTAGE ............................................................................................................. 191
25. PRELIMINARY STUDY ON TRADE CREDIT AND LATE PAYMENT TREND -
MALAYSIA CASE STUDY ........................................................................................ 204
26. RECRUITMENT TRENDS IN THE ERA OF INDUSTRY 4.0 USING ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE: PRO AND CONS ........................................................................... 210
27. SELFIE TOURISM CONCEPT AS A TOOL TO IMPROVE CITY BRANDING .... 216
28. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF FOREIGN
MIGRANT WORKER IN MALDIVES: A CASE STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY IN MALE’ ............................................................................................... 227
29. SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR VAT FACILITIES RELEASED TO PT RAI ........... 243
30. THE COMMUNITY’S INSIGHT OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT AND
PRODUCT QUALITY ON PURCHASE DECISION BEHAVIOUR ........................ 253
31. THE EFFECT OF AD FEES AND PERSONAL SELLING COSTS ON SALES
VALUE ......................................................................................................................... 266
32. THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON BUY DECISIONS RABBANI MUSLIM
FASHION IN BANDUNG, WEST JAVA, INDONESIA ........................................... 273
33. THE EFFECT OF WORKING CAPITAL TURNOVER TO NET PROFIT MARGIN
AT PT XYZ .................................................................................................................. 283
34. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INVERTED CLASSROOM LEARNING MODEL
FOR PRE-UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY STUDENTS: THE PRELIMINARY
STUDY ......................................................................................................................... 289
35. THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA AND ONLINE BOOKING ON
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR, ETHICAL WORK CLIMATE AND
EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT IN A TRAVEL AGENCY ......................................... 297
36. THE INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF INVESTMENT DECISION MAKING IN
MALAYSIAN PUBLIC LISTED COMPANIES ........................................................ 305
37. THE MODERATION VISITING AND DISTANT RESIDENCE OF LOCAL
COMMUNITY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY AND GREEN MARKETING IN BIOMASS POWER PLANT,
NORTH OF THAILAND ............................................................................................. 319
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38. THE PRACTICES OF DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY OF ADAT-BASED

LOCAL GOVERNANCE OF ACEH AND THE STATE AGENCY OF
MAHKAMAH KONSTITUSI IN INDONESIA.......................................................... 345
39. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OWNER-MANAGER CHARACTERISTICS
AND INNOVATION ORIENTATION OF SMES ...................................................... 352
40. THE TRAINING METHODS THAT ENHANCE PROJECT PERFORMANCE ...... 362
41. AGD SYSTEM – INOVASI PENGESAN KEBOCORAN GAS MELALUI SENSOR
MQ-2 ............................................................................................................................. 373
42. CABARAN DAN LIMITASI PENDIDIKAN UNTUK KANAK-KANAK TANPA
WARGANEGARA DI PULAU MABUL, SEMPORNA, SABAH ............................ 382
43. ISU-ISU SEMASA DALAM PENTADBIRAN TANAH DI MALAYSIA DAN
PENYELESAIANNYA ................................................................................................ 392
44. KEBERKESANAN PENGGUNAAN BUKU KECIL FRASA MENARIK DAN
PENILAIAN FORMATIF DALAM PENULISAN KARANGAN ............................. 400
45. PENCAPAIAN AKADEMIK MURID TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN VLE FROG. 409
46. PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN IMBUHAN MELALUI PENDEKATAN
PEMBELAJARAN AKTIF .......................................................................................... 421
47. PENGGUNAAN RUTIN BERFIKIR DALAM PENULISAN KARANGAN YANG
BERKUALITI............................................................................................................... 433
48. PENGGUNAAN TEKNIK DRAMA DALAM PENULISAN KARANGAN
BERGAMBAR ............................................................................................................. 439
49. PERANAN GURU BESAR DALAM PENGURUSAN KOKURIKULUM
DARIPADA PERSPEKTIF GURU PENASIHAT KOKURIKULUM SEKOLAH
RENDAH DI ZON CHERAS, DAERAH HULU LANGAT, SELANGOR. .............. 448
50. TAHAP STRES DALAM KALANGAN GURU PRASEKOLAH DI DAERAH
KUALA SELANGOR .................................................................................................. 456
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A CONCEPT PAPER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE

OPEN ONLINE COURSE (MOOC) IN TRADITIONALLY
TAUGHT COURSE OF EMERGENCY NURSING AMONG
NURSING STUDENTS
KhinThandar Aung1
1
Phd Candidate, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Education plays an important role in the development of a country and is only the bridge to
create the better future of citizens. As technology is a very powerful tool in education, it
provides new and innovative forms of support to teachers, students and the learning process
more broadly. As web-based education and technology integration continue to increase,
innovative approach to deliver online learning will also occur. One of the approach is
Massive open online course (MOOC) and it is a technological based learning tool that is
recently emerged in the higher educational landscape to provide additional learning
opportunities for learners, teachers and educational institutions. The use of MOOCs in
nursing education is currently under evaluated area of pedagogy, with only an emerging
evidence base to support the wider integration into relevant undergraduate curricula.
Although MOOCs have been available for almost a decade, and courses continually
becoming available on commercial platforms, there remains a paucity of empirical evidence
to support their utilization. Specifically, in nursing education, numerous roles for MOOCs
have been proposed for both on- and off-campus learning, however, a clear rationale for their
effective utilization is still nascent.
This study aims to develop MOOC course and investigate the effectiveness of this integrated
MOOC course of emergency nursing subject among nursing students. In addition, this study
goes to identify the experiences of students and lecturers in this MOOC course. The course
will be developed by applying the phases of Developmental Design Research (DDR) such as
phase 1- need analysis, phase 2- design and development, phase 3- implementation and
evaluation. This study will contribute the critical thinking skills and innovative ideas among
nursing students thus enhancing the students' learning abilities and equips the nursing
students with innovation concepts and creative skills for an ever changing technologically-
driven health care environment.
Keywords: Massive open online course, traditionally taught course, Nursing students,
Design and developmental research method
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Education is the foundation of society and gives us knowledge and changes it into something
better. It plays an important role in the development of a country and is only the bridge to
create the better future of citizens. If a country does not have proper education, it may leave
behind by other countries which have good education system. Therefore, it should be
considered which factors are affecting on the education system. Culture, technology and
economic of country give much impact to education system. As technology is a very
powerful tool for education, it provides new and innovative forms of support to teachers,
students and the learning process more broadly. As web-based education and technology
integration continue to increase, innovative approach to deliver online learning will also
occur. One of the approach is Massive open online course (MOOC) which is a technological
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based learning tool that is recently emerged in the higher educational landscape to provide
additional learning opportunities for learners, teachers and educational institutions.
Background of the study

E- Learning is one of the effective teaching approaches and it can help teachers by
diversifying teaching methods to facilitate students to understand in their teaching and to
achieve outstanding students’ achievement (Cheok, et.al, 2017).Glance over the past,
educators have always been interested to help in transforming education and improve
students' learning in line with advanced technology (Cheok, et.al, 2017). Moreover, educators
expected that the progress of teaching techniques could provide a method to know more about
how students perceive and distribute information (Cheok, et.al, 2017). In order to be in line
with the technology changes, it is a must for higher learning institutions to continuously
figure out latest and innovative solutions to improve the current teaching and learning process
(Andone, et.al, (2015). One of the solutions is by adapting teaching and learning process with
online learning (Safana, & Nat, 2017). MOOC is one of the most rapidly growing online
educational based learning. It is a new form of online education delivery that aims to promote
active learning and develop educational communities incorporating with thousands of
students (Parkinson, 2014).
The emergence of MOOC technology provides new opportunities to support the learning
process. MOOC offers an innovative approach in healthcare education and are expected to
challenge traditional pedagogy and foundational knowledge acquisition practices. However,
their application in healthcare education is still in early stages of investigation. As universities
strive to develop innovative strategies to maintain teaching and research excellence in health
care education and practice in an increasingly competitive environment, developed MOOCs
and participating collaboratively that may prove valuable in facilitating students’
understanding the importance of patient perspectives to drive patient-centred quality care.
Moreover, on seeing complex medical field, innovative technologies are also an important
aspect of health care system and increase the quality of health care education process.
Recently, technology is rapidly entering in health care education including nursing education
which is more focus on competence based education to prepare qualified nurses for health
care institutions (Safana, & Nat, 2017).
Coinciding with the Malaysia Educational Blue Print 2013-2025 through the ninth surge of
Global Online Learning, the development of Massive open online course (MOOC) was also
built in Malaysia(Ismail, et.al, 2018). Moreover, today's traditional higher education prepares
the students to learn independently and digitally throughout their lives. Therefore, there is
needed to plan for integrating MOOC courses into traditional education as an open education
approach. Many studies have confirmed that blended learning with MOOC environment has a
positive impact on teaching and learning (Bralic&Divijak, 2018).
Students who enroll in MOOCs have an opportunity to become independent learners as the
nature of pedagogy of MOOC provides learners with a positive impact considering the self-
driving mastery of the course (Milligan & Littlejohn, 2017).Moreover, MOOC provides
various platforms for collaboration among the learners enabling the sharing experiences and
development of ideas within MOOC course is highly applicable in health care professionals
to develop and discover new knowledge.
There are no studies to date have been implemented that the integration of MOOC with
blended learning especially in nursing courses (Shang & Liu, 2018).Nursing is a global
profession and nursing education is a soft-applied discipline. The knowledge learned in this
discipline is applied for the health of human being. Emergency nursing is a specialized area
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of professional nursing which focusing on the care of patients with medical emergencies and
other emergencies, that is, those who require prompt medical attention to avoid long-term
disability or death. Therefore, it requires critical thinking, problem solving and collaborative
skills for nursing students when they are learning emergency nursing (V. Swigart, Z. Liang,
2016).
Therefore, in this study, MOOC will be used as an innovative technology teaching tool and
integrate into Emergency, Theatre and Intensive care nursing course that has been taught by
traditional teaching methods such as face to face lecture method and group discussion.
Statement of the problem

Together with technological improvements, innovation for teaching aids are an important
requirement to make sure the teaching and learning process to run smoothly. However, in
recent education system, there is a problem of not being at the desired level that could be a
modern problem of existing societies. Teaching with technology makes a big challenge in
higher education (Daradoumis, et.al, 2013).
Technology is also important in nursing education. There has been a significant increase in
the use of technology in nursing education. (Merrill, 2015).Technological advancement is
likely to provide even more opportunities for non-traditional delivery of education. MOOCs
may alter the delivery of nurse education. This emerging method could increase the scope of
educational opportunities available to practicing nurses in the future, leading to greater choice
and educational autonomy (Milligan & Littlejohn, 2017).
There are some successful stories of using MOOCs with traditional courses embracing
blended learning concept. When integrating MOOCs into blended learning, the students are
exposed to the high-quality material from expert tutors all over the world, educational
technologies and the opportunity to participate in a collaborative global environment
(Kiviniemi, 2014). However, studies done by others have shown that new skills and tasks are
required for teachers facilitating blended courses integrating MOOCs (Andone, et.al, 2015).
In contradictory, the findings of Bab-son survey mentioned that e-Learning is not better than
traditional learning in terms of quality and outcomes and still argued that learning by doing is
better (Redona, 2013). MOOC content will not replace traditional education but will instead
create supporting content that strengthens the complete education experience (Belfus, 2015).
In health care education, MOOCs may have a bright future in healthcare, however, they are
unlikely to replace all traditional medical and clinical education(Shang & Liu, 2018).Medical
and clinical education demands patient engagement and small-group involvement. Medical
training schools, institute and content companies must explore how to plan, implement,
manage and evaluate MOOC courses in health care education. The use of MOOCs in nursing
education is currently under evaluated area of pedagogy, with only an emerging evidence
base to support the wider integration into relevant undergraduate curricula. Although MOOCs
have been available for almost a decade, and courses continually becoming available on
commercial platforms, there remains a paucity of empirical evidence to support their
utilization. Specifically, with-in nursing education, numerous roles for MOOCs have been
proposed for both on- and off-campus learning, however, a clear rationale for their effective
deployment is still nascent. (Liyanagunawardena& Williams, 2014).
Furthermore, it is not realistic to expect all nurse educators to seek out and adopt new
technologies and teaching innovations. Every nursing faculty needs a few creative nurse
educators who take the leader and are early adopters of MOOC course as they can serve as
role models for the rest of the faculty in the technology driven educational environment
(Merrill, 2015).
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Recently, Ministry of Higher education, Malaysia has urged higher education institutions to
be more proactive in adopting new technology for teaching and learning. Ministry of Higher
education (MOHE) aimed for 30% of courses at public higher education institutions to be
offered online by 2015 and encouraged them to be actively involved in MOOCs, which is in
line with the blueprint of life-long learning for Malaysia 2011-2020(Ministry of Education
Malaysia, 2015).As a result, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) joint with
other public and private institutions offer MOOCs on Open learning.com. Therefore, IIUM
students should have the awareness of MOOCs and participation of MOOCs is also critical.
In Malaysia, students can access MOOC course at Openlearning.com. IIUM is one of the
public institutions that offer several MOOCs on this platform. Yet, Students are not aware
about it because there is no much attention given on MOOC from the university and
government to the students in Malaysia ((Nurul Amira HusnaAmrang, 2016, Mat.jizat, et.al,
2014).Similarity, there are very few literature on MOOC awareness and integrated MOOC in
traditionally taught course among students especially nursing students in Malaysia is still
lacking.
Up to now, there is still limited MOOC integration in traditionally taught course in Malaysia
higher education, including nursing education. The nature of nursing education is strongly
reliance on face-to-face teaching and the essential aspects of hands-on learning in laboratories
and clinical settings. Emergency nursing subject also has the same nature and practical based
subject. Therefore, in this study, using the blended approach, students will gain theoretical
knowledge during MOOC course and practical and discussion via face to face teaching with
lecturers.
Moreover, there is addressing critical gaps in emergency nursing education requires an

innovative approach, as there are limited numbers of qualified nurse educators with
emergency nursing specialty experience. Therefore, if MOOC course of emergency nursing
integrates into traditional teaching, there will have some benefits for learners and institution
because massive open online courses (MOOCs) are technological innovations have been
successfully applied in a wide variety of disciplines to deliver quality online education
(Robinson, 2018).
In this study, the MOOC course of emergency nursing that will integrated into the traditional
taught course of emergency, theatre and intensive care nursing subject via design and
developmental research (DDR) approach. This is a pragmatic type of research that offer a
way to establish new tools, procedures and techniques based upon a methodical analysis of
specific cases. The design and development of instructional product and program is
considered as the heart of the instructional design and technology field (Richey &Klevin,
2007). Therefore, this MOOC course of emergency nursing can be used as instructional
intervention in a wide range of nursing education and training environment.
Aim of the study

The purpose of this study is to develop MOOC course and investigate the effectiveness of this
integrated MOOC course of emergency nursing in traditional taught course of emergency,
theatre and intensive care nursing among undergraduate nursing students.
Objectives of the study

Based on problem statement, the researcher wish to create MOOC course of emergency
nursing using design and developmental research (DDR) approach. This study will conduct
by three phases based on DDR principle. The following are the objectives of each phase of
this study.
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Phase 1: (Need Analysis Phase)

1. To identify the current teaching methods in emergency nursing.
2. To describe the current practice of on line learning in nursing education.
3. To examine the awareness of MOOC course among nursing students.
4. To assess the learners’ and lecturers’ opinions regarding the needs of developing MOOC
course of emergency nursing in undergraduate nursing education program.
Phase 2: (Design & Development Phase)

1. To investigate the relevant and required contents to design the MOOC course of
emergency nursing for nursing students based on experts who have been experienced in
teaching emergency nursing subject.
2. To develop the MOOC course of emergency nursing based on experts’ consensus.
Phase 3: (Implementation & Evaluation Phase)

1. To deliver the MOOC course of emergency nursing among nursing students.
2. To evaluate the effectiveness of MOOC course of emergency nursing among nursing
student.
3. To identify the experiences of learners and lecturers in MOOC course of emergency
nursing.
Research Questions
Based on research problem and objectives, the followings are the research questions of phases
of design and development research approach of this study.
Phase 1: (Need analysis phase)
1. What are the current teaching methods in emergency nursing?
2. What is the current practice of online learning in nursing education?
3. How is the awareness of MOOC course among nursing students?
4. What are the learners’ and lecturers’ opinions regarding the needs of developing MOOC
course of emergency nursing in undergraduate nursing education program?
Phase 2: (Design & Development phase)

1. What are the experts’ opinions regarding the required contents of MOOC course of
emergency nursing in terms of course objectives and learning outcomes, topics of MOOC
videos and MOOC platform?
2. What are design characteristics of MOOC course of emergency nursing based on experts’
opinions and consensus?
Phase 3: (Implementation & Evaluation phase)

1. Is the MOOC course effective in learners’ knowledge and skills of emergency nursing?
2. What are the experiences of learners and lecturers in MOOC course of emergency
nursing?
Literature review
Technology and Higher education
Nowadays, technology has played a tremendous role in shaping the current state of higher
education. In higher education, new education 4.0 identifies the creative and innovative
people (Puncreobutr, 2016). It is also a challenge for educators and learners to be prepared
who are ready with these life skills of creative and innovative. Education 4.0 is providing to
the need of the society in the innovative era. It is in accordance to the changing behavior with
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the special characteristics of parallelism, connectivism, and visualization (Goldie, 2016). This
learning management must help to develop the learner’s ability to apply the new technology,
which will help the learners to adapt the changes in society. Sinlarat (2016) identified that the
learning management of this era is a new learning system, allowing the learner to grow with
knowledge and skills for the whole life, not just to know how to read and write. Therefore,
Education 4.0 will be more than just an education (Sinlarat, 2016).
In addition, the focus of education has shifted from a teacher-centred model to a learner-
centred one, offering stronger learning motivation and interactivity. Interactivity maintains
learners’ interest and provides a means for personalized learning and reinforcement.
Evidences proposed that e-learning is more efficient in most cases because learners gain
knowledge, skills, and attitudes faster than through traditional instructor-based methods
(Jethro, et.al 2012). As e-learning has become an important part of education system and the
students' life have been tied by advanced technology, the students can choose the course,
college to study via online, complete and submit their works by online and they can learn
everything as they wish for their career development and lifelong learning via MOOC
courses. Technology has not only impacted the students but also educators and industry of
higher education as a whole because traditional passive learning model is broken and teacher
becomes the encourager, adviser, and coach (Hussin, 2018).
E- Learning and nursing education

The use of innovative methods in health care institutions has the potential not only to improve
education, but also to empower people, strengthen governance and galvanize the effort to
achieve the human development goal for the country (Jayalaxmi, 2016).Innovations depends
on the teacher that how they utilizes the instructional strategies while delivering lectures or
teaching in clinical. Nursing is a field which requiring clinical knowledge and skills to care
for the patients and their family in real life situations (Kalaivani, 2014). Nursing graduates
must be prepared as competent healthcare professionals in a highly complex, diverse, and
ever-changing environment. The learning process in nursing is very unique because nursing
student should be able to perform the activities of the profession in live situations (Nabors,
2012). Critical thinking is crucial to providing safe, competent, and skillful nursing practice.
During any course of nursing, clinical experiences are considered as lifeblood of nursing
education. Nurse educators and faculties have a responsibility to provide most efficient
clinical instruction to aid best learning to nursing students during their course (Sharma,
2017). Nurse educators are obligated to create learning environments that support students’
critical thinking. Not only it is important what students learn, but also equally important that
how they learn (Nabors, 2012). For these reasons, traditional teaching methods should be
transformed to improve learning experiences and facilitate lifelong learning. Technological
advancement is likely to provide even more opportunities for non-traditional mode of
education. Zolfaghari, et.al, (2013) presented preliminary outcomes of blended learning
program in educating of nursing and midwifery students in Iran. The results showed that there
is a positive effect on students’ learning outcomes and participation. In addition, in Chong,
et.al (2015) study showed that Malaysian nurses agreed that e-learning was important to
increase their knowledge and technical skills as well as to improve their attitudes toward
nursing care, competency, and clinical performance.
MOOC in Malaysia
In Malaysia, MOOC has been developed with two different platforms since 2014 in five
higher education institutions, four of them are public universities and one (OUM) is private
institution. Taylor’s University is the first institution in Malaysia that launched the MOOCs in
2013(Fadzil&Latif, 2015).
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At the moment, there are a total of 36 MOOCs currently offered by the six above mentioned
higher education institutions in Malaysia. The public universities planned for furthering
MOOCs development in order to be outlined with the preliminary Malaysian Education
Blueprint for Higher Education. Therefore, Ministry of Education (MOE) announced that
online learning initiatives will receive budget allocations under the11th Malaysia Plan (2016-
2020). For private higher education institutions like Taylor’s University and OUM,
embarking on MOOCs projects are an institutional commitment that requires investments in
funding, manpower, infrastructure, content development, and other relevant areas
(Fadzil&Latif, 2015).
Most of the MOOCs offered by prestigious academic institutions in Malaysia are free.
Students can choose any courses that they are interested. A lot of courses are self-paced,
enabling the students to learn the courses anytime, anywhere convenient to them using
devices of their choice. Students can register in Malaysia MOOC by going to this website:
https://www.openlearning.com/malaysiamoocs (Hussin, 2018). Lessons are delivered via
video lectures, PDF or PowerPoint slides. Learners are assessed through various course
activities such as forums, discussions, quizzes and practices (Fadzil&Latif, 2015).
MOOC and Emergency nursing Education

As MOOC is a new revolution in classroom teaching based on information technology and
network resources, it offers opportunities for nursing education in conformation the learning
needs of students. In addition, MOOC provides ready to access the continuing professional
and inter-professional education and explore innovative teaching model for students’ learning
(Goldberg & Crocombe, 2017). However, it also has some limitations that cannot completely
replace traditional teaching methods. On the other hand, traditional teaching methods have
not fully mobilized the active participation of nursing students, and the theory and practice
are not closely combined (Zhang& Hu, 2017).Therefore, careful planning and
implementation of content and methods of nursing education are necessary to ensure that it is
suitable and fitting for changing healthcare needs (Thorne, 2007). Blended learning is a
combination of the advantages of both traditional learning and E-learning (Zhang & Hu,
2017).
Regarding emergency medical education, it has three principle groups in teaching such as
basic training at the foundation level for undergraduate students, advanced training for
specialists and continuing professional development (CPD) for career staff like emergency
doctors and nurses (Roe, Carley, &Sherratt, 2010).Emergency nursing subject in
undergraduate nursing program is basic training at the foundation level and that is based on
theory as well as practical skills. By blended approach in this subject, theory based topics like
prehospital care and disaster management can be taught via online MOOC approach and skill
based topics like immobilization, ventilation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation can be taught
by face to face teaching and demonstration. These undergraduate nursing students are
becoming emergency nurses in future. They should be well equipped with competency
knowledge and skills in this field in order to remain functional in evolving clinical practice
and to communicate efficiently and credibly with patients and their families who are in life
threatening and emergency situation (Katsusuke, et.al, 2017).
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Theoretical framework
MOOC
Self-Directed Learning
cMOOC xMOOC
(SDL)
Connectivism Cognitivism Behaviourism
Allow building
Spread learning in Learn own space with
connections among Peer to peer literacy
different area instructor’s guidance
leaners
1 2 3 4
Learner autonomy Self-regulated / Expert-driven learning Collaborative learning
Self-efficacy
Proposed research design, method and procedure

Research Design
The main inquires of this study are how is the awareness of MOOC course among nursing
students? ,what are the learners’ and lecturers’ opinions regarding the needs of developing
MOOC course of emergency nursing in undergraduate nursing education program? , what are
the design characteristics of MOOC course of emergency nursing based on experts’ opinions
and consensus?, how well this MOOC course of emergency nursing?, to what degree is
effective in students' learning due to this integrated MOOC?, is the MOOC course effective in
learners’ knowledge and skills of emergency nursing?, and what are the experiences of
learners and lecturers in MOOC course of emergency nursing?. In this study, MOOC course
of emergency nursing will be designed by analysing needs of learners and lecturers and then
will be implemented this MOOC course and evaluated the effectiveness of this course.
Therefore, this study will use type one category of design and development research.
Type one category of design and development research is research on Product and tool or
program typically involves situations in which the design and development process used in a
particular situation is described, analyzed and a final result is evaluated (Richey & Klein,
2014). Generally, this study will develop the MOOC course of emergency nursing that is
blended into the traditional taught course of Emergency, Trauma and Intensive care nursing
subject. Three phases of design and developmental research, namely; Phase 1-need analysis
Phase, Phase 2-Design and Development Phase and Phase 3- Implementation and Evaluation
Phase will be conducted.
The Phase 1 of this study is need analysis phase where the current practice of online learning
in nursing education and the awareness of MOOC course among nursing students will be
identified. Moreover, the learners’ and lecturers’ opinions regarding the needs of developing
MOOC course of emergency nursing in undergraduate nursing education program will be
assessed. Phase 2 is design and development phase where the relevant and required contents
in designing the MOOC course of emergency nursing based on experts who have been
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experienced in teaching emergency nursing subject will be investigated and then will develop
the MOOC course of emergency nursing based on experts’ consensus. Phase 3 is
implementation and evaluation phase in which the effectiveness of implementation of MOOC
course of emergency nursing among nursing students will be evaluated and also will identify
the experiences of learners and lecturers in this MOOC course.
Data collection procedure in each phase

In phase 1, need analysis phase, the purposive samples of ten nursing students from year three
at faculty of nursing in IIUM will be taken as the participants as the emergency nursing
subject will be taught in that year. Moreover, two lecturers who are going to be taught this
subject and had academic qualification with at least master degree in nursing science and with
the specialty in emergency nursing and also has experienced at least 3 years in teaching will
also be selected as the respondents of this study. Face to face interviewing using semi-
structure interview guided questions will be conducted for collecting the data. Semi-
structured interviews will be used to gather a focused, qualitative textual data for exploring
the needs of developing MOOC course in emergency nursing from the perspectives of
students and lecturers. The rich descriptive data of nursing students’ and lecturers’ opinions
will be uncovered during semi- structured interview session and these data can move to
design and development of MOOC emergency course for nursing students.
In phase 2, design and development stage, the MOOC course will be designed through six
experts’ opinions and consensus who are an emergency medical doctor, two nursing lecturers
who are teaching emergency nursing subject, one educationalist, one IT expert and one from
expert in MOOC and its platforms. These experts will be selected by purposive sampling and
opinions and consensus will be collected via focus group discussion. Focus groups are run by
researcher as a facilitator, and involve a discussion among a group of six experts as
respondents and will last 60 minutes in length. In group discussion, design and structure of
course contents, learning outcomes, course objectives and duration of MOOC course will be
determined. Then, production of good videos and MOOC platform will be discussed as the
content production stage is important in designing MOOC course. At last, course contents
will be formatted and uploaded on the decided platform before launching MOOC course. All
discussion data are recorded and noted.
Phase 3, implementation and evaluation phase, the MOOC course that has been designed and
created in Phase 2 will be launched via open learning platform. Before launching the MOOC
course, the researcher will announce to the participants who are year 3 nursing students at
IIUM that registration is open and regularly post on university networks. When a course
starts, the researcher will manage platform interactions and also monitor interactions via
social networks including facebook and email, group whatsapp. Once the course is over for 4
weeks, the researcher will evaluate the effectiveness of MOOC course among nursing
students by a one-group pretest–posttest design. And also, the researcher will identify the
experiences of learners and lecturers in this MOOC course via interviewing with semi-
structure questions.
Validity and reliability

In this study of phase 1 (need analysis) and phase 2(design and development), subjective,
interpretive and contextual data will be achieved by interviewing and focus group discussion.
These methods are based on qualitative studies. In qualitative studies, unlike quantitative
researchers, who apply statistical methods for establishing validity and reliability of research
findings, qualitative researchers aim to design and incorporate methodological strategies to
ensure the ‘trustworthiness’ of the findings(Noble &Smith, 2015). To determine the
‘trustworthiness’ in qualitative study, there are five criteria as proposed from the framework
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of Lincoln &Guba such as credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability and

authenticity(cited in Polit& Beck, 2012).
Firstly, credibility involved two criteria which are firstly the researcher do their study in a
way that enhances the believability of findings and then, the researcher also trying to show
the believability of their research to the readers (Lincoln &Guba, 1985).To assure credibility
(internal validity), the appropriate strategies such as triangulation, prolonged contact, member
checks, saturation, reflexivity, and peer review can be used (Simon & Goes, 2016). In this
study, the study findings and analysis will be confirmed with informants to ensure credibility
(internal validity) of the research.
According to Polit& Beck (2012), dependability is the reliability of data instead of time and
condition. Meaning that, the data is true at any time and condition and can be used on the
same person despite of the similar context. On the other hand, the other also can make the
research as their guidelines also refer to dependability. Dependability is the qualitative
counterpart to reliability that can be established through audit trails and triangulation (Simon
& Goes, 2016). To make sure the dependability of research, the data will be submitted and
discussed with the expert and supervisors and also review the related literature.
Transferability (external validity) is the way the result of the findings can be used in another
setting. As stated by (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), it is researcher's responsibility to give enough
data to validate the applicability of the research. Then for the transferability of the research,
interviews are recorded (audio). To obtain the data, researchers have to listen to it and
transcribing the content of the recorded audio and interview again till to data saturation. Data
saturation is important to make sure transferability in the research.
To ensure authenticity in this study, first the researcher will build a trust-relationship with the
informants and make sure that informants are very clear on the nature of the research. Then
the researcher will let the participants to express their feelings and emotion according to the
context of the phenomenon.
Regarding the validity of Phase 3 (implementation and evaluation phase), the researcher will
use a One-group pretest-posttest design to evaluate the effectiveness of MOOC course.
History and maturation become more threatening to internal validity as the time between pre-
and posttest increases (Price, et.al, 2017). Therefore, to ensure the internal validity of this
design, the researcher will do posttest as fast as possible after the MOOC course.
Reliability refers to the aspect of stability or repeatability. It concerns if the measurement can
give consistent results over time (Golafshani, 2003).In phase 3, reliability will be ensured by
the stability of topics of MOOC course over the 4 weeks and strictly follow the course
timeline. The researcher intends to submit the assessment instruments of (30) multiple choice
exam questions to lecturers who has an emergency specialty for experts' advice and will use
these questions for every students in this study to answer within 45 minutes in pre-test and
post-test measurement.
Ethic review
In this study, phase 1 and phase 2 will follow the qualitative studies and phase 3 will apply
one type of quasi-experimental research, one group pretest and posttest design. For qualitative
studies, anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent will be included in ethical
considerations. In this study, the researcher will protect the respondent’s identity and hold the
information strictly confidential. As the nature of qualitative studies, confidentiality involves
elaboration of the form of outcome that might be expected from the study (Sanjari, et.al,
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2014), the participants will have been informed well nature of the study, objective of the
research, an advance of the research and all the data collected and data on how it will be used.
Informed consent has been recognized as an integral part of ethics in research(Sanjari, et.al,
2014).The researcher seek the approval from relevant ethical committee of university before
taking the informed consent from the participants to seek documented proof of consent in a
written, signed, and ideally, witnessed form.
Moreover, the researcher will take responsibility of protecting all participants in a study from
potentially harmful consequences that might affect them as a result of their participation such
as their scores are not influenced on their final exam grade.
For phase 3 of this study, in quasi-experimental research, one group pretest and posttest
design, ethical principles are primarily centred on protecting research participants and the
guiding foundation of “do no harm”. The researcher will follow the following ethical
principles related to the protection of participants.
1. Respect for persons – Respect the autonomy, decision-making and dignity of participants
by allowing voluntarily participation.
2. Beneficence – Minimizing the risks (physically, psychologically and socially) and
maximizing the benefits to research participants by integrating MOOC course.
3. Justice – Participants should be selected from groups of people whom the research may
benefit by only selecting the year three nursing students group as they are being taught
emergency course (Smith, 2013)
However, concerning the ethical issues in MOOC, the students recognize that they will be
easily identified by teachers and other students and they are rarely able to be anonymous
when they enter a MOOC. Moreover, MOOCs require caution regarding legal concerns,
particularly copyright of any materials created for the MOOC and the privacy of student data
and contributions. The researcher will consult the IIUM press regarding copyright issue.
Conclusion
This study will use design and developmental research (DDR) with type one category that is
research on product and tool or program. In this study, MOOC course of emergency nursing
will be a teaching learning tool that is blended into traditional taught course of Emergency,
Theatre and Intensive care nursing subject that is one of the compulsory subjects in
undergraduate nursing program.
There are three main phases such as need analysis phase, design and developmental phase,
and finally implementation and evaluation phase. Different methodologies such as face to
face interview, focus group discussion, and one group pretest and posttest design will be used
in related phases. Moreover, in this study, various types of participants like nursing students,
nursing lecturers and experts in the field of emergency medicine, emergency nursing,
educationalist, IT and expert in MOOC course will be involved.
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A STUDY ON PROTEAN AND BOUNDARYLESS CAREER

ASPECTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELL BEING OF INDIAN MILLENNIALS
Dr. Meha Joshi1

Prof. G.C.Maheshwari2
Prof.Rajan Yadav3
1
Assistant Professor, Delhi School of Management, Delhi Technological University, India
2
Professor, Delhi School of Management, Delhi Technological University, India
3
Professor, Delhi School of Management, Delhi Technological University, India
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The purpose of this research paper is to gain an insight into Protean and Boundaryless career
aspects of Indian millennials. Data from 210 employees working in Multi National
organizations located in Delhi, NCR region is used to examine the effects of different career
mindsets. The study would use Analysis of Variance and Correlation Analysis to study the
same. Results show how the career mindset of the Indian millennials impact the
organisations.
There is a possibility that sampling strategy employed could weaken the generalization of the
research findings. Moreover, the study is cross sectional in nature. The longitudinal study in
this regard could have contributed more to the concept. The results of the study would help
the organizations to work on designing the strategies to deal with the emerging challenges in
dealing with the career mindsets of the millennials. The study may add some important
perspectives on the literature on career already available and may serve as a basis for further
developing the field of retaining the current work force.
Keywords: Millennials, Psychological well-being, Protean career

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The purpose of this research paper is to gain an insight into Protean and Boundaryless career
aspects of Indian millennials. Data from 210 employees working in Multi National
organizations located in Delhi, NCR region is used to examine the effects of different career
mindsets. The study would use Analysis of Variance and Regression Analysis to study the
same. Results show how the career mindset of the Indian millennials impact the
organisations.
There is a possibility that sampling strategy employed could weaken the generalization of the
research findings. Moreover, the study is cross sectional in nature. The longitudinal study in
this regard could have contributed more to the concept. The results of the study would help
the organizations to work on designing the strategies to deal with the emerging challenges in
dealing with the career mindsets of the millennials. The study may add some important
perspectives on the literature on career already available and may serve as a basis for further
developing the field of retaining the current work force.
Literature Review
Protean career attitude and boundaryless career mindset
Globalization, digital revolution and communication advances have revolutionized the job
scenario. Consequently, this has led to the changes in job design, which means key
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adjustments in many ways for the employees. (Burke and NG, 2006). The emphasis of the
millennials, the largest cohort of generation today is to develop their own career paths rather
than relying upon the organizations they are working for. Employees try to empower
themselves by empowering their own career escalation. (Direnzo and Greenhaus, 2011). The
employees of today derive satisfaction and benefits on the goals set for themselves on their
own. (Weng and Mc. Elroy, 2012; Weng et al, 2010). This specifically gives way to protean
career orientation among the young population. The radicalization in the present employment
conditions and contract between employees and their organizations have changed from
permanent relational bond to the one that is more temporary, performance based and
transactional in nature (Hall and Mirvis, 1994 ; Rousseu,1995).
Boundaryless career mindset relates to boundaryless career attitude (mental mobility of

employees) and organisational mobility preference of employees (physical mobility of
employees)
Psychological well being of employees

Berkman(1971) has defined the concept of psychological well-being as the wholesome
effectiveness of employees’ functioning in terms of their psychology. In case an employee
may manage his or her negative feelings and emotions in order to attain well being in the long
run,(Parsuraman, 1996)
Objectives of the study

1. To find if there is any significant difference in the protean and boundaryless career
attitude of employees based on gender
2. To find if there is any significant difference in the protean and boundaryless career
attitude of employees based on job experience
3. To investigate the relationship between protean and boundaryless career attitude on
psychological well being of employees
Hypotheses of the study

H1. There is no significant difference in the protean and boundaryless career attitude of
employees based on gender
H2. There is no significant difference in the protean and boundaryless career attitude of
employees based on job experience
H3. There is a significant relationship between protean and boundaryless career attitude and
psychological well being of employees
Research Design
The research design used was descriptive. Data was collected from 254 employees working
in Multinational companies of India. The group of employees selected was heterogeneous in
nature. Data was collected through the self-administered questionnaires and the responses
were obtained on five point scale ranging from 1 to 5 where 1 meant strongly disagree and 5
meant strongly agree. Convenience sampling strategy was used for collection of samples
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Data Analysis
Table 1: Summary of mean scores and standard deviation of protean and boundaryless career atttude
and psychological well being of employees
Factors Sub Dimensions Mean
Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73)
Value Driven 4.25(.61)
Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43)
Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38)
Psychological Well Being of Employees 3.56(.59)
The table 1 explains three factors viz. 1. Protean career attitude and its dimensions a. self
driven and b. Value driven .The second factor is Boundaryless career mindset with two
dimensions a. Boundaryless career attitude with the mean score of 4.23 and s.d of .43 and b.
Physical mobility preferences of employees (mean of 3.32 and s.d. of.38). The third factor
explained here is Psychological well-being of employees (mean=3.56 with s.d = .59) The
table shows that mean of self driven career aspect is 3.56 with a standard deviation of .73,
mean of value driven aspect is 4.25 with s.d. of .61.
Table 2: Analysis of variance of protean and boundaryless career attitude with respect to gender
Factors Sub Dimensions Mean F Value P Value
Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73) 5.3 .042
Value Driven 4.25(.61) 6.8 .03
Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43) 5.8 .04
Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38) 12 .03
Psychological Well 3.56(.59) 1.56 .04

Being of Employees
*at .05 level of significance

**at.01 level of significance
H1: There is no significant difference in the Protean and Boundaryless career mindset
between groups based on gender.
The effects of Protean and Boundaryless career mindset was investigated using one way
Analysis of Variance test. The objective of the test was to find out the difference in the
protean career attitude and boundaryless career mindset among the employees based on their
gender. The results of ANOVA are presented in the Table 2. The table shows the F value and
P value along with the mean scores. Since the p value in case of protean career attitude and
boundaryless career mindset is less than .05, it signifies that hypothesis 1 is rejected.
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Table 3: Analysis of variance of protean and boundaryless career attitude with respect to years of
experience
Factors Sub Dimensions Mean F Value P Value
Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73) 6.8 .022*
Value Driven 4.25(.61) 23 .04*
Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43) 12 .01**
Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38) 9.6 .02*
Psychological Well Being 3.56(.59) 4.9 .09

of Employees
*at .05 level of significance

**at.01 level of significance
H2. There is no significant difference in the Protean and Boundaryless career mindset
between groups based on years of experience.
The effects of Protean and Boundaryless career mindset was investigated using one-way
Analysis of Variance test. The objective of the test was to find out the difference in the
protean career attitude and boundaryless career mindset among the employees based on their
experience of work. The results of ANOVA are presented in the Table 2. The table shows the
F value and P value along with the mean scores. Since the p value in case of protean career
attitude and boundaryless career mindset is less than .05, it signifies that hypothesis 2 is
rejected.
Table 4: Bivariate correlationship between protean career attitude and psychological well being of
employees
Correlations Job Satisfaction Safety
Protean Career Attitude Pearson Correlation 1 .738**
Sig. (2-Tailed) .001
N 254 254
Safety Pearson Correlation .738** 1
Sig. (2-Tailed) .002
N 254 254
*significant at .01 level
Linear regression analysis was performed to study the relationship among the Protean career
attitude of employees and psychological wellbeing of employees . They were found to be
significantly positively correlated ie .738 at significance level of .01 which shows that there is
a positive relationship between protean career attitude and psychological well-being of
employees.
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Discussion
The results highlight that there is a significant difference in the protean career attitude and
boundaryless career mindset of employees based on the gender of the employees and also
there is significant difference in the protean career attitude and boundaryless career mindset
of employees based on the experience of the employees. The results show that there exists a
strong correlation between protean career attitude and psychological well-being of
employees’ level of employees. The existence of relationship between protean career attitude
and psychological well-being of employees is further supported by the several other studies.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that there is a difference in the protean career attitude and boundaryless
career attitude based on age and gender of employees. Moreover, it has also been established
that there is a positive relation existing between protean career and psychological well-being
of an individual. This implies that protean careerists are more likely to be psychologically
well grounded. Several researches have shown the existence of the relationship between
psychological well-being of employees and life satisfaction. This study makes the space for
studying such relationship which show how psychological well-being can be instrumental for
protean careerists to achieve life satisfaction.
References:
Burke, Ronald J., and Eddy Ng. E. 2006‘The changing nature of work and organizations:
Implications for human resource management’ Human Resource Management
Review 16.2 (2006): 86-94.
Direnzo, Marco S., and Jeffrey H. Greenhaus(2011) ‘Job search and voluntary turnover in a
boundaryless world: A control theory perspective’ Academy of Management Review ,
36(3): 567-589.
Weng, Q., & McElroy, J. C. (2012)’ Organizational career growth, affective occupational
commitment and turnover intentions’ Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 80(2), 256-
265.
Weng, Q., McElroy, J.C., Morrow, Paula, C., Liu, R. (2010)’The relationship between career
growth and organizational commitment’ Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 77(3), 391-
400.
Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M. (1996)’ A career lexicon for the 21st century’. Academy of
Management Perspectives, 10(4), 28-39.
Mirvis, P. H., & Hall, D. T. (1994). Psychological success and the boundaryless
career. Journal of organizational behavior, 15(4), 365-380.
Parasuraman, R., Mouloua, M., & Molloy, R. (1996). Effects of adaptive task allocation on
monitoring of automated systems. Human factors, 38(4), 665-679.
Berkman, P. L. (1971). Life stress and psychological well-being: A replication of Langner's
analysis in the midtown Manhattan study. Journal of health and social behavior, 35-
45.
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ADDRESSING THE SKILLED WORKFORCE SHORTAGE:

THE KEY TO INCLUSIVE GROWTH AND
TRANSFORMATION
Vi Hoang Dang1
1
Swiss National Science Foundation
(Email: [email protected], [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Skills shortage in the developing countries is still a big challenge for the sustainable
development and transformation of an economy. There are many factors that have been
pointed out by researchers and policy makers, impacting to the company development. One
of them relates directly to solve the problem of the skills shortage is the vocational skills
development programmes (VSD). Therefore, the main aim of the project is to identify ways
to improve VSD programmes, which cater to the manufacturing sector. To gain the goal, how
VSD can most effectively contribute to the successful company development, a questionnaire
was designed to explore 3 types of information, from 162 manufacturing companies in
garment, electronics and fish processing industries, namely: (1) inclusive growth, (2)
transformation of the companies and (3) how the VSD programs impacting to the business
operations, growth and transformation.The findings indicated that (1) the skills shortage
appeared in the manufacturing industries with the high percentage over 95% at operator
position; (2) the skills shortage negates to the business operations, the growth and the
transformation of three industries; (3) the skills shortage may reduce the productivity and
income. Regards to the VSD programs, the findings showed that (4) the VSD programs did
not meet the skill requirements of industries. Based on the results, three lessons with central
focusing on the VSD programs are made to reduce the skills shortage in short and long term.
Firstly, training at company is an effective way to fix the skills shortage meeting immediately
the skills requirements of company. Secondly, VSD programs need to be revised and updated
annualy by considering industry as the most important partner to cooperate (industry driven).
Thirdly, to make successfully the relationship between VET provider and industry,
Government should be a third party to identify clearly the rights and responsibilities of each
organization.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
From 1986 until the present, Vietnam has been a typical example of a rapidly developing
economy. Between 1999 and 2017, GDP increased nearly ten times, from 28.68 billion USD
to 240.5 billion USD. As a result, Vietnam has received much attention from international
organizations as well as from policymakers and researchers. This achievement was based, to a
large extent, on two strategies: transforming central economic management to a market
economy and secondly, moving from an economy based primarily on agriculture to one with
a strong industrial and service sector. These changes have lifted Vietnam from being a poor
nation to a middle-income country. In the process of transforming from an agricultural
economy to industrial and service bases, the Vietnamese economy has experienced a lack of
skilled human resource in all fields, especially in manufacturing.
In order to address skills shortages and their negative effects, the Vietnamese government
passed a series of laws which were aimed at strengthening vocational skill development (VSD),
such as the Education Law, the Higher Education Law, and the Law on Vocational Education
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Training. Respective strategies were developed for labor-force development and vocational
education training development, as well as a National Qualification Framework. Through these
efforts, the Vietnamese government was successful in setting up a regulatory framework
helping companies to access workers with appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes.
However, in developing countries such as Vietnam, there is very little available evidence or
research that comprehensively evaluates how vocational skill development programs have
been related to the sustainable development and transformation of manufacturing industries.
Based on this, the research project titled "The contribution of vocational skills development
to inclusive industrial growth and transformation: An analysis of critical factors in six
countries" is being conducted, funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the aim
being to identify ways to improve the vocational skills development program (VSD) that
caters to the manufacturing sector.
Three industries at a glance

In order to examine how VSD can most effectively contribute to successful company
development, a survey was conducted to obtain the linkages between industrial growth and
transformation on the one hand and vocational skills development on the other, focusing on
162 companies in three sectors, namely the garment, electronics and fish processing
industries. Previous studies have shown that firstly, over 68% of staff in all three industries is
unskilled, secondly, the export of all three industries annually increased between 2012 and
2017, and thirdly, the numbers of workers in the electronics, textile, and fish processing
industries are increasing. However, firms are still experiencing difficulty sourcing a skilled
labor workforce.
Growth and transformation

There were 162 manufacturing companies (forty electronics companies, sixty-six fish
processing companies, and fifty-six garment manufacturing companies) involved in the
project. Their responses to surveys were divided into three main categories: industrial growth
and transformation, shortage of skilled labor and VSD programs.
Figure 1: Growth and transformation
Figure 1 shows that there is growth and transformation occurring in each of the companies. In
which:
 Employment is defined as the number of workers in the company.
 Sales shows the total annual revenue.
 Productivity is the value that one worker produces in one year.
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 Income is defined as the income of one worker per month.

 Technology denotes the number or value of all the machines, computers and modern
technical equipment that the company used in the year.
 Organization relates to the way that companies organize, manage and run the
company.
 Products indicates the number of varied goods or products and the new goods or
services that have been added within the company.
The labor structure changed in accordance with the needs of corporate restructuring, reducing
the number of management levels and changes to modern technology. For example, more
than 70% of enterprises increased the number of employees in the period from 2012 to 2017
for various reasons such as expanding their production, adding new lines, expanding business
fields and/or associating with other companies producing the same products. The total
revenue of positive growth for 80% of companies may be due to expansion of the market, the
improved value of similar products or changing to a new line of goods or services.
It is observed that some enterprises are in the process of transforming modernization, but
have difficulties acquiring skilled human resources. Labor productivity of about 50% of
enterprises showed decreases in growth, but the number of observations for this indicator was
quite low (sixteen), so to achieve more effective results, the number of observations needs to
be increased. In addition, some enterprises invested in machinery and equipment but failed to
upgrade the skills of workers needed at the same time. Only 50% of companies showed
increases in income. The low rate of income growth may be due to low productivity. Another
possible reason for the low improvement in profitability is that companies have an increase in
the number of workers but have not addressed the shortage of skills.
The skilled workforce shortage

Findings revealed that there was “difficulty to fill positions” at all levels, the exception being
the general worker position. More than 85% of companies stated that it was “somewhat
difficult” and had “significant difficulty” filling operator and supervisor positions (Figure 2).
This indicates a skilled workforce shortage.
Figure 2: The skilled workforce shortage situation, or difficulty to fill positions
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Figures 3 and 4 show that the skilled workforce shortage stuation has negatively impacted
business operation, growth and expansion of companies. The most clearly negative effect was
shown in the operator position that indicated a 67% “somewhat negative” effect and 22%
“significantly negative” effect on the business operation (Figure 3).
The skilled workforce shortage also impacted negatively on the growth and expansion of
companies (Figure 4). For example, at the supervisor position, the percentage of the
“somewhat negative” and “significantly negative” responses was over 81%, and at the
operator position was over 89%.
Somewhat
Negative
negative
Not at all
Figure 3: Effects of skilled workforce shortage on the business operation
Figure 4: Effects of skilled workforce shortage on the growth and expansion of the company
Vocational Skills Development programs

Based on the companies’ evaluations of the VSD programs which aimed to meet the skills
requirements, two main themes emerged. Firstly, the VSD programs (pre- and in-
employment) contributed to the skills needs of companies. Secondly, there was a different
level of contribution between the pre-VSD programs and the VSD programs in-employment.
In figure 5, responses placed the contribution of the pre-VSD programs for all positions at a
somewhat higher than significant level. However, the contribution of VSD in-employment
programs reported as being at a significant level was even higher. It is obvious that in-
employment programs are considered to be much better than pre-employment programs. By
way of further explanation, it appears that there is a gap in effectiveness between the
relationship of the VET providers or Universities and industries. This gap may be leading to a
skilled workforce shortage.
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Figure 5: The VSD programs’ contribution to meet the skills needs of companies
Conclusions
Enterprises are ready to transform, although the growth rate is not impressive when compared
with the transformation. In fact, all companies surveyed reported growth with regard to the
number of employees, sales, productivity and income. However, the transformation was
happening more quickly (Figure 1). This shows that enterprises are adapting to changes in the
global economy. This transformation will create a foundation for sustainable development.
Difficulty in filling positions, or the skilled workforce shortage is a major concern for
manufacturing companies and is a current concern. This situation may have resulted in
reduced productivity and income and indicates an unusual outcome in the relationship
between the skilled workforce shortage and income. In fact the skills shortage may lead to
reduced productivity, thus reducing the company profit and unlikely to raise the income for
workers. The skilled workforce shortage also highlights the fact that the VSD programs of the
vocational education training (VET) providers and Universities do not meet the requirements
of industries and affect negatively on the operations, growth, and expansion of companies.
To remedy the skilled workforce shortage at the macro level, the role of key stakeholders
needs to be reconsidered. At the micro level in the short-term, to solve immediately the
skilled workforce shortage, companies must retrain their current workers to meet their skills
requirements. The role of in-house training at the company level is stressed. In the medium
and long term, companies need to work closely with VET providers to determine the
supplementary skills or essential skills needed in VSD programs in order to improve skills for
the students who are the future workers. The responsibilities of VET providers include
supplying short term and long-term training courses to solve the skilled workforce shortage,
working closely and actively with companies in order to understand the requirements of
companies and inviting company representatives to be involved in the design of VSD
programs. The Government has a responsibility to standardize and update VSD programs
based on regional and international standards and create legal frameworks and policies to
support the relationships between VET providers and companies.
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AN IMPACT OF CULTURAL CHANGE ON EMPLOYEES

ENGAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION PERFORMANCE: A
LITERATURE REVIEW
Faizal Rashidi B Md Dom1 Abdul Murad B Ahmad1

1
Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam , Malaysia
(Email: [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Organization culture plays an important role in influencing employee engagement and
performance. It takes into account the changing cultural factors in an organization. Hence,
this paper aims to look into the impact of cultural change on employees’ engagement and
organization performance based on conceptual argument. It blends together the cultural
changes from the other perspectives. In brief, some recommendations have also been
proposed to address the many cultural change issues in most organizations.
Keywords: cultural change, employees engagement, organization performance

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Just how can businesses react fairly quickly to such modifications or perhaps be agile.
Organizational agility, based on Lee Dyer (2001) involves a judicious combination of
stability as well as re configurability. In the present extremely powerful and rapidly changing
environment, manufacturing situation has undergone a fast change in the prior two years,
more so within the past several seasons. The manufacturing units are constantly trying to
upgrade themselves by acquiring and possibly developing brand new technologies. For
instance in Tanzania, these occasions is the shift from farming era to the industrial era, and
more recent one would be the influx of the information technology age.
Statement of the problem

Organizational culture includes beliefs and attitudes of people in executing, organizing,
gratifying and evaluating their performance when managing issues of external adaptations
and internal integration, the approach they believe in addition to feel about the businesses of
theirs.
Organizational culture is recognized by elements as incentive process, specialized skills, re-

structuring of business system, vision, mission, core values, training, motivation, recruitment
and termination. It goes on that these characteristics of organizational culture alteration from
on leadership to the next in a given business. Such modifications are suggested by a rise or
perhaps maybe decrease of a specific characteristic.
Literature review
Organization Culture
Organizations have distinct culture and personality which show the values of theirs,
techniques of talking about issues, decision making and doing stuff. Organizational culture
includes beliefs and attitudes of people in executing, organizing, gratifying and evaluating
their performance when managing issues of external adaptations and internal integration, the
approach they believe in addition to feel about the businesses of theirs.
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Most business culture mirrors benefit of proprietors in reinforcing the vision/ objective of the
team to establish the main running orientation and also giving people with shared identity.
And so while it comprises a bond that helps to keep a company together it is additionally an
informal control mechanism which helps with control of individuals efforts.
Types of Organization Culture

Organizational culture is often analyses across three fundamental dimensions: Weak
compared to good, Low Performance, plus Adaptiveness (Johnson, 1998). A great society
encourages employees bonding through extensively shared values and beliefs.
Clearer goals decrease staff anxiety and promote quicker response performances ensuing into
reduced overseeing costs, improving effectiveness as an outcome of presence of a good
business culture. In a great society a leader formulated good value as well as methods
pertinent to naturally competitive environment; very own organizational commitment to
control based on recognized principles; and also worry for the health and happiness of
stakeholder. A sensitive culture involved having widely various value and beliefs that make
employees be separated from the group which only a small group have loyalty toward
specific or perhaps management. This specific community type seldom supports stagy
implementation or perhaps performance.
Culture Change
Cultural change generally describes radical as opposed to minimal change. it is not easy to
achieve; It is a complicated, complex, challenging energy which might have quite a while to
do. You are going to find three basic kinds of cultural change. These are revolutionary and
comprehensive initiatives to modify the lifestyle of the entire business, Efforts that's gradual
and incremental but nevertheless are created to cumulate to produce a considerable reshaping
of the entire organizational culture and Efforts restricted to radically alter particular
subcultures or maybe perhaps cultural ingredients of the general differentiated
culture.Implementing culture change requires folks involvement through the key phases;'
unfreezing' pre-existing tradition and' refreezing' the newest. Pilot research by modify
facilitators along with champions is vital. Internal communication is crucial in supplying way
of life change message thought the company.
Cultural Change and Employee Engagement

Employee engagement is a distinct and unique construct, typically described as a private
employee' s great, job related mental state of mind (Macey and Schneider, 2008). Though
engagement is not an attitude (Saks, 2006), it is all about individual's perceptions, comprising
thoughts, opinions as well as behavioral inclinations towards goals (one's job function, group
or maybe behaviors and group). These attitudes directly result in an objective (i.e., the
mindful program to handle the behavior) as well as, subsequently, to the specific conduct
(Solinger et al., 2008). As a result, engagement doesn't have bodily qualities, but it precedes
as well as guides behavior (Ajzen, 2001), normally causing a willingness to commit yourself
and also expend you are discretionary work to assist the employer succeed (Saks and
Gruman, 2014 Because engagement begins with an individual person's expertise of the
readily available energy and needs at one time (Sonnentag and Demerouti, 2010), you are
able to come across certain variants in how and when people feel interested (Bandura, 2001;
Hirschfeld and Thomas, 2008).
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Cultural Change and Organization Performance

Organizational performance comprises the real results or maybe output of a company as
measured against planned goals and also goals (Virgina D. 2009). Put quite simply,
organizational functionality could be recognized by how well a company is carrying out to
achieve its objectives. It is crucial for the owners or perhaps managers of a company to
understand the performance number of the group to possess the capacity to discover what
changes they're competent to expose. Without getting the knowledge of the performance, it's
going to be difficult for the professionals on the team to know when exactly modifications are
needed in the company. From previous literatures, performance seem to be an incredibly
complex concept. Additional attention must be given to the way performance is evaluated.
Superior performance means the activities are completed effectively and efficiently.
Organizational performance describes an extended range effort to correct an organizations
problem solving capability and also the capability of its to contend with modifications in its
outside surroundings by employing eternal or maybe internal behavioural scientist providers,
and possibly change agents, as they are frequently known as. From a content viewpoint,
efficiency is exactly about economy, efficiency and effectiveness. It takes out the relationship
between effective and minimal cost (economy), the result and attained final result
(effectiveness), between discovered and powerful price (efficiency).
Discussion
The Effect of Organizational Change on Change Performance
Changes impact performance at the person, team and organizational level. People learn
through curiosity and experimentation, teams find out by motivating variety of ideas and
input, businesses find out by disciplines constant improvement and experimentation. When
something different happens, things which are great happen. People possess a much more
impressive daily life and are generally far more committed to work. Teams have a tendency
to become more productive and groups and competitive.
Employee productivity is vital for the achievements of every company and success with this
powerful environment. Nowadays business requires some kind of employees that contribute
over their job scope and much from goals expectations. The majority of the businesses
managing with fashionable challenges place much more focus on employee efficiency.
Downsizing, mergers, innovations and restructuring of the businesses typically reduce
employees' performance. In additions to that here, task, quantity and quality, changing place
and time restrictions radically impact the work life of workers.
Mental tension: Organization shift, particularly when the modifications are great in changes
that are several & reach happen at exactly the same period, it results to higher anxiety
associated prescriptions by employees. Right now there may be numerous causes for
increased levels of stress, such as perceived injustices or unfairness, insufficient typical
interaction by management or fear of later changes.
Loss of loyalty: Many businesses look to salaries and benefits as the initial places to decrease
when trying to initiate changes involving cost saving. In case this happens, it is unavoidable
that a few employees can make the organization to find work in other places. The workers
that stay, whether they remain perhaps or voluntarily because they could not locate work
elsewhere, are resentful. Motivation decreases, consuming work effectiveness along with it.
Employees lose their business loyalty and may wind up angry adequate to purposefully
sabotage the business.
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Increased period from work: When organizational modifications are announced, particularly
when there is downsizing required, employees usually split into 1 of two groups: those who
will attempt to handle the fate of theirs also as anyone that would love to get available before
the changes happen.
Organizational Commitment & Change Management

Due to employee engagement’s good connection to organizational dedication, comprehending
organizational commitment’s connection to alter control might offer several few useful
insights. Fedor, et al., (2006) conducted research on the impact and organizational change of
its on worker dedication. Their study investigated 30 2 various public and also private
businesses. They divided commitment into two parts: dedication to the switch initiative and
dedication on the company.
Most likely the most crucial general results have been that, "commitment to the change and
the organization are not influenced in similar means by organizational shift as well as
individuals' reactions to modify based upon a complicated calculus reflecting various facets
of the shift and its consequences." The inference of these outcomes is always that
concentrating on something different initiative’s effect on either of these two change types,
on their own, is not positive (Fedor et al, 2006). Much more especially, dedication to the
switch gotten to its optimum amount when; the switch demands occurred largely in the device
level, change requires in the unique level were minimal, therefore the shift was deemed
favorable. When the switch was found as typically bad commitment dropped.
Lastly, trust and openness negatively predicted an employee’s goal going from the business
and turnover intentions expected neglect. If organizational commitment and also employee
engagement are closely related then Chawla and Kelloway’s results highlight communication
and trust as possible crucial features of employee engagement. The accomplishments of the
modification process should not be governed by whether it had been planned and otherwise,
though it is essential the procedure is handled so it does not crash (Van Tonder, 2004 ).
How is Performance Impacted by Change

Ussahawanitchakit and Sumritsakun (2008) suggest that organisational change has a quick
positive effect in work performance. It is also vital the employee stay focus and also produce
high quality benefits which will guarantee the organisation survival into the succeeding
Cronje and also smit (2002,) American states that efficiency is pushed by motivation,
capability together with the opportunity to perform the work. As an outcome, the adoption of
self-appraisal and self-rating techniques are very helpful in motivating personnel to have an
active part in establishing his or possibly the personal interests of her. In the product sales
environment computing an employee' s efficiency isn't hard as it might be assessed through
the quantity of sales one accomplished in a particular time. This is not apparent in the places
of work, such business analyst, accountants etc.
Conclusion & Recommendation

The employee perceptions of the modification process are certainly much more important
when compared with the setup of the modification itself. Switch is an excellent deal more
challenging and complex than many professionals believe. Organizational change demands
change control knowledge, very soft and personal reflection, hard skills and creativity. In this
particular case employees believe in the leaders of theirs to become publishing values that are
similar as they and would consume a fight for them.
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Organizational change centered on the simplification of company (organizational framework

and simplify the reporting lines). This process suggested that a number of the functions that
used existing within the current structure had been done at bay with, along with thus workers
will likely be retrenched. It was thus important you understand exactly how the workers
looked at the meditation process. The relationship between the organizational change plus
employee inspiration was discovered to be an upbeat one although definitely not powerful.
This therefore meant the additional workers have been great about the modification process,
the more determined they'd been around the perspective on the long term.
In the process to accomplish this study good deals of aspects have been opened and which the
researcher could not delve into. Nevertheless, future studies could be the following;
 How workers at various organisational hierarchy (levels) seen or perhaps probably
considered the logical behind an organisational modification?
 Comparing employee commitment and performance pre and publish the
organisational change.
 The job of interaction is lowering the destructive effect of organisational change. The
right way to keep personnel motivated during an organisational modification
procedure?
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APPLICATION OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS IN

REVIEWING THE EFFECT OF STORE ATMOSPHERE ON
THE PURCHASE DECISION PROCESS
Yunia Mulyani A1, Sussy Susanti2, Ade Triana3

1
Management study program, Institute of Economic Science (STIE) Ekuitas, Indonesia
(E-mail: [email protected])
2
3
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: As the number of restaurants in Bandung grows, the competition in the industry is
getting tougher. Therefore, an effort is needed to survive. One effort that can be done is to
create a consumer-oriented marketing strategy that seeks to satisfy customers' needs and
desires. This study aims to determine and analyze the influence of the Store Atmosphere on
the Consumer Purchase Decision Process at the Chicken Day Resto Bandung. This research
was conducted on consumers of Chicken Day Resto Bandung who made a process of
purchasing decisions and the number of samples set was 100 respondents. This study uses a
simple linear regression analysis. Based on the responses of consumers regarding store
atmosphere obtained a fairly good value and regarding the process of purchasing decisions
that fall into the good category. The results showed that the store atmosphere had a positive
and significant effect on the process of purchasing decisions of 47.5% and 52.5% influenced
by other variables not examined
Keywords: Store Atmosphere, Purchasing Decision Process, Chicken Day Resto Bandung
_________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The increasingly competitive competition requires companies to be able to implement
strategies that can maintain and develop their companies. The success of a company in
marketing its products is determined by a strategy tailored to the situation and conditions of
the target market. Companies are required to be able to implement a more competitive
marketing strategy that is able to analyze the situation, determine the right marketing targets,
select and analyze target markets, and be able to design marketing strategies that can adapt to
business dynamics that determine the existence of competitive competition. Marketing
strategies in which there are satisfaction, pleasure and positive perceptions in the minds of
consumers create an emotional attachment to them and the results will attract consumer
buying interest and satisfy the needs and desires of consumers so that they make purchasing
decisions.
Indonesia is a developing country, especially in the creative industry sector. The Deputy for
Research, Education, and Development of the Creative Economy Agency (BEKRAF)
revealed that in the past year it had contributed Rp. 642 trillion or 7.05 percent of Indonesia's
total gross domestic product (GDP). The biggest contribution came from culinary efforts as
much as 32.4 percent, 27.9 percent mode, and craft 14.88 percent. In addition to contributing
to the national GDP, the creative industry is the fourth largest sector in employment, with a
national contribution of 10.7 percent or 11.8 million people (Tempo.co, 2016).
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Based on that data, it can be seen that the creative industry sector contributes to national
economic growth, marked by the data of the past year which contributed Rp. 642 trillion or
7.05 percent of Indonesia's total GDP and the largest contribution came from culinary efforts
which contributed 32.4 percent of Rp. 642 trillion, this shows a very tight competition in
culinary efforts in Indonesia. In other words, the company must be able to develop and
maintain its existence if it does not want to experience setbacks in the business world.
Bandung as one of the culinary tourist destinations has one unique restaurant among the many
restaurants in Bandung, namely the Chicken Day Resto. A restaurant located in Ruko Tritan
Point A5 Jalan A.H. Nasution, Cipadung, Bandung city has two concepts namely indoor and
outdoor. Chicken Day Resto Bandung itself has a quite adequate building with its two-story
appearance and is supported by a large parking area and a wifi network that is fairly fast to
attract the attention of consumers. But among the many advantages possessed, Chicken Day
Resto Bandung still has problems, namely regarding sales reports that are still below the
target set by the company. Marked by sales report data per month from January 2018 to
September 2018. The data is shown in Table 1.
The fluctuations in sales data are due to the tight competition in the culinary field, especially
in areas close to the business location of Chicken Day Resto Bandung, so businesses must
package a place to have an advantage that can entice consumers to make purchases. In
purchasing decisions, consumers not only respond to the goods and services offered but also
provide a response to the purchasing environment that is pleasing to consumers. This makes
the consumer choose the preferred store, restaurant, or cafe and make a purchase.
The in-store atmosphere, companies are not only oriented to benefits but also prioritize
customer emotions by providing facilities that can provide satisfaction for customers to
achieve a pleasant experience. This concept also encourages companies to be more creative in
thinking about marketing steps that attract consumers to buy and become loyal to these
products. In this case, the company needs to create a good store atmosphere so that
consumers feel the atmosphere they want. Through the store atmosphere, marketers try to
engage customers by conveying information related to services, prices, and availability of
merchandise that is unique and creative.
Store Atmosphere will help determine the store's image and help position the store in the
minds of consumers, lure consumers, make them comfortable and remind them what products
need to be purchased. The main element of the store atmosphere is the atmosphere.
The atmosphere in the store is one of the various elements in the retail marketing mix. Store
atmosphere aims to fulfill functional requirements while providing an enjoyable shopping
experience that supports transactions. ‘Atmosphere refers to the store physical character that
projects the image and draws customer.’ (Berman & Evans, 2010).
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Table 1: Sales Data At The Bandung Chicken Day Resto

In January 2018 - September 2018
Month Sales Target Realization Percentage
January Rp 20.000.000 Rp 14.686.000 73,43 %
February Rp 20.000.000 Rp 15.118.000 75,59 %
March Rp 20.000.000 Rp 17.665.000 88,32 %
April Rp 20.000.000 Rp 16.210.000 81,05 %
Mei Rp 20.000.000 Rp 13.696.000 68,48 %
June Rp 20.000.000 Rp 13.445.000 67,22 %
July Rp 20.000.000 Rp 13.456.000 67,28 %
Agustus Rp 20.000.000 Rp 13.105.000 65,52 %
September Rp 20.000.000 Rp 12.562.000 62,81 %
Source: Document Chicken Day Resto Bandung, October 2018
Store atmosphere is a very important physical characteristic owned by a retail business to be

able to maintain consumers to feel comfortable and want to linger in the store visited so that
they can calmly choose the products needed and can also stimulate the desire to buy
unplanned (spontaneously).
Elements of the Store Atmosphere, according to (Berman & Evans, 2010) is divided into four
elements, namely:
1. Exterior
2. General Interior
3. Store Layout
4. Interior Displays
Store atmosphere is one of the purchasing decisions by consumers, where purchasing
decisions are a common consideration for consumers in the process of fulfilling the needs of
goods and services. In buying and consuming something, consumers first make a decision
about what products are needed, when, how and where the process of buying or consuming
will occur. Thus the need for a decision-making process to buy something in the form of
goods or services.
Purchasing decisions are the choice of two or more alternative purchasing decision choices,
meaning that someone can make a decision, there must be several alternative choices.
Everyday consumers take various decisions regarding every aspect of daily life. However,
consumers often take this decision without thinking about how to make decisions and what is
involved in this decision-making process. Based on the definition from experts above, it can
be concluded that purchasing decisions are the decision of consumers to buy goods or
services, where consumers have previously evaluated goods or services that have been
purchased as the selection of actions from two or more alternative choices regarding the
process, method, act of buying, taking into account other factors about what was bought,
when to buy, where to buy and how to pay.
This research has several problems, namely (1) how is the Store Atmosphere implemented at
the Chicken Day Resto Bandung ?, (2) how is the Purchasing Decision Process in the
Bandung Chicken Day Resto ?, and (3) how much the Store Atmosphere influences the
purchasing decision process on Chicken Day Resto Bandung?
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Literature Review
The atmosphere in the store is one of the various elements in the retail marketing mix. Store
atmosphere aims to fulfill functional requirements while providing a pleasant shopping
experience that supports transactions. Understanding the store atmosphere according to
Berman, Barry, and Evans (2010) (Berman & Evans, 2010) is an atmosphere referring to the
store physical characteristic that projects the image and draw of the customer. From this
understanding, it can be said that store atmosphere is a very important physical characteristic
owned by a retail business to be able to maintain consumers to feel comfortable and want to
linger in the store visited so that they can calmly choose the products needed and can also
stimulate the desire to buy unplanned (spontaneously). Based on the above understanding, it
can be seen that the store atmosphere influences the consumer's image of a store which in
turn will influence the buyer's decision to shop at the store.
Several national and international studies were conducted to analyze the influence of store
atmosphere in marketing, both online marketing, and direct marketing. International
researchers who have conducted research include Manganari, Siomkos, and Vrechopoulos
(2009) (Manganari, Siomkos, & Vrechopoulos, 2009) who concluded that online store
atmosphere influences various aspects of online consumer behavior, while Cho and Lee
(2016) (Cho & Lee, 2016) say that store space, especially color interior in luxury fashion
serves as an important marketing point for conveying brand's image to consumers. Singh,
Katiyar, and Verma (2014) (Singh, 2014) reveal that all factors in store atmosphere have a
significant effect on consumer behavior in deciding purchases. Research conducted by
Hussain and Ali (2015) (Hussain, 2015) concluded that atmospheric variables such as
cleanliness, scent, lighting and display/layout have a positive influence, whereas music and
color have an impact on consumers purchase intention. The temperature has almost no impact
on purchase intention of the consumers. Madjid (2014) (Madjid, 2014) explains that the store
atmosphere has a significant effect on customer emotions and decisions, there for customer
emotions have a significant effect on purchase decisions. Customer emotions act as partial
mediating the relationship between the store atmospheres on purchase decisions. The role of
mediation of customer emotions is a significant influence on increasing purchase decisions.
Tulipa, Gunawan, and Supit (2014) (Tulipa, Gunawan, & Henky Supit, 2014) state that
physical facilities affect satisfaction. Display of product and point of purchase have a positive
influence on emotions. Positive emotions give impact to customer satisfaction, then in turn
satisfaction affect repurchase intention. So that it can be said that physical facilities affect
satisfaction, where satisfaction affects consumer repurchases on a product.
A similar study was conducted by Indonesian researchers including Meldarianda and Lisan
(2010) (Meldarianda & Henky Lisan, 2010) who stated that overall Store atmosphere in
ROEMAH KOPI Bandung was considered quite good in the eyes of consumers, and the
overall purchasing decision process at ROEMAH KOPI Bandung was considered good in the
eyes of consumers. Princess, Kumadji, and Kusumawati (2014) (Putri, Kumadji, &
Kusumawati, 2014) explained that Store Atmosphere had a significant influence on
Purchasing Decisions at Monopoli Cafe and Resto. Store Atmosphere has no significant
influence on Customer Satisfaction at Monopoli Cafe and Resto, and the Purchasing Decision
has a significant influence on Customer Satisfaction at Monopoli Cafe and Resto. The
conclusion is almost the same as stated by Maretha and Kuncoro (2011) (Maretha &
Kuncoro, 2011) which states that store atmosphere and store image have a significant effect
on consumer purchasing decisions in Gramedia Pondok Indah bookstore. Waloejan (2016)
(Waloejan, 2016) research on store atmosphere shows that the shop exterior, general interior,
shop layout, and interior display significantly influence consumer purchasing decisions in
Kawan Baru Mega Mas Manado restaurants. The results of Sugiman and Mandasari's
research (2015) (Sugiman & Mandasari, 2015) prove that the four-store atmosphere variables
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consisting of the general exterior, general interior, store layout, and interior display have a
positive and significant effect on purchasing decisions at Sanctuary. Of the four-store
atmosphere variables, interior display variables are the most significant variables. Diawan,
Kusumawati, and Mawardi (2016) (Satya, Kusumawati, & Mawardi, 2016) in their research
stated that store atmosphere variables have a significant influence on purchase decision and
customer satisfaction.
Methodology
In this study, the population is consumers who come to the Bandung Chicken Day Resto in
the period January 2018 - September 2018, which is 4,050 people. The sampling technique
used in this study is probability sampling technique, from the results of the calculation, it is
known that the sample size needed is 100 respondents who came to visit the Chicken Day
Resto Bandung.
The data analysis test was carried out with the following procedures (1) validity test, (2)
reliability test, (3) classic assumption test (heteroscedasticity test, normality test), and (4)
regression analysis
Results and Discussion

Validity and Reliability Test
Validity test is used to measure the validity of a questionnaire. A questionnaire is said to be
valid if the question and questionnaire are able to reveal something that will be measured by
the questionnaire. This validity test is done by correlating the total score produced by each
respondent with the score of each item. Instruments can be declared valid if the value of the r-
count coefficient obtained > r-table (0.361).
Data reliability testing is used to show the extent to which the measurement results have been
consistent if done twice or more of the same symptoms. The reliability test in this study used
Cronbach's Alpha technique. The instrument is said to be reliable if the value of Cronbach's
Alpha is greater than 0.6. The results of testing the validity and reliability of the store
atmosphere (variable X) and purchasing decisions (variable Y) are shown in Table 2 and Table
3.
Table 2 described all statements that form the store atmosphere have a calculated r-value
above the r-table value so that all statements are declared valid. In Table 3, it can be seen that
all statements that make up the purchasing decision process have a calculated r-value above
the r-table value so that all statements are declared valid.
Table 2: Validity And Variable Reliability X Test Results

Data Item r- r-
Variable Dimension Indicator Item Conclusion
Scale No. count table
Attractive level
of storefront 1 0.543 0.361 Valid
appearance.
The level of
• Storefront
clarity of the 2 0.433 0.361 Valid
• Store name
Store store nameplate.
board
Atmosphere Exterior The level of Ordinal
• Store
(X) security and
environment
comfort of the 3 0.591 0.361 Valid
• Parking lot
shop
environment.
The extent of the
4 0.699 0.361 Valid
parking area.
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Level of
cleanliness of 5 0.567 0.361 Valid
the shop floor.
Attractive level
of color design 6 0.632 0.361 Valid
and lighting.
The level of
fragrance that is
7 0.723 0.361 Valid
fragrant and the
music playing.
• Floor type The level of
• Color and neatness of table 8 0.368 0.361 Valid
lighting placement.
• Aroma and The temperature
General
music level is always Ordinal 9 0.669 0.361 Valid
Interior
• Shop maintained.
equipment The cleanliness
• Air and comfort of
temperature changing 10 0.524 0.361 Valid
rooms/toilets are
important.
Level of
employee 11 0.485 0.361 Valid
friendliness.
Level of the
existence of
sophisticated 12 0.527 0.361 Valid
store
technology.
The level of
placement of the
payment desk 13 0.578 0.361 Valid
• Dressing
Store facilitates
room/toilet Ordinal
Layout transactions.
• Employees
Level of comfort
in layout 14 0.572 0.361 Valid
settings.
Table 3: Validity And Variable Reliability X Test Results

Variabl Dimensio Data Item r- r- Conclusio
Indicator Item
e n Scale No. count table n
The level of
uniqueness of
store
15 0.562 0.361 Valid
decorations in
each theme or
holidays.
•
Interior The level of Ordina
Technolog
Display interesting l
y
food 16 0.589 0.361 Valid
pictures/poster
s
The level of an
attractive meal 17 0.587 0.361 Valid
package
Reliability Coefficient 0.864
Critical Point 0.600
Information Reliable
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Table 4: Validity And Variable Reliability Y Test Results

Data Item r- r-
Variable Dimension Indicator Item Conclusion
Scale No. count table
Introduction
• Internal The level of Ordinal 1
to the 0.753 0.361 Valid
stimulation personal desire
Problem
Level of
• Personal influence from 2 0.694 0.361 Valid
Information sources the family
Search • Level of Ordinal
Experimental influence of
3 0.728 0.361 Valid
sources experience from
someone/friend
Level of
food/drink
4 0.599 0.361 Valid
according to
Alternative
needs Ordinal
Evaluation •Needs
The level of
Purchasing stability of the
5 0.701 0.361 Valid
Decision benefits of a
(Y) food/drink
The level of
stability in
6 0.471 0.361 Valid
choosing a
Buying product
• Benefits Ordinal
decision The degree of
• Products
stability in 7 0.476 0.361 Valid
choosing a brand
Level of time to
8 0.742 0.361 Valid
buy products
Post-purchase Ordinal
9 0.736 0.361 Valid
satisfaction level
Post-
The level of
purchase • Brand
decision to make
behavior 10 0.556 0.361 Valid
a repeat
purchase
Reliability Coefficient 0.845
Critical Point 0.600
Information Reliable
Figure 1: Heteroscedasticity Testing Graph
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Table 5: Data Normality Test Results
Classic Assumption Test

Heteroscedasticity Test
Based on Figure 1, it is known that the points obtained from an irregular random pattern and
if drawn vertically and horizontally at zero, these points are still divided into four quadrants,
so that the residual variance in the data is homoscedasticity.
Normality Test
Based on the results of testing the normality of data shown in Table 4, it can be seen that the
probability value obtained by each variable> 0.05 indicates that the data used is normally
distributed so that it can be said that the assumption of data normality is fulfilled.
Testing of Partial Hypotheses (t-Test)

The research hypothesis is partial as follows,
: Store atmosphere has no significant effect on the purchasing decision process of
Chicken Day Resto Bandung.
: Store atmosphere has a significant effect on the purchasing decision process of
Chicken Day Resto Bandung.
denote that significance level (α) is set to 0.05 (5%)
Based on Table 5, it is known that the t-calculated value obtained is 9.420. This value will be
compared with the t-table value in the distribution table t. With α = 0.05, df = n-k-1 = 100-1-1
= 98, obtained t-table value in the distribution table t ± 1.984. From the above values, it can
be seen that the calculated t-value is 9,420, which is outside the value of t-table (-1,984 and
1,984). In accordance with the testing criteria of the hypothesis that H0 is rejected and Ha is
accepted, it means the store atmosphere has a significant effect on the purchasing process of
the Chicken Day Resto Bandung.
Correlation Analysis
Based on Table 6, it is known that the correlation coefficient obtained is 0.689. The
correlation value is positive, which shows that the relationship that occurs is in the same
direction, where the better the store atmosphere, it will be followed by the higher process of
purchasing decisions. Based on the interpretation of the correlation coefficient, a value of
0.689 belongs to the category of strong relationships, in the class interval between 0.600 -
0.799.
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Coefficient of Determination
Based on Table 7, it can be seen that the correlation value (R) is 0.689, with a coefficient of
determination of 47.5%. From the results of the calculation above it can be seen that the
coefficient of determination obtained is 47.5%. This shows that the store atmosphere
contributes to the purchasing decision process of 47.5%, while the remaining 52.5% is a
contribution from other variables not examined.
Table 6: Linear Regression Equation Analysis
Table 7: Correlations Analysis
Table 8: Coefficient Of Determination
Conclusions
Store atmosphere in the Chicken Day Resto Bandung is categorized quite well. But the
respondent's response to the interior display indicator was at the lowest interval because the
atmosphere provided was less attractive.
The process of purchasing decisions at the Chicken Day Resto Bandung is categorized well.
But the value of the post-purchase behavior indicator has the lowest value of the other
indicators, this shows that respondents feel less satisfied after buying a product at the Chicken
Day Resto Bandung.
Store atmosphere contributes to the purchase process of Chicken Day Resto Bandung by
47.5% while the remaining 52.5% is contributed by other variables not examined. This shows
that Store Atmosphere in Bandung's Chicken Day Resto has a high influence on the
Purchasing Decision Process.
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References
Berman, B. R., & Evans, J. R. (2010). Retail Management, a Strategic Approach, 8th Edition.
New Jersey: Pearson Prenctice Hall.
Cho, J. Y., & Lee, E.-J. (2016). Impact of Interior Colors in Retail Store Atmosphere on
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Purchase Decisions. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention,
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Manganari, E. E., Siomkos, G. J., & Vrechopoulos, A. P. (2009). Store Atmosphere in Web
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Maretha, V., & Kuncoro, E. A. (2011). Pengaruh Store Atmosphere dan Store Image
Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Konsumen Pada Toko Buku Gramedia Pondok Indah.
Binus Business Review, 2(2), 979-991.
Meldarianda, R., & Henky Lisan, S. (2010). Pengaruh Store Atmosphere Terhadap Minat
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Putri, L. H., Kumadji, S., & Kusumawati, A. (2014). Pengaruh Store Atmosphere Terhadap
Keputusan Pembelian dan Kepuasan Pelanggan. Jurnal Administrasi Bisnis, 15(2), 1-9.
Satya, D., Kusumawati, A., & Mawardi, M. K. (2016). The Influence of Store Atmosphere on
Purchase Decision and It’s Impact on Customer’s Satisfaction. Jurnal Administrasi
Bisnis (JAB), 30(1), 8-16.
Singh, P. K. (2014). The Impact of Store Atmospherics and Store Layout on Consumer
Buying Patterns. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 3(8), 15-
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Sugiman, F., & Mandasari, R. (2015). Pengaruh Store Atmosphere Terhadap Keputusan
Pembelian Pada Sanctuary di Surabaya. Jurnal Hospitality dan Manajemen Jasa, 3(2),
546-560.
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(Tempo.co) Dipetik October 8, 2016, dari
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Tulipa, D., Gunawan, S., & Henky Supit, V. (2014). The Influence of Store Atmosphere on
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Waloejan, N. A. (2016). The Influence Of Store Atmosphere On Consumer Purchase
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CHANGING THE LEARNING WHEEL: GEN Z LEARNING

STYLE
Mohd Noor Azman bin Othman1, Mas Anom Abdul Rashid2, Ida Rosnita Ismail3
Sarah Artiqah Mohd Saad4; Saifurizan Norizan5; Norasyikin Misnan6
1
Faculty of Education, Humanities and Arts, Kolej University Poly-Tech MARA, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Business, Accounting and Social Science, Kolej University Poly-Tech MARA, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
3
Graduate Business School, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
4
Malaysia
5
Malaysia
6
Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The generation typology has been well and widely discussed by many throughout the years as
each generation bears its unique characteristics and the changes they bring with them. These
unique characteristics to certain extent will redefine how things are done in our daily
activities. To date there are many terms coined for this generation such as the digital natives,
Generation 2020, iGen, Gentech, Gen Wii and also the Net Gen. Regardless of the terms, one
clear characteristic of this generation is that they are born with technology. This brings about
a big change especially in the teaching and learning process. In an effort to provide an
appropriate learning environment to the students, it is important to determine an approach that
best suits the type of learners involves. Learners are generally categorized in 3 types that are
visual, auditory and kinesthetic. This study is carried out with the aim of determining the
learner type of Gen Z students at a private university college in Malaysia in an effort to
confirm popular literature which categorizes Gen Z students as kinesthetic learners. A total of
375 questionnaires consists of 30 items were distributed. However, only 305 were analyzed.
Based on the finding, interestingly contrary to the literature, it was found that most of the
students fell under the visual learners instead of kinesthetic where 34.2% were identified as
visual learners, 28.3% as kinesthetic learners while 28% were auditory learners. The
remaining 7.9% were found to have two or more traits of learner style, either AV, AK, VK
and the rest 2.3% had all the three traits. Findings also showed that the year Gen Z where
born has a significant association to their learner style. Based on the findings more
investigations should be done to justify such outcome. Future research may venture into the
cultural background of the students, as different educational and cultural background may
induce such outcome. This findings may suggest the teaching approach that needs to be
applied has to be culturally bias regardless of the universal Gen Z characters learning
requirements.
Keywords: Gen Z, learning style, Malaysia, private higher learning institute, change,
teaching approach
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The changes taking place in the society due to the development of information technology
have impacted our lives to the core. Form how we communicate, socialize to how we learn
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have witnessed changes that we once thought will not happen. The complexity of this is
being fuelled by the different type of so-called people living from one period of time to
another. These so called “people” or referred to as generation grew up with different
economic and cultural conditions and have different styles and expectation (Rothman, 2016).
Each generation is so unique that each has a name given based on the period where each was
born. To-date there are five generations starting with the veterans, the baby-boomer, X
generation (Gen X), followed by the Y gen (Gen Y)(Millenials) and now the Z generation
(Gen Z). The world is actually preparing to welcome the alpha generation into the
generational typology as the Gen Z people are nearing end of their period already. With such
unique and well defined characteristic, people living in each generation act according to their
surrounding in order to life comfortably with their lifestyle.
As each generation grew up in time the learning process that are parallel with it can never be
separated from each generation. Throughout the years different teaching theories and
approaches have been formulated and experimented on each generation according to each
generation characteristics in trying to best deliver a meaningful learning experience to the
people involved so what is learnt will be applied in carrying out their daily activity
comfortably. This is important because these people or cohorts possess common views,
values and attitudes and share a universal knowledge of life (Edmund & Turner, 2005).
It is important to understand the types of learners involves in the teaching and learning
process as the outcome of a successful teaching learning relies on the appropriate method
used in the process. Education is less about the transfer of knowledge from teacher to student
and more about helping students make sense of the over-abundance of information available
to them (Seemiller and Grace, 2016). Therefore, in order to teach effectively , it is vital to
tailor what the students’ habits and needs to the approach applied in the proess (University of
British Columbia, 2019). With that, being asserted , the underpinning concept of learning is
that the approach or method use in the process must be appropriate with the learners’ learning
style.
Much has been researched and studied pertaining to learners’ learning style in identifying the
learners’ type, the VAK Model has been widely use in many studies, as it matches with the
nature of the learner individually in the classroom (Heekstall, 2016).
VAK stands for visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning style, sometimes the word tactile is
used with the acronym to make it becomes VAKT get in most cases tactile is merged with
physical interactions and this includes tactile which refers to tangible feel.
As the discussion stresses the important of applying the appropriate stresses, the important of
applying the appropriate approach for certain learners the focus of the study is on the learners
themselves as subjects as it is important to distinguish the type of learner the subjects of the
study are.
Gen Z being the subject being studied are people born between the year 1995 – 2010.
Several terms have been coined out describing this generation. Some of the terms are the
digital natives, the 2020 Generation. They are not only different learners but also different in
values and goals compared to the previous generation which is the Gen Y. Hence, the
assumptions of Gen Y in the teaching and learning process may not apply to them.
As generation changes and so does the belief, values and attitudes. It is important to
determine the type of learners Gen Z are because compared to their predecessor, especially
when their learning needs reflects the changing world fuelled by new technology (Chum et
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al., 2016).N order to make sure the teaching and learning process is still relevant and
meaningful to this generation teaching styles and approaches would need to be aligned to Gen
Z values and learning styles
This will also help not only the students but also the teacher to be more effective in
performing their duties.
The VAK self-assessment of learning styles differentiate each learner in what is labelled as
one’s learning style and this is important matching the educators teaching methods to match
with the learners’ learning preferences will allow the learner to acquire better understanding
of the subject matter (Cegulski, Hazan, Rainer, n.d, p 136).
Research Objectives
This study is carried out to determine the actual learning style of Gen Z students as proposed
by literature. This findings will eventually be used to prepare the teaching staff at a private
university to stay relevant with the changing world of education induced by technology savvy
Gen Z students.
Research Questions
There are four research questions formulated for the study. They are :
RQ1: What is the main type of learners are Gen Z students?
RQ2: Is there are any association between the year Gen Z was born with the learning style?
RQ3: Does academic program level undertaken by a Gen Z student have any relation to the
learning styles?
RQ4: Does Gen Z gender have any relation to the learning styles?
Literature Review
Gen Z are those born between 1995 – 2012. They are given many names such as ‘Sharing
Generation. The generation that is “All technology All the Time” and “Born Digital” (Barnes
& Noble College, 2019). The oldest of this generation are now leaving colleges and
universities. Gen Z are seen as more independent than their predecessors. Among other
characteristics of the generation apart from being tech-savvy, are the “all technology all the
time” term. They are also passionate about the importance and value of higher education;
particularly in the way it provides access to career that interest them and reward them
financially. According to Beal (2019), Gen Z are also focused, multi-taskers, bargainers,
early-starter, more entrepreneurial, high expectation, individualistic and global.With such
varied characteristics compared to their predecessors. Meeting Gen Z expectation will be a
very big challenge due to generation gap between them and their educators.
Teaching and Learning

The teaching and learning process is the result of two words combine together that are
teaching and learning. Teaching on its own means intervention that involved the planning
and implementation of instructional activities and experience to meet attended learner
outcomes according to the teaching plan while learning is the relatively permanent change in
an individual’s behavior that can occur at any time or pace as a resut of consciously exposed
to the learning material. Therefore, the teaching and learning process is the most powerful
instrument of education to bring about desired changes in the students (Daber, 2013) that is
why determining the learner type in Gen Z to deliver meaningful learning experience is
important.
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Learners Learning Style

Learners learning style indicates an individual’s preferential focus on different types of
information. The different ways of perceiving information and the rate of understanding
information or in other words an individual’s mode of gaining knowledge (Dictionary.com,
2012).
Traditionally learners learning style is assessed using KOLB learning style inventory (LSI)
(Manocheri & Young, 2006). It is used to measure the degree to which individuals displays
the learning derived from experiential learning theory.
More recent studies now used the VAK which was developed by psychologists in 1920s to
classify the most common ways that people learn (Mindtools, 2019). The classification is
being labelled into three main model which are the visual, followed by auditory and
kinesthetic. At times, researchers used an additional model which is the tactile. Due to
overlaying elements tactile is often being absorbed in the kinesthetic style.
The Visual Learner Model

The visual learner have two sub-channels that are linguistics and spatial. Learners who are
visual-linguistic like to learn through written language such as reading and writing tasks.
They remember what they have written down even though they do not learn read it many
times.
Meanwhile, the visual spatial learners usually have difficulty in written language but they
perform better in dealing with charts demonstrations, videos and other visual materials. They
recognize faces and their surrounding easily
Auditory Learner Model

Auditory learners often talks to themselves. They tend to move their lips and read out loud.
They have difficulties when dealing with reading and writing tasks yet have an advantage
when it comes to talking to colleagues or learning what was said.
Kinesthetic Learner Model

Kinesthetic learners tend to have advantage from both ends. They perform best when it
comes to touching and moving. They also have to sub-channels that are the actual kinesthetic
which involves movement and tactile that is reflecting the touching aspect a learner’s
preference. This is in reference to the statement stressed earlier that sometimes tactile is not
needed in isolation but rather being combined with kinesthetic.
Kinesthetic learners tend to lose concentration if there is little or not external stimulation or
movement when listening to lectures they tend to take down notes for the sake of moving
their hands or scan the reading material before they actually read it. They normally used
color highlighters and take down notes by drawing pictures, diagrams or at times doodling
(nw link.com., 2019).
Research Methodology
This is a quantitative research whereby a set of questionnaires were distributed to 380
respondents all over 8 campuses of Kolej Poly-Tech MARA all over Malaysia. A total of
304 data where analysed using the descriptive frequency analysis of the demographic factors,
crosstab and chi-square to determine the association between Gen Z year-born and learning
style, program level and learning style as well as gender and learning style.
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The instrument used is the VAK questionnaire whereby the total A, B or C or the
respondents’ response will determine the type of learning style the respondent is. It consist of
two section, Section A is for the demographic factors while Section B is for the VAK 30
items.
Respondents take only 10 minutes to answer the questionnaire given to them.
Findings
A descriptive frequency analysis were conducted on the data. The following are the details of
the findings.
Table 1: Demographic factor frequency analysis
NO. ITEMS N %
1. Year born :
1995 22 7.2
1996 41 13.2
1997 44 14.5
1998 45 14.8
1999 50 16.4
2000 97 31.9
2001 4 1.3
Others (before 1 0.3
1995)
2. Gender
Male 124 40.8
Female 179 58.9
3. Program Level
Foundation 0 0
Diploma 157 51.6
Degree 112 36.8
Professional 35 11.5
4. Semester :
1 35 12.5
2 17 5.6
3 108 35.5
4 36 11.8
5 36 11.8
6 35 11.5
7 25 8.2
8 24 1.3
9 4 1.3
10 0 0
11 3 1.0
12 2 0.7
5. Campus :
KUPTM KL 139 45.7
KPTM Ipoh 13 4.3
KPTM Kota Bharu 28 9.2
KPTM Batu Pahat 1 0.3
KPTM Bangi 61 20.1
KPTM Alor Setar 18 5.9
KPTM Kuantan 41 5.9
KPTM Semporna 3 1.0
The majority of Gen Z students responded to the questionnaire were the ones born in the year
2000 (32%) followed by 1999 (16.4%) and 1998 (14.8%). The number of the students based
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on campuses are not even as they are students representing their campuses at a national sports
event.
The second item is gender where there are 40.8 % male and 58.9% female respondents
participating in the survey. Among them, the majority comes from the diploma program
(51.6%) while 36.8% comes from the degree program. The majority of the respondents are
the 3rd semester students (35.5%) while the rest of the respondents comes from various
semesters.
Most of them comes from KUPTM KL branch campus as there are 139 (45.7%) followed by
KPTM Bangi, 61 (20.1%) and Kota Bharu 28 or 9.2% students. The number of respondents
coming from the rest of the campuses are not prominent as they fall below 10%.
The data were then run and analyze again using the chi-square crosstab analyses to answer
the research questions mentioned earlier
RQ1: What is the main type of learners are Gen Z students?

A frequency descriptive analysis was conducted on the data and the finding is shown in Table
2 below.
Table 2: Frequency Analysis on Learning Style of Gen Z
learning_style
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Visual 104 34.2 34.2 34.2
Auditory 85 28.0 28.0 62.2
Kinesthetic 86 28.3 28.3 90.5
visual +auditory 13 4.3 4.3 94.7
visual+kinesthetic 8 2.6 2.6 97.4
auditory+kinesthetic 1 .3 .3 97.7
all 3 7 2.3 2.3 100.0
Total 304 100.0 100.0
Based on Table 2, it was found that the majority of Gen Z who are born between the year
1995 – 2001 was found to be a visual learners (34.2%), while the other 28.3% was kinesthetic
and 28% auditory. The rest of them spread from a combination of visual and auditory, visual
and kinesthetic kind of learners. While on 2.3% is a combination of all three types of
learners.
Therefore Ho1 Gen Z are not kinesthetic learners is accepted.
RQ2: Is there are any association between the Gen Z’s year-born learning style?
The following table is the result of RQ2.
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Table 3 Chi-Square Tests

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 59.164a 42 .041
Likelihood Ratio 61.830 42 .025
Linear-by-Linear
1.987 1 .159
Association
N of Valid Cases 304
a. 38 cells (67.9%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .00.
Table 4 symmetric measures

Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Nominal by Nominal Phi .441 .041
Cramer's V .180 .041
Based on Table 3, the findings indicate that there is a significant association between learning
style and the year-born of Gen Z as the Pearson Chi-Square shows a significant value of p
<.05, the test showed there is a significant association between year-born and learning style of
Gen Z.
Therefore, Ho2 There is no significant association between learning style and year born of
Gen Z is rejected.
Table 5: Crosstabulation between learning style and year-born

year_born * learning_style Crosstabulation
learning_style Total
auditory+
kinestheti visual visual+kin kinestheti
visual auditory c +auditory esthetic c all 3
year_ 1995 Count 11 4 7 0 0 0 0 22
born Expected Count 7.5 6.2 6.2 .9 .6 .1 .5 22.0
1996 Count 16 12 13 0 0 0 0 41
Expected Count 14.0 11.5 11.6 1.8 1.1 .1 .9 41.0
1997 Count 20 9 11 1 1 0 2 44
Expected Count 15.1 12.3 12.4 1.9 1.2 .1 1.0 44.0
1998 Count 12 9 18 0 2 0 4 45
Expected Count 15.4 12.6 12.7 1.9 1.2 .1 1.0 45.0
1999 Count 9 21 13 2 4 0 1 50
Expected Count 17.1 14.0 14.1 2.1 1.3 .2 1.2 50.0
2000 Count 35 28 22 10 1 1 0 97
Expected Count 33.2 27.1 27.4 4.1 2.6 .3 2.2 97.0
2001 Count 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 4
Expected Count 1.4 1.1 1.1 .2 .1 .0 .1 4.0
Othe Count 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
rs Expected Count .3 .3 .3 .0 .0 .0 .0 1.0
104 85 86 13 8 1 7 304
Total Count
Expected Count 7
104.0 85.0 86.0 13.0 8.0 1.0 . 304.0
0
Table 5 showed that Gen Z born in the year 2000 has more visual learning style compared to
the rest of the years and learning style.
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RQ3: Does academic program level undertaken by a Gen Z student have any
association to the learning styles?
A Chi-Square Test was also conducted on the data to get the findings to answer this RQ3.
Table 6 : Chi-Square Tests
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Linear-by-Linear
.244 1 .621
Association
Based on table 6 findings, Pearson Chi-Square indicated that p > .05, therefore there is a
significant association between program level and Gen Z learning style. Ho3 There is no
significant association between Gen Z program level undertaken and learning style is
rejected.
Table 7: Symmetric measures

Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Table :8 Program level crosstabulation with learning style

program_level * learning_style Crosstabulation
learning_style
visual+ auditory
kinesthe visual kinesth +kinest
visual auditory tic +auditory etic hetic all 3 Total
Program Diploma Count 48 54 34 11 4 1 5 157
level Expected
53.7 43.9 44.4 6.7 4.1 .5 3.6 157.0
Count
Degree Count 46 25 36 0 3 0 2 112
Expected
38.3 31.3 31.7 4.8 2.9 .4 2.6 112.0
Count
Profession Count 10 6 16 2 1 0 0 35
al Expected
12.0 9.8 9.9 1.5 .9 .1 .8 35.0
Count
Total Count 104 85 86 13 8 1 7 304
Expected
104.0 85.0 86.0 13.0 8.0 1.0 7.0 304.0
Count
Table 8 also showed that the the total number of visual type of learning style is at 104 which
is the majority number of learning style, however, the diploma level students are more to
auditory learning style. The degree level students on the other hand, are more to visual
learning style and so does the professional students.
RQ4: Does Gen Z gender have any association to the learning styles?
Table 9 below explains the result of RQ4.
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Table 9: Chi-Square Test

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Linear-by-Linear
1.647 1 .199
Association
Based on Table 9, the findings showed a Pearson Chi-Square p > .05. It can be concluded
that there is no significant association between gender and Gen Z learning style. Therefore,
Ho4 There is no significant association between gender and Gen Z learning style is accepted
Table 10: Symmetric measures
Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Table 11: Crosstabulation between gender and learning style

gender * learning_style Crosstabulation
learning_style
auditor kinesth visual visual+ki auditory+
Visual y etic +auditory nesthetic kinesthetic all 3 Total
Gender Male Count 45 33 38 5 1 1 1 124
Expected
42.4 34.7 35.1 5.3 3.3 .4 2.9 124.0
Count
Female Count 59 52 48 8 7 0 6 180
Expected
61.6 50.3 50.9 7.7 4.7 .6 4.1 180.0
Count
Total Count 104 85 86 13 8 1 7 304
Expected
104.0 85.0 86.0 13.0 8.0 1.0 7.0 304.0
Count
Discussion and Conclusion

Based on the findings, this study has shown that contrary to other studies such as Barnes &
Noble College (2019) showed that most of its respondents are kinesthetic, followed by visual
and auditory. While possible explanation would be the teaching approach applied at the
college. The education system in America stresses on students exploratory skills by doing
and information searching which require ones’ movement which promote more doing than
listening (auditory) and watching (visual).
Students at this private college on the other hand being exposed to power-point presentation
in lectures which explains why they are visual learners. Auditory is the result of watching
followed by listening at to the lectures. But this does not mean that the teaching approach
does not promote exploratory skill but the stress is not as focus as the other two mentioned
previously. Therefore, the Gen Z students at this private college are more visual and auditory
compared to kinesthetic.
For the second research question, it was found that there is an association between year born
and learning style. This could be due to the changing technology exposed to the students. It
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was found that the earlier Gen Z students are more visual compare to the ones born in the
middle or end of the generation. As mentioned, we have witness a rapid change brought
about by technology does affect the learners’ preference in learning. One example is the
social media application that has been so influential to these learners. One will be replaced
by another which is more preferred by them. Such example are “MySpace”, “Friendster”
which has been taken over by Facebook and Instagram.
For research question 3, it was found that the program level does have some influence on Gen
Z learning style. This corresponds to the findings from research question 2 as the younger
cohort and the older cohort for Gen Z have different learning preferences due to their
exposure to technology.
Lastly, for research question 4, it was found that there is no relevant connection between
gender and learning style. One explanation could be both sexes are being exposed to
technology equally to technology in their lives hence, both tend to be ab le to perform
sparingly.
Based on the overall findings, it could be recommended that future research should
investigate the disparity between the findings in the Malaysian and international setting of
Gen Z learning style when more research should explore the possibility of cultural norm and
social-economic background of the respondents in terms of determining the extension of their
exposure of technology they received. By doing so, it is hoped to provide a clearer
explanation on the anomaly found in this study.
References
Barnes and Noble College (2019). Getting to know Gen Z.
Beall, G. (2019) 8 key differences betwenn Gen z and Millenials.
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/8-key-between-b-12814200
Chun et al. (2016). Teaching generation Z at the University of Hawaii.
Cegielski, C.G., Hazen, B.T. & Rainer, R.K. (n.d) Teach the how to learn: Learning styles
and information system education. Journal of Information System Education, 22(2),
135-146. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
Edmund, J., Turner B. (2005). Global Generation: Social Change in the Twentieth century.
“British Journal of sociology., 56. Pp 599-77.
Daher, J. (2013). Teaching and learning process. https://www.slideshare.net/sjaser/teaching
and learning process.
Dictionary.com (2012). Learning style/definition. Retrieved from Dictitonary.com.
http://dictionary.refernce.com/browse/learning& style.
Heekstall, A. (2016). Why you should use VAK learning style to repurpose your content.
htpps://www.craft yourcontent.com/VAK-learning-styles/
http://www.mdle.net/Journal/A Tsunami of Learners Called Generation Z.pdf.
Mindtools (2019). VAK learning style. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/articles/VAK-
learning-style-htm.
nwlink.com (2019). Visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning style. http://nwlink.com/-
donclark/hrd/styles/vakt.html.
Seemiller C. & Meghan. G. (2016). Generation Z Goes to College. Josey Bass. San
Francisco.
University of British Columiba (2019). The Learning Process, htpps://learning
commons.ubc.ca/tutoring-studying/selfassessment/the-learning-process/
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COHERENCE AMONG THE SENSEMAKER IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF BLACK RICE FARMING
Rahmawati Zulfiningrum1,2 Sumardjo2, Amiruddin Saleh2, Ivanovich Agusta2

1
Departement of Communication Science, Faculty of Computer Science, Dian Nuswantoro University, Jl. Imam
Bonjol No. 207, Semarang 50131, Central Java, Indonesia
2
Departement of Communication Science and Community Development, Faculty of Human Ecology, IPB
University, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, West Java, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Black rice is one of the alternative food that can help to overcome the problems of
degenerative diseases, such as heart attacks and diabetes that caused by food consumption
and unhealthy lifestyle because it has high anthocyanin and fiber content. This study
proposed a sensemaking theory to understand coherence. Phenomenology was used to find
out how sensemakers were involved in understanding the development of black rice farming
program in Sirampog Sub-district, Brebes District. Through an in-depth interview process,
analyzing seven characteristics of sensemaking and the trigger of sensemaking is applied to
sort out the information that causes ambiguity and uncertainty that were analyzed using
NVivo 12. The results showed that to achieve coherence of sensemakers are influenced by
indigenous knowledge, various constraints of program development, equivocality, and
program information in choosing the sensible actions. Retrospective and extracted cues
affected the sensemakers in the sensemaking process, driven by plausibility applied to collect
various information. The propose framework is the sensemaker coherence by implementing a
collective action among the sensemakers in order to achieve sustainable development of black
rice farming program.
Keywords: black rice, coherence, program development, sensemaker
Introduction
Black rice is very different when compared with black sticky rice or other rice, in terms of
taste, aroma or appearance is very specific and unique. The results showed that black rice is
very good for preventing the risk of heart attack because it has a fiber content of food and
hemicellulose is much higher than white rice (Narwidina 2009). The content analysis of
macro nutrients and the glycemic index of color rice bars, recommends black rice as an
intermediate food for diabetic nephropathy because it has the lowest glycemic index and
glycemic load (Sekar & Ayustaningwarno 2013).
Starting from a Farmer Empowerment program through Agricultural Technology and

Information (FEATI) that facilitates Farmer Manage Activities (FMA), farmers plan and
manage activities according to their needs. One Village One Product (OVOP) to develop
people's economy based on local potential, bring forth black rice as an excellent product of
the Brebes District from the analysis of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach.
Success and failure in the development is determined by two important things,
communication and community involvement (Servaes 2008).
Communication requires various types of approaches based on local contexts and basic needs.
There is ambiguity and uncertainty in the development and program communication.
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Ambiguity is related to the nature of the problem, information, and program objectives.
Uncertainty in terms of the roles, responsibilities and steps in achieving program successful.
The research is focused on the main issue, the development of the potential black rice farming
in Sirampog sub-district, Brebes District by applied the study of organizational
communication through sensemaking theory. According to this background, the purpose of
study was analyze the coherence among the sensemakers in the development of black rice
farming programs.
Literature review
Definition and concepts of sensemaking
An organization consists of a group of people who work together to achieve a common goal,
the form of organization is greater than the individuals and groups that make it up but smaller
than the community that provides context and environment (Eunson 2015). Organization
according to Weick (1995) is the result of an evolutionary process of organizing and directing
the root of sensemaking. The study of sensemaking coherence looks at the communication
process that occurs in the development of black rice farming programs in an organizational
context. The word sense is assumed to be shared a mutual understanding (Little John & Foss
2009).
This theory is inspired by the progress of a constructional, interpretive, phenomenological

social perspective and triggered the emergence of organizational processes studies that have a
real impact on the organizational practice literature (Sandberg & Tsoukas 2015).
Sensemaking refers to the processes by which people search sensibly to understand issues or
events that are ambiguous, unclear or confusing (Brown et al. 2015). Program definition is a
statement that contains conclusions from several expectations or goals that are interrelated, to
achieve a common goals (Muhaimin et al. 2009). Programs trigger the underlying causal
mechanisms, often rooted in cognitive processes that occur within one's thinking and
influenced by context and history (Westhorp 2014).
According to the participatory view, sensemaking encourages involvement with members of

the organization studied and fully recognizes the social construction aspects of sensemaking
activities. The participatory approach depends on the conception of social reality.
Participatory tends to question the relationship of power and influence organization, as well
as the interests that are considered contradictory and can hamper participatory approaches
(Luqman 2018). Without innovative change, organizations face the danger of creating
confusion and obsolescence (Naaranoja 2015).
Methodology
The study used a qualitative approach and the constructivism paradigm. According to
Creswell (2007) the constructivism paradigm suggests that knowledge is obtained when
researchers are able to understand how the perspective of the resource person. A qualitative
approach with phenomenological methods was applied to build an understanding of the
development of black rice farming programs based on the viewpoint of the sensemaker and to
find out the coherence among the sensemaker.
The phenomenon that was observed is the communication process in developing black rice
farming programs in seven villages, Sridadi, Kaligiri, Mendala, Mlayang, Manggis, Kaliloka,
and Plompong in Sirampog sub-district, Brebes District. The process of data collection uses
several ways: (1) in-depth interviews, (2) observation, (3) history, (4) Focus Group
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Discussion (FGD), and (5) documentation. The study was conducted from September 2017 to
December 2018.
Encoding with NVivo 12 software is used to coding data effectively and efficiently and form
the main categories according to data sources (Bandur 2016). Encoding uses thematic coding
or pattern coding by labeling the text and categorizing information according to the main
topic. The second stage of coding uses theories and concepts, the results of coding analysis
are used as the third step guide to analyze coherence among the sensemaker.
Results and Discussion

The activity of developing a black rice farming program in Sirampog District, Brebes
Regency has its own characteristics, therefore it was developed by the Department of
Agriculture through the Counseling Executing Agency (Bapeluh) with funding from the
APBD of Brebes District 2015. It began in the 2008 FEATI program to produce OVOP, and
conduct PRA assessments of potential areas. After FEATI was over, the program
development was continued until the beginning of 2017 by referring to the extension
activities technical guidelines for alternative food sources for the development of Sirampog
black rice.
Sirampog is one of the sub-districts in the mountainous area of Brebes District and a center of
vegetable producing. The success of developing a black rice farming program requires an
effective communication process among the sensemaker (actors who are involved in the
development of black rice farming programs). The sensemaker in developing black rice
farming programs as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Sensemaker in the development of black rice farming program

No Sensemaker Interest Communication
Pattern
1 Farmer Increasing the economy, conserving black rice Linear
2 PPL (Field Extension Conserving black rice, increasing the Interactive
Officer) community economy
3 BPP (Agricultural Conserving black rice, increasing the Interactive
Extension Center) community welfare, community
empowerment
4 Gapoktan (Combined of Increasing the farmers income Interactive
Farmers Group)
5 Sorting Personnel Increasing the economy Linear
6 Traders Black rice has high economic value Relational
7 Consumer Black rice is beneficial for health Relational
8 Department of Conserving black rice, bring up new excellent Linear
Agriculture products, increasing the community economy
9 Local Government Poverty resolve, increasing the community Linear
economy
10 Baperlitbangda (Agency Increasing the agricultural potential Linear
of Development
Planning, Research, and
Regional Development)
11 Head of sub-district Increasing the community economy Linear
12 Head of Village Increasing the community economy Linear
The Sirampog community rediscovered the black rice seeds inherited from their ancestors
from generation to generation, and began to develop them. People often think that black rice
is black sticky rice, as a result, people know less about the differences and benefits. Black
Rice Sirampog has hard stems and is twice as high as ordinary rice around 170-210 cm.
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The colour of the yellow grain is rather greyish black, the shape of the grain is round shiny,
and the colour is purplish black. If exposed to water the color is directly out, so it can be
consumed as an herbal drink for the health. The results analysis of long term development
goals of the black rice program through acceleration of regional development as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2: The analysis of long term development goals through acceleration of regional development
No Purpose Perception Solution
1 Conservation of black rice Conservation of black Increasing the participation all of
germplasm sources as a rice needs to be sensemakers through programs
local specific product in increased and communication, and purification
Sirampog sub-district availability of stock activities of Sirampog black rice
maintained throughout seeds
the year
2 Develop and increase the The ability of farmers to Improving the farmer's capability
ability of farmers to cultivate black rice through the cultivation technical
cultivate black rice needs to be improved training
3 Increasing the farmers' Farmers' income through Increasing the farmers income
income through black rice black rice agribusiness through product processing and
agribusiness needs to be increased product innovation training to
overcome marketing constraints
4 Facilitating pilot activities Pilot activities need to Continuing the program development
in the development of be improved
black rice in Sirampog sub-
district
The development of the black rice program is related to continuity. Conservation efforts are
carried out so that black rice does not extinction, through a wider planting program to other
villages in the Sirampog sub-district that are eligible to grow and develop well to meet the
market needs of black rice. The results of the objectives activities for alternative food sources,
black rice development in Sirampog sub-district as shown in Table 3.
Table 3: The analysis of the objectives activities for alternative food sources
black rice development in Sirampog sub-district
No Target Fact Solution
1 Increased of black rice Productivity has Increasing the participation of
productivity decreased farmers to join in the program
development
2 Expansion of planting areas Planted area has Program communication is needed
in each year decreased so that farmers understand the
objectives and stages of program
achievement
Constraints of the program development

Based on the data obtained, condition of the development of black rice program has
decreased. It can be analyzed from a variety factors such as a decrease in the number of
farmers, in the initial data on program development there are 38 farmers with a total planting
area of around 13.55 Ha. In 2018, the number of farmers declined to 14 people with a total
planting area of around 5.35 Ha, and the program development was affected by budget
rationalization (trimming). All of the interview results after the transcription phase was
analyzed and obtained the word frequency result-excel query. The resulted data analysis from
NVivo 12 are: (1) word cloud, (2) tree map, and (3) word tree. Word cloud display to help
and identify the key words. The size of words that appear frequently and larger than other
words, shows the main themes are raised by the sensemaker like word of farmers, planting,
rice, birds, and villages. Word cloud results as presented in Figure 1.
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Figure 1: Word cloud analysis of the development of black rice farming program
Tree map shows the extent of the response to one topic. The largest box size indicates the
higher number of references for a particular topic. Based on the results of tree map, the words
of rice, black, planting and farmers have the highest number of references, besides the word
of program, it shows that planting black rice as indigenous knowledge of the local community
is one of the important elements that influence the program development process. The next
word that appears in the tree map is development that describes program activities, word of
Sirampog and village refers to location. Word trees have different parts with vertices that are
related to each other (Masood & Lodhi 2015). Word of good that refers to the quality of black
rice seeds owned by the Sirampog community shows pride in the local superior products they
have, birds refer to pests which are the main obstacles in the development of black rice and
have a significant impact on the word that appears next harvest. The word of area, community
and planting showed the reasons for community activities in the development of programs
which initially planted in small amounts, and when there was a program they carried out a
larger number of planting movements. The word of lack that appear shows that the current
condition of program development has decreased.
Word tree illustrates the link between the main word, the program and the informant's speech
pattern. Text search queries display different patterns and help to explore new themes that are
related to other themes. At this stage, the program is the main word and the response
associated with the program is mapped on the left and right side. The word tree analysis from
the right side shows that one of the reasons why the black rice development program was
affected by budget rationalization is because the local government considers the program is
able to run, while from the farmer side it hopes the program can be continued, the funds will
not be trimmed and local governments can full support. Word tree analysis shows the main
patterns in program development from the beginning to the current conditions.
Word tree also shows that the development of the program continues even though there is no
funding support from the local government through the word "cultivated but there is still an
invitation", "hopefully more will be adjusted", and the word "cannot develop like this" shows
the development of farmers get a variety of benefits so that it can better manage black rice
farming. There is a conflict in the program development, it can be seen from the emergence
of name conflict, and the community in each village feels that quality of their black rice is the
best than others. When black rice will be named from one of the villages, the other villagers
objected and finally the name is Sirampog black rice.
The left side of word tree shows that the program development brought a cultural change to
indigenous knowledge of the local community which initially grew black rice slightly
changed to become wider. The main constraints like the two sides of the currency contained
in the program development are also seen from the word of rapid, program, and payment that
related to the management of the development which is currently carried out independently. If
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the program develops rapidly it would have an impact on Gapoktan, because the Gapoktan
agreement system must be directly pay to the farmers when the farmers submit their crops
with cash turnover, while funding from Gapoktan is still limited.
Coherence among the sensemaker

The coherence framework of sensemakers in understanding the development of black rice
farming programs is influenced by indigenous knowledge. The community is accustomed to
planting black rice as a protective plants to be save, maintains the soil fertility, in a small
planting area, and planted on the corner of the tulakan land (top) or bawahan land (bottom).
Black rice is usually consumed as a mixture of rice, corn or ordinary rice to add flavour and
aroma (fragrance) and for health drinks. Coherence analysis among the sensemakers as
presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Coherence analysis among the sensemakers
A variety of major constraints in program development are: (1) trimming of budget programs,
(2) weak understanding of local knowledge, (3) communication program is not
comprehensive, (4) low farmer participation, (5) long of planting period, (6) number of bird
pests (7) season constraints, (8) cultivation techniques are very location specific, (9)
marketing difficulties, and (10) limited farmer’s land. Equivocality of the sensemaker due to
the harvesting effects in 2011, the farmers was enthusiastic about planting so there was
production over and marketing difficulties.
Programs communication are very necessary to convey the goals of program development
and stages of achievement to the community as a whole to overcome the limitations of
program information. Various constraints and limitations on the development of black rice
farming programs have caused a low coherence among the sensemaker. Retrospective action
and extracted cues are carried out to collect various information on program development that
is driven by plausibility rather than accuracy. Communication coherence among the
sensemaker can be achieved through collective action.
Conclusion and Recommendations

Communication in the development of black rice farming programs does not achieve
coherence. The low coherence of the sensemaker is a weak understanding of indigenous
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knowledge, a variety of constraints in the program development, equivocality of the

sensemaker, and limitations of the program information. Coherence can be achieved when
there is an implementation of a collective action among the sensemaker to reach a collective
agreement in the sustainable of program development.
In our future work, we intend to develop a sensemaking perspective in examining between

farmers and the Agriculture Service Department. Not only based on testing the field, but also
applying coherence sensemaking to find common ground from two different views.
Extending the reach of sensemaking theory to research in the field of organizational
communication for the development of sustainable agricultural development programs.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank for financial support from the SEAMEO (Science and
Education for Agriculture and Development) SEARCA (Southeast Asian Regional Center for
Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture).
References
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Approaches, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks (US): Sage Publications.
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(US): Sage Publications.
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CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK FROM COGNITIVE THEORIES

PERSPECTIVE (INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS, OUTPUT
HYPOTHESIS, & NOTICING HYPOTHESIS)
Mohammad Halabieh1
1
Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zaianal Abidin (UniSZA), Terengganu, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
After the mid of the 20th century the educational research witnessed the emergence of theories
in this field. Moreover, circa 1970s corrective feedback has been studied scholarly. Thus,
from the light of several theories, corrective feedback was studied. The researcher tried to
formulate in a bird-view of some hypotheses, i.e. Swain’s Output Hypothesis, Long’s
Interaction Hypothesis and Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis, that dealt with corrective
feedback in order to encapsulate their views. This paper attempted to discover how they are
related to corrective feedback. The researcher started the article with defining theory and
corrective feedback. Then, he discussed each hypothesis separately; he briefly started with an
overview of the hypothesis, and then discussed its relationship with corrective feedback.
Keywords: corrective feedback, Output Hypothesis, Noticing Hypothesis, Interaction
Hypothesis
Introduction to Theory and Corrective Feedback

Theory: Definition and Importance
Since the mid of the 20th century, theory in educational research has been developing (Halpin,
1958; Griffiths, 1959). One may wonder: what is the role of theory? Simply it explains the
observed regularities (Bryman& Bell, 2011, p 7). Moreover, to dig more deeply, we could
resort to Kerlinger (1986) who defined it as a “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts),
definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying
relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
Since theory is a pivotal point in educational and social research, it has been discussed
extensively (Thomas, 2017). A significant feature of research in educational field is using
theory to “explain and predict phenomena in educational organizations” (Lunenburg, 2011).
Another question may be posed: what is the relation between theory and research? There are
two distinct approaches in viewing the relation between them.
Deductive Approach: Theory research
Inductive Approach: Research (empirical findings)
theory
The first is deductive approach; in which, theory guides the research, whereas, the
other is inductive approach; in which, theory results after reaching the empirical
findings. Creswell (1994) suggested that "a theory may emerge during the data
collection and analysis phase or be used relatively late in the research process as a
basis for comparison with other theories” (pp. 94-95).
According to Thomas (2017) theory could be about:
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a. “The ability to go above your reading and your findings to see a shape in them to
devise, metaphorically, some sort of organizing template through which you can look
at your reading and findings.
b. Seeing the interconnections and trying to understand how and why they exist.
c. Going beyond mere description to explanation.”
Thomas (2017) advises scholars in the social sciences to be aware of the multiple different
meanings of theory. He elaborates about theory meanings: 1.It could mean “generalizing or
explanatory model”, 2.It may refer to the “thinking side of practice”, 3.It could be
“developing body of explanation”, 4.it may be a “scientific theory”, or 5. a “grand theory”
Corrective Feedback: Definition and Importance

Feedback is given and received nowadays on a daily-basis. The main purpose of
corrective feedback is to cause a positive change on the receiver (Xhama, 2018).
Lightbown and Spada (2013) defined feedback as “any indication to the learners
that their use of the target language is incorrect”. Ellis & Shintani (2014) considered
error correction as “responses to learner utterances that contain an error either oral
or written”.
The importance of corrective feedback springs from perceiving it as a useful
strategy to motivate students to write and revise their writings (Agbayahoun, 2016).
Besides, corrective feedback could push students to promote their language
(Klimova, 2015). Moreover, students who received corrective feedback passed their
examinations with flying colors and showed a remarkable progress (Ahmad et al,
2013).
As for the relation between theory and corrective feedback, Sheen and Ellis (2011)
stated that cognitive theories assert that corrective feedback promotes language
acquisition in case learners concentrated mainly on “meaning, commit errors and
receive feedback that they recognize as corrective”. Below the researcher will
present corrective feedback in the main cognitive theories, viz, Long’s Interaction
Hypothesis (1983, 1996), Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985, 1995) and Schmidt’s
Noticing Hypothesis (1994, 2001). Cognitive theories of language acquisition
consider implicit knowledge (integrated, procedural, automatic) necessary for
language acquisition (Diab, 2015). Though corrective feedback is discussed in every
theory in second language acquisition, only these three hypotheses were chosen
because they consider corrective feedback contributing extensively to acquiring
second language (Sheen & Ellis, 2011).Many Claims, despite their confusion, are
made by cognitivists about the ideal type of corrective feedback that enhances
language acquisition the most.
Overview of Long’s Interaction Hypothesis

Interactions in second language education according to the linguist Allwright (1984)
are ‘fundamental fact of pedagogy’. Moreover, Yee et al (2016) suggested that
“interactions serve a major source of language data, augmenting the learning
process by encouraging the active processing and generation of original content in
one’s L2”. Several scholars asserted the efficient role of interactions in learning
language (Leslie, 2015, 2012; Yang, 2012; Ognio, 2008). Moreover, language is
developed through both meaning negotiation and interaction (Ghaemi & Salehi,
2014).
In a nutshell, this hypothesis, as opposed to Krashen’s input and acquisition
hypothesis, highlights the role of interactions in second-language learning. It is
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credited to Long (1996) who proposed that “environmental contributions to

acquisition are mediated by selective attention and the learner’s developing L2
processing capacity, and these resources are brought together most usefully,
although not exclusively, during negotiation of meaning. Negative feedback
obtained in negotiation work or elsewhere may be facilitative of SL development, at
least for vocabulary, morphology and language-specific syntax, and essential for
learning certain specifiable Ll-L2 contrasts. (1996, p. 414. For some researchers
nowadays it is no more a hypothesis, but they refer to it as an approach or a model.
Corrective Feedback and Interaction Hypothesis

In addition to corrective feedback, interaction hypothesis encapsulates some aspects
of Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1982, 1985) and Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985,
1995). The main constructs to understand the mechanism of learning second
language are: 1. Input: exposure to language, 2. Output: production of language, and
3. Interaction: feedback on production.
The importance of corrective feedback is also a pivotal element in the interaction
hypothesis as its forefather Long (1983, 1996) claims. To study the relationship
between interaction hypothesis and corrective feedback, the focus should be on the
output and how it is modified after receiving feedback (Ellis and He 1999;
McDonough 2005; Shehadeh 2002; Swain 1985, 1995, 2005). Modifying the output
stimulates learners to consider their current linguistic knowledge. To ripe the fruits
of that modified output, interaction scholars state that it is “necessary for learners to
notice the relationships between their initially erroneous forms, the feedback they
receive, and their output” (Gass & Mackey, 2006).
Overview of Swain’s Output Hypothesis

Many researchers consider the “output hypothesis” as an important reaction to
Krashen’s Input theory. Swain founded her hypothesis depending on her research on
immersion students who did not acquire native-level linguistic skills, especially
writing and speaking, despite they were provided with adequate ‘comprehensible
input’. Thus, she suggested that receiving mere input is inadequate. She suggested
that via producing the language, it is possible to be acquired. She justified her stance
by claiming that students need to produce the language in order to know the real
learning level they have reached. Moreover, she argued that students make various
errors in grammar in their L2 is due to their little linguistic production (Swain,
1985). She asserts on the learner’s need to notice the gaps in their production and in
order to enhance it, they should have the chance to “reflect” on them.
This hypothesis demonstrates that producing language helps students in four
different ways. Swain (1995) and Swain and Lapkin (1995) have discussed four
functions of output in SLA:
1. It makes students notice the gaps in their second language. Swain (1995) states
that noticing the gaps “may trigger cognitive processes which might generate
linguistic knowledge that is new for the learner, or that consolidates their
existing knowledge”.
2. It assists language learning via “hypothesis testing”.
3. It “internalizes linguistic knowledge”. Swain called this a “metalinguistic
function”.
4. Through practice, it enhances fluency.
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Corrective Feedback and Output Hypothesis

The essential purpose of corrective feedback on learners’ errors is to help
discovering them and grasp the correct linguistic form. The output hypothesis
suggests that learners are ‘pushed’ to make a better output as soon as they notice the
errors from feedback. Van Beuningen (2012) suggested that corrective feedback
should be provided for promoting second language acquisition during output
production.
Language productive skills, writing and speaking, found the solid grounds for
corrective feedback. The proverb “learning from mistakes” is true for this
hypothesis in case the learner attention is drawn to them. Swain (1985- 1995)
suggests that learners need to “form-meaning relationships” in order to promote
their grammatical accuracy. Moreover, they should be provided with corrective
feedback on their production, output. With the help of corrective feedback, students’
attention is drawn to their errors and they are more likely to avoid in their
production.
As for the relation between input and output, Anderson (1983)explained that mere
exposure to second language input is not adequate; in order to modify learners’
output corrective feedback is needed due to its essential role. Even there are certain
types of corrective feedback that have the priority over other types. Carroll and
Swain (1993) concluded that students tend to learn remarkably ‘dative alternation
structures’ via metalinguistic corrective feedback remarkably than via implicit
correction strategies. Direct corrective feedback triggers students’ attention to make
them aware of their output. Moreover, Purnawarman (2011) suggested that direct
corrective feedback is effective in reducing grammatical errors. These conclusions
support both the output hypothesis and the noticing hypothesis (will be discussed
down) which suggest that direct enhances learners’ performance.
Overview of Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis

Schmidt’s hypothesis is considered a major hypothesis in second language
acquisition field. It asserts the central role of attention and awareness in second
language learning. It concentrates on the learners’ processors of information, which
are limited in capacity. Simply, learners are unable to comprehend all the input they
are exposed to in the learning process. Thus, they should control their awareness
and notice only certain features. Noticing hypothesis, according to Longman
Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by Richards & Schmidt
(2010), is “that input does not become intake for language learning unless it is
noticed, that is, consciously registered”.
Corrective Feedback and Noticing Hypothesis

According to Schmidt, learners must be conscious in order to acquire language
competency; moreover, they must be aware of the learning process, particularly of
certain features of the target language. Schmidt (1990) also argued that if the learner
‘attends to’, i.e. notices, the feedback, it would be “converted to intake, and
therefore internalized”. Feedback makes the learner aware of his linguistic gaps
which are filled up with the correct linguistic forms. In other words, in case any
formal aspect of the target language is not understood, learners are urged to pay
attention to it in order to build up their linguistic input. With the help of
metalinguistic feedback learners overtly recognize the gap in their interlanguage and
the target forms (Chandler, 2003). Sheen (2010) and Ferris and Roberts (2001),
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argue that learners’ linguistic command develops “when they attend to feedback due
to having their attention drawn to input-output gaps”.
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DESIGNING A SCIENCE CURRICULUM MODEL BASED ON

STEM WITH AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE FOR 9TH GRADE
TALENTED STUDENTS.
Dawood A. AL-Hidabi 1, Mohammed F. Abu Owda 2

1
Kulliyyah of Education, IIUM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (E-mail: [email protected])
2
Faculty of Education, IUG, Gaza, Palestine.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The digital age besides the local and global economic changes are challenging the designers,
developers, and implementers of the curriculum, as they are the basis for providing students
with knowledge, skills and thinking skills to be involved in the society effectively and
positively. Consequently, this has led to changes in the philosophy, objectives and teaching
methods. STEM is one of the most important approaches of teaching, which attracted the
attention of many researchers. Within the framework of this global and regional attention, this
paper attempts to provide a model of Science curriculum based on STEM and integrating it
with Islamic perspective, in accordance with the Islamic perspective. More particularly, this
paper focuses on integrating relevant Qur’anic miracles to STEM curriculum. In this context,
the paper presents a developed model for the science curriculum that is based on STEM and
Islamic perspective in general for 9th graders.
Keywords: Science curriculum, STEM approach, Islamic perspective, Talented students,
9th Grade.
Introduction
Nowadays, the world is experiencing unprecedented acceleration, a huge explosion of
knowledge and an extraordinary accumulation of knowledge. This poses great challenges to
different areas of life and to education in particular. These challenges include adapting the
curriculum to the needs of students on the one hand and rapid changes in education on the
other.
As part of these challenges, the researchers seek to adapt the science curricula by providing
models for building projects that provide scientific knowledge in an integrated manner in the
light of scientific miracles in the Islamic revelation, which contribute to the transformation of
scientific knowledge into an actual product capable of meeting the needs and interests of
learners, problems and solutions. The objectives of teaching science can't succeed unless
being designed according to recognizing acceleration data.
In this regard, STEM approach is one of the most promising approaches of science and
technology education, which integrates science, engineering, technology and mathematics
(Ganem, 2013).
According to Harrison (2011), STEM is one of the most important approaches aiming at
achieving the quality of the outputs of the educational system. Thus, if the quality of the
outputs of education is achieved, it ensures the development of the economy and the
upgrading of the fields of industry by preparing the students themselves for effective
interaction with their reality (Ghanem, 2012).
William & Dugger (2013) emphasize that the use STEM addresses the weakness of separated
teaching outcomes for the four areas of skills, particularly 21st century skills, that goes with
the recommendations of the Summit on Innovation in Education Conference (WISE, 2013).
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STEM is defined as an educational approach in which natural, engineering and mathematics

interact through experiential learning tools and experiences through which students design
products in the form of projects that employ and develop science concepts through involving
the higher mental skills (Al Dowoud, 2017).
In the light of the integration of STEM, the researchers have developed this approach by
linking it to the Quranic miracles. This is because it is important to link the cosmic sciences
with the Faithful Truths which is one of the most important goals that it seeks to achieve
(IWL 2002, 3).
The curriculum of science is one of the most widely increase scientific miracles. The
curriculum deals with the human body, nature, the universe, planets and other scientific
subjects. Therefore, it is preferable to use scientific miracles in the Quran and Sunnah in the
teaching of science, since the Quranic verses and the Noble Prophetic Traditions affect the
souls and form the human personality in terms of behavior, ethics, scientific and practical
excellence. Also, because the Quran is miraculous in its words, style, statement, and its
legislations and provisions aimed at forming a human and realistic society. Additionally, it is
miraculous in its content i.e. sciences and knowledge that never been collected in a book
before or after, and verified by the discoveries of scientists in some of the later times of the
fixed facts (Al Mosleh, Al Sawy, 2008, 14)
The scientific miracle is a position of challenge that seeks to prove that the Quran contains
the realities of this universe, which could not be known only a few decades ago. (Al Najjar
2003, 36).
Scientific miracle is also seen in the content of the science curriculum, a view that moves the
emotions of the students and their sense of the greatness of the Creator as well as the mental
outlook (Nahlawi, 1987, 38).
Therefore, the researchers believe that it is necessary to use the approach of scientific
miracles in presenting science in order to consolidate the Islamic faith in the students' minds.
Therefore, the researchers combined scientific, mathematical, engineering and technological
knowledge according to the Islamic perspective. Accordingly, this paper presents the content
of the Palestinian science curriculum of the 9th grade students in accordance with the STEM
approach, which teaches the scientific topics in complementary contexts between the
branches of knowledge, application and miracles in order to enhance teaching outputs.
Literature Review
STEM is defined as an integrative approach to the three major science curriculum (science,
engineering, mathematics), using technological applications, and relying on its design on
focusing on concepts, athletic abilities, and employing it. )Shammari ,2018). In the same
regard, Teaching Council in Maryland State (STEM Maryland,2012) defines it as an entrance
to teaching and learning , which includes integrating the content and the skills of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics, through a set of connected standards with
integrated activities of STEM approach to achieve certain goals, to reach students' creativity
in the four branches of study. Whereas, Gerlach (2015), defines it as a several specializations,
integrated scientific concepts with natural phenomena, to enable students to apply science,
technology, mathematics and engineering in meaningful contexts.
The two researchers define integrative STEM from the Islamic perspective as an approach
that integrates the content and skills of science, mathematics, technology, engineering with
Qur’anic miracles aspects through a set of integrated activities to achieve learning objectives
in enhancing the Creator's greatness. In students’ hearts and minds.
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(Honey, Pearson, & Schweingruber, 2014) states that the specializations of integrative
STEM approach are Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. In this study
Qur’anic miracles were adopted to be integrated to STEM. The following representation
shows the adopted integration model
Fig. (1) STERM stand for

Science (S): is the study of natural science, including facts, concepts, laws, scientific theories
and associated intersections. Science is associated with a set of knowledge that has
accumulated over time, and it is managed through a conscious process of scientific research
that produces new knowledge.
Technology (T): means responding to the digital era requirements by adapting them to
produce something new that facilities some tasks to the students. The approach focuses here
in technical practices and technology employment skills.
Engineering (E): is the application of science, or the employment of conceptual knowledge
in producing the product (From think to thing), and it is associated with the skills of planning
stage, designing skills, designing thinking and modeling.
Math (M): which can be defined in patterns and relationships between quantities and
numbers study, math's and algebra skills, functions, engineering and statistics, and the
possibility that use mathematics in science, engineering and technology, and it can be
employed in different life contexts.
Qur’anic Miracles (R): can be defined as the verses mentioned in the Qur'an which are used
to reveal special scientific facts of science curriculum content, and present them as a basis to
present scientific knowledge in order to help students to appreciate the Creator’s greatness
and help to shape their personality in terms of behavior, ethics, scientific and practical
excellence.
The integration shapes in STERM approach from an Islamic perspective:

STEM approach from an Islamic perspective carries an integrative aspect as it's not important
in the application of the approach one form of the integration between the different aspects of
the application. The application of the approach allows flexibility in the application,
according to the idea, subject, method and philosophy of application. Al-Jalal (2017) detailed
the forms of integration in approach application, as it's shown in the following figure:
Fig. (2) Integration shapes in applying STREM approach
The philosophy of integrative STEM approach from a Islamic perspective on blending,

integrating, connecting, complementing and mixing between the five specializations, as there
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are some principles that must be taken into account in designing curricula according to
integrative STEM approach from an Islamic perspective, Shammari (2018) stated a number
of it, summarized in the following figure:
Fig. (3) Design principles of STEM approach from Islamic perspective
Education is considered according to integrative STEM approach from an Islamic perspective

(student-centered) where students build their own experiences and knowledge through the use
of scientific methodology, inquiry and discovery. In the same regard, the teacher's role here is
to present scientific miracles aspects to the scientific concepts, then the student is free to
make inquiry and scientific discovery through making set of experiments and projects, In
addition to facilitate, direct and organize learning process, and here the student has the most
important role. Therefore, Learning product becomes as learner performance.
The two researchers used the content of curriculum analysis and development to design a
science content model based on STEM integration approach from Islamic perspective. All
elements of the curriculum were applied on the content of science curriculum to 9th grade
students in Palestine according to the ADDIE model
Fig. (4) ADDIE Model
Analysis: This step begins by analyzing the scientific content of the Palestinian science
curriculum, according to the, five dimensions of STERM: scientific knowledge, mathematical
knowledge, engineering applications and technology employing, scientific miracles.
Design: After analyzing the content of science, the two researchers designed integrated and
educational activities (scientific knowledge, scientific skills, engineering skills, employing
technology, and scientific miracles aspects)
Development: The content of science courses has been adjusted in terms of the relevance of
the objectives, activities and procedures for the purposes of learning and the time required for
the implementation of the lessons. In addition, following teaching strategies and evaluation
mechanisms through presenting the activities to a group of science teaching, curricula and
teaching methods specialists.
Implementation: After implementing objectives, activities and procedures appropriate for
learning, the lessons were implemented according to STERM integrative approach, either
integrally among a group of science, math, technology and religion teachers, by taking the
feedback from specialists and students in order to develop the design.
Evaluation: In this step, the objectives were evaluated, and the activities, strategies and
following evaluation mechanisms were re-implemented and improved in the light of the
feedback from the field of implementation and the participants in the experiment, in addition
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to the students themselves in terms of whether students understand the scientific content in
the desired way ,or not.
Integrative STEM Approach from an Islamic perspective

STEM integrative approach from an Islamic perspective was chosen to present science
content (palestinian curriculum) to 9th Grade according to the following elements:
Fig. (5) Integrative STEM approach from an Islamic perspective
Math & Science (M & S):

 Employing appropriate pH measurements for enzymes to determine the relationship
between pH and enzyme activity.
 Employing the concepts of the respiratory system in calculating the number of breathing
times to a sample of students and writing the equation breathing in a balanced manner.
 Employing of nutrient and digestive concepts in discovering the presence of oils and fats
in nutrients using different measuring tools.
 Employing all the above in the formulation of the project plan and the interpretation of
different concepts related to human body devices.
 Applying scientific concepts in the implementation of the first and the final model of the
project
Technology (T):
 Employing modern techniques in research, collecting and presenting data.
 Employing different computerized presentations that help to understand scientific
concepts.
 Designing models to represent scientific concepts and explain the mechanisms of their
work.
 Evaluating information sources and judging their validity and reliability.
 Using design thinking principles in the implementation of the project (challenge) through
applying design thinking stages and its skills.
Engineering: (E)
 Designing the plan and determining the implementation procedures accurately.
 Evaluating the plan and the first model.
 Using feedback to re-evaluate the model.
 Employing mathematical and scientific knowledge in implementing the project.
Qur’anic miracles: (P)
 Explain the conclusion of deep scientific research in the field of nutrition and its
relationship to human health with what the sauna said that the wasteful in eating and
drinking is a corrupt, and the correct approach is to leave wasteful.
 The miracle in chest tightness and difficulty breathing, when a person increased up in the
atmosphere. This is because of the lack of oxygen and air pressure drop. As well as, the
state of embarrassment that precedes death suffocation when it exceeds the height of
thirty thousand feet of atmosphere because of the drop in extreme atmospheric pressure
and acute shortage of oxygen necessary for life until the oxygen inside the lungs, the
human death and destruction.
 The miracle that the heart is the center of emotion, thinking, mind and memory.
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 The miracle that listening to the Quran qualifies the immune system to resist all diseases.

This paper has resulted to the design of science-based content model according to STEM
integrative approach from Islamic perspective. The two researchers combined science content
with other content in technology, engineering and mathematics in the light of Qur’anic
miracles. Also, the paper followed ADDIE model in learning. Which consists of five steps
(analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) to present science content in
STERM integrative approach. Thus, any teaching content can be adapted according to the
integrated approach and its experience to research its impact in different contexts.
References
Dawd, H. M. (2017). A proposed teaching program based on the "STEM entry into
education" in science course and its effectiveness in developing the habits of mind and
decision-making skills among 3rd prep. students. (Ph.D). Imam Muhammad bin Saud
Islamic University, Faculty of Social Sciences: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Gerlach, J. (2015). All Teachers Are STEM Teachers. EDUCATION WEEK TEACHER.
Maryland State Department of Education (2012). Maryland State STEM Standards
of Practice Framework Grade k-5.
Ghanem, T. (2012). Design curriculum of acheiver students in the light (Science -
Technology - Engineering Design - Mathematics) entrance in the secondary stage, the
National Center for Educational and Development Research: Egypt.
Ghanim, T. (2013). The dimensions of STEM Curriculum design & the impact of a proposed
approach in the light of the earth system in developing thinking skills in the systems
among secondary students. Journal of Faculty of Education. Beni Suef University. Dec
115-180.
Harrison, M. (2011). Supporting the T and the E in (STEM): 2004-2010, Design and
Technology Education. Design and Technology Education Association, United Kingdom:
England (London). Wales, 16 (1), 17-25.
Honey, M., Pearson, G. & Schweingruber H. (2014). STEM Integration in K-12 Education:
Status, Prospects, and an Agenda for Research.Committee on Integrated STEM
Education. National Academy of Engineering; National Research Council.
Islamic World League (2002). Objectives of the International Commission of Scientific
Miracles in the Quran and Sunnah. Jeddah: Dar Jyad of Publishing and Distribution.
Al Jalal, M. A. (2017). "Principles for Integrating Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (TEM) in Saudi Arabia". Excellence Research Center for Science and
Mathematics. Panel discussion (128). King Saud University, Riyadh.
Al-Maslah, A., Al-Sawy, A. (2008). Rooting scientific miracles in Quran and Sunnah,
Makkah Al Mukarramah, World Commission of Scientific Miracles.
Maryland State Department of Education (2012). Maryland State STEM Standards of Practice
Framework Grade k-5
Nahlawi, A. (1987). The origins of Islamic education and its methods at home, school and
society. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr.
Shammari, M. M. (2018). Building an enrichment program based on STEM approach and its
effectiveness in developing the athletic strength skills of talented students in the middle
stage in Hail. (Ph.D). Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University: Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia.
Williams, E. & Dugger, J. (2013). Evaluation of STEM in the United States. International
Technology and Engineering Education Association.
Wise (2013). Recommendations of the Summit Conferance for Innovation in Education
(WISE) reinventing education for life. Doha, 29 Oct - 1 Nov, Qatar.
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DIVIDEND CHANGE, SEASONED EQUITY OFFERINGS,

STOCK RETURNS AND PROFITABILITY
Ruey-Shii Chen1, Yen-Ju Lin2
1
Department of Business Management, Tatung University, Taipei, Taiwan
2
Department of Business Management, Tatung University, Taipei, Taiwan
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
According to theoretical dividend-signalling models stock prices change because changes in
dividend policy alter investors’ information sets. However, evidence on the signalling role of
dividends is mixed. A firm will signal with dividends if the supply of cash in the firm is less
than the sum of the owner cash needs and the funds needed for the firm’s investment. This
paper intents to extend this research area to investigate the differences of return and
profitability between dividend increasing firms accompany with seasoned equity offerings
and without seasoned equity issue firms. Kale et al.(2012) find that increase or initial
dividends are often accompanied by the need for companies to issue new shares to raise
funds. This paper will expand this research. The purpose of increasing dividend is to raise the
price so that the company can raise more funds when it carry SEO. If the stock price does not
rise, it still increases capital, indicating that the company has an urgent cash demand and may
have better investment opportunity.
Keywords: dividend policy, seasoned equity offering, stock returns
Introduction
The consensus of traditional dividend policy research is that initial dividend or the change of
dividend level will affect stock price. However, there are many controversies about the
reasons that affect stock price. Signal theory model points out that dividend signals change
the information set of investors and thus change the stock price, but there is no consistent
empirical support.
John and Williams (1985) and Miller and Rock (1985) pointed out that dividend level emitted
a signal of cash flow level, while Kale and Noe (1990) believed that dividend level emitted a
signal of cash flow volatility. Both of them point out that the initial dividend is not
determined by the company's quality, but by the company's liquidity. The level of dividend
and the company's quality are only positively correlated with the company's initial dividend.
In JW model, dividend is used as a signal only when the sum of cash demand of insiders and
investment demand is larger than cash supply. Therefore, a high-quality company with
sufficient cash will not use the initial dividend as a signal, but a low-quality company with
insufficient cash will. The implication is that only when a company wants to sell shares
(whether insiders or companies need it) will the company use dividends as a signal to revise
the market's evaluation of the company's value. Therefore, in order to issue initial dividends,
the dividend level conveys the signal of the company's quality and gives the company a
correct evaluation.
Masulis(1983) found that issuing new shares would cause stock prices to fall, which is in line
with the general belief that companies sell stocks only when the market price is overvalued.
Hull et al. (2010) discusses the influence of insider reduction on stock price when the
company issues new shares. The study finds that the short-term and long-term returns after
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SEO are inconsistent with the expectations of signaling theory. Especially when the insider
decreases substantially, the short-term and long-term returns after SEO have better market
performance, and investors can not profit from insider selling signals. Wang et al. (2011)
pointed out that the negative impact of SEO on the stock market will be slowed down by the
announcement of dividend increase. When dividend announcement is made, SEO
announcement results in an abnormal return of -1.45% in the stock market. When no dividend
announcement is made, SEO announcement results in an abnormal return of -1.83% in the
stock market.
Kale et al. (2012) find that the stock return caused by the announcement of initial dividend is
negatively correlated with the possibility of SEO, and the positive correlation between the
dividend yield and the announcement of initial dividend is reduced by the possibility of SEO.
The main point of JW theory is that the purpose of initial dividend issuance is to raise stock
price to raise funds, and the possibility of SEO increases the possibility of initial dividend
issuance. Nowadays, both theoretical and empirical studies believe that SEO will cause stock
price to fall, so investors' decision to buy shares in the face of initial dividend will be affected
by the possibility of SEO.
Literature Review
Dividend irrelevant theory points out that dividend policy will not affect the market value of a
company under the assumption of market efficiency, tax-free and transaction cost-free.
However, the market is not a perfect market after all. In the past, many reasons have been put
forward to explain the relationship between dividend policy and corporate value in the real
world. These possible reasons include tax rate differences, customer effect, signal
transmission, agency problems and the viewpoint of investor behavior.
In the capital market with asymmetric information, investors with insufficient information
can get the information of the company's future profitability through dividends. The increase
of dividend will be regarded as a positive signal by investors, representing the company's
good financial situation, which will increase the demand for stocks, thus increasing the
market value of the company. Literature also points out that there is a positive relationship
between the direction of dividend change and risk-adjusted returns. Lintner (1956) points out
that there is a time series relationship between dividend and earnings, which shows that the
increase of dividend conveys the persistence of future earnings payable dividend expenditure.
Therefore, the increase of dividend is a message of high cash flow in the future.
Healy and Palepu (1988) found that the earnings before and after the initial dividend issuance
increase, whereas the earnings before and after the suspension of dividend issuance decrease.
The stock returns caused by dividend announcement have a positive relationship with the
company's earnings, while the stock price changes caused by the earnings announcement after
dividend change are not so great. The implied earnings change has been partly anticipated by
the previous dividend change announcement. This result indicates that investors regard
dividend change as managers' prediction of future earnings.
Baker & Wurgler (2004) points out that under the assumption that the investor's investment
behavior is irrational, the only factor to classify the company is whether the company pays
dividends or not. Managers therefore rationally consider the market reaction to adjust the
dividend policy of the company. When the market value of a company paying dividends is
high, managers cater to investors to pay dividends, and when the market value of a company
not paying dividends is high, managers do not pay dividends. Baker & Wurgler (2004)
introduced the concept of dividend premium to measure the difference of MB value between
dividend-paying companies and unpaid companies. The theory points out that investors'
demand for dividend-paying stocks varies from time to time, which will lead to fluctuations
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in the relative share prices of dividend-paying and unpaid stocks. Empirical research also
finds that the initial dividend is positively related to the dividend premium.
Methodology
Based on previous studies, John and Williams (1985) and Miller and Rock (1985) pointed out
that dividend level signals cash flow level, and that initial dividend issue or increase in
dividend will lead to positive and abnormal returns for stocks. John and Williams (1985) and
Masulis (1983) found that the announcement of SEO would cause stock price to fall, and
dividend would be used as a signal only if the sum of cash demand of insiders and investment
demand of the company was larger than the cash supply of the company. Kale et al. (2012)
found that the positive return of stocks caused by the announcement of initial dividend will
decrease as the possibility of SEO. Investors' decision to buy shares in the face of initial
dividend will be affected by the possibility of SEO. That is to say, the company's additional
or initial dividend issuance is often accompanied by the need for future companies to issue
new shares to raise funds. Dividend as a signal, the change of dividend is a means for
companies to raise stock prices in order to raise funds. The research is limited to dividend
change and the combination of SEO.
This paper will expand the research and further refine the classification of dividend and SEO.
Dividend is divided into three categories, initial dividend issue or increase, dividend
unchanged and dividend reduction, SEO is divided into issuing new shares and not issuing
new shares. According to whether stock price rises after dividend announcement, we divided
sample into two categories.
If a company pays additional dividends before issuing new shares, it can be seen that the
purpose of the additional dividends is to raise the price so that the company can raise more
funds when SEO. Under this grouping, it can be divided into whether the stock price of the
company rises because of the change of dividends. If the stock price does not rise, the
company in this portfolio may has urgent cash demand and may have better investment
opportunities.
The relationship between dividend change and cash increase has been discussed in many
literatures in the past. This paper makes a comprehensive study to try to understand the
deeper and wider understanding of corporate financial decision-making. The results of the
study will help to understand the application of dividend theory in various situations.
Here are those variables we used. Div: Annual Dividend per share/price, InOwn: insider
ownership/ number of shares outstanding, MB: stock price/book value per share. We use four
factors model to calculate the abnormal return. Using OLS to estimate equation 1, and the
abnormal return will be calculated by equation 2.
Ri ,t  R f ,t    bi * RMRFt  si * SMBt  hi * HMLt  pi *UMDt   i ,t

(1)
: the continuous compounded return for stock i
: risk free interest rate
ARi ,t  ( Ri ,t  R f ,t )  (bî * RMRFt  sî * SMBt  hî * HMLt  pˆ i *UMDt )
(2)
Empirical Results
The sample is from Taiwan Stock Exchange listed companies. The data period is from 1991
to 2018. During the sample period, the number of dividends issued by the company was
10492, of which the number of dividend increases was 5870, the number of dividend
decreases was 3521, and the number of SEO was 2603.
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This paper calculates the stock cumulative returns and risk-adjusted cumulative returns on the
5th, 20th and 60th days before dividend issuance, and the original and risk-adjusted
cumulative returns on the 5th, 20th, 60th and 120th days after dividend issuance. The results
are shown in Table 1. The table shows that the stock price rises within 60 days before the
dividend is paid. The stock price rises significantly from one week to one month before the
dividend is paid. After the dividend is paid, the stock price falls. In the quarter after the
dividend is paid, the stock price returns are -2.04%.
Table 2 uses SEO as the event date to discuss the cumulative stock returns and risk-adjusted
cumulative returns on the 5th, 20th and 60th days before SEO and the original and risk-
adjusted cumulative returns on the 5th, 20th, 60th and 120th days after SEO. The table shows
that there is a positive return before SEO, and a positive return within one month after SEO,
but then a negative return. This result is consistent with past research. Before the SEO, the
company may pull up the stock price so that the capital increase can achieve better results.
Panel A and Panel B in Table 3 are the empirical results of dividend increase and dividend
decrease respectively. From the original returns observation, before dividend issuance, the
dividend increase and decrease groups have positive returns, but the dividend increase groups
have relatively poor returns; after dividend issuance, the dividend increase and decrease
groups basically have negative returns, among which the dividend increase group falls more.
Panel A and Panel B in Table 4 are the empirical results of increasing and decreasing
dividend payout ratio respectively. From the original returns observation, before dividend
issuance, the groups with increasing and decreasing dividend payout ratio all have positive
returns, but the groups with increasing dividend payout ratio have relatively better returns;
while after dividend issuance, the groups with increasing and decreasing dividend payout
ratio have negative returns in a quarter, among which the group with increasing dividend
payout ratio falls less. If the time is extended to half a year, then there will all be positive
returns. At this time, the group with the increase of the dividend payout ratio still have better
returns.
Panel A and Panel B in Table 5 are the empirical results of dividend increase and dividend
decrease before SEO. From the original returns observation, before SEO, the dividend
increase and decrease groups all have positive returns, and the dividend increase group has
relatively better returns; after dividend issuance, the dividend increase and decrease groups
all have negative returns, among which the dividend increase group has a relatively large
drop in one year.
Panel A and Panel B in Table 6 are the empirical results of the increase of dividend payout
ratio and the decrease of dividend payout rtio before SEO. From the original returns
observation, before SEO, the groups with the increase and decrease of the dividend payout
ratio all have positive returns, among which the groups with the increase of the dividend rate
have relatively better returns; but after the dividend issuance, the groups with the increase and
decrease of the dividend payout ratio all have negative returns, and the group with the
increase of the dividend payout ratio falls more in one year. The results are similar to those in
Table 5.
Table 7 shows the grouping of samples of dividend increase before SEO, in which Panel A
and Panel B have MB values greater than 1 and less than 1 respectively. Panel A's dividend
increases before SEO and it has a positive return before SEO when MB is greater than 1.
However, in Panel B, the dividend increases before SEO and it has a negative return before
SEO when MB is less than 1. After the SEO, we also find that carrying SEO when MB is
low, it will followed by a positive long-term stock return (two years); that carrying SEO when
MB is high, then it will followed by a negative long-term stock return.
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Table 1: Returns before and after Dividend Issue

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
RET 0.041 0.781 0.330 -0.113 -0.532 -2.040 0.646
ARET 2.097 1.734 0.531 0.061 0.908 1.711 3.209
Table 2: Returns before and after SEO

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
RET 1.713 1.138 0.399 0.541 0.317 -1.557 -3.659
ARET 3.092 1.640 0.592 0.759 1.221 0.971 0.734
Table 3: Stock Returns of Dividend Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET -0.153 0.656 0.283 -0.318 -0.788 -2.699 -0.547
ARET 2.477 1.826 0.535 -0.045 0.925 1.635 2.975
Panel B
RET 0.103 0.886 0.392 0.259 -0.002 -1.007 2.684
ARET 1.320 1.547 0.485 0.285 1.018 1.921 3.636
Table 4: Stock Returns of Dividend Payout Ratio Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 0.442 0.992 0.419 -0.114 -0.448 -1.867 0.958
ARET 2.574 1.916 0.561 0.068 0.964 1.886 3.218
Panel B
RET -0.571 0.531 0.201 -0.152 -0.728 -2.427 0.182
ARET 1.446 1.556 0.503 0.001 0.786 1.439 3.233
Table 5: Returns of SEO and Dividend Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 2.377 1.352 0.169 -0.266 -1.545 -4.305 -5.022
ARET 3.929 1.969 0.463 -0.163 -0.848 -1.875 -1.760
Panel B
RET 1.887 1.265 0.270 -0.149 -1.811 -4.643 -4.592
ARET 2.392 1.736 0.281 -0.076 -1.490 -1.861 -1.511
Table 6: Returns of SEO and Dividend Payout Ratio Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 3.028 1.723 0.432 -0.392 -1.819 -4.319 -5.238
ARET 4.302 2.323 0.636 -0.305 -1.391 -2.035 -2.414
Panel B
RET 1.133 1.255 0.002 -0.329 -2.206 -4.883 -5.142
ARET 2.138 1.639 0.153 -0.086 -1.141 -2.072 -1.595
Table 7: Returns of SEO, Dividend Increase and MB Groups

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 3.403 1.963 0.354 -0.368 -1.789 -5.385 -6.618
ARET 5.131 2.603 0.668 -0.236 -1.002 -2.478 -2.546
Panel B
RET -4.832 -6.127 -2.386 -1.177 -4.898 -1.379 2.840
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ARET -2.819 -3.435 -1.487 -1.181 -3.344 1.230 3.465
Table 8 is an empirical study of the returns of insider ownership change. The change of
insider ownership is the change of the first six months. In this paper, insider is defined as
directors and supervisors, top ten shareholders and managers. Panel A is an empirical study of
the increase of shareholding in the first six months and Panel B is an empirical study of the
decrease of shareholding in the first six months. Panel A shows that the stock price rises after
the increase of shareholding, and the stock price does not change much during the increase of
shareholding. Panel B shows that the stock price falls after the reduction of shareholding, and
the returns is positive during the reduction of shareholding. It shows that insider ownership
has the advantage information.
The empirical evidence in Table 9 only includes the situation when dividends are paid. The
results of the increase of insider ownership are shown in Panel A and the decrease of insider
ownership in Panel B. The results show that whether insider ownership increases or
decreases, the returns after dividend issuance is generally negative, and the returns before
dividend issuance is generally positive. The increase of insider ownership portfolio has better
returns than the decrease of insider ownership portfolio after dividend issuance.
Table 8: Returns of Shareholding Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET -0.126 0.002 0.011 0.023 0.116 0.730 1.825
ARET 1.499 0.514 0.130 0.129 0.507 1.567 3.040
Panel B
RET 0.925 0.101 0.012 -0.004 -0.111 -0.541 -0.682
ARET 1.547 0.464 0.115 0.109 0.397 1.135 2.417
Table 9: Returns of Issuing Dividends and Shareholding Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 0.779 1.019 0.443 -0.065 -0.372 -1.601 1.443
ARET 2.633 1.937 0.598 0.074 0.985 1.822 3.488
Panel B
RET -0.797 0.608 0.250 -0.251 -0.769 -2.660 -0.164
ARET 1.575 1.599 0.478 -0.047 0.734 1.362 2.622
Table 10: Returns of SEO and Shareholding Change

(-60,0) (-20,0) (-5,0) (0,5) (0,20) (0,60) (0,120)
Panel A
RET 1.282 1.185 0.578 -0.401 -2.105 -5.216 -5.007
ARET 3.666 2.152 0.855 -0.211 -1.258 -2.227 -1.385
Panel B
RET 3.569 2.209 0.535 -0.500 -2.067 -3.343 -5.762
ARET 4.697 2.337 0.709 -0.261 -0.829 -0.629 -2.566
The empirical results in Table 10 only include the case of SEO. The results of insider
ownership increase are presented in Panel A, and the results of insider ownership decrease are
presented in Panel B. The results show that regardless of whether insider ownership increases
or decreases, the returns before SEO is positive and after SEO is negative. Comparing Panel
A with Panel B, we find that Panel B has better returns before SEO, while insiders choose to
reduce their shareholding, which shows that insiders reduce their shareholding when the stock
price is high.
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Conclusions
Based on previous studies, it is pointed out that dividend level emits signals of cash flow
level, and initial dividend issue or increase of dividend will make stock have positive and
abnormal returns. John and Williams (1985) found that the announcement of SEO would
cause the stock price to fall. Dividends would only be used as a signal when the sum of cash
demand of insiders and investment demand of the company is larger than the cash supply of
the company. The company's additional or initial dividend issuance is often accompanied by
the need for companies to issue new shares to raise funds in the future. Dividend as a signal,
the change of dividend is a means for companies to raise stock prices in order to raise funds.
The research is limited to dividend change and the combination of SEO. In this paper, we
expand the classification of dividend and SEO: We use dividend increase or decrease or
dividend payout ratio increase or decrease as indicators of dividend change to explore stock
returns caused by SEO after dividend change. Furthermore, we also classify companies
according to their market to book ratio, and discuss the performance of stock returns when
different MB ratio companies increase cash. In all kinds of portfolios, if a company carry
SEO after pay dividend, it can be seen that the purpose of additionally issuing dividends is to
raise the price so that the company can raise more funds when it adds cash to its capital.
However, when the company increases its cash capital at a low MB ratio, it implies that the
company has a very good investment opportunity, so it may have a good profit in the future,
which can be reflected in the stock price. The relationship between dividend change and SEO
has been discussed in many literatures in the past. This plan makes a comprehensive
discussion to try to understand the deeper and broader understanding of corporate financial
decision-making. The research results will help to understand the application of dividend
theory in various situations. The empirical support hypothesis in this paper show that
companies with low MB ratio have negative returns before SEO, but positive returns after
SEO. On the contrary, companies with high MB ratio will have positive returns before SEO
and long-term negative returns after SEO.
References
Baker, M., and Wurgler, J. (2004). A Catering Theory of Dividends. Journal of Finance, 59,
1125-1165.
Healy, P. M., and Palepu, K. G. (1988). Earnings Information Conveyed by Dividend
Initiations and Omissions. Journal of Financial Economics, 21, 149-175.
Hull, R. M., Kwak, S., and Walker, R. L. (2010). Insider Signaling and Seasoned Equity
Offerings. Managerial Finance, 36(8), 703-721.
John, K., and Williams, J. (1985). Dividends, Dilution, and Taxes: A Signalling Equilibrium.
Journal of Finance, 40, 1053-1070.
Kale, J. R., and Noe, T. H. (1990). Dividends, Uncertainty, and Underwriting Costs under
Asymmetric Information. Journal of Financial Research, 4, 265-277.
Kale, J. R., Kini, O. and Payne, J. D. (2012). The Dividend Initiation Decision of Newly
Public Firms: Some Evidence on Signaling with Dividend. Journal of Financial and
Quantitative Analysis, 47(2), 365-396.
Lintner, J. (1956). Distribution of Incomes of Corporations among Dividends, Retained
Earnings, and Taxes. American Economic Review, 46, 97-113.
Masulis, R. W. (1983). The Impact of Capital Structure Change on Firm Value: Some
Estimates”, Journal of Finance, 38, 107-126.
Miller, M. H., and Rock, K. (1985). Dividend Policy Under Asymmetric Information. Journal
of Finance, 40, 1031-1051.
Wang, Y., Chen, S. S., and Cheng, Y. T. (2011). Revisiting Corporate Dividends and
Seasoned Equity Issues. Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, 36(1), 133-
151.
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EQUALIZATION VALUE ADDED TAX WITH THE INCOME

STATEMENT CASE STUDY AT PT. VNP IN 2017
Dusa Sumartaya1 & Yana Maulana2

1
Bandung Praktisi Politechnic, Bandung, Indonesia
2
Bandung Praktisi Politechnic, Bandung, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Basically all goods and services traded are taxable goods and taxable services, so they are
subject to Value Added Tax (PPN), except for the types of goods and services as stipulated in
article 4A of Law No.8 of 1983 concerning Value Added Tax on Goods and Services and
Sales Tax on Luxury Goods as amended several times, the latest by Law No.42 of 2009. This
research was conducted at PT VNP which aims to find out how the presentation of operating
income and non operating income in the income statement, how to report VAT Period
Returns and how the implementation of equalization between the income statement and the
VAT Period return report in 2017. This study discusses the presentation of operating income
and non operating income along with the correct VAT Period return report. Furthermore, the
implementation of equalization is the difference between the turnover in the income statement
and the VAT Period Return. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that PT
VNP has made a wrong note where 2017 revenues have not been recognized and recognized
in 2018, so that if the company does not equalize there will be a difference in the amount of
the VAT DPP owed, it will also result in errors in PPh SPT reporting Body. Therefore PT
VNP should be consistent in recognizing its income by using the Accrual basic recording
system.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Competition is one thing that will not be inseparable in the business world, in order to
achieve its goal of obtaining the maximum profit every entrepreneur has his own process.
Meanwhile, tax is one of the things that cannot be separated for companies in the business
world, basically all goods and services traded are taxable goods and taxable services, so they
are subject to Value Added Tax (PPN), except for the types of goods and services as
stipulated in article 4A of Law No.8 of 1983 concerning Value Added Goods and Services
Tax and Sales Tax on Luxury Goods as amended several times, the latest by Law No.42 of
2009.
Value Added Tax (VAT) is a tax levied and imposed on the delivery of Taxable Goods
(BKP) and Taxable Services (JKP), this tax is collected through a Tax Invoice with a single
rate of 10% of the Tax Base (DPP), the Difference between income tax. Referring to Law
No.42 of 2009, the Company must deposit Value Added Tax (PPN) in accordance with the
value of sales of recognized goods and services. However, there are also companies that are
in error or violate the Act in not recognizing the value of sales of goods or services
intentional (human error) or intentionally. If there is an error or discrepancy in reporting and
depositing the value of the Value Added Tax that should be, then the Company may get a fine
and / or sanction. Therefore to avoid errors in reporting and depositing the Value of VAT to
be paid, we can do equalization of VAT.
VAT equalization is the difference between the turnover in Profit and Loss with the VAT
Period Return. The difference in income turnover and VAT SPT must be known, therefore
the process of equalization is not a process to find the same number between the Financial
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Report and the VAT Period Return, but to find out what causes the difference in turnover of
the company, the cause must be explained by Taxpayers.
Based on the description above, researchers are interested in presenting research with the title
"Equalization of Value Added Tax Notification With Income Statement".
Identification of problems
Based on the description above, the problem can be identified as follows:

1. How is the presentation of operating income and non operating income in the 2017 VNP
Income Statement
2. How about VNP's 2017 VAT Period Report for PT VNP in 2017
3. What is the implementation of equalization between the Income Statement and the 2017
VNP VAT Annual Income Tax Return Report
Literature Review
According to the Director General of Tax Decree No. 29 / PJ / 1995:
"Replication of the Tax Information System, the Directorate General of Taxation instructs
each Tax Service Office to equalize VAT data".
Definition of Financial Statements

According to Kasmir "Financial Report is a report that shows the company's financial
condition at this time or in a certain period".
Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the Financial Report is information
originating from an accounting process whose contents describe the financial condition of a
company in a given period.
Components of the Financial Report

Components of financial statements, namely, balance sheet, income statement, statement of
changes in equity, cash flow statements, and notes to financial statements. In the financial
statements must include the name of the company, the scope of financial statements, the date
or period covered by the financial statements, the reporting currency, the unit of numbers
used in the presentation of financial statements.
Based on Financial Accounting Standard No. 1 paragraph 80 of the information presented in
the Comprehensive Income Statement includes:
a. income;
b. financial costs;
c. the share of profit and loss from associates and joint ventures which are accounted for
using the equity method;
d. tax burden;
e. a single amount that includes the total of profit and loss after tax and profit or loss after
tax;
f. profit and loss;
g. each component of other comprehensive income classified according to nature (other than
the amount in letter (h));
h. part of other comprehensive income from associates and joint ventures recorded using the
equity method;
i. total comprehensive income;
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Revenue
Operating Income and Non-Operations
Operating income is income received from the main business of the company while non-
operating income is income received by the company that has nothing to do with the main
business.
In the presentation of Profit and Loss Statements this income is presented or recorded in gross
or gross amounts before deducting costs incurred related to the income.
Value Added Tax (VAT)

Value Added Tax is one of the largest revenues for the state because it is one of the direct
taxes collected by the central government or is a state tax.
Definition of Value Added Tax (PPN) according to Supramono,
"Value Added Tax is a tax imposed on domestic consumption (customs area), whether
consumption of Taxable Goods (BKP) or Taxable Services (JKP)." (2005: 88)
Based on the above definitions, it can be concluded that Value Added Tax (VAT) is a tax
imposed on domestic consumption (customs area) both consumption of taxable goods (BKP)
and taxable services (JKP).
Basic Imposition of Value Added Tax (VAT)
Based on Article 8A VAT Law, the Basic Tax Imposition (DPP) is the basis used to calculate
the tax payable, in the form of: Number of Selling Prices, Reimbursement, Import Value,
Export Value, or other values determined by the Minister of Finance Regulation.
Reporting VAT Period notice

Based on the Regulation of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia Number 9 /
PMK.03 / 2018 Article 10 paragraph 8 concerning "Notification (SPT)", that:
"The VAT collector is required to report the VAT or PPN and PPnBM that have been
collected, to the Tax Service Office where the VAT collector is registered no later than the
end of the following month after the Tax Period ends."
According to Chairil Anwar Pohan (2013: 154) in the tax management book as follows:
"Tax Equalization is matching data in an annual notification letter (matching) presented in
detail per transaction) with items contained in expenditure / purchase / sales books that have a
relationship in bookkeeping and or other types of tax reports (both partially and whole)."
Equalization can be interpreted as a process to check the suitability of one type of tax with
another type of tax that has a relationship. The intended relationship is a part of a report of
one type of tax that is part of the report on other types of tax tax. The process of equalizing
between invoices recorded in the financial statements profit and loss with invoices reported in
annual tax returns. Judging from the provisions regarding VAT, gross sales are VAT
surrender, but not all submissions in VAT are gross sales. The sale of assets included in other
sales is not included in gross sales, but is a submission of VAT. VAT uses the term
submission, which means that all forms of submission are objects of VAT, both submission to
third parties and to the company itself, for example in the company's own use activities
subject to VAT. This is certainly contrary to the notion of gross sales in the company's
financial statements. Turnover or business circulation is the subject of discussion in the
equalization process. Turnover is the total sales obtained from production. Income from sales
is recognized when there is a transfer of ownership or delivery to the buyer and then a sales
invoice is made. so even though the turnover listed in the company's financial statements and
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VAT SPT is different, if the Taxpayer is able to provide an explanation, then there is no
problem. Equalization correction is the difference between the turnover in the Financial
Report and the VAT Period Return. The difference in the turnover of financial statements and
VAT SPT must be known, therefore the process of equalization is not a process to find the
same number between Financial Statements and VAT Period Returns, but to find out what
causes the different turnover of the company, the cause must be explained by Taxpayers.
PTVNP is one form of business engaged in trade, namely as a well-known oil distributor in
Indonesia. PT VNP was founded in 2005 which was established by several partners with
locations on Jl. Downstream Dam Raya No. 122 Tanah Abang, Central Jakarta Indonesia. The
idea of establishing PT VNP comes from the owner's desire to have promising business
opportunities in the future. In 2008, the owners took the initiative to submit themselves as
Taxable Entrepreneurs because of the increasing number of company customers. Until now, PT
VNP has had quite a number of clients and included several leading companies in Indonesia. In
carrying out its business, PT VNP prioritizes service, also the most important is creativity along
with the development of information technology in order to gain trust and satisfaction that what
is produced by PT VNP is very high quality based on the era that is happening. This can also be
proven by increasing the number of clients.
PT VNP provides services directly in the field of trade both to those who have been confirmed
as PKP (Taxable Entrepreneurs) and Non PKP (Taxable Entrepreneurs). The activities carried
out by PTVNP are the distribution of oil to all outlets in Jakarta.
Company Accounting Policy

Basic Preparation of Financial Statements
The financial statements have been presented in accordance with the Financial Accounting
Standards which include the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (PSAK) issued by the
Financial Accounting Standards Board of the Indonesian Institute of Accountants as a guide to
the presentation and disclosure of financial statements.
The financial statements are prepared based on accrual concepts using the historical cost
concept, except for certain accounts that are measured based on measurements as described in
the respective accounting policies of the account.
Receivables
Receivables are stated at net value, net of allowance for doubtful accounts, if any.
Value Added Tax (VAT)

The company has determined that Value Added Tax is recognized according to the date of the
invoice.
Core discussion
Presentation of Operating Income and Non Operating Presentation in the Company's Financial
Statements.
PT VNP Profit and Loss

An income statement is a financial report that reports the company's financial performance in a
certain period of time. The income statement summarizes the amount of costs incurred by the
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company during its operations and the profits that the company receives during running the
business.The following is PT VNP's profit per December 31, 2017 in rupiah:
Table 3.1 PT VNP Profit and Loss
Sales 80.299.894.987,-
Cost of goods sold (61.850.129.348,-)
Gross profit: 18.449.765.639,-
Selling expenses (8.721.969.560,-)
General and administrative expenses (5.337.598.011,-)
Other income (expenses) (545.093.400,-)
Operating income : 3.845.104.668,-
Non-operating income 576.447.063,-
Financial expenses (1.013.067.433,-)
Pre-tax profit 3.408.484.298,-
Income tax benefits (expenses) :
Current tax (816.779.000.-)
Deferred tax 67.631.319,-
Total income tax expense (749.147.681,-)
Net profit for the current year 2.659.336.617,-
Source: PT VNP in 2017
From the data above, the net sales recorded by PT VNP are Rp 80.299.894.987,-
Sales Ledger Per Month

Ledger is a classification of business activities of the company, both for receipt or expenditure
for one year. Recapitulation of Operating Income taken from the Ledger on PT VNP as of
December 31, 2017 in rupiahs, is amount Rp 80.299.894.987,-
Ledger of Income Outside of Business

Income Outside of Business is income received by a company that has nothing to do witthe main
business carried out by the company in its activities.
a) Interest income and income from sales of assets. Large Book of Interest Income obtained
from current account services related to remaining in the Bank as of December 31, 2017 in
rupiah, is amount Rp 246.447.063,-
b) Sales Revenue of Fixed
Sales Revenue of Ledgeron Fied Asset on 31 December 2017 is a sales revenue which
derived from used car sales as big as Rp 330.000.000,-
Table 3.2 Sales Revenue Ledger of Sales of Fixed Asset

PT. VNP
List History GL Non Operating Income
From 01 Jan 2017 to 31 Dec 2017
25 Mei Journal Sales Non
Sales of Used Car 330.000.000
2017 Evidence Operating
TOTAL NON-OPERATING INCOME 330.000.000
Source : PT VNP year 2017
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Reporting Period Notice of VATyear 2017

Recapitulation VAT Notice Later period of 2017
VAT period Notice must be reported each mounth, eventhough there are no changes to the
balance sheet, or Rupiah Value at that time tax nil (0). Reporting maturity is on the last day
(date 30 atau 31next month after at that the last tax periode.
Folowing Reporting Recapitulation of Reporting VAT periode notivication PT VNP on 31
December 2017 (on Rupiah) :
Table 3.3 Recapitulation Reporting VAT periode PTVNP

RECAPITULATION OF NOTICE PERIOD VNP,PT REPORT IN 2017
Month Sales (Tax Purchase VAT Out VAT Paid VAT In Under Paid
Base) In Advance Payment/ Status
Over
Payment
January 6.923.717.28 6.266.338.01 692.371.728 314.113.643 626.633.801 - OP
0 0 248.375.71
6
Februar 5.559.237.60 5.940.631.86 555.923.760 248.375.716 594.063.186 - OP
y 0 0 286.515.1`
42
March 5.750.709.95 3.740.715.26 575.070.995 938.497.323 374.071.526 - OP T
0 0 737.497.85
4
April 9.739.383.50 5.594.044.55 973.938.350 737.497.854 559.404.455 - OP
0 0 322.963.95
9
May 8.539.313.02 2.027.081.86 853.931.302 322.963.959 202.708.186 328.259.15 UP
0 0 7
June 7.336.178.39 4.315.592.51 733.617.839 - 431.559.251 302.058.58 UP
0 0 8
July 4.521.998.04 4.853.875.77 452.199.804 - 485.387.577 - OP
0 0 33.187.773
August 7.544.293.66 3.202.480.98 754.429.366 33.187.773 320.248.098 400.993.49 UP
0 0 5
Septemb 6.852.126.06 5.732.154.52 685.212.606 - 573.215.452 111.997.15 UP
er 0 0 4
October 6.209.499.93 7.532.251.70 620.949.993 - 753.225.170 - OP
0 0 132.275.17
7
Novembe 6.603.557.29 7.305.012.95 660.355.729 - 730.501.295 - OP
r 0 0 70.145.566
Decembe 5.342.473.46 1.173.606.81 534.247.346 - 117.360.681 416.886.66 UP
r 0 0 5
80.922.488.1 57.683.786.7 8.092.248.8 2.594.636.2 5.768.378.6
80 80 18 68 78
Source: PT VNP year 2017
From data above, VAT Periode Notice PT VNP, which has been paid and reported. Sales
(Omzet) as Rp 80.922.488.180,- based on tax invoice, along with insufficient payment or over
payment that has been paid although compensated.
Implementation of the Equalization of Financial Statements with VAT Period Returns

Income Statement Separates Operating Income with Non Operating Income
Equalization can be interpreted as a process to check the suitability of one type of tax with
another type of tax that has a relationship. The intended relationship is the report section of a
type of tax that is part of the report on other types of tax tax. The process is carried out by
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equalizing the income recorded in the financial statements with the income reported in the
annual notification letter (SPT) submitted to the tax office.
Following is the Income Statement that separates Operating Income with Non Operating
Income as of 31 December 2017 (in rupiah):
Table 3.4 PT VNP equalization Profit and Loss
Sales 80.299.894.987,-
Gross profit: 18.449.765.639,-
From the data above, the net sales for which PT VNP recorded Operating Income is Rp
80.299.894.987.-
Non Operating Income
Income received by the company that has nothing to do with the main business carried out by
the company in its activities.
Table 3.4 Non Operating Income
Interest Income Rp 246.447.063,- Non Taxable Goods

Fixed Assets Sales Rp 330.000.000,- Taxable Goods
Total Rp 576.447.063,-
Recapitulation of VAT Period 2016 SPT

From the data at table 3.3, the PT VNP VAT SPT has been paid and reported
Problem analysis
Presentation of Operating Income and Non Operating Presentation in the Company's
Financial Statements
The following presents PT VNP's income statement as of December 31, 2016 in rupiah:
Table 4.1 PT VNP Profit and Loss
Sales 80.299.894.987,-
Gross profit: 18.449.765.639,-
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From the data above, PT VNP's Profit and Loss Statement is in accordance with PSAK No. 1
Paragraph 80, which includes Revenue and Expenses for a certain period. Revenue
registration is Rp 80.299.894.987,- then PT VNP records non-operating income, namely
from interest income and sales of fixed assets of Rp 576,447,064.
Interest Income Rp 246.447.063,-
Sales of Fixed Assets Rp 330.000.000,-
Table 4.2 PT VNP Fixed Assets Sales Revenue Ledger
PT. VNP
List History GL Non Operating Income
From 01 Jan 2016 to 31 Dec 2016
Sales
25 Mei Journal
Non Sales of Used Car 330.000.000
2016 Evidence
Operating
TOTAL NON-OPERATING INCOME 330.000.000

From the table above, the income from the sale of fixed assets of PT VNP is Rp. 330,000,000
which is the income from the sale of used cars. Based on this, the sale of these fixed assets PT
VNP should issue an output tax invoice, because the sale of used cars should be subject to
VAT of 10% of the DPP.
Result of equalization
Based on the implementation of equalization of the Profit and Loss Statement on the VAT
Period Return, it turns out that there is a difference. The difference was caused by the
incorrect recording of revenue recognition where income should be in accordance with the
VAT SPT of Rp 80.922.488.180,- but in profit and loss only recorded Rp 80.299.94.4887
Income Statement Report Rp 80.299.894.987,-
VAT Period notice Rp 80.922.488.180,-
difference Rp 622.593.193,-
From the table above, there is a difference of Rp. 622,593,193 between the income statement
and the 2017 VAT SPT.
Then know that differences occurs because of there is tax invoice of sales wich has been
published on December 2017 :
Date Invoice No Name of Customer Oil Type Price
10 Dec 2017 Ind/17/0495 Satrio Mobil TFF ATF 24 Rp 175.500.000-
15 Dec 2017 Ind/17/0496 Suyanta Auto Service TFF DGO 22 Rp 210.850.500,-
20 Dec 2017 Ind/17/0497 Jaya Bintang Service Mobile ATF Rp 236.242.693,-
Total Rp 622.593.193,-
From the above, there then knownare sales transactions that have been issued invoices but
have not yet entered the company's turnover due to the issue of recognition.
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As known from Ledger of Fixed Assets there is fixed assets sales:

Type Type Sales Price
Used car Mitsubishi Colt Diesel Rp 330.000.000,-
From the above, the income from the sale of fixed assets which should be included in the
turnover is Rp 330.000.000.,-Then the adjustment must be made to the difference to find out
where the difference originates.
Conclusion
Based on the data and discussion that has been described in the previous chapters, it can be
concluded that;
1. Based on the profit and loss report of the company listed in accordance with PSAK
Number 1 Paragraph 80 concerning the Comprehensive Income Statement and calculation
of Operating Income and Non Operating income, there is interest income and sale of fixed
assets in the form of un-issued tax invoices of Rp 330.000.000,-
2. Based on the Recapitulation of Reporting on VAT Period Tax Returns, PT VNP has
reported its Periodic Tax Return from January to December 2017 and in accordance with
the Regulation of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia Number
9PMK.03/2016 concerning Notification Letter (SPT).
3. Based on the results of PT VNP equalization, there is a difference between the Income
Statement and the VAT SPT amounting to Rp 622.593.193,- where the difference comes
from the sale at the end of the year which has been issued invoices but the recognition of
income is considered at the beginning of 2017, resulting in a difference between Profit
and Loss with VAT SPT and there is an income from the sale of fixed assets which are
Taxable Goods (BKP) which should be issued tax invoices and the value of the
acquisition entered in the company's turnover.
References
Agoes, dan Trisnawati, (2007). Akuntansi Perpajakan. Jakarta
Andriani, P.J.A. (2015) Akuntansi pajak. Jakarta
Anwar Pohan, (2015) Manajemen Perpajakan. Jakarta.
B.Ilyas, Wirawan Burton, Richard. (2009). Hukum Pajak. Jakarta
Kasmir, P.J.A. (2010) Laporan Keuangan. Jakarta
Agoes, and Trisnawati, (2007) Tax Accounting. Jakarta
Andriani, P.J.A. (2015) Tax accounting. Jakarta
Anwar Pohan, (2015) Tax Management. Jakarta
B.Ilyas, Wirawan. Burton, Richard 2009 Tax law. Jakarta: Salemba EmpatKasmir, P.J.A.
(2010) Financial Report. Jakarta
Keputusan Dirjen Pajak (1995) No. 29/PJ/1995 tentang Replikasi Sistem Informasi
Perpajakan. Jakarta: Kemenkeu.
Resmi, Siti. (2009) Perpajakan: Teori dan Kasus. JakartaUndang-Undang Republik
Indonesia No. 42 tentang Pajak Pertambahan Nilai Barang dan jasa dan Pajak Penjualan
atas Barang Mewah. Jakarta: Kemenkeu.
Waluyo, dan Wirawan B Ilyas, (2003) Perpajakan Indonesia, Jakarta
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO WRITING IN

AN ESL CLASSROOM: A CASE STUDY IN A MALAYSIAN
SUB-RURAL SCHOOL
Nur Maisah Binti Abdul Aziz1*, Azlina Binti Abdul Aziz2
1,2
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
*(E-mail: [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
In order for Malaysia to compete globally, learning English as a second language is an
essential criteria. But for some Malaysians, English proves a difficult language to learn. There
are students in rural areas who are still struggling to master English. These students come
from different socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. The lack of language usage in a daily
setting outside schooling time limits their language acquisitions. Therefore, their overall
English language knowledge has become stagnant without showing much signs of
improvement. In all the skills in the English language, writing has always been a tall order
and often a contributing factor for Malaysian students to fail their English subject. This study,
which is based on action research method, aimed to help students in a rural school to
realize their potential in learning English by using their own experiences as a tool and
improving writing skills. This study investigates the effectiveness of using experiential
learning through a series of classroom activities as a mechanism in strengthening the learning
cycle. A pre and post-tests were done to measure students’ understanding and the efficacy of
using this strategy. The findings showed a significant improvement in students’ writing
performance. With guidance and encouragement, students could show their true potential.
They were also able to show the skills they have learned in activities introduced in this
research. Hence, boost their confidence in using the English language.
Keywords: Experiential Learning, Writing skills, Action Research, ESL
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
In a global world, mastering the English language is an important element of success.
The language has become a tool for people to communicate and obtain knowledge
effectively. Nevertheless, mastering a language needs time, effort and a lot of motivation in
order to really grasp the targeted language. In Malaysia, the biggest problem for students is
that they view the English language as a difficult subject and not a second language that they
need to learn and use in their daily lives. This has become the contributing factor for the poor
performance in the Malaysian general examinations.
The introduction of the Educational Transformation Plan 2013-2025 (MOE. 2013), is
aimed at producing a highly successful educational system that would be able to produce
students that are best prepared and can meet the challenges of a 21st century economy. One
aspect in the student’s aspiration is to prepare students who are bilingual that can master and
work in both the national language, Bahasa Melayu and also English language environment
(MOE, 2013). In doing so, the greater emphasis on language learning through the Upholding
the Bahasa Melayu and To Strengthen Bahasa Inggeris (MBMMBI) programme has seen
many stakeholders trying to find better ways to expose Malaysian students to good quality
learning experiences. Thus, students would gain as much knowledge and skills possible to
equip themselves for the future.
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Research Problems
This study revolves around a sub-rural school located in Merlimau, Melaka. Students
come from different socioeconomic backgrounds and not being able to use the language
limits their language acquisitions. Academically, students in this sub-rural school scores
fairly in the standardize tests such as PT3 and SPM. For this school, English Language
subject has been known to be a tough paper to pass. This is because the passing rate for
students in the Pentaksiran Tingkatan 3 or PT3 is recorded at only 20% to 30% whereas the
Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia English papers have been known to be around the 58% to 80% range
of passing in previous years. With only a record of 9 students or 3.9% being the highest
achievement of As in 2013 for SPM, this rural school certainly have a lot more to do in order
to improve students’ English performances in the examination.
As Gobel et.al, (2013) pointed out, there is a difference in attributes that causes the
failures in English SPM papers between the rural and urban students. Urban students’ failures
often caused by lack of interest, class atmosphere, class level and also other factors as well.
On the other hand, rural students’ failures are due to the lack of ability, effort or study skills
as well as the tasks that are given to them. As students do not understand what they are doing
at the moment, it would be difficult to improve on the process that they are engaged in
(Yunus and SS Mat, 2014).
One key aspect that is known to have contributed to the poor performance of these
students were their poor writing skills. Students are not able to write well since they are not
able to express themselves in the English language. Even though English is considered as a
second language here in Malaysia, learners from remote and rural areas may not see the
importance of learning English; hence, they lack motivation and also find it difficult to learn
this foreign language. This also means English will always remain a degrading factor in the
school’s overall performance as well as remain as a foreign language and not a second
language to students. In view of this, students at least need to be exposed to learning
strategies in acquiring the language and able to use the knowledge to pass the exams. If this is
not done, stakeholders such the Education ministry, school, English teachers, students would
need to face the consequences of the stigma of English as a non-performing subject.
Considering students’ inability to acquire language skills effectively, a study of
Experiential Learning approach in engaging students to participate in language activities will
be carried out. Why Experiential Learning? According to a study done on Experiential
Learning Contributions to Language Learning (Mollaei and Rahmana, 2012), it is a powerful
way to address individual growth and potential because it is adaptable for individual style,
preferences, strengths, direction, etc. As the students are weak, it is hoped that by using their
own experiences and giving input on matters they are comfortable with, they will be able to
express themselves freely. Thus, the use of language in the real world is crucial as it creates
interest in learning the language, helps learners to identify themselves with the target
language and builds their confidence (Fauziah Hassan and Nita Fauzee Selamat, 2002).
Literature Review
English Subject in Malaysian Schools
As a second languange in Malaysia, it is important to point out that despite that level
of stature, English has remained the weakest subject among Malaysian students in all major
examinations. According to Tengku Azian Shahriman, director of education and SRI
(strategic reform initiative) human capital development at PEMANDU, English is students’
weakest core subject in national assessments: 25 per cent of candidates failing at Ujian
Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, 23 per cent at Penilaian Menengah Rendah (now called Form
Three Assessment — PT3), and 22 per cent at SPM. The same report highlighted that
Malaysian students perform poorly in international English examinations with 50 per cent of
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candidates failing the 1119 paper (NST 15, December 2015). A consistent declined in
performance of English in the SPM level according to the Malaysian Examination Board
showed an almost consistent failure rate for English in the SPM exams since 2011. In 2011,
23.2 per cent failed the subject, 22.9 per cent in 2012, 20.0 per cent in 2013 and 22.7 per cent
in 2014 has the Malaysian Examination Board director Datin Nawal Salleh view this as a
problem which will have serious implications in the implementation of English as an SPM
compulsory pass in the current situation as serious (NST 15, December 2015).
Figure 1: (NST 15, December 2015)
Strategies Taken To Improve English Performance In Schools

There are many factors contributing to the weak English performance among students.
According to Dr Elsie Chin, chief executive officer of English Language courses provider
Cambridge English For Life, English must be remembered, is a tool, and not a separate stand-
alone subject. Teachers should adopt a much more cooperative approach to language
learning, where students are encouraged to help each other, and where the teacher facilitates,
allowing students to be much more active. Other than that,, Teachers also need to share ideas,
materials and approaches among themselves. Even though she does acknowledge that it is
easier said than done (NST 15, December 2015).
In order to prepare for this, various initiatives were taken by the ministry to improve
mastering of the English Language among teachers, like the Professional Development
Programme for English Language Teachers (Pro-ELT), which had trained 16,000 teachers
since 2012. There is also the English Language Intervention programme, targeting the non-
option English Language teachers, which had benefited 976 teachers (Malay Mail 24, May
2016), This is to say that, many efforts are being put in to overcome the problem of English
as a non-performing subject.
Factors That Influence Learning Of English In Malaysian Schools

Factors that pose challenges in learning English is an internal and external ones. These
factors are limited opportunities to use English outside the classroom (external factor),
negative attitude towards English (internal factor) and lack of confidence (internal
factor). These internal and external factors can influence each other; they are by no means
independent. For example, a learner who has low self-confidence may refuse to use the
language outside the classroom (Fauziah Hassan and Nita Fauzee Selamat, 2002). This
together with other factors hinders the students’ ability to master the language . Being in a
rural area, students find English not playing a role in their lives except for being a school
subject that they need to learn. The lack of use of the language outside the classroom limits
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language acquisition. As the acquisition process is an ongoing one, students must not let
disturbance from others get in the way of progress.
Problems On Writing Skills

Other than Malaysia, these problems occur in other non-English speaking countries
where English writing proved to be a challenge on its own. Countries like China and
Indonesia contribute a lot of research studies on this matter. In China, ESL academicians
view this as a constraint which restrains Chinese students in improving the English learning
experience (Hu Qingkun, 2014). He also added that, in the conventional way of teaching
English writing, the end product is more emphasised than the actual writing process.
However, in finding ways to overcome this problem, Yang Yonglin (2004: 21) through Hu
Qingkun (2014) said that, a foreign language teacher should first solve the problem of the
relationship between thinking globally and acting locally so that, effective teaching activities
could be carried out. Later, it can be used to make discovery in theory, research and teaching
ideas.
This practice is also evident in Indonesia whereby, the inability for teachers to move
away from the conventional method of teaching writing also contributes in making writing in
English unattractive. For them, writing in English is very difficult, and they couldn't relate to
the ideas of writing in English. Students also have problems with errors in the mechanics of
writing such as; punctuation, spelling and used capitalization (Maharani et.al, 2014).
The Role of Experiential Learning

Experiential Learning emphasizes the central role that experience plays in the learning
process, an emphasis that distinguishes ELT from other learning theories. The term
“experiential” is used therefore to differentiate ELT both from cognitive learning theories,
which tend to emphasize cognition over affect, and behavioral learning theories that deny any
role for subjective experience in the learning process. It defines learning as "the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results
from the combination of grasping and transforming experience" (Kolb 1984). According to
the Cambridge Online Dictionary, experience is defined as (the process of
getting) knowledge or skill from doing, seeing, or feeling things or something that happens to
you that affects how you feel.
Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (1984) stressed on the essence of experience as a
foundational substance. Experiences are considered as ceaseless as experiences have an
effect on subsequent experiences. There are four stages to this learning style which includes
concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract summary and active application. A
learner needs to go through these four stages in order to fully understand what they had
experienced and learned. It is very important to note that this cycle does not only focused on
the end product but rather the learning process itself.
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Figure 2: Kolb’s Learning cycle (1974)

Experiential learning is often used synonymously with the term "experiential
education", but while experiential education is a broader philosophy of education,
experiential learning considers the individual learning process. In other words, experiential
learning is concerned with more concrete issues related to the learner and the learning
context. Thus, learning from experience means not merely memorizing a predefined set of
abstract facts and figures, which are subsequently regurgitated in exams. According to
Reynolds (2009) in many ways, Experiential Learning appears to be as much a movement as
a theory and a practice whose acquisition is a matter of faith (Gosen and Washbush, 2004).
Based on the above discussion and examples, the use of Experiential Learning is
deemed suitable for this study. As the model could be carried out in many different forms, it
also does not limit the time and place the learning activities to be carried out as long as the
processes take place in a safe and friendly environment (Kujalová, 2005). He also added that
the term environment can be understood in two different ways. First, it was 'situation' and
then 'conditions'. The third way of understanding environment is the 'place/location' where
something happens, which is the next significant aspects which experiential learning methods
consider. Since experiential education is 'education for life', it is based on natural
environment. Language learning should not be confined to a classroom because students will
find it stressful and boring. Therefore, various activities in and outside the classroom will
definitely have a greater impact.
Ultimately, effective learning is evident when a person advances through a cycle of
four stages which is having a concrete experience, followed by observation of and reflection
on that experience. This later leads to the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and
generalisations (conclusions) which are then used to test hypothesis in future situations and
produces new experiences (McLeod, 2017).

Research Method
The research was carried out between October to November 2018 in SMK Seri
Mahkota, Umbai, Merlimau, Melaka to a group of 15 form one students. As a sub-rural
school, the English subject’s performance for the core exams mainly PT3 and SPM has not
been very good. As the best one was in 2013 for SPM and 2018 for PT3. This is due to
English subject being perceived as a tough subject as it was not widely used by students
outside the school compound. The study adopted the Classroom Action Research (CAR). A
class action research is carried out in order to comprehend, assess and revised educational
practices in the classroom. In other words, it is done to figure out how to solve problems that
may occur in the classroom and find solutions to improve through action research. Mettetal
(2002) explains that classroom action research improves teaching and will help teachers to
discover what works best in their own classroom situations. She added that CAR is a
powerful integration of teaching and learning that provides a solid basis for instructional
decisions. It's easily mastered technique provide insights into teaching that results in
continual improvement. Sagor (2000) stated that, in general, an action research can be
engaged in by a teacher, by a group of people who share a common problem, or by the entire
organisation.
The purpose of this classroom action research was to find out how students use past
experience in improving their writing skills in a classroom setting. The researcher obtained
data by observation using a checklist and tests. The instruments of the research was based on
observations, interviews, questionnaires, documents and audiovisuals. The research was
conducted in cycles, that includes planning, implementation, observation, and reflection. Any
significant increment in marks during the pre and post test, means that the cycle was a
success. This research study focused on three research questions. Firstly, how experiential
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learning will benefit students? Next, how the experiential learning cycle benefit students in
realizing their potential in learning English and eventually their writing skills? And lastly, can
ESL students with limitation in English able to take part in language activities more
confidently?
Researcher used the experiential learning method through task-based and active
learning to teach the targeted students the writing skills needed in order to write better. Cox
(2017) suggest that exposing students to active learning techniques, may give students other
types of skills and knowledge that they cannot gain through traditional classroom settings.
The task-based approach teaching or learning in the English language is proven to be an
effective and successful tool in the development of second language learner academic writing
skills (Johari, 2018; Ahmed and Bidin, 2016).
It started with a pre-test, then continued with two meetings and followed by a post
test. At the end of the cycle, the researcher reflected the activities carried out and also the
scores of the post-test was an indicator of the successfulness of the cycle. Since the researcher
is the teacher, ineffective activities can be further enhanced in the teaching and learning in the
classroom.
Experiential learning has many benefits such as students can relate to what they are
learning and put into practice what they have learned. Experiential learning also encourages
collaborative learning and this would increase students’ participation in the activities. In
carrying out the experiential learning activities, students enhanced their memory by making
connections to what they have learned with their feelings at that moment of time. In the end,
whatever students learned, it would have a lasting effect and would be evolved over time.
Findings
One critical factor that contributed to the non-performing factor of being poor in
English is the lack of writing skills among students. Students are reluctant to answer the
writing questions in exams. This resulted in failures or scoring low marks during exams for
the English subject. This is because writing contributes a big chunk of the overall marks for
the exam papers. When asked a question on how did the students feel when they found out
that a writing question will be a part of the exam question, almost all the respondent answered
they were either afraid or turned off. In some instances, students would skip the writing
question and focused on other questions. It is also very common to hear students says that
they have a lot of ideas but they just don’t know how to write them in English. Here we could
see the interference of L1 is evident.
Besides being too afraid to make mistakes, the problem of poor in writing could also
due to the uninteresting way of the knowledge being delivered. Since students learning style
differs from one another, so does their acceptance towards learning. Some of them think that
English is a boring subject therefore should be avoided. In this case, it is the teacher’s role to
make sure that knowledge is being disseminate in an interesting manner and must consider
different types of learners. Teachers must make use the various activities to teach the students
English and in this case writing skills.
When the plan was explained to them, the students were eager to take part in the
intervention program. They took part in the lessons and activities actively. Students were also
able to work in groups and carry out the activities as required. They also showed interest in
trying to do the individual work even if it was difficult for them to undertake. Nevertheless,
there were times when more drilling should have been done for example giving them more
exercises in making sure they really understand the topic before going through to the next
activity.
Based on the results of the analysis, many gaps emerged from the data. These gaps
were divided into grammar and non-grammar issues. These data were identified and
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categorized according to the grammar issues hence identifying the common weaknesses
which were Subject-Verb Agreement. Students could not write a proper sentence since the
requirement of the question was for them to write a story by expanding the notes based on the
word or phrases given. Students were also unable to use past tenses correctly for the question.
From the written data, it was also apparent that students either did not use connectors
correctly or it was not present in their writing at all. As for the non-grammar issues, it is
found that some of the issues are lack of vocabulary, rubric, notes expansion and poor
elaborations. In attempting the question, students did not write according to the format. There
was a high density of serious errors which caused blurring in meaning and in some places,
meaning was hardly comprehensible. In extreme cases, candidates merely copied the rubric or
did not attempt the question. They could not expand notes well too in terms of giving short
sentences or even having poor elaboration of the contents as they do not have previous
knowledge or lack of vocabulary.
The results of the pre-test and post-test are shown in a table and graph chart below to
show the one non-grammar and 2 grammar issues chosen in making a contrast of the
students’ performance.
Table 1 : Gaps in Student’s writing
Issues Pre-test Post-test

No. of Students No. of Students
Subject-Verb Agreement
(Grammar) 10 6
Tenses
(Grammar) 11 7
Lack of Vocabulary
(Non-Grammar) 8 6
*Notes: The data was based on the number of students making gaps among the 15 number of student’s
written data
From the data, it shows that 11 students have problems in using past tense in writing a
story. This is due to the inability of students to understand the rubric and was more concern to
attempt the question by expanding the notes of the word or phrases given. Other than that, it
was also apparent that 10 students were having problems in writing correct sentences
according to the Subject-Verb Agreement. This is the biggest gap found from the data as
students were having problems in writing sentences correctly due to lack of vocabulary and
prior knowledge.
There were many grammar and non-grammar issues identified from the students’
written data. But it was narrowed down to a few mainly being the lack of vocabulary, rubric,
notes expansion and poor elaboration as the non-grammar issues. As for the grammar issues,
it was identified that students were having problems with sentence structure particularly with
the Subject-verb Agreement and Tenses.
The question for both the pre-test and post test are somewhat similar. In order to test
and help stimulate the students mind, a pictorial based question was given along with short
notes. This is to help the students to boost their confidence in elaborating the point and
adding other relevant details. This is because, in the pre-test, it was found that students could
not write properly as they were lacking in vocabulary and having problems with sentence
structure.
As for the post-test is concern, students could elaborate on the idea as they can see a
clearer picture of the requirement of the question. Since the students have gone through the
intervention plan, they could recall the lessons on sentence structures which focused on
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subject-verb agreement and tenses. All those grammar items were found to be used constantly
in the post-test. A significant decreased in gaps for the Subject-verb Agreement from 10 to 6
shows that students are beginning to understand the importance of writing correct sentences.
Students also used tenses correctly as it shows a drop from 11 to 7 students in gaps.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, it is apparent that active participation of the students is very
important in determining the success of the research. The willingness to try and sharing
experiences as seen during the activity session indicate that students could show their true
potential with guidance and motivation. It is also important to indicate that the activities done
could help students to improve their writing skills. Even the changes made were not that big
but progress were still being made.
It was also found that new gaps are indeed emerging in their writing especially in the
grammar issues. Students tend to write incomplete sentences whereby making grammatical
errors such as omission of articles and misspelling of difficult words. This indicates that
students are making single word errors in their writing which is considered as a better band in
purpose of marking for language. Furthermore, the cooperative learning approach during the
intervention have allowed students to engage in discussions among themselves, express their
opinion, produce better written products and boost the confidence level.
It can also be concluded that, experiential learning is a powerful tool that can be
manipulated in order to design and cater to the institutions, teachers and students’ need in
improving their language learning. As learning a new language is never easy. It needs effort
from both, the learners and teachers. In doing so, an appropriate approach and suitable
teaching materials need to be selected for ESL learners (Thirusanku and Yunus, 2014). It is
even vital to do so in a rural school. Thirusanku and Yunus (2014) added that a pragmatic
approach is therefore the best choice to produce students who are proficient in the language.
Thus, using the experiential learning approach is seen as one of the best option in dealing
with a classroom full of enthusiastic students.
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Teaching Theory [J]. Computer-Assisted Foreign Language Education, 2004, (4).
Yunus, M., and S. S. Mat. "Writing Needs and strategies of FELDA primary ESL pupils."
Journal of Education and Human Development 3.2 (2014): 1017-1035.
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EXPLORING MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING OF

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM EVENTS IN MALAYSIA:
GOVERNMENT SECTOR
Ainul Syakira Mahidi Mohyedin1*, Batiah Mahadi1, Siti Rahmah Awang1, Umar Haiyat
Abdul Kohar1, Noraini Abu Talib1
1
Azman Hashim International Business School, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
*(E-mail: [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Aquaculture industry is identified as one of the major sources to increase fish production to
meet domestic demand and expand export potential. In Malaysia, it has a production of about
407,403 tonnes with a value of approximately RM 2,784,721 in 2016 that contributed 21
percent to the total fish production. It highly come with the risk of uncertainty that it can give
an unexpected loss if there is problem arise. One of the uncertainties is harmful algal bloom.
Harmful algal bloom involving fish kills has been reported since 2002 in Malaysia. A total
estimated loss of almost RM 700k was reported by the Department of Fisheries Johor in 2014
in which involved eight fish cages. Given that HABs is still in the exploratory stage in the
context of Malaysia, an in-depth interview with the key persons involved in HAB outbreaks
was conducted to explore the handling process of HAB in preventing the fish kills in
Malaysia. This paper aims to explore the monitoring program of HAB outbreaks in Malaysia
in the government sector in perceive to help managing and mitigating the events of harmful
algal bloom in Malaysia’s aquaculture industry. This study aims to help giving an insight on
the management of algal outbreak in Malaysia
Keywords: Harmful algal bloom, Management, In-depth interview
_________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Aquaculture industry is identified as one of the major sources to increase fish production to
meet domestic demand and expand exportation potential (Jabatan Perikanan, 2017). The
aquaculture industry resulted in a production of about 407,403 tonnes with a value of
approximately RM 2,784,721 (Razali, 2016). This had contributed 21 percent to the total fish
production. As such, aquaculture development has shown rapid growth with an average
annual growth rate of 8 percent per annum over the last 10 years. This is supported by a
statement from the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry through that the
government will be targeting production of aquaculture for 1.4 million tonnes by 2020
(Utusan Online, 2017).
However, aquaculture fisheries industry in Malaysia has been threatened by the massive fish
kills in the past 40 years. Harmful Algae Bloom (HAB) involving fish kills has been reported
since 2002 in Johor but it came to light in 2014 when the fish kills reported in Tanjung
Kupang resulting in the total loss of the aquaculture fish (Razali, 2016). Astro Awani (2014)
reported that in 2014, one caged fish farmer lost more than RM150, 000 in three days due to
the mass die-offs among the fish which was more than 90 percent in total. A total estimated
loss of almost RM 700k was reported by the DOF Johor in 2014 which involved eight fish
cages have become victims of this incident.
Algal bloom is a natural phenomenon including the toxic events which is called as Harmful
Algal Bloom (HAB). HAB, commonly called red tides, is now grouped under the descriptor
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harmful algal blooms or HABs (Anderson et al, 2002). HABs have one unique feature in
common that causes harm which is either due to their production of toxins or to the way the
cells' physical structures or accumulated biomass affect co-occurring organisms and alter
food web dynamics. Mass mortalities of wild and farmed fish and shellfish; human illness
and death from toxic seafood or from toxin exposure through inhalation or water contact;
illness and death of marine mammals, seabirds, and other animals; and alteration of marine
habitats and trophic structure are the impacts of these phenomena (Usup et al, 2002; Lim et
al, 2012; Lim et al, 2014).
In Malaysia, the HAB incident is now being monitored by the Fisheries Research Institutes
(FRI) and Sabah Fisheries Department in selected areas which have been identified to a
frequent HAB outbreaks. The first HAB event encountered in Malaysia was in 1970 in Sabah,
in which almost 396 people were affected. The first fish kills were reported in 2002 in Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah (Usup et al, 2002). Lim et al (2012) stressed that the unavailability of trained
manpower and expertise in phytoplankton ecology, lack of trained personnel in species
identification and enumeration can lead to misidentification of harmful species which
eventually hinder the monitoring program. This situation has brought into attention among
the FRI and Sabah Fisheries Department on how they can manage the HAB outbreak.
Sampling interval and frequency of monitoring exercises conducted are not enough to
monitor the HABs occurrence because most of the bloom occurred within a short period of
time (Lim et al, 2014).
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to explore the monitoring and mitigation program of
HAB outbreaks in Malaysia by the government sector. This paper presents the result of the
monitoring HAB events in Malaysia that focuses on the government sector which is
responsible for the fisherman and aquaculture industry of commercial fisheries in Malaysia.
Literature Review
Harmful phytoplankton events are regarded as a serious constraint to the sustainable
development of coastal areas (Zingone and Enevoldsen, 2000). Therefore, the occurrence of
fish kills has been related to harmful algal as such in 2014, Tanjung Kupang is one of the
locations where fish kills caused by HAB (Razali, 2016). The species reported are
Karlodinium australe which cause the caged fish died (Lim et al, 2014).
Besides that, one of the most noxious red tide microalgae that causes mass mortalities of both
cultured and natural fish and invertebrates is Cochlodinium polykrikoides margalef (Imai and
Kimura, 2008; Richlen et al, 2010). In 2013, it was the last HAB event in Kuala Gula, Perak
that involved Cochlodinium polykrikoides margalef. However, in 2016, a new species
namely Noctiluca scintillans also harmed the fish in the same area. Table I summarizes the
events involving the microalgae that cause fish kills in Malaysia (Jabatan Perikanan, 2017).
The subsequent fish-kill events were recorded in the Straits of Malacca in which the location
is regarded as the the most important finfish-farming area in the country (Lim et al, 2014). In
fact, the HAB events are very significant to fish breeders as they sell fish for a living. For
example, some of the fish breeder in Tanjung Kupang are forced to incur significant losses
for almost hundreds of thousands Ringgit Malaysia due to HAB occurrences.
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Table 1: Events Involving Harmful Algal Bloom in Malaysia Related to Fish Kills
Year Microalgae Location Impacts References
2002 Procentrum Johor Bahru, Johor Red-tide [6]
minimum
2004 Cochlodinium Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Red-tide and fish kill [12]
polykrikoides
2005- Cochlodinium Pulau Pinang Fish kills (estimated 6 [7]
2006 polykrikoides million USD)
2007 Ceratium furca Sungai Dinding, Pangkor, Red-tide [1]
Lumut,Perak, dan Pulau
Pinang
2008 Pangkor, Perak
2009 Sungai Dinding, Perak
2013 Cochlodinium Kuala Gula, Perak Fish kills [1]
polykrikoides
2014 Karlodinium Tanjung Kupang Johor Fish kills (estimated lost [8]
2015 australe RM 150k each person: 10
(ichthyotoxic) person involved)
2016 Noctiluca Kuala Gula, Perak Fish kills (estimated lost [1]
scintillans RM 500k each person: 4
person involved)
Methodology
A qualitative approach was used in this study given that HABs is still at the exploratory stage
in the context of Malaysia. Hence, in-depth interviews with the key persons involved in these
HAB outbreaks were conducted to explore the handling process of HAB in preventing and
managing the fish kills in Malaysia. The qualitative approach is flexible and allows for the
exploration of the situation on handling the HAB incidents in more detail. A total of 6 key
persons from Department of Fisheries were invited for the interview session.
Prior the commencement of the interview, places where HAB cases were identified were
purposely chosen. Johor was selected first as the recent HAB outbreaks reoccurred in 2015.
For the starting of this study, Snowball sampling was used to determine the places in which
the other places were subsequently chosen based on the information given during the
interview session. Sarawak was given a different approach by giving open-ended
questionnaires to respective issues related to the HAB monitoring program in Malaysia.
Figure 1 shows the flow chart on how the interviews were selected for the potential interview
candidates.
FRI Gelang
Identification of DOF Johor DOF Sabah
Patah, Johor
HAB outbreaks 23rd August 18th November
in Malaysia 17th August
2016 2016
2016
DOF Tumpat, FRI Batu Maung

DOF Pahang
Kelantan 13th February
23rd Mac 2017
5th April 2017 2017
Figure 1: Flow Chart on selecting the interview for HAB monitoring program in Malaysia
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The interviews were recorded and transcribed. The codes in the coding framework should
have limitations in terms of definitions to make sure it is not switchable or redundant and they
should also be narrow in scope and focus explicitly on the object of analysis (Attride-Stirling,
2001). This is to avoid coding every single sentence in the original text. The transcripts were
coded based on the emerging keywords that are similar in all the six interviews. Then, these
six interviews were compared to identify any similarities or/and differences. The results and
discussion will be elaborated in the following section.

The interviews revealed that there were five strategies that have been taken by the
participants or its agencies in the aspects of the HAB management and monitoring. These
strategies are considered as the terms for the management of HAB outbreak in Malaysia. The
strategies are quality control of water, prevention, and awareness program, standard of
procedure, sampling and machinery tools.
Table 2 shows how the management of the HAB outbreaks in Malaysia is summarized.
Kelantan and Sabah scored the highest with 4 points in which Sabah has the quality control of
water/sampling, prevention, awareness program, and machinery tools. As like Sabah,
Kelantan also has quality control of water/sampling, prevention, awareness program, and the
standard of procedure but not machinery tools. PH, SW and JB have the lowest point in
which each is represented by machinery tools, awareness program and standard of procedure.
Table 2: Management and Mitigation of Harmful Algal Bloom in Malaysia based on Interview
No. Department Quality Prevention Awareness Standard Machinery TOTAL
of Fisheries control of program of tools
Involved water/ procedure
Sampling
1. Gelang Patah 1 1 2
2. Johor Bahru 1 1
3. Sarawak 1 1
4. Sabah 1 1 1 1 4
5. Batu Maung 1 1 1 3
6. Pahang 1 1
7. Kelantan 1 1 1 1 4
TOTAL 4 2 4 3 3
Quality control of water means that the level of pH, temperature, salinity and DO was taken
into measure for the monitoring of HAB outbreaks. While sampling water means that the
water is taken for the identification of the harmful algal. In accordance to that, FRI Sabah
mentioned that:
“…in order for the agency to check the quality control of water, we always monitor in terms
of water samples” (Interviewee FRI Sabah)
And Sabah also mentioned about the procedure of water sampling:
“Take one-meter depth and 3-meters depth of sea water sample. We take on the two
levels because if at the depth of 3 meters there are many more algal, meaning the
event of algal bloom will last because of the algal from the bottom will rise. So, the
period will be longer. If you look at the level of one-meter there is algal but at level 3-
meters there is no algal, then possibility of the red tide will not be long.” (Interviewee
FRI Sabah)
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This is also discussed by the Kelantan where sampling of water was taken monthly at the
specific place of HAB outbreaks. In the event of a HAB, sampling of water is increased 2
times and Gelang Patah also mentioned that they frequently do the water quality monitoring
which is conducted at the beginning of the year from January to March 2 times a week. As for
the subsequent months, monitoring is performed once a month or based on the case. Besides
that, Batu Maung also mentioned that:
“If the breeders say there are red clumps, there is a possibility of red tide. So we will
take a sample of water and a fish sample to determine whether it involves fish disease
by sending the samples to a nearby biosecurity center. If the HAB occurs in the
northern part, the water sample to identify the HAB will be sent to FRI Batu Maung,
with a toxicity test.” (Interviewee FRI Batu Maung)
This highlights the facts that quality control of water or sampling is very important in the
process of monitoring the HAB outbreaks. The sampling is likely to be done monthly so that
if there are any changes or anomaly, the DOF will be able to give early warning to the fish
breeders. This will help fish breeders from the loss by informing them about the situation
earlier. Hence, this helps to identify suitable preventive measures and awareness programs, in
which this strategy will be discussed in the next section.
As for prevention, it is more significant in Sabah and Kelantan as there have been many cases
involving the public. Hence, both Sabah and Kelantan have tried various methods to prevent
people from getting affected by the HAB effects. Kelantan has the initiative to put a
signboard in various places and flyers to make sure that people are alert with the HAB
outbreakk. Whilst, Sabah mentioned in the interview that:
“If it comes to a dangerous level, information is given to the village head and
breeders, and they will take action in the event of a HAB. We did it in stages. If the
algal is localized, we will inform the head of the village only because we do not want
the public to panic. People do not want to eat fish when they know it. After that, if the
neighbouring area had already worsened in the outbreak, we will make a radio
announcement...” (Interviewee FRI Sabah)
Kelantan has also taken initiative whereby a group fisherman around that area also actively
help in the prevention of the HAB spread to the public. It is called as SUPER which is an
acronym for Sukarelawan Perikanan. Their role is to spread information about any related
events to the people residing in Kelantan specifically.
Thus, it appears that prevention measurement was involved only in places where most
harmful algal bloom and harm the human health only. Other places like Johor Bahru are more
inclined to handle the situation through the program that can help the fish breeders to be on
standby as HAB outbreaks are unpredictable. Therefore, the next section will discuss on the
findings of the awareness program that has been mentioned by the DOF.
As for the awareness program, Batu Maung has the most information as mentioned in the
interview that they would conduct an awareness program for their fisheries assistants in each
area involved so that they can spread the outbreak awareness to the fisherman and
aquaculture breeders. This is evidenced by the quote below:
“Briefings are given to these fisheries assistants. Usually the fisheries assistant is
close to the farmer because any business will refer to the FA such as a license or
anything related. So, in the meantime this fisheries assistant can be for knowledge to
breeders.” (Interviewee FRI Batu Maung)
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Although there are diverse ways of prevention, clearly it is for the same purpose which is to
help the public to be more aware of the HAB outbreaks and to be more alert during the
occasion. The awareness program for the fisheries assistants is a good way to expose the
fisherman and fish breeders to the situation and at the same time to be cautious for the
upcoming HAB outbreaks.
From the interviews conducted with all the department of fisheries, three participants
mentioned about the Standard of Operation (SOP) in dealing with the HAB outbreak. All of
them agreed that they are using the same procedure which is the general procedure of dealing
with any HAB events. In addition, Johor Bahru also mentioned that the SOP used is based on
the natural occurrence occurring. In this respect, Batu Maung also mentioned about the SOP
as below:
“If there is a case, the fishery department will go down the field. There is a SOP if it involves
more than 4 or how many areas I do not remember, the new Department of Environment will
come down.
If the case involves a single state only it involves the fishery department only and there is a
SOP ...” (Interviewee FRI Batu Maung)
Whereas for the sampling method, Kelantan took not only the sample of water but also the
shellfish in that area (refer appendix A for the type of sample by Kelantan). Sabah has also
practised the same approach in which they took sample of shellfish from the market through
the Department of Health.
Machinery Tools
Finally, machinery tools are another key finding in this study in analysing the samples.
Machinery tools is defined as the work lab that are used to identify the harmful algal. The
use of machinery tools was only mentioned by Pahang in which all the samples in the East
Coast will be delivered to their lab for the identification of the HAB presence. It was later
supported by the Kelantan in which they sent all the samples to the main lab ran by the unit
called biosecurity on a monthly basis. According to Gelang Patah, Biosecurity Division
which is under Johor Bahru also conducts periodic monitoring of livestock area around the
Straits of Johor. Monitoring is conducted in terms of monitoring of HABs species and water
quality parameters. The Gelang Patah only helps in terms of water quality monitoring.
Therefore, the lab work was not done in all the departments, rather it was centralized. As
mentioned by Batu Maung, all the samples from the north region were done by Batu Maung
whereas the samples from the East Coast area were done by Pahang. Sabah also has their own
lab as they have their Red Tide unit in the department that only focuses on the HAB
occurrence.
This paper focused on the exploration of management and mitigation of HAB outbreak and
how the handling of HAB was done from the viewpoints of the government sector. The
interviews were selected based on the HAB outbreaks that happen in that specific areas which
involve Johor (FRI Gelang Patah and DOF Johor), Sabah, Kuantan, Kelantan, and Sarawak.
These places were identified through the articles that have been published in local newspaper.
The comparison was done to identify any differences or similarities in terms of the
management and budget in which the cost estimated for the water sampling and monitoring of
HAB done every month.
Similarly, all departments have the same monitoring process, in which they do the sampling
every month, but they will most likely increase the number of sampling during the HAB
outbreaks. The increase in the number of sampling is changed from monthly to fortnightly.
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Furthermore, the general SOP is used, thus all departments are using the similar SOP for the
HAB outbreaks. The cost estimated in the monitoring program should be revised to
emphasize the need for better equipment and monitoring to help reduce the lost in the
aquaculture industry in Malaysia. Plus, this cost estimated that has been revised can help with
the budget for awareness and management of HAB outbreak throughout Malaysia.
In contrast, the prevention measures for publics are different according to each department.
Particularly, the medium used to spread the information and awareness about the HAB is
different for both SB and KN. SB is more discreet as they do not want the public to be in a
panic mode whereas KN is more open where they publicly put a signboard to notify the
publics about the HAB outbreaks. Other methods like flyers and radio depends on each
department. Furthermore, the machinery tools such as lab work were done in a centralized
manner, rather than individually.
Although the management and monitoring of HAB outbreaks are still new in Peninsular
Malaysia compare to Sabah, there are experts who have been helping in terms of exploring
the new species of HAB. Furthermore, due to HAB characteristics itself that is unpredicted,
future research is needed in other areas such as the perception of business owners and
fisherman about the issues of managing, controlling and monitoring the HAB outbreaks in
Malaysia.
Acknowledgment
This research work is supported by the Project TRGS (R.J130000.7829.4L846) by High
Ministry of Education Malaysia.
References
Anderson, D. M., Glibert, P. M., & Burkholder, J. M. (2002). Harmful algal blooms and
eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries, 25(4), 704-
726.
Anton, A., Teoh, P. L., Mohd-Shaleh, S. R., & Mohammad-Noor, N. (2008). First occurrence
of Cochlodinium blooms in Sabah, Malaysia. Harmful algae, 7(3), 331-336.
Astro Awani (2014). Ribuan bangkai ikan ditemui terapung di perairan Tanjung Kupang.
http://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/ribuan-bangkai-ikan-ditemui-terapung-di-
perairan-tanjung-kupang-30038.
Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative
research. Qualitative research, 1(3),
Imai, I., & Kimura, S. (2008). Resistance of the fish-killing dinoflagellate Cochlodinium
polykrikoides against algicidal bacteria isolated from the coastal sea of Japan. Harmful
algae, 7(3), 360-367.
Jabatan Perikanan Malaysia. (2017). Senario Industri Perikanan Malaysia. Retrieved on : 30th
January 2018. http://www.dof.gov.my/index.php/pages/view/42.
Lim, H. C., Leaw, C. P., Tan, T. H., Kon, N. F., Yek, L. H., Hii, K. S., & Lim, P. T. (2014).
A bloom of Karlodinium australe (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae) associated with mass
mortality of cage-cultured fishes in West Johor Strait, Malaysia. Harmful Algae, 40, 51-
62.
Lim, P. T., Usup, G., & Leaw, C. P. (2012). Harmful algal blooms in Malaysian waters. Sains
Malaysiana, 41(12), 1509-1515.
Razali, R. (2016). Fisheries Research Institute Batu Maung.
Richlen, M. L., Morton, S. L., Jamali, E. A., Rajan, A., & Anderson, D. M. (2010). The
catastrophic 2008–2009 red tide in the Arabian Gulf region, with observations on the
identification and phylogeny of the fish-killing dinoflagellate Cochlodinium
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polykrikoides. Harmful algae, 9(2), 163-172.

Usup, G., Pin, L. C., Ahmad, A., & Teen, L. P. (2002). Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) species
in Malaysian waters. Harmful Algae, 1(3), 265-275.
Utusan Online (2017). 1.4 Juta Tan Metrik Akuakultur Menjelang 2020. Retrieved on : 30th
January 2018. http://www.utusan.com.my/berita/parlimen/1-4-juta-tan-metrik-
akuakultur-menjelang-2020-tajuddin-1.419849.
Zingone, A., & Enevoldsen, H. O. (2000). The diversity of harmful algal blooms: a challenge
for science and management. Ocean & Coastal Management, 43(8-9), 725-748.
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FINTECH AND BANKING INDUSTRY
1
Fia Dialysa
1
Management, Ekuitas Business School, Bandung, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
New innovations that are incorporated in the world of technology and the internet make the
world grow faster, including currently in Indonesia a popular business start-up related to
fintech (financial technology). Financial technology provider which includes payment
systems, market support, investment management and risk management, loans, financing and
capital providers, and other financial services. In the other side, the objectives of Indonesian
banking are to help implement national development in order to achieve equity, economic
growth, and increase public welfare. Fintech offers products and services that are easier and
faster than through an administrative process at the bank. Fintech can reach people who do
not have access to the banking industry. Banking should have cooperated with fintech as a
partner to grow together. Distortion is unavoidable, but can only be minimized. The purpose
of this study is to determine the relationship between fintech and banking industry. The
method used is descriptive qualitative. The data used is primary data. The result is banking
should have cooperated with fintech as a partner to grow together. Basically, there are
advantages and disadvantages of the bank and fintech itself. Although there have been rules
of cooperation between banks and fintech actors in POJK/12/2018 concerning the
implementation of digital banking services by commercial banks, they have not yet been
specifically regulated. There must be regulations from the government that support in terms
of innovation and collaboration between banks and fintech, so that both can play a role in
national development.
Keywords: Fintech, Banking.

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
There are new arrivals in the financial services industry, namely fintech (financial
technology). With this newcomer, the existing banking industry must be willing to
acknowledge the fact that the needs of public financial services can be better fulfilled. Fintech
began to appear in the 21st century. Fintech, which is a combined word from financial
technology, is an online platform that makes it easy for us to transact for any purpose. In
general, fintech is an innovation in financial services that no longer needs to use paper
money. In other words, the existence of fintech turns the currency into digital to be more
efficient. (Kompas.com).
The Financial Services Authority (OJK) reports that there are currently 33 financial
technology (fintech) companies peer to peer lending (P2P) and crowdfunding that are
registered and licensed at the Financial Services Authority (OJK). According to the OJK,
around 40% of the people in Indonesia still have no contact with the banks. In other words,
this number has never opened any account at a national bank. However, on the other hand,
almost all residents in the country already have smartphones. The following are data on the
development of internet users in Indonesia for the period 1998-2017:
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Figure 1: Internet Users in Indonesia
Indonesia has great potential to develop a digital economy, seen from internet users in
Indonesia in 2017, it was quite high reaching 142 million people. Compared to internet users
in 2016 amounting to 130 million people, it grew by 7.9 percent from the previous year and
grew more than 600 percent in the last 10 years. This indicates that with the increasing
number of internet users, Indonesians tend to do a lot of activities online. The following is
data on credit growth and economic growth from 2006 to 2017:
Economic growth
Credit growth
Figure 2: Credit Growth and Economic Growth
In the 2016-2017 period Indonesian banking credit only grew by one digit. At the end
of June 2017 it grew 7.75 percent to Rp. 4,991 trillion compared to June of the previous year.
Whereas in 2016, bank lending was recorded to only grow 7.87 percent compared to the
previous year. So the conclusion, the existence of fintech can indeed be a threat to
conventional banks that have not followed the times, namely using technology into their
financial systems. Banks as conventional financial institutions have a habit of operating,
which may actually have expired and the presence of fintech presents a challenge for each
financial institution to be able to improve their respective roles. Fintech will have a strategic
role if it is able to collaborate with banks.
Literature Review
Financial Technology (Fintech) in Bank Indonesia regulation number 19/12/PBI/2017
is the use of financial system technology that produces new products, services, technology
and business models and can impacted monetary stability, financial system stability,
efficiency, smoothness, security and payment system reliability. Financial technology
provider are includes payment systems, market support, investment management and risk
management, loans, financing and capital providers, and other financial services. According
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to (Bank Indonesia, 2017) the rapid development of financial technology (fintech) in

Indonesia can bring many benefits as follows: (1) for the community, encourage financial
inclusion, providing alternative financial services, and reduce loan interest rates. (2) for the
economy, accelerate the transmission of monetary policy, increase the speed of money supply
and increase economic growth. Based on the Financial Services Authority policy (2016) the
benefits of the existence of financial technology (fintech) are as follows: (1) encouraging the
distribution of national financing is still not evenly distributed on 17,000 islands (2)
encouraging the export capability of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) which
are currently still low (3) increasing national financial inclusion (4) encouraging equal
distribution of the welfare level of the population (5) helping to fulfill domestic financing
needs that are still very large.
Each type of financial technology (fintech) has potential risks in accordance with its
business processes (Financial Services Authority, 2016). Generally, the risks may arise from
financial technology (fintech) companies in Indonesia are: (a) risk of fraud (fraud) (b)
cybersecurity risk (c) market uncertainty risk (market risk). The following, describes several
types of financial technology (fintech) with the risks of each type as follows: (1) payment,
settlement and clearing (online payment). Financial technology (fintech) company which is
engaged in digital payment activities that provide services in the form of payment of online
transactions. In general, it is a virtual wallet equipped with various features to facilitate online
transactions between consumers and business owners or between Business to Business (B2B)
business actors. The existence of a company engaged in this digital payment has several risks
in its activities, (Abyan, 2018) namely transaction failure occurred, but the funds have been
debited; data theft when consumers make transactions through telecommunications networks
when consumers use wifi facilities in public places and are used by cyber criminals and
possible misuse of data by parties who have consumer financial data (2) peer to peer lending
(P2P) and crowdfunding (financing). Financing and investment includes financial technology
(fintech) companies that provide crowdfunding and peer to peer lending (P2P) services. The
existence of a company engaged in financing and investment has several risks in its activities,
namely in the payment process, consumer data (banking and personal) will be entered into the
database of service providers and there is the opportunity for lost data by irresponsible
parties; and foreign nationals can register themselves as investors, so if a dispute resolution
effort occurs, it must pay attention to the provisions between countries and service providers
properly (3) market aggregator (intermediary). This type of financial technology (fintech) can
accommodate all transactions that require transaction services from various banking accounts
through a single platform. The existence of a company engaged in this account aggregator has
several risks in its activities, namely: (a) the platform encountered an error when the user
used it (unable to log in) (b) if the company's software management is not managed properly,
it can result in transactions not being updated properly (3) loss of consumer database after
information is registered on the company platform (d) there are certain banks that cannot be
accessed because the security system is constantly being updated and financial technology
(fintech) companies must make adjustments (4) risk and investment management (financial
consultant). Personal finance companies can help consumers from making good financial
reports to the wise selection of funds. The existence of a company engaged in personal
finance has several risks in its activities, namely: (a) opportunities for system hacking by
someone who is irresponsible and causes confidential corporate financial reports to be spread
to the public (b) the platform potential has errors and removes data that has been entered by
consumers.
Types of Financial Technology (Fintech) According to (Bank Indonesia, 2017)
financial technology (fintech) can be classified into four types, namely: (1) crowdfunding and
peer to peer lending (P2P), this type is in the form of channeling funds to the community and
can provide loans to communities that have not been reached by banks (2) market aggregator,
this type of activity to collect financial data and presented to users (3) risk and investment
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management, this type has a financial planner concept but is digital (4) payment, settlement
and clearing, this type of payment such as e-wallet and payment gateway. The Financial
Services Authority (OJK) classifies fintech in Indonesia into two categories (1) fintech 2.0 for
digital financial services that operate financial institutions such as Mandiri Online from Bank
Mandiri (2) fintech 3.0 for technology startups that have financial innovation products and
services.
The distribution of fintech business in Indonesia, are :
fintech business in Indonesia
Figure 3: Fintech Business in Indonesia
In Law Article 1 Number 7 of 1992 concerning Banking, it is entirely amended in the

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Article 1 Number 10 of 1998 concerning Banking, banks
are business entities that collect funds from the public in the form of deposits and distribute
them to the public in the form of loans and or other forms in order to improve the lives of the
people at large. In articles 2 and 4 of Act Number 7 of 1992 as amended by Act Number 10
of 1998 stated the principles and objectives of banking in Indonesia, namely: (1) the principle
of Indonesian banking in carrying out its business is based on economic democracy using the
principle of prudence (2) Indonesian banking aims to support the implementation of national
development in order to improve equity, economic growth, and national stability towards
increasing the welfare of many people. According to (Ismail, 2016:4) banks are financial
institutions whose main function is to collect funds from the public, channel funds to the
public, and also provide services in the form of banking services. The main function, namely
(Francis, 2014): (1) collect funds from the community (2) distributing funds to the
community (3) banking services include money transfer services (transfer), transfer,
collection of securities, clearing, Letter of Credit, collections, bank guarantees, and other
services. Based on its function in the 1992 Banking Act Article 5 In terms of its working
principle, the Indonesian banking system can be distinguished from: (1) conventional banks,
namely public banks and rural credit banks that use "interest money" as a basis for their
activities (2) sharia banks, namely commercial banks and people's credit banks whose
activities are based on sharia, including the principle of "buying and selling", the principle of
"profit sharing".
This part will explain about methodology research. The research method is basically a
scientific way to obtain data with specific purposes and uses (Sugiyono, 2014). The method
used is descriptive qualitative. Descriptive method is a method used to look for elements,
characteristics, characteristics of a phenomenon. This method starts with collecting data,
analyzing data and interpreting it. Descriptive methods in its implementation are carried out
through: survey techniques, case studies, comparative studies, studies of time and motion,
behavior analysis, and documentary analysis. Thus, qualitative descriptive research is only
describing responses to situations or events, so as not to explain causal relationships or test
hypotheses. Qualitative methods are called new methods because of their recent popularity.
Qualitative methods are used to obtain deep and meaningful data, namely actual data and
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definite data. The data source according to (Sugiyono, 2014) is the data source referred to in
the research is the subject from which data can be obtained. The data used in this study are
primary data. According to (Sugiyono, 2016), primary data is data obtained directly covering
company documents in the form of history of company development, organizational structure
and others related to research, in the form of interviews, polls from individuals or groups
(people) or the results of observations of an object, event or test result (object). In other
words, researchers need to collect data by answering research questions (survey methods) or
research objects (observation methods). The advantages of primary data are data that better
reflect the truth based on what is seen and heard directly by researchers so that the elements
of lies from phenomenal sources can be avoided. The disadvantage of primary data is that it
requires a relatively long time and the costs incurred are relatively large.
Chairperson of the Financial Services Authority (OJK) Board of Commissioners,

Wimboh Santoso encouraged the banking industry to develop financing technology (fintech).
Because, fintech as part of technological development cannot be denied. Fintech offers
products and services that are easier and faster than having an administrative process at the
bank. Fintech can reach people who do not have access to the banking industry. This must be
considered by the banking world. Banking should have cooperated with fintech as a partner to
grow together. Technological developments that occur in the financial services sector also
have a negative impact. However, this does not mean that Indonesia will then close itself to
technological developments. Distortion is unavoidable, but can only be minimized, just focus
on customer protection. Even if you search further, the target for fintech and the bank is
actually different.
Financial technology can accommodate borrowers who have the capability to be
funded, but have not been able to penetrate the bank's credit scoring. As well as financing
parties who do not have a track record of obtaining credit from the bank. The party here
means the community, including MSME owners, students, and so on. This funding clearly
serves to increase national financial inclusion so that in the end, they are ready to borrow
from the banking sector. So, in the end this proves that the banks and fintech actually have a
great possibility to collaborate in building the Indonesian economy. Indonesian banking
should think more about what steps are then taken to collaborate with Fintech. Even in 2016,
a study of European management consultants Accenture recently discovered that 80% of
banks in London see working with fintech startups as business opportunities.
The Financial Services Authority (OJK) officially released a regulation related to the
existence of financial technology (fintech) companies in Indonesia. Through rule No. 77/
POJK.01/2016, OJK issued a regulation regarding the implementation of information
technology-based lending or known as P2P lending. P2P lending is an activity that brings
together capital owners and those who need capital. Using a digital platform, those who need
capital can apply for capital by fulfilling the conditions specified by the P2P lending service
provider institutions. The service provider then determines the level of risk of the applicant
who will determine the interest rate applied. On the other hand, the strengthening of
recognition of fintech is an alarm for the banking industry. The emergence of P2P lending has
the potential to disrupt loan interest income which is one of the bank's core businesses. The
challenge is getting bigger considering that startups in Fintech are not just P2P lending. There
are fintech that target mutual fund investment services, purchase insurance products,
remittances, to wealth management.
Some things that can be done by the bank in order to continue to exist: (1) think like
fintech. One reason why fintech startups look agile and relevant is their courage to innovate.
They are not fixated by traditional thinking so that they are responsive to the dynamics that
occur in consumers. This courage can actually be done by the bank (2) embrace new
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technology.Digital technology that continues to develop actually offers opportunities for use
in the financial industry. So far, only fintech has been swift in using this new technology. In
fact, banks can actually do it too (3) focus on engagement. The customer engagement with
the bank proved to be of great benefit. Therefore, it is very important for banks to be able to
establish these attachments. The bank actually has good capital for that, namely customer
data. By conducting a more comprehensive data analysis, banks can find out the profile of
each customer. Armed with this information, banks can offer more personalized banking
products (4) safety first.Other capital owned by banks and not owned by fintech is high trust
from consumers. This capital must be utilized by continuing to demonstrate competence in
protecting customer data. Investments in the fraud detection system, for example, are things
that banks can do to further increase that trust.
Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) Finance Director Haru Koesmahargyo said in the face of
fintech BRI would do two things. Within BRI will make innovations that will accelerate the
operational process. One form of innovation is in the provision of credit, especially
microcredit called BriSpot. In micro-credit disbursement it takes days. To exit, BRI focuses
on creating a customer experience so that customers can access, make applications. BRI
wants to give customer experience starting from opening an account to applying for credit.
Everything is application based without having to go to the office. In the other side, PT. Bank
Central Asia Tbk states that it does not close itself to collaboration with Fintech. BCA's
Strategic Information Technology Executive Vice President, Hermawan Thendean, said that
he had carried out various initiatives to collaborate with Fintech. One such initiative is the
launch of the Application Program Interface (API). With this service, fintech and e-commerce
players can connect with BCA banking services. In terms of financing, BCA has also
launched Central Capital Venture (CCV). This venture capital company was formed together
with BCA Finance. through the venture capital company, BCA will invest Rp 200 billion in
funds for fintech startups which are expected to help their financial services. The Institute for
Development of Economics and Finance (Indef) researcher Bhima Yudhistira explained that
the presence of fintech brought two sides (threats and opportunities) to the banking industry,
namely the presence of fintech would cause banks to digitize and automate. This step will cut
banking costs by around 30 percent. For the revenue side, it is expected to increase due to the
presence of new innovative products and innovative business models.
In addition, explained (Hadah, 2017), fintech also carries other threats, namely
innovative competitor products and increased operational risk. Reporting from Techinasia,
here are the benefits felt by market participants if investing in fintech: (1) customer
acquisition. Collaborating or investing in fintech allows banks to cut the acquisition costs.
They can also offer their traditional services and products with higher margins (2) getting
market differentiation. Consumers receive new and unusual messages, they tend to record
them in memory. They will more easily recognize the advantages and image of innovation in
all your products (3) obtain a lower risk. The bank continues to struggle to reduce the risk of
loans, which is the main and most profitable service. Fintech startup allows banks to gather
information about clients before offering loans to them. This can reduce risk to be lower, and
this will help you know the financial status of consumers, how to communicate with them,
what service options are right for them, and know the quality of your business as a whole (4)
inspiration for best practices can be obtained from anywhere (5) get talented talent. You can
get good individuals, but it's not easy to bring a team and entrepreneur. An entrepreneur
wants to be independent and work for themselves, while the team inside is not formed
because of their boss, but more because they have a common goal, spend time together. and
share the same value. They don't need a plan or a series of training to become a team. Buying
a startup is also an HR tactic on Google, Facebook and Yahoo (6) get knowledge and access
to new industries. Not only banks, telecommunications companies and web giants are also
interested in fintech startups. They have money, a strong customer base, and the desire to
offer more products online to their clients. Now, the financial sector is a sweet spot for them.
They don't buy banks, but are eager to buy startups (7) internal changes in the company.
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Traditional conventional banks generally have several thousand or even tens of thousands of
employees, most of whom work well and generate profits. There is no reason to fire them, but
the HR department and management will have difficulty changing their way of thinking and
seeing the new world. In this context, buying a startup seems like a blood transfusion to
revive an aging body (8) get additional "bonuses". In acquiring a startup, the most important
thing we have to look at is the people in it, their vision, and their products, regarding that
value will come naturally. What we buy is the future, not their cash flow. If they are unique,
then you have to invest in it. This collaborative model benefits both parties. For fintech, they
get access to a variety of important growth levers: customers, distribution, data, capital,
experience, licenses, trusted brands, and the ability to scale far faster. For older players, this
means getting access to new ideas, solutions, capabilities, knowledge, and investment
opportunities that are owned by new players who usually focus on specific problems or
opportunities and have a much lower cost structure. This ultimately allowed the defense to
become more agile, provide strategic choices, by embracing helpful fintech innovators. The
advantages and disadvantages of banks and fintech such as:
Table 1: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Banks and Fintech
BANK FINTECH
(+) (-) (+) (-)
- Has a license to move - Less able to meet - Offering convenience, - A computer or
funds from one bank consumer needs where attractive features, low smartphone that is
to another or from one everything is done cost connected to the internet
account to another online and - Flexible and innovative is needed to access
- Reliable in mitigating smartphones that have in making products financial technology
risks become part of - Services in accordance services
- Experienced in lifestyle with the needs, especially - Prone to fraud
security system - Long process of of the younger generation - Higher interest costs.
procedures replacing/presenting who want an easy, unique Generally fintech
services and simple journey services rely mostly on
- Pressing operational traditional finance in
costs channeling loans. This
can add to the costs
incurred by consumers.
The conclusions are, fintech as part of technological development cannot be denied.

Fintech offers products and services that are far easier and faster than having to go through an
administrative process at the bank. Fintech can reach people who do not have access to the
banking industry. This must be considered by the banking world. Banking should have
cooperated with fintech as a partner to grow together. Basically, there are advantages and
disadvantages of the bank and fintech itself. Although there have been rules of cooperation
between banks and fintech actors as stipulated in POJK/12/2018 concerning the
implementation of digital banking services by commercial banks, they have not yet been
specifically regulated. There must be regulations from the government that support in terms
of innovation and collaboration between banks and fintech, so that both can play a role in
national development.
References
Abdullah, T. & Francis, T. (2014). Bank dan Lembaga Keuangan. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.
Abyan, M.A. (2018). Konsep Penggunaan Financial Technology Dalam Membantu
Masyarakat Sub Urban di Indonesia Dalam Melakukan Transaksi Finansial.
Bank Indonesia Regulation Number 19/12/PBI/2017 about Financial Technology
BeritaSatu.com
Hadah, M.D. (2017). Financial Technology (Fintech) di Indonesia.
https://www.ojk.go.id
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https://www.koinworks.com
https://www.databoks.katadata.co.id
Merdeka.com
Law Article 1 Number 7 of 1992
https://www.bca.go.id
https://www.bri.go.id
https://www.mandiri.go.id
Ismail. (2016). Manajemen Perbankan. First Edition. Jakarta: Kencana.
Kompas.com
Sugiyono. (2014). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan
R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Sugiyono. (2016), Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitataif dan Kombinasi (Mixed
Methods). Bandung: Alfabeta.
Laws of the Republik Indonesia Number 10/1998 about Banking.
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HAPPINESS AT WORKPLACE: JOB SATISFACTION AND

ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT
Achmad Kosasih1*, Abdul Basit2

1
Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Universitas Muhammadiyah Tangerang, Indonesia
(E-mail: kosasih1957@gmail)
2
Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Universitas Muhammadiyah Tangerang, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Local Water Supply Utility (PDAM) is one of the Local Government Owned Enterprise
(BUMD) that engaged in the distribution of clean water for the people. The management of
clean water by the local government is mandated by the Indonesian constitution which is also
regulated in PP No. 122 of 2015 concerning Drinking Water Supply Systems. In 2018, out of
391 PDAM in all of Indonesia, PDAM Tirta Kerta Raharja (TKR) in Tangerang Regency
won the second best award at national level after PDAM Pakuan (Bogor City). In this study,
happiness in the workplace is a very important issue since it can affect dedication and
productivity of employees. Using quantitative and qualitative approaches, this study aims to
explain the influence of job satisfaction and organizational support for happiness in
workplace. The results of the study show that job satisfaction and organizational support
significantly influence employee performance, which in turn increases employee happiness in
workplace. In this research, the human resource factors are important in improving employee
performance, especially in supporting optimal public services. Therefore, the development of
human resources must be improved continually by company and local government so that
public services for the people can implemented optimally.
Keywords: Happiness at workplace, job satisfaction, Local Water Supply Utility (PDAM)
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The environment of the organization or company always changes, one of which is marked by
increasing competition (Chattopadhyay & Bhawsar, 2017; Gwaka, et al, 2017; Stucke, 2013).
To be able to survive and grow, organizations or companies should be able to face challenges
that come. Conversely, the inability to face challenges can lead the organization or company
towards decline/destruction.
On the other hand, performance of organization or company also plays an important role
in determining the success of company (Almatrooshi, Singh & Farouk, 2016; Kosasih, 2017,
2018; Vintila & Nenu, 2015). The measure performance of an organization or company also
reflects how much the ability of organization or company utilize its human resources.
The importance of human resources then makes organization or company must be able to
determine the goals of organization or company while also paying attention to achievement of
the needs of its employees, especially the happiness at workplace (Anggraini, 2018; Gavin
& Mason, 2004; Kasemsap, 2015). Therefore, happiness at workplace is an important issue in
this study. Happy employees will work with dedication and totality, which in turn will have
an impact on productivity (Fisher, 2010; Wulandari & Widyastuti, 2014).
As a Local Government Owned Enterprise (BUMD), PDAM TKR in Tangerang Regency
must carry double responsibility: provide clean water to the people and generate profits. With
this dual responsibility, optimal employee performance is a necessity that should be fulfilled
(Arsid, et al., 2019; Kosasih, 2017, 2018). Optimal employee performance must also be able
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to be maintained and improved while simultaneously proportional to employee happiness in

workplace.
The performance of PDAM TKR in Tangerang Regency also continues to increase from time
to time. One of the achievements of the PDAM TKR is getting a Fair Without Exception
(WTP) opinion from 2011-2017. In 2018, out of 391 PDAM in all of Indonesia, PDAM TKR
won the second best award at national level after PDAM Pakuan (Bogor City). The predicate
is based on performance appraisal of indicator issued by the Agency for the Promotion of the
Water Supply System (BPPSAM). This official assessment is also based on the performance
evaluation report from the State Development Audit Agency (BPKP). This mean that PDAM
TKR are considered healthy from aspects of finance, service, human resources, and company
operations (www.tangerangnews.com).
Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics Republic of Indonesia (BPS), the total
population in Tangerang Regency in 2018 was 3,050,929 people. PDAM TKR itself has
served as many as 175,744 customers who can meet the needs of clean water for as many as
1,054,464 people (34,56%). PDAM TKR also optimistic that they can increase the number of
customers to 270,000 customers in 2023 according to the Tangerang Regency Medium Term
Development Plan (2019-2023), namely to meet the needs of clean water for as many as 60%
of Tangerang Regency people.
The performance of PDAM TKR in Tangerang Regency also continues to increase from
time to time. One of the achievements of the PDAM TKR is getting a Fair Without Exception
(WTP) opinion from 2011-2017. In 2018, out of 391 PDAM in all of Indonesia, PDAM TKR
won the second best award at national level after PDAM Pakuan (Bogor City). The predicate
is based on performance appraisal of indicator issued by the Agency for the Promotion of the
Water Supply System (BPPSAM). This official assessment is also based on the performance
evaluation report from the State Development Audit Agency (BPKP). This mean that PDAM
TKR are considered healthy from aspects of finance, service, human resources, and company
operations (www.tangerangnews.com).
Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics Republic of Indonesia (BPS), the total
population in Tangerang Regency in 2018 was 3,050,929 people. PDAM TKR itself has
served as many as 175,744 customers who can meet the needs of clean water for as many as
1,054,464 people (34,56%). PDAM TKR also optimistic that they can increase the number of
customers to 270,000 customers in 2023 according to the Tangerang Regency Medium Term
Development Plan (2019-2023), namely to meet the needs of clean water for as many as 60%
of Tangerang Regency people.
Literature Review
Happiness at Workplace
Everyone, including employees, always wants happiness in his life (Diener, 2000). Carr
(2004) argues that happiness is related to the level of individual satisfaction in several domain
of life: family, work, arrangement and affective experience. Vandenberhge (2011) states that
work is one dimension in increasing happiness. Therefore, work plays a role both directly and
indirectly in increasing individual happiness. The Great Place to Work Institute also state that
work happiness is influenced by several aspects: trust in the work environment, self-respect in
the workplace and comfort in the workplace (Fisher, 2010).
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Job Satisfaction
In various literature that studies the behavior of individuals, groups and organizations, job
satisfaction is one of the important factors in organization or company (Greenberg & Baron,
2011; Kreitner & Kinicki, 2012; Luthans, 2010). In addition, there are many other factors that
are closely related to employee job satisfaction, such as challenges in work, the relationships
with coworkers, good relations both with subordinates and superiors, work environment both
physical and nonphysical, rewards, and so forth. In relation to happiness in the workplace, job
satisfaction can also affect employee happiness at work (Wright & Bonnet, 2007; Wulandari &
Widyastuti, 2014; Anggraini, 2018).
P1. Employee job satisfaction correlates with happiness at work
Job satisfaction can also affect employees performance. That is, the level of employee job
satisfaction can influence how an employee's dedication while working (Bakan, et al., 2014;
Changgriawan, 2017; Hettiarachchi, 2014). The totality will ultimately improve the company
performance both directly and indirectly.
P2. Employee job satisfaction can affect employee performance
To strive for employee job satisfaction, companies can provide organizational support to
employees in various way, such as open promotion, fair wage system, training for employees,
or involvement in making an important decision (Omollo, 2015; Njuguna & Muathe S.M.A.,
2016; Saputro, 2015).
P3. Organizational support correlates with employee job satisfaction
Employee Performance
Performance is the willingness of individuals or groups of people to carry out an activity
and complete it according to their responsibilities and with the expected results (Rivai, dkk,
2011). To improving company performance, employee performance also has relationships that
influence each other with happiness in the workplace (Salas-Vallina, Rafael & Guerrero, 2018).
A proportional feedback system needs to be created to improve employee performance so that
it can be more optimal (Gregory & Levy, 2012; Mayfield & Mayfield, 2011; Omar, et al. 2016)
P4. Employee performance correlates with happiness at work
Organizational Support
Companies that can create a positive work environment will produce employees who are
motivated and can enjoy the work, which in turn can affect their level of happiness (Haryono,
2012; Meena & Agarwal, 2014; Wijayanto, 2017). So, there is a positive correlation between
organizational support to job satisfaction and between organizational support to happiness in
the workplace
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P5. Organizational support correlates with happiness at work
In a study conducted by Haryono (2012), it was stated that employees need a conducive
work environment to improve their performance. Without the support of a conducive work
environment, employees will lose motivation. So, employees expect other benefits from the
company, such as appreciation for work performance, career development, a harmonious
working atmosphere, and managerial support (Permarupan, 2012; Omollo, 2015; Njuguna &
Muathe S.M.A., 2016).
P6. Organizational support can affect employee performance
Discussion
Using quantitative and qualitative approaches this research is explanatory and uses survey
methods and in-depth interviews. The sample of this study was 135 respondents.
Table 1. Number of Employees Based on Working Period

Working Period Number Percentage
(Years) of Employees (%)
1 – 5 Years 66 16,26
6 – 10 Years 69 17,00
11 – 15 Years 79 19,46
16 – 20 Years 89 21,92
> 20 Years 103 25,37
Total 406 100
Based on the table above, the number of employees who have worked > 10 years is more
dominant, starting from 11-15 years (79 employees), followed by 16-20 years (89 employees)
and > 20 years (103 employees). This indirectly indicates PDAM TKR employees feel happy at
workplace. The length of working period also shows that they can overcome boredom due to
work routines and various types of challenging work (Hardiani, Rahardja & Yuniawan, 2017;
Yagil, Luria & Gal, 2008)
Table 2. Number of Employees Based on Rank Group

Employee Number Percentage
Rank
Male Female of Employees (%)
II/D 17 2 19 4,68
III/A 50 20 70 17,24
III/B 35 23 58 14,29
III/C 62 18 80 19,70
III/D 59 12 71 17,49
IV/A 54 7 39 15,02
IV/B 37 2 39 9,61
IV/C 8 - 2 1,97
322 84 406 100
The table above show that group III/C employees are the biggest, which are then followed
by groups III/D and III/A. Interestingly, group III/C is the “rank group” with longest working
period. This indirectly shows how their level of job satisfaction and how they are able to cope
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with work routines and face various challenges. In this case, job satisfaction can be seen from
four indicators: (1) response to work; (2) response to colleagues and superiors; (3) response to
the work environment; (4) response to reward system (Greenberg & Baron, 2011; Kreitner &
Kinicki, 2012; Luthans, 2010).
Table 3. Results of Regression Analysis

2
Model t sig. Adjusted R
H1 Job satisfaction has significant relationship with 5,542 ,012 ,745
happiness at workplace
employee performance
organizational support
H4 Employee performance has significant relationship 5,222 ,000 ,712
with happiness at work
H5 Organizational support has significant relationship 4,331 ,022 ,531
with happiness at workplace
H6 Organizational support has significant relationship 3,201 ,031 ,350
with employee performance
Note: *p < 0.05, n = 135
Based on Table 3 the results that obtained are positive with a significance value of 0.0000
of all tested hypotheses. Only three hypotheses do not get a value of 0.0000: H1, H5 and H6.
However, the three hypotheses can still be said to be significant because p < 0.05. The three
hypotheses are in the hypothesis related to happiness. That is, happiness in workplace does not
only come from job satisfaction, organizational support, and employee performance, but can
also be sourced from other variables not included in this study.
H1. Job satisfaction has significant relationship with happiness at workplace
Happiness in the workplace is an important issue in this research, because employees who
are happy will work with dedication, which in turn will have impact on productivity (Fisher,
2010; Wulandari & Widyastuti, 2014). Employees who work happily are employee who have
positive feelings at all times, because they know how to manage work, improve performance,
and feel satisfaction in working (Pryce-Jones, 2010).
H2. Job satisfaction has significant relationship with employee performance
The level of employee job satisfaction is also very influential on employee performance.
The absence of job satisfaction will cause employee not to work as expected by the company.
As result, employee performance becomes low and the company's goals will not be achieved
optimally. Meanwhile, as Local Government Owned Enterprise (BUMD), PDAM TKR must
carry double responsibility: generate profits and provide clean water to people in Tangerang
Regency.
One important factor in job satisfaction is supportive work environment, especially in the
relations between work colleagues and relationships with superiors. In working, employee are
not just want to achieve achievements and material. More than that, employees often want to
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make their work as a mean of affiliation or social interaction. This is encouraged to realize its
humanity, especially to obtain the social status, appreciation, and self-actualization (Hoffman,
Soglian & Ortiz, 2009). Another things that also needs to be considered is the availability of
adequate health and worship facilities (Afifah & Tielung, 2014; Al-Omari & Okasheh, 2017;
Pradhan & Jena, 2016).
H3. Job satisfaction has significant relationship with organizational support
Organizational support for employee can also affect the level of employee job satisfaction.
In this study, the factors highlighted were the fair wage system and promotion policies. Fair
promotion policies will provide an opportunities for employees to develop their personalities,
responsibilities, and social status that they want to achieve. So, employee who perceive that
promotion decisions are made in a fair way will feel job satisfaction (Noor, Khan & Naseem,
2015; Mustapha & Zakaria, 2013; Odeku, 2014; Saharuddin & Sulaiman, 2016).
H4. Employee performance has significant relationship with happiness at work
As a Local Government Owned Enterprise PDAM TKR must carry double responsibility:
provide clean water to the people and generate profit so the company can survive and develop
continuously. To answer this challenge, employee performance becomes an important thing. In
various studies that have been conducted, it was found that the dimensions of performance
appraisal conducted objectively can provide positive feedback, which in turn can improve the
employee performance in company (Kosasih, 2018; Omollo, 2015; Saputro, 2015; Njuguna &
Muathe S.M.A., 2016).
The crucial problem that is related to improving employee performance at PDAM TKR is
uneven distribution of tasks and workload. This can be seen from the presence of employees
who are very busy working with high workload, while there are employees who look relaxed
and do not do any work. Another thing that also needs to be considered is responsiveness in
handling complaints from customers. The issue of employee responsiveness of PDAM TKR
was also raised in the research conducted by Arsid, et al. (2019).
H5. Organizational support has significant relationship with happiness at workplace
Happiness in the workplace also has a significant correlation with organizational support.
In this research, one important dimension of organizational support is developing teamwork,
especially work that requires cooperation and coordination (Al Salman and Hassan, 2014).
Conversely, weakness of teamwork can lead to friction or conflict of interest which can make
the workplace uncomfortable.
H6. Organizational support has significant relationship with employee performance
The form of organizational support that can be done to improve employee performance is
by building a healthy and strong organizational culture. A healthy and strong organizational
culture will trigger employees to think and behave according to values adopted by company.
Conformity between the corporate culture and the value adopted by employees can create job
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satisfaction which in turn it will improve employees performance (Pawirosumarto, Setyadi &
Khumaedi, 2017; Kosasih, 2018).
Conclusion
In general, it can be stated that the happiness of PDAM TKR employees in the
workplace
is in the “good” category. This can be seen from the performance of PDAM TKR which has
increased from time to time. As a company provides public services, the optimal performance
achieved by PDAM TKR can be maintained while continuing to make various breakthroughs
in the field of human resource management. The optimal performance that has been achieved
must proportional to the happiness of employees at workplace. With employee performance
that is always optimal, PDAM TKR can meet the needs of clean water for as many as 60% of
Tangerang Regency people in 2023 as stated in Tangerang Regency RPJMD (2019-2023).
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INFLUENCE OF MARITIME SECURITY ON

INTERNATIONAL TRADE ACTIVITIES AMONG SEA
COUNTRIES
Susan Tee Suan Chin1, Rosman Md Yusoff 2

1(
E-mail: [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Maritime security is an important aspect to international trade. Almost 90% of trade uses the
oceans. There are many challenges that prevail. One of the major challenge is piracy. Piracy
has happened for quite some time and it affects the profits. Other major issues includes illegal
trafficking of human, exotic pets and drugs. The lure of money blinds the eyes of traders. The
supply chain of such activities unfortunately lies among the SEA countries. These illegal
activities has given the countries a bad reputation and affects their credibility. More
enforcement are needed to regain the confidence among investors.
Keywords: country, stability, growth, peace

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The international shipping industry is responsible for the transportation of around 90%
of world trade. This shows shipping is the main life blood of the global economy. Without
shipping, intercontinental trade, the bulk transport of raw materials, and the import/export of
affordable food and manufactured goods would simply not be possible. South East Asia (SEA),
one of the world’s most populous and economically vibrant sub-regions. The seas has played a
pivotal role in shaping the history of these SEA countries and has charted the destiny of the
countries and of the people. The significance of the seas to the development of societies and
economies in the region is immense and impactful. The seas of the SEA region feature some of
the world’s busiest and most strategic shipping routes serving much of the maritime trade
between East Asia and South Asia, Persian Gulf, Africa, Europe and the Americas. They also
provide a crucial intra-Asian link between SEA and major Asian economies such as India,
China, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, and with crucial oil-rich Gulf region. In the past few
years there has been many issues happening in the water ways that influences the trading
activities. Some of these issues includes piracy. The purpose of this paper is to review the
issues that influences the international trade activities.
Literature review
Southeast Asia consists of eleven countries that reach from eastern India to China, and is
generally divided into “mainland” and “island” zones (Andaya 2010). The mainland (Burma,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) is actually an extension of the Asian continent.
Throughout history the oceans have been important to people around the world as a means of
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transportation. Unlike a few decades ago, however, ships are now carrying goods rather than
people. The people and nations of SEA have continued its proud history of maritime trade to
this day. This is underlined by their dependence of maritime economic activities for their
livelihood and for their economic expansion. Many people in the region obtain resources, earn
a living off the seas and use them as a means of transport and recreation. The South China Sea
bears geopolitical significance for many reasons including the fact that around one-third of
global shipping and about 21 percent of global trade moves through it. China, Taiwan, Japan
and South Korea all rely on the Strait of Malacca, which connects the South China Sea and the
Pacific Ocean with the Indian Ocean, as the shortest and most economical passageway
connecting these important bodies of water. Over 64 percent of China’s maritime trade
transited the South China Sea in 2016 (Durkin 2017).
The volume of shipping through this strait, including one third of all the global petroleum
products moving by sea, raises the specter of trade disruption were China or other great powers
to assert control over this vital shipping route. Although the maritime industry and its
customers could absorb higher costs of rerouting, long-term uncertainty around commercial use
of the Strait of Malacca could create a ripple effect throughout existing global supply chains as
the countries tied to the South China Sea are home to major global suppliers and production
hubs.
A. Maritime Challenges
Stretching from the westernmost corner of Malaysia to the tip of Indonesia’s Bintan
Island, the Malacca and Singapore straits serve as global shipping superhighways. Each year,
more than 120,000 ships traverse these waterways, accounting for a third of the world’s marine
commerce. Between 70% and 80% of all the oil imported by China and Japan transits the
straits.
Southeast Asia was the location of 41% of the world’s pirate attacks between 1995 and
2013. The West Indian Ocean, which includes Somalia, accounted for just 28%, and the West
African coast only 18% (Mccauley 2019). During those years, 136 seafarers were killed in
Southeast Asian waters as a result of piracy — that’s twice the number in the Horn of Africa,
where Somalia lies, and more than those deaths and the fatalities suffered in West Africa
combined. According to a 2010 study by the One Earth Future Foundation, piracy drains
between $7 billion and $12 billion dollars from the international economy each year. The Asian
share of that represents buccaneering on a lavish scale, and it is becoming more ambitious. In
recent months, well-armed and organized criminal groups have focused their efforts on the oil
tankers that exit the narrow Malacca and Singapore straits and venture into the South China
Sea.
Piracy remains one of the biggest crimes of this industry (MI News Network 2016).
From causing immense financial loss to causing physical harm to crew members, piracy at sea
is probably the most notorious marine crime and a major threat to maritime security. Piracy
affects much less than 1% of 23,000 ships that pass through the Gulf of Aden and even less in
the Indian Ocean (IET Sector Insights c2019). But the real cost of piracy is reflected in the
need for fleet owners to pass on the extra fuel measured in tons per day required to divert
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around terrorist / piracy areas. Terrorism at sea has emerged with even greater consequences.
Piracy continues around the western edges of the Pacific Rim.
For entry of any ship into a nation’s marine boundary, the ship must seek permission
from government of that nation. Sailing on that nation’s waters without a permission is a
maritime crime and punishable in all countries. Unauthorised entries have become an issue.
The right of access to ports is the corollary of a foreign flagged vessel to enter into the ports of
another state known as port state control. While attempting to face the challenges of maritime
security, the International Maritime Organization has put in place a Convention on maritime
security (Abdulrazaq & Syed Abdul Kader 2012). The convention on maritime security is a
unique convention in that it tries to suppress any unlawful act on board vessels and sustains
/promotes commercial activities via the sea.
Sailing or fishing in unauthorized areas– presence of a ship in an unauthorized spot for
any purpose what so ever or fishing in areas not allotted for it is a marine crime and punishable
by law. Not just that, crimes such as these can often lead to maritime accidents that can become
massive very easily. This falls in the same category as unauthorised entries into territorial
waters.
Due to quarantine reasons mainly, it is not legal for any ship to bring in exotic plants or
animals into a nation without proper permission. Doing so is a punishable offense with
punishment ranging from a fine to imprisonment in some cases. The illegal animal trade---
which includes the trafficking of ivory, tiger parts, rhinoceros horn, shark fin, exotic birds,
reptile skin, bushmeat and wildlife products is valued at least $10 billion and may be twice that
(PETA 2019). The trade includes the sale of live animals for pets, rare butterflies for collectors,
and animal parts for medicines or exotic garments or foods. It involves more than 350 million
plant and animal specimens every year.
Malaysia is known to be a hub for wildlife trafficking and the illegal wildlife trade
despite the existence of the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 and Animal Welfare Act 2015.
There are very few regulations in place making it difficult for people to purchase, acquire or
keep exotic animals, especially when proper licences have been obtained (The Star 2018).
Despite the high prices for these pets, some people do demand for such pets. Traders who are
blinded by greed get involved in such activities. Documents are forged and fraud. In such
situations, there could also be elements of bribery and corruption involved between the traders
and the officers involved.
Drug trafficking– it is one of the most common types of maritime crime. Bringing in
illicit drugs through a ship and their further distribution becomes a serious maritime crime (MI
News Network 2016). The reasons are similar to the illegal trade of exotic pets, where is
demand, there will be supply. Blinded by the amount of money at stake, the traders used
fraudulent documents to ensure that their transaction goes unnoticed. Corruption and bribery
will prevail. Immigration at check points have begun stricter controls. These actions affect the
flow of trade. Checks and monitoring conducted slows trading activities. The flow of goods
will be affected.
Illegal carrying of weapons and artillery– due to sensitive nature of these goods, only
certain ships are authorized to carry arms and weapons even for transportation purposes (MI
News Network 2016). Bringing in weapons on a ship not authorized to do so will make it a
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punishable offense. Also, a ship which is not equipped to handle such materials may be highly
prone to maritime accidents along with endangering lives of others around her. Pirates target
such cargo as they need the ammunition for their activities.
Tax evasion– a white collar maritime crime, this is more common than what is told (MI News
Network 2016). Cases of ship owners trying to evade taxes through false documentation or
incorrect representation of cargo material have been increasing rapidly, posing a threat to
maritime security.
Marine pollution is a serious issue and almost all countries have strict policies against
ships discharging sewage or oil into their coastal waters (MI News Network 2016). To ensure
that shipping is cleaner and greener, the International Maritime Organisation has adopted
regulations to address the emission of air pollutants from ships and has adopted mandatory
energy-efficiency measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from international
shipping (United Nations 2019). These include the landmark International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships of 1973, as modified by a 1978 Protocol (MARPOL), and
the 1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil. There are
growing concern over the toll taken on coastal fish stocks by long-distance fishing fleets and
over the threat of pollution and wastes from transport ships and oil tankers carrying noxious
cargoes that plied sea routes across the globe (International Maritime Organisation 2019). The
hazard of pollution was ever present, threatening coastal resorts and all forms of ocean life. The
navies of the maritime powers were competing to maintain a presence across the globe on the
surface waters and even under the sea.
Human Trafficking and cases of stowaways are common in the maritime industry (MI
News Network 2016). Travelling to a different country without the permissions from the
respective country is a grave marine crime. Human trafficking is an estimated $150 billion
industry, and one of the fastest-growing transnational criminal activities of the 21st century
(Morris 2019). Human trafficking is the word used to describe people being forced to work
against their will in inhumane conditions, for little or no pay. It's also used to describe those
held through coercion, fraud, force or the threat of force in the sex trade or in combat. Victims
are often lured by false promises of decent work. Traffickers often take passports and money,
and make threats against victims or their families if they try to escape. Consumers
inadvertently participate in this tragedy when they buy or use something made by these
captives. While in the past, people made their own clothes or knew the seamstress who sewed
them, and maybe lived down the street, today, the vast majority of clothing is manufactured
outside their country. Computer parts, too, come from all around the world. This means
consumers literally do not see their products being made — or the conditions in which the
producers work. According to the United Nations, more than 130 countries have been
identified as transit or destination countries for human trafficking (New Straits Times 2019).
Discussion
Any form of trade (legal or illegal) arises when there are profits to be made for those
involved (OECD 2012). Illegal trade arises particularly when the expected returns are greater
than for trade carried out within the law. Illegal trade might emerge when demand exceeds the
supply of legal products. The higher the demand, the higher the expected returns. In the case
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for timber, where demand for timber exceeds the legal supply, traders often break the law by
cutting more timber. The economic and environmental impacts of illegal trade can be
sufficiently important to disrupt whole economies and ecosystems, undermining
environmentally sustainable activities and reducing future options for the use of resources.
There can be spillover effects, with indirect consequences. In fragile states illegal trade
can undermine the rule of law and can fuel armed conflict. Across many industries, illicit
activities undermine sustainability, and support a range of illegitimate activities, since money
from illegal trade is often reinvested in other criminal undertakings (WEF 2012).The illegal
and unethical components of international commerce have an annual value in the hundreds of
billions of dollars. They also cause significant environmental, social and political harm.
The drug trade generates large sums of money that then need to be dealt with in some
way. Drug trafficking is a major contributor to illicit financial flows (EU 2016). Illicit
financial flows may also result is more trade-based money laundering (Thanasegaran &
Shanmugam 2007). Trade-based money laundering increases the risk of bank failures, takes
control of economic policy away from the government, harms the country’s reputation, and
exposes its people to drug trafficking, smuggling, and other criminal activity.
Nations cannot afford to have their reputations and financial institutions tarnished by an
association with money laundering, especially in today’s global economy. The negative
reputation that results from these activities diminishes legitimate global opportunities and
sustainable growth while attracting international criminal organizations with undesirable
reputations and short-term goals. Once a country’s financial reputation is damaged, reviving it
is very difficult and requires significant government resources to rectify a problem that could
be prevented with proper anti-money-laundering controls.
The shipping lanes off the coasts of the Horn of Africa, West Africa and in the Strait of
Malacca between Malaysia and Indonesia are the veins and arteries of the globalised economy,
where north and south, east and west, collide (Branigan 2013). The South-East Asian
archipelago of Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia, the narrow passes between islands are
seeing far more piracy attacks per year than anywhere else. Unchallenged piracy is not only a
menace to stability and security, but it also has the power to corrupt the regional and
international economy (Dawson 2013).
Conclusion
Marine crime is as old as this industry itself. Depending on the times that it prevailed in,
the nature of maritime crime has changed a lot over the years but its implications remain just as
severe. Marine crime is not only a threat to entire maritime security of goods and people in the
industry, but also gives major setbacks to the entire marine industry economically. Money
laundering has a corrosive effect on a country’s economy, government, and social well-being.
The criminal activities affects the country’s reputation and may affect investor’s confidence.
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The Star (2018) Exposing the horrors of the exotic pet trade. The Star 24 Jan 2018
United Nations (c2019) Oceans and the law of the sea . United Nations c 2019
WEF (2012) What if illicit trade goes unchecked? World Economic Forum. 7 June 2012
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INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT STANDARD REQUIREMENT ON

INTERNATIONAL TRADE PERFORMANCE
Susan Tee Suan Chin1, Rosman Md Yusoff 2

1(
E-mail: [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Product standards aims to create a certain kind of quality which will be useful and beneficial
for consumers. Higher standards would require all traders to comply. The compliance may act
as a barrier and as a benefit to the consumers. Many food-based products do get contaminated.
This is where certain monitoring are required. The purpose of this paper is to conceptualise the
influence of standards and trade performance of products. Standards act like a double edged
sword. It is a form of quality assurance to the customers. It also acts as a barriers for those who
are not on par.
Keywords: productivity, markets, assurance
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Standards and technical regulations can encourage trade when they provide valuable
information about product requirements or consumer preferences (Okun‐Kozlowicki 2016).
Product information informs the consumer on the item’s details such as ingredients, usage and
precautionary measures. These information provides protection to the consumer. For example.
expiry dates alerts consumers that the product may not be effective or fit and that it should not
be used or consumed. Past expired products may be detrimental to the consumer’s health.
Effective participation in the international standards arena has become a prerequisite for
competitiveness in the global marketplace (Mallett 1999). If all traders effectively
participate in ensuring the product quality, they become competitive. The international
trade platform has gone a step higher as it now serves good products. However, at
times these standards hinders the growth and progress of a company to go furt her in the
international market. Some business traders argue that the standards are a form of a
protectionism to enter certain markets. The purpose of this paper is to examine the
issues of standards and their influence on trade performance.
Literature review
Trade has contributed to lifting hundreds of millions of people out of poverty (OECD
2019). Trade creates new opportunities for workers, consumers and firms around the globe.
Workers gets a chance to work in multinational companies, while consumers gets a chance to
use new products. Trade has delivered unprecedented access to goods and services, with a
revolution in the availability of goods for the households. The World Trade Organization
(WTO) agreements set out general rules for the design and implementation of product
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standards (Maur & Shepherd c 2019). There are three broad groups of standards, based on the
types of activities to which they apply, as defined by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO): product standards, process standards, and management systems.
Standards is an example of a non-tariff measure (Denis 2017). Product standards have to do
with the characteristics of goods or services, in particular with respect to aspects such as
quality, safety, and fitness for purpose. Process standards apply to the conditions under which
goods or services are produced, packaged, or refined. Management systems are often referred
to as meta-standards; an example is the ISO 9000 series of quality standards. A well-
functioning standards system will usually incorporate elements of all three groups of standards.
In this paper, the standards for products will be discussed. Product standards that apply to
everything from primary produce and agricultural products to sophisticated manufactured
goods such as electrical equipment. Standards includes mandatory standards (i.e. regulations),
voluntary public standards (national and international) and voluntary private standards.
Mandatory standards (also referred to as technical regulations) must be met by firms as a
matter of law, and penalties are set for nonconforming products. Compliance with voluntary
standards remains a matter of commercial choice for individual firms. In practice, both types of
standards exist side by side, although the bulk of standards-related activity in most countries
now consists of voluntary standards. Mandatory standards tend to be mostly confined to core
public health and consumer safety areas, such as requirements governing food and medicines.
Given the coexistence of mandatory and voluntary standards, the responsibility for meeting
those standards is increasingly shared between the public and private sectors. In most cases,
standards are set up in a complex environment characterized by interplay between private and
public interests and agents (Casella 2001).
Benefits
According to general product safety directive only safe products should be placed on
the market (EC c 2019). Standards play an important role in facilitating international commerce
(BSI 2018). They provide for interoperability, reduce transaction costs and provide a signal of
quality to customers. International standards act as a major catalyst for trade – allowing
companies to sell their goods and services across multiple markets without the need for
adaptation.There are five main ways through which standards enhance trade:
 Standards provide a signal of quality to consumers and trade partners. They drive quality
based competition, and improve transparency, allowing buyers and sellers to make optimal
purchasing decisions.
 International standards create a common language for trading partners, enabling
compatibility of products and services, lowering trade barriers and production costs, and
supporting firms to trade across global supply chains.
 Standards have a catalytic effect on innovation, reducing time to market, promoting the
global diffusion of innovative products and services.
 Standards lower barriers to trade, allowing companies to access a global customer base,
offering opportunities for economies of scale and reducing production costs.
 Compatibility standards promote opportunities for firms to outsource and off-shore certain
tasks, promoting efficiency and business optimization.
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Standards are also beneficial to businesses The benefits includes:

 Improve business productivity and efficiency – by reductions in waste, improved risk
management and better use of raw materials and energy
 Increase competitiveness – by enhancing the status of firms and demonstrating quality of
products and services
 Access new markets – by lowering barriers to entry providing a foundation for competition
based on product and service characteristics, such as quality
 Catalyse innovation – by access to information and technology and the diffusion of new
knowledge
 Enhance supply chains – by promoting compatibility between products and processes and
boosting confidence between suppliers and clients
 Optimise compliance with regulations – by helping meet health and safety, environmental
and risk management requirements
Costs
Product standards in an importing country can sometimes represent an additional source
of costs (Maskus, Otsuki, & Wilson 2005). Even though national standards may be legitimate,
their multiplicity and diversity could mean duplication of market access costs. This may be
inefficient from a global perspective. These effects can put foreign competitors at a
disadvantage and generate— intentionally or not—a form of protection for domestic
industries.A potential difficulty with this kind of coordination is the assumption that it is
optimal for the same standard to be applied across a wide range of countries. In fact, however,
different economic and social conditions may call for different standards. Compliance with
product standards impose on manufacturers can be costly. New machinery may have to be
purchased, or a new production process may have to be set up. All these adaptations are
associated with increased fixed costs of production (including sunk ones), in the sense that they
largely involve a one-off payment rather than a recurring expense. Adaptations to product
standards can affect the level of variable production costs. Additional testing and certification
procedures might be needed. These procedures also increase variable production costs
(Maskus, Otsuki, & Wilson 2005).
Recent advances in the theory of international trade (Chaney 2008) suggest that higher
variable costs primarily affect trade by reducing exports per firm among the small subset of
firms that already exports to foreign markets. Higher fixed costs, by contrast, tend to force
some firms out of export markets entirely, thus altering the range of products exported, or the
set of foreign markets served, or both.
Standards affects the efficiency of the entire cycle of a technology-based economic
activity (Tassey 2015). High technology industries rely on standards to perform a number of
functions at all stages of the economic activity. Research and development needs to be
efficient. At this stage, the research and development activity requires measurement and test
methods, science and engineering data bases that allows accurate characterisation of the
materials used as well as data formatting and classification framework which allows new
technologies to be transferred to subsequent steps in the innovation stage. The production stage
requires standards to monitor and control processes for quality and yield through such as
equipment calibration and real-time machine performance monitoring and adjustment.
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Production variety may be reduced to achieve acceptable price points. The innovation and
subsequently market penetration stage requires product acceptance standards to reduce
transaction costs that can become excessively when trying to buy or sell complex products as
buyers assurance of adequate component and system performance before consummating
purchases. Efficient integration of hardware and software component requires standardised
interfaces to allow competition and hence maximum innovation at the component level, which,
in turn, increases the productivity of the final technology system.
The worldwide diffusion of ISO 9000 potentially involves some trade-hindering
elements; in particular, ISO 9000 adoption in host nations can lead to the curtailment of
imports from other nations (Clougherty & Grajek 2010). Hanson (2005) noted that the
worldwide diffusion of standards has been considered by some as a means by the EU to protect
domestic competitors and reduce imports. ISO 9000 has been used in Europe as a standard
against which to assess performance in government procurements and in setting minimum
quality requirements for products that affect public safety.
In the case of manufacturing exports, rules of origin are the most common non-tariff
measure applied by trading countries (El-Enbaby, Handy & Zaki 2015). Rules of origin refer to
where the products were produced, and could be affected by trading quotas, anti-dumping
actions, preferential agreements.
Discussion
Standards generally act as a barrier to developing country trade in agriculture, but have
a catalytic effect in certain manufacturing sectors (Timmis 2017). Exporters are required to
comply to these standards if they wish to enter that market, for example the European Union.
Exporters are forced to comply if they wish to have the market access. From the producer’s
point of view, there are two opposite forces at play in the short term: possible cost increases
stemming from the need to adapt production processes and demonstrate conformity, and
possible cost savings through the transmission of market-specific information that would
otherwise be costly to obtain. Over the longer term, there is also potential for technological
progress induced by standards.
At the industry level, standards may lead to a reorganization of firms and of the sector
around more efficient production methods (Maertens & Swinnen 2009). Organisations may
need to restructure their systems so that they can become more effective and efficient.
Resources that are idle would have to be taken away or deployed.
Standards are an assurance to the public of the quality of the product that they have
purchased, either for consumption or usage. Without proper standards recognition, consumers
will be in doubt. This is important especially for electrical items. If the products do not meet
the requirements, it could prove detrimental to the user. Damage may not be reversible.
Conclusion
Standards are integral to international trade, and trade is a critical component of
achieving economic growth (Denis 2017). Standards build confidence in the quality and safety
of traded products (especially those from developing countries) by proving that they adhere to
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certain requirements, level the playing field on environmental issues, help protect consumers
from harmful practices, and help small and medium enterprises compete internationally by
spreading technology and best practices. However, there is a wide variety of business activities
from food to electronics. For some industries, having standards is a good form of
benchmarking and adherence. But for certain industries, each standard requires them to conduct
test and this requires money. Bigger companies are able to manage the financial part, for
smaller companies, these test creates a vacuum. The impact is greater for developing countries
rather than developed countries.

BSI (2018) The benefits of standards for international trade. British Standards Institution.
EC (c 2019) Standards and risk for specific products. European Commission.
El-Enbaby, H, Hendy, R & Zaki, C. (2015) The Impact of Standards on Egyptian Trade:
Evidence from SPS Measures. Topics in Middle Eastern and African Economies. Vol.
17, Issue No. 1, May 2015
Casella, A. (2001) “Product Standards and International Trade: Harmonization through
Private Coalitions?” Kyklos 54 (2/3): 243–64.
Clougherty, J.A. & Grajek, M. (2010) International Standards and International Trade:
Empirical Evidence from ISO 9000 Diffusion. Institute for Strategy, Technology and
Organization (ISTO).
Denis, E,G, (2017) Why the future belongs to standards. International Standards Organisation.
Hanson, D (2005). CE Marking, Product Standards and World Trade, Northampton, MA:
Edward Elgar.
Mallett, R. L.(1999) Why standards matters. Issues in Science and Technology. Vol XV, No
Maertens, M. & Swinnen, J.F. (2009). “Trade Standards and Poverty: Evidence from
Senegal.” World Development 37 (1): 161–782, Winter 1999
Maskus, K. Tsunehiro O. & Wilson, J. W. (2000) “Quantifying the Impact of Technical
Barriers to Trade: A Framework for Analysis.” Policy Research Working Paper 2512,
World Bank, Washington, DC. http://go.worldbank.org/FS4JCCSV10.
Maur, J.C. & Shepherd, B. (c 2019) Product standards. World Bank Group
OECD (2019) Why open market matters. OECD, Better policies for better lives
Okun‐Kozlowicki, J. (2016) Standards and Regulations: Measuring the Link to Goods Trade.
International Trade Administration U.S. Department of Commerce
Tassey, G (2015) The impacts of technical standards on global trade and economic efficiency.
Economic Policy Research Centre, University of Washington.
Timmis, H. (2017) The Impact of Standards on Developing Country Exports. Institute of
Development Studies
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INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS THE ADOPTION

OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
1
Avylin Roziana Mohd Ariffin
1
Faculty of Economics & Muamalat, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Previous literatures have shown that the practice of Environmental Management Accounting
(EMA) is underutilized and diverse, even among those firms which are regarded as being more
environmentally-sensitive. This has led to the gap in the literature pertaining to what motivates
firms to develop environment-related management accounting and what conditions facilitate
the implementation. Further promotion is needed if it is to help the business to move towards
sustainability. Therefore, this research is interested in extending the focus of EMA adoption
among companies in Malaysia and understands the factors influencing them. Based on
institutional framework perspective, this study attempts to look at how institutional
isomorphism’s concept may explain organisational change, and in this context, the adoption of
EMA. Three types of institutional isomorphism namely the coercive isomorphism, mimetic
isomorphism and normative isomorphism are explained in this study to develop hypotheses
related to the factors that might influence the adoption of EMA. This paper aims at providing a
picture of the diffusion of EMA and an understanding of how it can further be promoted to help
the country achieve a balance in its environmental and economic performance.
Keywords: Environmental Management Accounting, NIS, Institutional Theory
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Most EMA studies have focused on developed countries such as the United States, Australia
and Japan (for example Burritt & Saka, 2006; Chang & Deegan, 2008; Deegan, 2003a; Gale,
2006a). Less developed countries are relatively distinctive as they have a larger residue of
traditional cultures and modes of production, and their poverty renders them more dependent
on external finance, ideologies and structural reforms, with lower institutional capacity to
deliver change (Hopper, Tsamenyi & Wickramasinghe, 2009). Therefore, the findings on the
adoption of management accounting systems and factors influencing the adoption in more
developed countries might not be relevant in the context of developing countries. This situation
signifies a critical need for EMA studies to be conducted in developing nations, especially as
environmental issues are always associated with industrialization and economic growth
(Xiaomei, 2004). Realizing the importance of EMA and the difference in the characteristics of
the countries, and considering the lack of research on accounting for the environment in
developing countries (Belal et al., 2013; Burritt, 2004), this study contributes to the extant
EMA literature from this perspective.
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Environmental Management Accounting

EMA terminology might have various definitions, but all these definitions are similar and focus
more or less on the same thing, that is, EMA as a system that identifies, measures, traces and
analyses environmental costs and physical environmental flows (Burritt & Saka, 2006; Gibson
& Martin, 2004). Generally, EMA helps companies to go beyond the capability of their
conventional management accounting system by uncovering, and then having a full measure of
business’s environment-related costs and benefits, and to later integrate this information into
day-to-day business decision making. The EMA method arises in response to the increasing
concern for sustainability and the limitations of conventional management accounting systems
in addressing this issue (Burritt, 2004; Gale, 2006a; Gale, 2006b; Jones, 2010). Thus, EMA is
somewhat an extension to, rather than a different method of, Management Accounting, where it
is a refined MA system that provides companies with their environmental performance
information (Deegan, 2003a; Jasch, 2006). With its focus on accounting for the flows of natural
resources such as energy, water and other materials, EMA draws together MA practices
responsive to the trend of addressing environmental issues (Jasch, 2009). EMA is indeed
significant in the implementation of environmental management through disclosure of
environmental costs which were not previously known to companies. Gale’s (2006a and
2006b) case study applies the framework of UNDSD to one division of a Canadian paper mill
company and reports that the use of the framework has revealed the real environmental cost,
which is estimated to be at least twice what was currently reported. This study evidenced the
inaccuracy of the conventional accounting system in calculating environmental costs. Chang
and Deegan (2008) also conducted a case study to understand current accounting practice for
managing and treating the environmental costs, but limited their scope to service organisations
with a focus on the cost of energy, water and paper, and on the generation of solid wastes. The
study shows that major environmental costs are obscured within the accounts, such as
aggregated with “consumable materials” and “facility expenses”. Even so, EMA is not being
prioritised by the participants, neglecting its potential usefulness. The study further delineates
the barriers to EMA adoption and finds factors such as the absence of institutional pressures,
low profile of accounting for environmental costs and management’s attitude to be
impediments for such.
Institutional Perspective Framework

Neo-Institutional Sociology (NIS) Theory provides insights into the effect of the organisational
field of an organisation on its environmental management and management accounting
practices (Dayana, 2010); management perceptions are believed to be influenced by their social
institutional contexts. Authors using this theory suggest that organisations also aim for political
power and institutional legitimacy, rather than focusing solely on economic fitness (Bourma &
van Der Veen, 2002). Institutional factors play an important role in initiating change in an
organisation and encouraging the process of adoption of any particular technique. As
organisations are social actors, they are subjected to institutional pressures within their
institutional field, in which they will try to obtain legitimacy by conforming to the dominant
practices within the field (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Business entities are bound in a network
in which communication operates either directly or indirectly (Midgley, Morrison & Roberts,
1992). Thus, the development and diffusion of any innovations involve not only an
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organisation but also a group of organisations with different roles which interact with each
other.
From the institutional perspective, organisations interact within their organisational
field in ways perceived as acceptable by various constituents in that environment. An
organisational field is defined as "those organisations that, in the aggregate, constitute a
recognized area of institutional life: key suppliers, resources and product customers, regulatory
agencies, and other organisations that produce similar services or products (DiMaggio &
Powell, 1991, p.64 - 65). All these institutions provide the “rules of the game”; firms are
inclined to respond to the pressures and expectations exerted by them (Baughn, Bodie &
McIntosh, 2007). The focus of institutional perspective is to answer the question of “why is
there such homogeneity of organisational forms and practices?” rather than seeking to explain
variation among organisations in structure and behaviour, as in other organisational theories.
The answer to this question lies in the process called isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).
Basically, isomorphism, which has been created from the sources of institutionalisation, is a
constraining process that forces one unit in population to resemble other units in that
population who face the same set of environmental conditions (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983, p.
149). According to Meyer and Rowan (1977), isomorphism has three crucial consequences:
first, it incorporates elements which are legitimated externally rather than in terms of
efficiency; second, it employs external or ceremonial assessment criteria to define the value of
structural elements; and third, it depends on externally fixed institutions to reduce turbulence
and maintain stability. As a result, institutional isomorphism promotes the success and survival
of organisations (Meyer & Rowan, 1977). This indicates that the underlying drivers of
institutionalisation arise mainly as a consequence of seeking legitimacy and isomorphism.
Institutional pressure basically shows how a company handles its coercive, normative
and mimetic force. Coercive pressure comes from increased concern by the company’s
stakeholders, such as the investors, the government and the general public. Organisations are
also influenced by the actions of others who are deemed to be in the same industry. This is
called a mimetic effect and its influence is high when organisations experience cognitive
pressure as they try to behave in a way that is collectively accepted and internalised in the
organisation field. For example, if an organisation perceives that similar members of
organisations in the organisational field in which it currently operates are practicing sustainable
innovation, the organisation will then be under cognitive pressure. For them not to be labelled
as “laggards” or worst performers, mimicking may be their “safest” choice. (Qian & Burritt,
2008). Studies show that an imitation act does appear among companies within sectors with
regards to the level and direction of environmental accounting (Campbell, 2003; Deegan &
Gordon, 1996; Deegan & Rankin, 1996). It is believed that these companies experience similar
threatening issues and therefore adopt similar responses. Additionally, rivalry exists within the
industry domain, which puts peer pressure on a firm to follow certain practices (Hofer, Cantor
& Dai, 2012).
However, despite increased awareness among the public and organisations themselves, the
move to institutionalised environmental accounting is not yet occurring widely. Some
researchers argue that this is due to the reluctance among accountants to move away from
traditional attitudes and paradigms (Clarke & O’Neill, 2006); in order to better capture the
environmental issues and to diffuse EMA, management accountants should be exposed to
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environmental costs, and provided with the knowledge and skills of new techniques available
to identify and calculate these costs. Such a scenario suggests that companies can also be
affected by normative pressure.
The uptake of any new practices such as EMA is therefore inevitably influenced by
social institutional elements and changes (Qian & Burritt, 2008). For example, Onishi et al.
(2008) find that the rapid development of environmental accounting in Japan is due primarily
to the pressure imposed by the government. Briefly, institutional factors have a high impact
upon adoption and implementation of any new practice. Therefore coercive, mimetic and
normative perspectives should be kept in mind when we are discussing diffusion of EMA.
Therefore, the employment of NIS Theory is expected to complement the explanation of the
diffusion of EMA from a social perspective. The research framework is depicted in Figure 3.1.
Antecedents of
adoption Extent of adoption
EMA DIFFUSION
Institutional factors
Coercive pressure
Mimetic pressure ORGANISATIONAL
Normative pressure INNOVATIVENESS
(Number of innovation)
ORGANISATIONAL
INNOVATIVENESS
(Early and late adopters)
Figure 3.1 The research framework
As EMA is perceived as a new management accounting system, the diffusion viewpoint

provides relevant guidance in exploring and explaining the adoption of practice within the
industries. The diffusion of EMA in this study is represented both by the rate of adoption and
organisational innovativeness.
Conclusion
Many studies have evidenced the importance of institutional influence on the diffusion of
management accounting techniques (see for example, Bjornenak, 1997; Lapsley & Wright,
2004; Malmi, 1999), environmental management practices (Delmas, 2002; Delmas & Toffel,
2004; Ervin et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2012) and environmental reporting
practice (Aerts & Cormier, 2009; Aerts, Cormier & Magnan, 2006; Azlan & Devi, 2008;
Contrafatto, 2014; Islam & Deegan, 2008). Contrafatto (2014) suggests that institutionalization
process begin with a phase of construction a common meaning, followed by practicalisation
and later the reinforcement phase, in which organisation act in response to various pressures in
each of these phases. The insights from Institutional Theory have provided researchers with an
understanding of the interaction between the context of the organisation and the organisation’s
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behaviour. This basically explains how individual organisations adopt various environmental
management practices to respond to institutional pressures and why there appears to be
variation in adoption rates (Delmas, 2002; Delmas & Toffel, 2004; Pondeville et al., 2013;
Rodrigue et al., 2013). For example, market pressures resulting from the increased concern of
consumers and suppliers about environmental issues have led companies to implement pro-
environmental practices so that they can maintain their position in the market or penetrate a
new market (Islam & Deegan, 2008; Simpson, 2012; Zhang et al., 2012). In terms of theoretical
contribution, this study responds to calls for theoretically informed EMA research (Bouma &
van der Veen, 2004; Burritt, 2004). In addition to that, this paper extends the context of the
adoption in which EMA adoption is not solely defined as the rate of those who adopting or not
adopting, but this paper also look at the influence of institutional pressures towards the
organizational innovativeness. This has provided a new framework which was not addressed by
previous research. Thus, the framework embraces a comprehensive consideration of
organisations’ internal and external contexts, and thus this study has the potential to advance
the understanding of the interaction between pressures for change and organisational
behaviour, with specific relation to EMA.
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Jasch, C. (2009). Environmental and Material Flow Cost Accounting: Principles and
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Jones, M.J. (2010). Accounting for the environment: Towards a theoretical perspective for
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Lapsley, I., and Wright, E. (2004). The diffusion of management accounting innovations in the
public sector: A research agenda. Management Accounting Research, 15(3), 355-374.
Meyer, J.W, and Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth
and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363.
Onishi, Y., Kokubu, K., and Nakajima, M. (2008). Implementing material flow cost accounting
in a pharmaceutical company. In Schaltegger, S., Bennett, M., Burritt, R.L, and Jasch, C.
(Eds), Environmental Management Accounting for cleaner production (395-410). The
Netherlands: Springer.
Pondeville, S., and De Ronge, Y. (2013). Environmental management control systems: The
role of contextual and strategic factors. Management Accounting Research, 24(4), 317-
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Accounting: An Institutional view. In Schaltegger, S., Bennett, M., Burritt, R.L, and
Jasch, C. (Eds), Environmental Management Accounting for cleaner production (233-
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ISLAMIC EDUCATION NOVICE TEACHERS’ JOURNEY IN

TRANSLATING STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING INTO
CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Tengku Sarina Aini Tengku Kasim1
1
Islamic Education Program, Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Given the complexities associated with the realities of novice teachers in translating student-
centred learning, this article serves as a small window to the struggles and challenges Islamic
Education novice teachers faced in their classroom practice. Applying qualitative semi-
structured interviews, ten Islamic Education novice teachers were chosen as informants by
using purposive sampling. The findings uncover and examine key issues pertaining to the
classroom experiences of Islamic Education novice teachers. This article concludes with a list
of recommendations for the novice teachers and teacher preparation programs.
Keywords: Islamic Education novice teachers, student-centred learning, qualitative research
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Since the transition towards the fourth industrial revolution has been introduced, the education
dynamic has rapidly advanced in order to cope with the rising changes in terms of automation
and data exchange. This technological innovation brought a wave of accelerating pace of
change, in which it can be accessed instantly and deliver greater impacts. In addressing the
purpose of preparing current generation with the right skill set and knowledge, it is essential to
ensure effective and immediate transformation of the delivery of education. Thus, the
Malaysian education system is moving towards the ‘Teaching and Learning 4.0’ in order to be
competitive and remain relevant with this transformation. Teachers need to be alert and getting
ready to all the changes made in education’s field.
This transition includes the teaching and learning approaches for Islamic Education subject.
The changes is vital as it has the responsibility in developing students’ dynamics to deal with
21st century education which requires complex thinking without neglecting the values of Islam.
The 21st century integration and development in education has brought about a huge shift in
Malaysia’s education system, through the introduction of Secondary School Standard
Curriculum or in Malay, Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM) in 2017 and Primary
School Standard Curriculum or Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) which was
implemented in 2011 to replace the old curriculum that was focusing too much on the content
of the subjects. KSSM addresses teaching and learning strategies that should be learner-
centred, collaborative, fun and emphasising the development of thinking skills and soft skills.
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Hence, Islamic education that is still bounded by traditional approaches in teaching and
learning, need to offset the teachers’ mindset on the usage of various teaching methods as well
as empowering students in their learning.
However, in reality, not all teachers, particularly novice teachers in Islamic Education field, are
able to translate what they have learned back in their respective programs and practicing it in
school classrooms. The first five years of teaching experiences for novice teachers normally
serve as a trial and error process. In light of emphasizing 21st century education, they are
expected to be well equipped and conducted the teaching and learning process efficaciously as
a new educator. As the recent graduates from teacher training programmes, their pedagogical
theory-based knowledge that they have obtained is imperative in helping them addressing
current education affairs.
Research showed that the applications of pedagogical content knowledge amongst novice
teachers are moderate and need extra attention to enhance their skills. Previous research on
novice teachers who were the products of a twinning programme conducted by Bahagian
Pendidikan Guru (BPG) has indicated that they were unaware of the importance of teaching
strategies in their career. They assumed that teaching strategies only act as a tool to teach and is
not embodied in effective lesson procedure (A. Malik, Zakaria, Mohamed, & Sulaiman, 2015).
Novice teachers in Malaysia were also reported encountering problems related to classroom
and behavior management as well understanding their students. Even though they are able to
establish an appropriate approach for controlling classes, learning environment plays a key
factor to ascertain the needed strategies and approaches (Goh & Wong, 2014).
Literature Review
Issues among novice teachers
There is a volume of published studies that documented topics related to novice teachers. The
following subjects are debated and concerned with novice teachers’ implementation of teaching
and learning inside and outside the classroom, building their social relationships with
colleagues or administrators, as well as administrative work to be done besides teaching
(Fantilli & McDougall, 2009; Goh, 2013; Orgoványi-Gajdos, 2015; Oshrat-Fink, 2014).
Several other studies identified setting up the classroom, preparing for the first week of school,
curriculum expectation, salary and the maintenance of personal sanity as matters which
considered the greatest difficulties for novice teachers (Britts, 1997; Ganser, 1999; Mandel,
2006).
Çakmak (2013) on his analysis, mentioned that novice teachers were grappled with: (1) lack of
experiences and confidences, and unable to manage their classroom; (2) facing difficulties
understanding the best way to teach and suit with their students; and (3) theoretically know
how to evaluate students, but incapable to practice it in reality. On the other hand, in Finland,
the obstacles affecting novice teachers’ sense of professional agency, the findings showed that
novice teachers discerned many limitations in developing the pedagogical practices such as
lack of facilities and time-consuming during preparation and planning (Eteläpelto,
Vähäsantanen, & Hökkä, 2015). Saeedeh Shohani et. al (2014) mentioned that novice teachers
have a low self-esteem and inferior, hence, rate their performance low due to their inability to
control one or two problematic students.
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Moreover, extensive research in various countries have revealed that novice teachers primarily
need help solving practical and technical problems in their work, understanding the timetable,
setting grades, dealing with group of children with great variation in knowledge and skills, as
well as how applying pedagogical methods effectively (Cains & Brown, 1998). The inability of
novice teachers to cope with their issues might lead to burnout and stress (Schwarzer &
Hallum, 2008), attrition (Le Maistre & Pare, 2010) and even a negative outcome for their
students (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989; Ross, 1992).
Student Centred learning

Student-centred approaches can be traced as active learning, which is one of the elements in the
constructivist learning theory that attributed to Vygotsky (1978). By applying this kind of
active type of approaches, teachers can train the students to master the sub-topics learned and
accelerate the process of understanding the knowledge among themselves. Beyond enabling
students be the consumer of knowledge and teachers as the transmitter of knowledge, teachers
should shift their way to teach into letting students be able to produce a simple learning product
at the end of the class. Critical exploration as another theory based on constructivism
approaches, it challenges the traditional role of teachers as people who convey the knowledge
(Hoidn, 2017). In line with current education pace, Islamic Education novice teachers are
expected to switch their role from conventional into constructivist approach as it will
automatically trigger their creativity to create better strategies in teaching.
Student-centred learning demands for applying methods that increase awareness of what is
done and why it is done, foster higher order skills, activate prior knowledge and experience,
help develop independent learning skills, provide multiple representations of the content and
encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning. Thus, in applying the elements
of student-centred learning, students are expected to be active and independent participants in
their learning process, responsible and initiative to recognize their learning needs, finding
sources of information to respond to their needs, building and presenting their knowledge based
on their needs and sources. Within certain limits students can choose for themselves what they
will learn.
Alternatively, it is the opposite to the traditional teacher-centred approaches. The outlook of
teacher-centred has been stigmatized as knowledge can be directly poured into students’ brain,
or spoon feeding. Therefore, students will passively learn, receive the knowledge and
memorize the information from their teachers or textbooks.
From Islamic perspective, a teacher should change his or her teaching methods from time to
time in order to obtain effective learning outcomes (Al-Ghazali, 1978). Al-Ghazali’s (1978)
asserted that education is not merely a procedure whereby the teacher imparts knowledge that
the students may or may not absorb, however, it is an interaction which influencing and
benefiting teacher and students similarly by giving learners a practical use of their knowledge.
In this sense, all novice teachers, including Islamic Education novice teachers in Malaysia are
expected to be well trained by their respective institutions and meet the demands of Education
industry. Their roles were not restricted to teaching and learning, but nurturing students to
prosper a balanced life as well, which coincides with the expectations of the Ministry of
Education who envisage a holistic education. However, there are limited articles focusing on
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Malaysian Islamic Education novice teachers. Thus, this study has been conducted to better
understand the journey of Islamic Education novice teachers in applying the student-centred
learning in their classroom teaching practice.
Research Objectives
The objectives of this research are:
1. To identify the application of student-centred learning in Islamic Education novice
teachers’ classroom.
2. To identify issues and challenges Islamic Education novice teachers face in applying
student-centred learning in classroom
A qualitative research design was employed in this study resulting from author’s interest in
examining Islamic Education novice teachers’ journey during their services as novice teachers
in secondary schools. Qualitative research is a study on laying the purpose of interpreting an
occurrence or phenomenon pertaining to the meanings researchers about to uncover (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005). Furthermore, Merriam and Tisdell also emphasize it as “understanding the
meaning people have constructed” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 15).
Semi-structured individual interviews were applied to ten Islamic Education novice teachers as
a method for data collection. By doing so, the author has the opportunity to gain informants’
perspectives on their challenges of practicing student-centred learning during their early years
of teaching, together with discovering unique findings from it. Flick (2014) claims that semi-
structured interviews were a form of open-ended questions that were built as a framework to
guide the interviewer on asking in-depth questions. This stand was also supported by Merriam
and Tisdell (2016), which suggest that by providing interview protocols can be an easier
alternative to gather feedbacks from informants.
Research sample recruited in this research chosen by using purposive sampling, in which it is
used to determine the important criteria for selecting the research sample (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Therefore, the criteria for this study consisted of novice teachers who served less than
five years of teaching Islamic Education in Malaysian secondary schools and they were
selected from one state in four different zones (north, south, east coast and East Malaysia). In
order to maintain informants’ personal confidentiality, each Islamic Education novice teachers
(IENT) will be introduced with their pseudonym names.
Findings and Discussion

The data analysis discusses the qualitative data acquired via interviews with 10 Islamic
Education teachers with one to three years of teaching experience. The data showed that
informants realized the importance of student-centred learning. They seem have made some
efforts in their classroom even though struggled to implement the learning approach in the
classroom.
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First Theme: Helping students take charge of their learning

An important facet of learning is developing in learners the capacity to accept increasingly
more responsibility for their learning. Interviews with the novice teachers showed that they
realize of their roles to support their students in learning process, by giving the more
responsibility, enabling them to take risks and learn from their mistakes. For example, IENT
Siti said;
Sometimes I worry when my students keep doing the same mistakes during their
discussion and project-solving… but then I realize, that is how students learn, through
a trial and error process… doing mistakes over and over…thus I help them to learn
from their mistakes, correct the mistakes, know why the mistakes happen… I guide them
to develop new ideas and link those with the previous information.
IENT Sarah also accepts the idea of sharing control and give students more responsibility in
learning process. She mentioned that “students cannot become more responsible learners
unless teachers give them more responsibility”. For her, students can learn many things from
having choices and alternatives.
I give my students some say in their learning… for example, I give each of my students
the choice between an in-class or a take-home exercise…if they choose to do a quiz
after the lesson… I will happily to agree…
Even though she seems to feel comfortable with the notion of student-centred learning of
sharing power in the learning process, she becomes concern when some students did feel
discomfort when asked to take more control over their learning and assume responsibility for
what and how they want to learn. In that scenario, she struggled to help her students.
Some students do feel discomfort, reluctant to participate or give ideas…so I tried my
best to help them to feel comfortable in their new and more proactive roles...I let them
to decide what to do by themselves, and I just guide them with the appropriate issues,
giving suitable words and terms to the topic of discussion, helping them to solve certain
problems…but of course to do this, I need to feel comfortable first with the idea of
sharing responsibility.
Meanwhile, IENT Rahman mentioned that sharing power with his students over their learning
was the most difficult teaching changes when moving to student-centred approach.
I have been conditioned by traditional teacher-centred approaches, have authority and
control over the learning process and the classroom…So it was kind of uncomfortable
when I tried to give away some of that power, such as let the students themselves to
discuss the topic, or let them choose their own preference learning style…
The more control our students take, and the more choices we offer them, the greater will be
their desire and willingness to engage in the learning process (Zull, 2002, p. 52). However,
teachers’ concern about sharing power feel by most teachers because they do not know what
will happen if students have too much control or if they make poor choices about their learning.
This feeling raised by IENT Fatma;
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I have to pick up the class and the lesson when students fail to take charge of their
learning or make poor decisions about certain issues… that is the problem, I need to
add time to develop new assignments and activities for them… normally asking them to
write a summary for the topic.
The data from this study showed that in making the case for sharing power with students,
teachers need to consider aspects such as what if the students do not want to make all of the
choices or take more control of their learning. What if they see these actions give them more
work and more responsibility, and they resist? In this situation, “teachers must go slowly” with
the process (Weimer, 2002, p.29) because of the benefit. Thus, teachers need to increase
students’ desire to take control of their learning by creating learning environments that are safe.
Moreover, researchers have proven that having choices in what and how to learn improves the
motivation and engagement of the students, by letting them work on things they are interested
in learning (Deci & Ryan, 1991).
Second theme: Getting students started with student-centred learning approach

The data showed that the Islamic Education novice teachers understand the important of
involving students in learning process as active learners, rather than passive recipient of
knowledge. The novice teachers reported that they plan and implement student-centred learning
activities in order to expose their students’ potential by the application of “inquiry-based
approaches, independent learning, problem solving, higher order thinking skills and more”, as
suggested by student-centred learning.
According to the notion of student-centred learning, students should be actively engaged in the
learning process itself. Students are involved and expected to put their own commitment to
learn with the help of their peers and under the guidance of the teacher. Ultimately, by actively
engaging in learning process, they are more exposed to problem-solving skills, upgrading their
communication skill, working in team and more to mention. This approach also creates an
environment where students and teachers are partners in learning, share ideas openly and able
to communicate honestly with one another. Moreover, well-prepared and capable teachers have
the largest impact on student achievement.
What a surprise it is to students when a teacher adopts a student-centred learning practice. They
often become very uncomfortable and even hostile toward the new roles and responsibilities
they are being asked to take on. One of the reasons most probably because of these new roles
do not, from their perspective, fit their ideas of what school should be like. The roles do not
match the style of learning they recognize. Their major learning roles most often associated
with traditional learning.
The data revealed informants’ journey to get students started with student-centred learning
approach.
The easiest ways to get students started with the learning is to have them make some
presentations in front of the class. They have to report their work on small group.
(IENT Kamal).
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When the students complete classroom presentation, I opened the floor to discuss… I let
other students to question, disagree, or suggest alternatives to their friends…. to the
presenter… (IENT Farah).
Kamal and Farah seem to encourage their students to initiate with student-centred learning by
actively participating with classroom activities. For them, “small group work” and “classroom
presentations” will lead students to better engagement with the lesson discussed, which will
result in greater learning.
IENT Shukri and IENT Sarah explained how they helps students to set goals by working
together in groups, and ensure they know how to use all available learning resources.
I guided them to create an I-think map on their own and do a gallery walk. Since my
class was held at the musolla, my students were cooperating well.
I applied lots of activities in class, such as hot seats, dragon ball, musical chairs etc.
It can be seen that my students are less sleepy during my teaching and enthusiastic to
learn.
The data showed that both Islamic education novice teachers employed methods and
techniques that were featured in 21st Century Education. This 21st Century Learning has
transformed the dynamics of education into technology-friendly, which has various methods
that can be applied in teaching Islamic education and meets the latest needs. Learners who are
directly involved in their learning are expected to put their own commitment to learn along
with the help of their peers and constantly under the guidance of the teacher. Ultimately, by
actively engaging in the learning process, they are more exposed to problem-solving skills,
upgrading their communication skill, working in team and more.
Conclusion
As the result of globalisation, novice teachers are envisaged to conduct their teaching and
learning process into student-centred. Student-activating teaching is “an approach that
stimulates students to construct knowledge by means of real life, realistic, practical and
relevant assignments that requiring students’ active involvement to incorporate available
information” (Struyven, Dochy, & Janssens, 2010, p. 44). Findings from this study on Islamic
Education novice teachers supports other research findings that Islamic Education teachers
have embraced the student-centred approaches in their teaching and learning. Abundance of
scholars have reported that there were numerous student-centred teaching methodologies or
techniques that have been practiced in Islamic pedagogy for centuries, such as cooperative
learning, collaborative learning, scaffolding, group discussions, inquiry learning, learning by
doing and more. This has abolished the thought that teaching Islamic education is influenced
solely on conventional approach, perceived as the way of learning is limited to deductive
thinking and memorisation (Miliani, 2012). This viewpoint showed Islamic Education teachers,
including novice teachers have the awareness to reform their way of teaching and adopt a new
teaching.
Recommendations
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Data from this study can contribute to enhancing the quality of teacher training program,
particularly in improving the Islamic education teacher training curriculum design.
Therefore, the data suggests few recommendations such as:
1. The need for pre-service programs to be enhanced to include increased exposure to
practical teaching tasks that prove most difficult and challenging issues for teachers at the
beginning of their career.
2. Student-teachers should be more exposed with general pedagogical knowledge including
general psychology and pedagogy knowledge, learning and teaching approaches, learning
environment, classroom management, student assessment etc.
3. Pedagogical competencies amongst Islamic Education novice teachers should be
emphasized by adding more exposure on the application of student-centred learning during
the teacher training programme.
4. Generic skills amongst student-teachers should be integrated with either existing or
separate courses during teacher training.
5. More attention should be given to problem solving skills during preservice teacher training.
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LAND E-MUTATION SYSTEM IN BANGLADESH: AN

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF A2I (ACCESS TO
INFORMATION) PROGRAM
Abu Naser Mohammad Saif 1, Md. Sohel Hawlader 2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Management Information Systems, Faculty of Business Studies
University of Dhaka
(E-mail: [email protected]),Tel: +8801717686005
2
Graduate Research Internee, Department of Management Information Systems, Faculty of Business Studies
University of Dhaka
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
This exploratory study focuses on the activities of A2I (Access to Information), specifically on
the land e-Mutation system in Bangladesh. For this, a baseline study had been conducted in
Pabna and Sirajganj districts to evaluate the existing land mutation process. From this baseline
study, it is seen that current land mutation process is costly and time consuming. Hence, it is
imperative to automate the land mutation process to provide hassle free services to the citizens
and it is also necessary to make awareness among the people regarding land e-Mutation process
to reduce the access of different brokers. Creating automation in land mutation process will
save time of the service provider as well as service recipients
Keywords: e-Mutation; baseline study; Bangladesh; A2I (Access to Information); Exploratory
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Bangladesh is a small country with huge population. Therefore, land management is very
important for overall development of the country. Land mutation refers to the ownership of
land. Updating the record of land and any type of change in that record is made through
mutation. It is one of the most important tasks of Upazilla land office of Bangladesh
government. The government has taken initiatives for managing land records with e-mutation
systems by Access to Information (A2I). Access to Information (a2i), PMO (Prime Minister’s
Office) is “Service @ Doorsteps” with the vision 2021 for establishing “Digital Bangladesh”.
For simplifying all the services, a2i is working since 2007. It’s a project of the Government of
Bangladesh with the support of UNDP & USAID under the Prime Minister’s Office. A2i is
mainly working for simplifying the government services for the citizens.
Bangladesh has a total landmass of around 1,47,570 square kilometres. The population of
Bangladesh depends on land for their living, and monetary activities. So land management is a
fundamental issue in the social and financial attributes of Bangladesh. Land mutation is one of
the most significant services of government land office. But many people are facing lots of
problems in getting these services. People need to spend more time, and give money to the
middleman for land mutation. This study is conducted to introduce e-mutation in land mutation
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system and make the service more people responsive. A2I has taken initiatives for improving
the land mutation systems in Bangladesh. Mutation means ownership of land. Replacing,
transferring or rewriting the name of the owner on the Records of Rights or Khatians is known
as mutation. When this mutation process is done electronically, it is called e-Mutation of lands.
Under present procedure, people apply for land mutation in Upazilla land office. For getting
mutation, people need to visit Upazilla land office for several times and need to give money to
brokers. Sometimes proper information cannot be found due to absence of land records.
Change in the ownership of land becomes difficult due to inappropriate land records and
eventually it creates dispute between the buyer and seller. This study will enhance e-mutation
awareness in sale and purchase of land.
Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are:
 To find out the current state of e-mutation through access to information (a2i)
 To draw recommendations on land e-mutation system in Bangladesh
Literature Review
Current research suggests that Bangladesh is highlighting on Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs), power and energy sector, agriculture and food processing,
pharmaceuticals, leather and leather products, and jute and jute goods, sustainable blue
economy, and establishing Economic Zones (EZs) etc. A set of policies along with a model for
sustainable blue economy have been proposed (Jafrin, Saif, & Hossain, 2016). The adoption of
ICTs in SMEs located in rural areas of Bangladesh was explored (Hoque et al., 2016). Citizens
are benefited through different online services rendered by multiple organizations. Rahman et
al. (2017) exposed the service quality of online bill payment system and introduced an
extended SERVQUAL model named SERVQUAL-Butterfly model.
For better understanding about existing land mutation process, this study has reviewed some
other land mutation related literary work. There is not enough work done before in this
particular context in Bangladesh. The record of land ownership is insufficient and incomplete.
Inadequate and improper land records increase dispute and security problem of land tenure and
land transfer (Nahrin et. al, 2009). Present land laws, land administration and land management
in Bangladesh are not only full of intricacy, procedural difficulties and mismanagement but
also not accessible and responsive to the interest of the common people of our country.
Furthermore, the present mechanism to settle land related disputes is not time saving, cost
effective, and peaceful (Islam et. al, 2015). Problems of present procedure and benefit of
automated land registration and record systems have been identified (Islam et. al, 2015). In the
existing procedure, the land records stored in the Tehsil office are not properly checked to
determine whether the seller is the real owner of the land, if checked it takes long time. Getting
information from the volumes of registers is very difficult. The database will contain all the
information of the buyer and seller, the particulars of the land (lot number, JL number, name of
Mouza), the mode by which the seller became the owner of the plot (i.e., purchase, inheritance,
etc.), the classification of land, area of land, boundary demarcation, the value at which the land
is being transferred, tax etc. (Khan et. al, 2009). In their paper, (Khan et. al, 2009) explores the
problems related to the current system, and offers an IT-based option, that would be simple in
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implementation, yet effective and efficient. In Bangladesh, land related services are given by
multiple institutions. But there are numbers of institutional limitations in existing land
administration and management. For services, recipients have to receive services from different
offices. Hence, they need to spend more time, money, and numerous visits. A framework for
ensuring both transparency and efficiency to the existing land management system has been
designed (Choudhury et. al, 2011). Bangladesh is increasingly getting digitalized to keep up
with the contemporary world. Unfortunately, we are yet to have a fully digitalized system of
keep tracking of lands (Thakur et. al, 2018). The land management system of this country still
suffers from outdated methods and technologies and yet too far away from the touch of
modernization. Corruption, incompetence and lack of transparency have made the land
management system of this country a slow process (Talukder et. al, 2014). For getting land
mutation, people need to visit Upazilla land office and face numerous types of hazards.
Sometimes it takes long time for getting land mutation and due to this people need to spend
more money. Citizens of Bangladesh face harassment by brokers in land mutation (Islam,
2013). In Bangladesh, land management system still follows traditional method in providing
land mutation process.
Methodology
The study followed a mixed research approach. Both qualitative and quantitative data were
used to conduct this study. Survey method was used to gather the required data. Descriptive
statistics was used to demonstrate the actual scenario regarding land e-Mutation. For baseline
study, Pabna and Sirajganj regions were selected and visited. These regions were selected since
much of lands from these two regions fall under the context of mutation procedure. Data were
collected from primary sources. AC land office, Union Digital Centre (UDC) and Sub-registry
office were visited. Authors developed leaflet providing all the necessary information about the
online mutation process and sent it to 46 Upazilas of those two districts. Upazilas were selected
randomly and representative sample size was included in selecting Upazilas. We divided the
upazila between two groups: Control and Intervention. The methods we used here to conduct
the survey are behavioral insights and Randomized Control Trial (RCT).
Data Analysis and Findings

A2i on Land Mutation
A2i has an ongoing project to simplify the land mutation process through behavioral insight
technique and e-mutation process. It was sought to identify the problems of land mutation
process and provides both the intervention and the alternative solution to the existing problems.
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Figure 1: Graphical view of intervention and control group
Piloting Two Districts: Pabna and Sirajganj

Comparison on off-line and e-mutation between two uapzilla for study
Sl. Off-line e-Mutations % e- Offline e-Mutations % e-
No. Region Mutations in in June, mutations in Mutations in in July, mutations in
June, 2016 2016 June, 2016 July, 2016 2016 July, 2016
1 Sirajganj 86 22 20% 80 14 15%
Sadar
2 Pabna, 0 249 100% 0 304 100%
Chatmohor
43%
25%
19%
13%
Lowest to 25 26 to 35 36 to 45 45 to highest
Time (in days)
Fig.2. Time Required for Completing the Mutation Process (in days)
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Figure 2 depicts the total time required to complete the land mutation process. According to the
figure, a significant number of service recipients (43%) opined that to complete land mutation
process it required 36 to 45 days and 25%to complete land mutation process it required 26 to
35 days. On the other hand, 19% of the informants exposed it took 25 days for land mutation
process while 13% mentioned that it needed more than 45 days.
60 57
50
40
30 25
19
20
10
Lowest to BDT 1300 DBT 1301 to 1500 SeriesBDT 1501 to Highest
Fig.3. Total Cost Required in Mutation Procedure
The above figure shows the total cost to complete the whole land mutation process. 57%
service recipients mentioned that they required taka 1300. This cost includes visit cost, process
cost and court fees. 25% service recipients opined that taka 1301 to taka 1500 is needed for
land mutation process. Depending on distance the amount of visit costs were different and
court fees were same for all the respondents.
100%
80% 40%
60%
40% 45%
20%
15%
0%
4 visits 3 visits 2 visits
Fig.4.Total Visits Required in Mutation Process
According to the above figure, it is seen that 40% service recipients cited that whole land
mutation had been completed within two visits while 45% mentioned that it took three visits to
complete the whole procedure. In contrast, rest of the respondents (15%) opined that it required
more than four visits for land mutation process.
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BDT 1270
39 days
4 Visits
AVERAGE TIME AVERAGE COST AVERAGE VISIT
Fig.5: Average Time, Cost and Visit in Land Mutation Process
Figure 5 provides the information about average time, costs, and number of visit required in
land mutation process. A service recipient spent average 39 days in Upazilla land office for
land mutation application process, hearing and receiving DCR. Similarly, average cost required
BDT 1270 for mutation purpose including government fee 1150, court fee 20 and others were
travel cost. Usually for land mutation, it required 3 visits but here required average 4 visits.
more time
more visit
difficult to deliver mutation paper
difficult to collect paper
Delay service
Others
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Challenges in present land mutation procedure
Fig.6: Challenges in Present Land Mutation Procedure
The above figure shows the challenges in present land mutation procedure. About 67%
informants opined that in present land mutation it was needed more time to complete the
procedure whereas 59% service recipients mentioned about more cost in land mutation process.
In contrast, 58% service recipients cited took several numbers of visits in land mutation
process. On the other hand, 51% respondents exposed that it required more labor in land
mutation process.
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7%
2%
Online Application
16% UDC Application
Present Procedure
75% Union land office
Fig.7: Present Scenario Used for Land Mutation
The above figure shows that majority of the respondents (75%) opined that online application
would be more appropriate in mutation process as it saves time, costs, and number of visits of
the service recipients. 16% service recipients cited that application through UDC would be
more appropriate for land mutation while 7% opined that application from union land office
would be easier for them.
Findings of the Study

 People do not know the procedure of mutation, or even the application process.
 Citizens’ knowledge about controlling authority of upazila land office is adequate.
 People do not know the amount of mutation fee.
 Employees of land office are colonial in their approach.
 There is lack of work force in Upazilla land office. On the other hand, the service
providers do multiple activities and they are not specialized for specific land service
sector.
 Time limit mentioned by the circular is not maintaining in most of the cases.
 Time limit is not sufficient for all offices. More time is needed to deliver the service,
particularly for busy land offices.
 Land offices don’t have not sufficient funds, logistics and labor to implement the
mutation process successfully.
 Absolute dominance of males in the mutation process. Most service providers and
receivers are male.
 Service providers of land offices are educated, but service receivers’ level of education
is not in satisfactory level.
 The majority of service-seeking people are farmers.
 Income level of service-seeking people is not high.
Recommendations and Future Directions

The study has some suggestions to overcome the hurdles and develop quality of service
delivery by the study.Without legislative change that improves co-ordination between AC
Land, Survey and Sub-Registry, these ideas could improve the citizen’s experience.
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1. Publicity will increase for online application of e-Mutation through providing the leaflet
2. Guide people to online application at the point they receive certified deed
3. Provide e-mutation information in online Khotian request: splash screen at end of
application; document with the provided Khotian
4. Set up a UDC within the land registration office
5. Encourage deed writers to also provide e-mutation application service
6. It would be helpful if proper training is provided to the service provider about land
mutation.
7. Citizen friendly option/view should be generated/added to the portal
8. To reduce harassment, it is necessary to introduce complaint box in every land related
office and there should be a mechanism to address and solve all the complaints with
sincerity.
The present e-Mutation or land management system does not cover our whole land
management systems in the country. We need to take proper steps regarding this system for the
whole country. So, it necessary to develop image conversion from the paper based map to the
digital map. Further research may be done to develop the whole central system for land
management, provide a land account for every land owner.
Conclusion
Bangladesh is an agricultural country under huge population pressure and scarcity of land
hence, it is essential to maintain proper record of the land and sound management of the land.
Digitalizing land management system is a crucial need in Bangladesh as it still follows the
ancient land management system and people face numerous problems in changing the
ownership of the land. Land mutation is important for transfer of land, land revenue, fixation of
title and possession. Finding revealed that people face many problems getting land mutation.
Most of the cases they need to give money to the middle man. As existing mutation process is
complex, it required more time, cost and number of visits. On the other hand, because of proper
record of the land lead disputes in having ownership of the land and this dispute create other
corruption. Automation of manual process is necessary to reduce error of the record, increase
the transparent of the system and improve the speed of the work. It is also required for
providing service to the people doorstep and makes the service more citizens responsive.
Besides, it is generally assumed that automation reduce time, cost and number of visit.
However, it is imperative to automate the land mutation process to provide hassle free service
to the citizen and it is necessary to aware the people about land mutation service process to
reduce the access of the broker. Creating automation in mutation process will save the time of
the service provider and service recipients as well as it will reduce the cost and harassment of
the service recipients.
References
Choudhury, E., Ridwan, M., Awal, M. A., & Hosain, S. (2011, December). A Web-based land
management system for Bangladesh. In Computer and Information Technology (ICCIT), 2011
14th International Conference on (pp. 321-326). IEEE.
Hazell, P., & Haddad, L. J. (2001). Agricultural research and poverty reduction (Vol. 34). Intl
Food Policy Res Inst.
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Hoque, M. R., Saif, A. N. M., AlBar, A. M., & Bao, Y. (2016). Adoption of information and
communication technology for development: A case study of small and medium enterprises in
Bangladesh. Information Development, 32(4), 986-1000.
Islam, S., Moula, G., & Islam, M. (2015). Land Rights, Land Disputes and Land
Administration in Bangladesh-A Critical Study. Beijing L. Rev., 6, 193.
Jafrin, N., Saif, A. N. M., & Hossain, M. I. (2016). Blue economy in Bangladesh: proposed
model and policy recommendations. Journal of Economics and Sustainable
Development, 7(21), 131-135.
Khan, S., Toaha, M., & Awal, M. A. (2009). Automated Digital Archive for Land Registration
and Records. The International Technology Management Review, 2(1), 50-65.
Nahrin, K., & Rahman, M. S. U. (2009). Land Information System (LIS) for land
administration and management in Bangladesh. Journal of Bangladesh Institute of Planners, 2,
116-125.
Rahman, M. A., Qi, X., Mohammad Saif, A. N., Ibrahim, I. B., & Sultana, R. (2017). Assessing
service quality of online bill payment system using extended SERVQUAL model
(SERVQUAL-Butterfly model): A case study of Dhaka electric supply company limited
(DESCO), Bangladesh. Cogent Business & Management, 4(1), 1301195.
Talukder, S. K., Sakib, M. I. I., & Rahman, M. M. (2014, April). Digital land management
system: A new initiative for bangladesh. In Electrical Engineering and Information &
Communication Technology (ICEEICT), 2014 International Conference on (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
Thakur, A., Chowdhury, S., & Bhuiyan, T. (2018, January). Development of digitalization of
leased land in Bangladesh. In Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference
(CCWC), 2018 IEEE 8th Annual (pp. 226-232). IEEE.
Wasserman, R. (2004). Procedural due process: A reference guide to the United States
Constitution (Vol. 8). Greenwood Publishin
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LIVED EXPERIENCES OF GAY MALE TEACHERS
Prof. Avelino R. Bucad, Jr.1

1
Quezon Science High School, Quezon Province, Philippines
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The study aims to describe the experiences encountered by gay male teachers in their teaching
profession, school, and to the community. It sought to find out how these experiences affect the
respondents’ classroom management-decision and content management. It also aims to find out
the implication of the findings to various sectors and society. Phenomenological study was
used as the research design to attain the meanings, structures, essences of the lived experiences
of gay male teachers in Infanta and Real districts. Purposive sampling was used in which five
(5) selected high school gay male teachers were chosen as research participants. Thematic
analysis was employed after a series of interview among the respondents to gain analysis and
interpretation of data that were categorized as: normal life, confirmation seeking, darkness,
gender discrimination and longing for unconditional acceptance. It was found out that when it
comes to classroom management-decision and content management, the participants
considered “self-auditing” and being careful in certain areas by putting restriction. Hiding the
real identity served as protection against social rejections. Furthermore, the findings have a
great impact on knowledge and ignorance of sexuality and acceptance of others fairly and
absence or lack of emphasis about sexuality in the curriculum.
Keywords: sociology, lived experiences, phenomenology
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Modern day teachers face a wide range of challenges in their classrooms. In addition to
teaching content, they must manage behaviours, meet deadlines, and attend to the needs of all
stakeholders within the community, simultaneously tackling the demands of standardized
testing. For those teachers who are gay or perceived to be gay by their students and or
colleagues, these challenges take a new meaning. While these teachers, address the challenges
noted above, often they also contend with various stereotypes and misconceptions, which may
alter their teaching behaviours in the classroom in terms of the content they teach and the
effectiveness of their classroom management procedures. Chief among these stereotypes is that
gay teachers wish to recruit students to their “team” and push the gay agenda in the classroom.
If gay teachers perceived that their administrators, colleagues, and or students’ parents believe
these stereotypes, they might fail to teach certain content on gay themes even if such content is
appropriate for a given topic. This may result to an incomplete education for their students or,
at minimum, an education that lacks nuance, completeness, and complexity.
Further, many people still hold onto the idea that gay people, especially men, are child
molesters (Khayatt, 2007; Kissen, 2006). In today’s society, most teachers, male and female,
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gay and straight alike, understand that it is unwise to be alone in a classroom with a student for
any reason, but the added pressure on gay male teachers to adhere to this unspoken rule often
leaks into other areas of classroom interaction. In fact, gay teachers report that they often suffer
strained relationships with students because of their efforts to remain at arm’s length in order to
avoid any speculation that they might be attracted to their students (Sanlo, 2009).
The distance created may affect not only teacher -student relationships, but could
potentially affect a student’s academic performance. If the teacher is unwilling to offer one-on-
one help where it is needed most because he fears how others might perceive such interaction,
a student’s grade could suffer. In many cases, gay teachers must also decide whether or not to
be open about their sexual orientation to students and to what degree of openness is
comfortable for the faculty and students involved (Griffin, 2008). The issue of “degree of
openness” is so prevalent, many gay teachers expend a significant amount of energy hoping to
be perceived by students and colleagues as heterosexual. Even if this may have serious
psychological ramifications for gay teachers and possibly lead to early burnout, the
consequences gay teachers fear for being perceived as gay at school are often even more severe
and threatening to them (Griffin,2008). Indeed, all of these issues play out on a daily basis
against the backdrop of gay teachers’ fears about being fired from their jobs because many
school districts across the country have non-discrimination policies that do not include sexual
orientation.
The experiences of oppression is damaging for who are oppressed. This study is
significant to explore whether or not gay male teachers have experienced any form of
oppression in school. There may be cultural nuances in the language and institutional forces in
the setting of these people. This study is also important because there is no existing research
about the experiences of gay teachers in Infanta and Real Districts. This examines not only the
lived experiences of Gay male teachers in the areas mentioned, but it also explores the impact
that this type of institution has on the multiple identities of this particular culture of men.
Literature Review
In this study, thematic organization was made through identified themes, variables or
concepts which were the basis of packaging and presenting the emerging views. The resources
are read and in the process identified relevant ideas or themes relevant to the current study.
According to Sampa (2012) “it is the most comprehensive and scholarly. It is encouraged in
formats like APA and its utilization is much easier and more systematic “(Sampa 2012 pp. 71 ).
There are two sets of themes, one from literature and the other from studies. This is followed
by a synthesis.
The themes that have been identified in the reviewed literature are: Gay Teachers, Role
of Heterosexual Teachers, Principals, and Guidance Counselors, and Curriculum Issues
Gay Teachers
The group of adults at school who often feel the most pressure to help students
expressing themselves are the same people who sometimes feel the most helpless, the gay
teachers. Hence, gay and questioning students do not face issues of sexuality and harassment in
public schools alone; gay and lesbian teachers join them as well. In a study conducted in the
five counties: Jacksonville, Florida Baker, Clay, Duval, Nassau, and St. John’s; Sanlo (2009)
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discusses the lives of sixteen (16) gay teachers who work in the public schools. All of her
informants, twelve (12) female and four (4) male, were Caucasian, averaged thirty-nine (39)
years of age, and taught for an average of fourteen (14) years at various school sites.
Based on earlier studies of gay educators (Griffin, 2008) Sanlo assumed that the
teachers interviewed would be open about their sexualities and active within the gay
community. From the very beginning of her study, however, “it became apparent that these
assumptions did not apply to this set of participants, these gay and lesbian educators in
northeast Florida” (Sanlo, 2009, p. 31). On the contrary, Sanlo discovered a group of
professionals gripped by fear who lived in a culture of silence.
Kissen (2006) described the group of teachers as being “implicitly out.” These teachers
told the truth about relationships without using lesbian or gay labels. This group of teachers did
not mind being seen as gay or lesbian, but they chose not to verify any assumptions made by
students or colleagues at school. Griffin (2008) describes this condition as the “glass closet.”
Lipkin (2004) and Rofes (2004) both believe that there are compelling reasons for gay
teachers to come out to their students. Gay teachers may serve as powerful role models and
counselors for gay and questioning students, they indicate to students that a school is “safe” for
their freedom of sexual expression, and gay teachers often lead the way in school reform
policies. Unfortunately, gay and lesbian teachers still live in fear of being accused of recruiting
youth to the homosexual world, or worse, being branded a child molester (Lipkin, 2004).
The Role of Heterosexual Teachers, Principals, and Guidance Counselors

Gay teachers clearly face unique challenges in the classroom, but the majority of gay
and lesbian students will not have a gay teacher. Therefore, all teachers must be prepared to
meet the needs of GLBT youth. Following is what the literature says all teachers can and must
do to grant gay students the same educational opportunities afforded to heterosexual students.
The vital roles played by school administration, principals in particular, and guidance
counselors are included in this section.
Mathison (2008) stresses the important role of teacher educators in pre-service teachers’
preparation to meet the needs of their future gay and lesbian students. She concludes that
teacher educators must first recognize the need for pre-service teachers to be more
knowledgeable about gay and lesbian students. Second, it is important for teacher educators to
honestly acknowledge and confront their thoughts and feelings on homosexuality. Similar
sentiments are found in Frieman, O’Hara, &Settel (2006) and in Taylor (2000) who all stress
the importance of current and future teachers examining their feelings about homosexuality.
These authors suggest that elementary school and middle school teachers reflect on their
feelings in the following scenario: A little boy, perceived as effeminate by his peers, is teased
to the brink of tears. Would those teachers feel equally comfortable comforting him as they
would a little girl who is teased by her peers on the playground? In a similar self-reflection
vein, Mathison (2008) believes that teacher educators need to consider the following questions:
(1)Do I assume that all my teacher education students and colleagues are
heterosexual?, (2) Do I believe that it is appropriate for gay men and lesbians to
become teachers?, (3) As I discuss, historians, philosophers, theorists, and
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practitioners with teacher education students, do I ever identify individuals as

homosexual in the same manner that I might mention ethnicity, gender, or other
cultural attributes?, (4) Do the examples I use in class assume that everyone is
heterosexual?, (5) Have I ever said anything in or out of class that would let the
students know how I feel about homosexuality?, (6) If a teacher education
student wanted to talk to someone about ways to better serve gay and lesbian
children and adolescents in the classroom, would he or she feel comfortable
coming to me?, and (7) If someone were to look at my course syllabi or any
other aspect of my teaching activities, would that person see any evidence that
preparing teachers to serve gay and lesbian students was important to me?
(Mathison, 2008, p.154).
Teachers, undoubtedly, play a vital role in providing an open atmosphere within which
gay and lesbian students may thrive. This atmosphere can be greatly affected, however, by the
attitude of the school’s principal.
Sanelli & Perreault (2001) concluded that, “the principal’s actions and values affect
overall climate, instructional procedures, and even the usually unstated theory of justice that
prevails within a school” (p. 77).
Curriculum Issues
Including gay themes where they fit naturally in a school’s curriculum, such as the
plight of homosexuals during the Holocaust or the role of lesbians during the Suffrage
Movement; discussing current events, such as gay marriage or the Supreme Court’s recent
deliberation and overturning of anti-sodomy laws in Texas; and disclosing personal
information about famous gays and lesbians who have contributed mightily in American
History, are three methods to expose all students to positive gay images. With a little extra
effort, any teacher can find such information using the Internet as a resource.
Thornton (2003) offers some excellent examples on how all social studies teachers can
achieve a seamless weaving of gay themes into their “normal” lesson plans. When teaching
about individuals like Jane Addams, for example, students should know that she never married
and “chose to spend her adult life among a community of women and had a long-time special
relationship with one woman” (Thornton, 2003, p. 228). Even if the word “lesbian” never
comes up in discussion, would it not be educational for students to think critically about
Addams’ life and consider whether or not her many accomplishments are somehow diminished
or enhanced by her personal choices?
Similarly, Thornton (2003) asks teachers to consider revealing to their students that
Alexander the Great was gay and to “sensitively approach homosexuality in its cultural and
temporal context.” Thornton continues, “such a perspective may lead students to rethink
stereotypes of both warriors and homosexuals” (p. 229). And finally, the teaching of
minorities’ struggles for civil rights throughout the 1950’s and 1960’s is common to most
social studies curricula across the nation. Students learn about the hard fought struggles of
African Americans, women, Latinos, and Native Americans, but rarely, if ever, are the
struggles of gay Americans mentioned. As Thornton (2003) reminds us, “Such a unit [on civil
rights] could be made more genuinely inclusive if it also included a lesson devoted to a turning
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point in civil rights for gay people, such as the 1969 Stonewall riots in Greenwich Village, New
York City” (p. 229).
Literature on Masculinity
Gay men are often stereotyped as effeminate-acting, limp-wristed, pansies that speak
with a lisp in their voices. While this is admittedly an extreme characterization, there are
people who actually believe this to be true. Those of us who are gay are fully aware of this
stereotype and sometimes try diligently to mask any perceived effeminate characteristics that
we may have so that we can appear more “manly.” Given this scenario, it is appropriate to
discuss research that takes a closer look at masculinity. This discussion is particularly poignant
given that several of the gay male teachers in this study believe that it is important to be
perceived as a heterosexual, masculine man at work.
According to Gilbert and Gilbert (2008),“essentialist’s arguments hold the view that
there is a core personality and character which defines masculinity, and which all men actually
or potentially share” (p. 31). This essentialist viewpoint leads one to believe that all men are
alike over time and space and therefore any behavior displayed by boys and men must indeed
be natural. This essentialist view also assumes that any unexpected behavior rests outside the
norm and is, therefore, abnormal or anomalous at best. This view is further sub-divided into
two categories, psychic and biological.
Imms (2000), believes that a multiple masculinities approach yields a more complete
understanding of male behaviors, and that it may successfully challenge the popularity of
essentialist masculinity. According to this researcher, the multiple masculinities approach has
several key characteristics. First, it is not reducible to one set of simple characteristics. Second,
gender is socially constructed (Imms, 2000) and individuals do not automatically adopt one set
of pre-determined gender roles. From this perspective, people continually negotiate and change
their perceptions of gender throughout their lifetimes. Third, Imms (2000) believes that gender
is a “relational construct.” In other words, boys and men do not create and perform their
versions of masculinity totally outside of female influence and other men (p. 6). The idea of
performance is critical here as Buchbinder (2008) and Imms (2000) believe that over the span
of a lifetime and even within the span of a boy’s adolescent years, he tries out different forms
of masculinity at home and at school. In fact, Gilbert& Gilbert (2008) discusses research
conducted in England and in Sydney, Australia, that clearly indicates the existence of multiple
male performances.
The first and most commonly discussed example of masculinity is the stereotypical
hegemonic masculinity performed by a group of boys Mac and Ghaill (2004) called “Macho
Lads.” These young men reject many of the school’s values and oppose authority in very open
and direct ways. They joke around in class, often flaunt their superior sexual experience over
conventional boys (at the high school level), drink, and swear in public as evidence of their
independence. These boys often display their need to promote themselves and their worldview
by putting down others, and they reject school for its focus on mental rather than manual work.
Macho Lads often ridicule boys who engage in the learning process as weak and effeminate
and often display both racist and sexist attitudes. Indeed, Mac an Ghaill (2006) found that
Macho Lads “reject the school curriculum and regulations in favor of learning to be tough,
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which for them involves fighting, fucking, and football” (p. 58). In Sydney, Walker (2000)
called a similar group of boys “competitors” and “footballers” because “sport played a
powerful role in their group identity based on the superiority of heterosexuality, of machismo
demonstrated through athletic and sexual prowess, physical strength, drinking, and appropriate
verbal display” (p. 39).
Bibliography
Buchbinder, D. (2008). Performance anxieties: Re-producing masculinity. New South Wales,
Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Frieman, B. B., O’Hara, H., & Settel, J. (Fall 2006). What heterosexual teachers need to know
about homosexuality. Childhood Education, 73(1), 40.
Gilbert, R. & Gilbert, P. (2008).Masculinity goes to school. New York: Routeledge.
Griffin, P. (2008). From hiding out to coming out: Empowering lesbian and gay educators. In
Karen M. Harbeck (Ed.), Coming out of the classroom closet: Gay
and lesbian students, teachers, and curricula (pp.167-196). NY: Harrington Park
Press.
Imms, W. D. (2000).Multiple masculinities and the schooling of boys.Canadian Journal
of Education, 25(2), 152-165.
Khayatt, M. (2007).Lesbian teachers: An invisible presence. Albany, NY: State
University of New York.
Kissen, R. M. (2006). The last closet: The real lives of lesbian and gay teachers. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Lipkin, A. (2004). Understanding homosexuality, changing schools.Boulder, O:Westview
Press.
Mac an Ghaill, M. (Ed.). (2006). Understanding masculinities: Social relations and cultural
arenas. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Mathison, C. (2008). The invisible minority: Preparing teachers to meet the needs of gay
and lesbian youth. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(2), 151-156.
Rofes, E. E. (2004). Opening up the classroom closet. Harvard Educational
Review,59(4), 444-453.
Sampa, E.M., ( 2012 ). Steps in College Research Writing. Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp.
Publishing Corporation.
Sanlo, R. L. (2009). Unheard voices: The effects of silence on lesbian and gay educators.
Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
Sanelli, M. & Perreault, G. (2001, February). “I could be anybody”: Gay, lesbian, and
bisexual students in U.S. schools. NASSP Bulletin, 85(622), 69-78.
Taylor, H. E. (2000, March). Meeting the needs of lesbian and gay young adolescents
[middle schools].The Clearing House, 73(4), 221.
Thornton, S. J. (2003). Silence on gays and lesbians in social studies curriculum. Social
Education, 67(4), 226-230.
Walker J. (2000). Louts and legends: Male youth culture in an inner-city school.
Sydney:Allen & Unwin.
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LIVED-EXPERIENCES OF MALES WITH OFW SPOUSES IN

SELECTED BARANGAYS IN INFANTA, QUEZON,
PHILIPPINES
Teresita Dacillo Ruanto1

1
Northernn Quezon College, Inc.,Comon, Infanta, Quezon, Philippines
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
This study explored the experiences of males with overseas spouses. Specifically, it sought to
answer the following questions: 1) what are the significant experiences of males with OFW
spouses, 2) what meanings do males draw from their lived-experiences, 3) what joys and
challenges do males went through and how do they manage them while fulfilling their
responsibilities as single-household parents, 4) what are the implications of the study to the
school’s student services as an integral part of the educational process. This study is qualitative
using phenomenological approach. The criteria used by the researcher for selecting respondents
of the study are as follows: 1) they are husbands whose wives are working overseas, willing to
share their experiences and they were able to articulate their experiences. The methods used to
gather experiences was through story-telling and in-depth interviews. The researcher also used
an interview guide as a primary instrument to gather the narratives of the co-researchers. The
interview and story-telling were conducted in Tagalog then translated into English. The
researcher developed themes from the narratives: 1) great sense of responsibility, incapability
and self-blaming, comfort seeking, insecurity, emptiness, and shining moments. The findings
of the study were: the significant experiences of males with OFW spouses includes overwhelm
by great sense of responsibility as single-household parent and shining moments. The meanings
that males drew from their experiences signifies feeling of incapability and self-blaming,
feeling of emptiness, feeling of insecurity and comfort seeking. The joys that males went
through while fulfilling their responsibilities as single-household parent were when they
experienced attending graduation of their children, family gathering, building homes and
possession of material things that boost their lives. However, males faced the challenge of
being away from their wives while fulfilling their responsibilities as a single-household parent.
The researcher concluded that the overall experiences of males are negative for it make them
inadequate which often results to negative consequences that affect the wellness of the family
and therefore, it does harm to the family. The researcher developed an eidetic insight based
from the different themes. After exploring the experiences of males with OFW spouses, the
researcher captured the imagery of a light. A home without light is dark and gloomy. Anyone
inside that home will feel doubtful and startled. Whoever is inside will find ways to search for
brightness. The absence of wife in a home is likened to non-existence of light. Their absence
creates vacancy or empty space. The researcher concluded that the family should have an
adequate preparation of being away from family member, the community should provide
support system for the family of an OFW on issues like violence and concern of women and
children. The school should be committed to providing a range of support service to the needs
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of student’s life especially children of OFWs and should seek to contribute to overall student’s
experience as an integral part of the educational process. Educators should provide trainings to
OFW families who are facing the phenomenon of migration
Keywords:out-migration, migration, overseas worker, co-researcher, lived-experiences
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Migration of people is a relentless phenomenon. People have always spontaneously
migrated all throughout history to other countries in search of alternative life. This spontaneous
character of migration flows was altered by the impositions of colonial policies, which erected
borders where there used to be none, or created multi-ethnic societies when “foreign groups”
were recruited for specific purposes. Borders were once again redrawn at the time of
independence. The delineation of national borders, and subsequently the emergence of
migration and nationality policies defining the parameters of inclusion and exclusion, was part
of the national project of the new independent states (Battistella & Asis, 2003).
This has led to the downplaying of centuries of migrations, trade relations, free
movements, and various exchanges among peoples long before distinct nation-state came to be
(Ibid).
Kinds of Migration
For most people, the decision to migrate was voluntary. However, many people were forced to
migrate overseas against their will. Millions of Africans were forcefully uprooted from their
homes to be sold as slaves. Thousands of Europeans were sent into exile as criminals and
thousands of Asians and Pacific Islanders were kidnapped or tricked onto labour ships. People
of every class joined in these migrations, but most of those who left voluntarily were poor. The
poorest were unable to pay the cost of passage overseas, even in the open dormitories known as
steerage. Governments in Australia, Brazil, and other under populated territories subsidized the
immigration of European settlers, as did some railroad companies in the United States. The
European government and charities subsidized the departure of other poor people, but many
people had to travel on borrowed money. Some received funds from family and repaid this debt
when they could, others have to borrow from strangers, who imposed hard conditions to ensure
repayment. Many emigrating Chinese owed debts to private contractors whom they had to
repay from salaries they earned overseas. Two million emigrants (mostly from Asia) ventured
overseas under contracts of indenture that required them to work for several years in return for
passage to a new place.
Europeans were the most likely to migrate in family units. African migrations reflected
the proportions of the slave’s trade, about 50 women for every 100 men. But on virtually all
migration routes, single men predominated. Some migration steams were nearly all male, such
as the indentured Chinese migrations to Latin America and the men of many nationalities who
flocked to the gold rushes in California between 1848 and 1850, Australia between 1851 and
1898. However, once they established themselves overseas, many men sent for their wives or
fiancées. Others selected “picture brides” out of photographic albums of women eager to
emigrate. Traditional ideas made it harder for women to emigrate. However, by insisting that
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40 women must accompany every 100 men leaving India on indentured contracts for distant
lands, British regulators greatly increased the opportunities for women to make new lives for
themselves. Increasing the proportion of women also promoted family life among overseas
labourers.
African Migration
The world’s first large-scale overseas migration was the forced movement of Africans
into slavery in the Americas. Between 1750 and 1800 slavers took over 3.5 million people from
Africa to various destinations in South America, the Caribbean, North America. Even though
the United States, Britain, and some smaller European countries made the Atlantic slave trade
illegal for their citizens at the beginning of the 1800s, over 3 million additional Africans were
transported across the Atlantic between 1801 and 1867, mostly to Brazil and Cuba. Crowded
conditions and deaths were far worse on Atlantic slave voyages than on other migration routes.
British efforts to reduce crowding in the 1790s generally were not followed by other nations.
Even after some countries made the slave trade illegal, enslaved Africans continued to cross the
Atlantic in large numbers. Some slavers used faster ships to outrun patrols. Others divided
human cargoes among several small ships so that no patrol could capture them all. This latter
measure worsened overcrowding and sometimes increased mortality at sea. However, the fate
of the tens of thousands of Africans that British patrols rescued from slave ships rarely
included returning to their homes. Many of these liberated Africans had little choice but to sign
on as indentured labourers on plantations in the Caribbean basin after slavery ended. Thus,
little African emigration in this period was truly voluntary.
European Emigration
Voluntary European migration across the Atlantic soared as the African slave trade was
brought to an end. Of the 50 million people who left Europe between 1815 and 1930, more
than half went to the United States. Argentina, Brazil, and Canada also received numerous
European immigrants. Nearly half of the emigrants came from the British Isles and other parts
of Northern Europe. Another third were southern Europeans, while most of the rest came from
central and eastern Europe.
Europeans emigrate to escape calamities, such as the failure of the potato crop in
Ireland between 1845 and 1849, or to build better lives in lands where opportunities seemed
greater. Wars spurred others to leave, as did social problems caused by the concentration of
land ownership and by the spread of industrialization. As a result, even the passengers in
steerage had more spacious accommodations than non-European emigrants. European migrants
came from every social class. A few invested large sums of money in the growing
industrialization of the United States. Others of moderate means were able to buy land with
cheap price in places and opened them up for settlement. Immigrants were often able to
preserve their language, religion and other customs by concentrating their settlement in the
same parts of North America.
Asian Migration
Tens of millions of emigrants during this period were from East and South Asia. Asians
who left home were much more likely to be bound by labour contracts, to travel great
distances, and to work on plantations in tropical lands than Europeans were. The outward push
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of misery was also much greater in the more densely populated and impoverished lands of 19 th-
century India and China than in Europe. Asians faced frequent famines, political conflicts and
economic crises. These conditions led to a great deal of internal population movement,
including much migration from rural areas to port cities. Only a fraction of the afflicted people
went overseas, although the number of those who did was quite significant. The largest number
of Indians who went overseas went to locations in and around the Indian Ocean. They went to
sugar plantations on the southern African islands of Mauritius and in the British colony of
Natal, to tea plantations in Ceylon (presently Sri Lanka), to rice plantations in Burma, to
Malaya and as railroad builders in British East Africa. These shorter migrations were often by
steamships. But more than 600,000 Indians went on much longer voyages on sailing vessels to
work on sugar plantations of various European colonies in the Caribbean basin and to British
Fiji in the South Pacific.
Some historians distinguish between labour migrants – mostly Asians – who went
abroad only to work for a term and settlers – mostly Europeans – who end up remaining abroad
permanently. However, the actual circumstances of migrants live often make such a distinction
difficult. For instance, most Africans became settlers after slavery ended. Many Asians who
left home with the intention of staying abroad only long enough to save up money to return
home also eventually settled permanently overseas (Northrup, 2009).
Top Ten Migration Corridors: East Asia and the Pacific
1. China–Hong Kong SAR
2. China–the United States
3. The Philippines–the United States
4. Indonesia–Malaysia
5. Vietnam–the United States
6. Malaysia–Singapore
7. China–Japan
8. The Philippines–Saudi Arabia
9. China–Canada
10. China–Singapore
Source: Migration and Remittances Fact Book 2011, World Bank
Martin and Zurcher (2008) point out that perspective on the rising number of migrants
can be framed by two extremes. At one extreme, organizations ranging from the Catholic
Church to the World Bank have called for more migration, arguing that people should not be
confined to their country of birth by national borders and that more migration would speed
economic growth and development in both sending and receiving countries. At the other
extreme, in virtually every industrialized country, organizations are demanding sharp
reductions in immigration. (Migration in Perspective section, 5-6).
Most countries discouraged immigration- they do not welcome the arrival of foreigners
who wish to settle and become naturalized citizens. Some also discourage emigration. This was
the situation in communist nations as symbolized by the Berlin Wall, which was used to deter
crossing from East to West Germany between 1961 and 1989. Today, North Korea continues to
prevent its citizens from leaving the country.
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At the other extreme, in virtually every industrialized country, organizations are

demanding sharp reductions in immigration. In the United States, the Federation for American
Reform (FAIR) argues that unskilled newcomers hurt low-skilled U.S. workers, have negative
environmental effects, and threaten established U.S. cultural values. Political parties in many
European countries have called for reducing immigration at one time or another. For example,
during the 1995 French presidential campaign, the National Front in France proposed removing
up to 3 million non-Europeans from France in order to reduce the number of Muslim residents
(Martin & Zurcher, 2008).
The first step towards making migration manageable is to understand why people
migrate. Most people do not want to cross national borders, and even though the number of
migrants is at an all-time-high, international migration is still low relative to the 97 percent of
the world’s residents who did not migrate. Furthermore, economic growth can turn emigration
nations into destinations for migrants, as it did for Ireland, Italy, and Korea. The challenge is to
manage migration by reducing the differences that encourage people to cross borders, while
taking into account how investment and remittances can aid economic development and reduce
migration pressures in the countries that migrants leave (Martin & Zurcher, 2008).
Literature review
This chapter presents reviewed literature and studies. Varied reviewed and explored
sources were categorized in Geographical form: Foreign Literature and Local Literature and
Foreign Studies and Local Studies which were substantially represented as reflected in the
bibliography.
Foreign Literature
Humans have migrated since they evolved in east Africa 6 to 2 million years ago. Their
original differentiation into ethnic groups appears to have been a result of isolated development
of separate groups of people who migrated from the central points of origin. Even in the Stone
Age, however, this isolation was not complete, for migrations resulted in a complicated pattern
of blood relationships through widely separated groups. Subsequently, great ancient migrations
included the spread of the Indo-European family of languages (Roman, Baltic Greek).
According to a prevalent hypothesis, a large group of Indo-Europeans migrated from east-
central Europe eastward toward the region of the Caspian Sea before 3000 B.C. Beginning
shortly after 2000 B.C., the Indo-European people known as the Hittites crossed into Asia
Minor from Europe through the Bosporus region, and at about the same time, the bulk of the
Indo-Europeans in the Caspian Sea area turned southward. The ancestors of the Hindus went
south eastward into Punjab, in north western India, and along the banks of the Indus and
Ganges rivers. The Kassites (a tribe who occupied Babylon after it fell to the Hittites in 1595
B.C.) went into the south into Babylonia; the Mitanni of northern Mesopotamia went south
westward into the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the other parts of the region
between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea known as the Fertile Crescent (Encarta
2009).
A migration of great diversity to western civilization was the invasion of Canaan (later
known as Palestine) by the tribes of the Hebrew confederacy, which developed the ideas on
which the Jewish, Christians and the Islamic religions are founded. From 15th to the 10th
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century B.C., these nomadic Semitic tribes from Arabian Peninsula and the deserts southeast of
the Jordan River moved into a settlement region that was alternately under the control of Egypt
and Babylonia (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2009).
Until around 1700, the great majority of immigrants to the British American Colonies
were English, Welsh or Scottish. Thereafter, as British government discouraged voluntary
emigration, the ethnic composition of the population changed as groups and numbers of
Germans, Swiss, French, Dutch Swedish and above all, Ulster Scotch-Irish migrants arrived.
Britain continued to transport involuntary emigrants to the American colonies, including
around 200,000 slaves from Africa and 30,000 British convicted felons. As ethnic groups
tended to settle in particular areas and outside towns, there was comparatively little
intermingling between them, the population of late colonial America very much resembled a
mosaic (Overy, 2010).
In the 19th century following independence, immigration was on a comparatively small
scale. But after the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, more Europeans started to immigrate to the
United States thereby, beginning a mass migration that last for more than a century (World
History. Times Books; 2010).
Large-scale migration progress after 1945 drew millions of Australians from Europe,
more than half from countries other than Britain notably Italy and Greece. Since the
dismantling of the white Australian policy in 1974 (which had been in place for over a century)
several hundred thousand immigrants have arrived from Asia. A new consciousness has
emerged among the indigenous people. Land rights and compensation for the “stolen
generation” of aboriginal children forcibly taken from their parents before the early 1970s are
key political issues. These questions will almost certainly be resolved equitably in politics that
still provide themselves on being advanced social democracies where citizens can count on a
“fair go” (www.collins.co.uk.on).
Local Literature
With land reform failing to take off and export-oriented growth lacking dynamism, a
third Marcos program was initiated in mid-1970. The program became critical in addressing the
problems of unemployment and generating income for a rapidly expanding population. A
labour-export policy was implemented by Marcos to address the problems of unemployment
and the balance-of payments position.
What was initially conceived as temporary relief, however, became a permanent
institution that was upheld by the administrations that succeeded the dictatorship. This was
because it had become so central to the survival of millions of Filipinos amidst generalized
economic stagnation. Almost 6.3 million Filipinos have been deployed for overseas jobs from
1984 to 1995. According to Jorge Tigno, the total number of Filipino overseas is estimated at
roughly 6.5 million, a figure that comprises almost 10% of the country’s total population. It is
estimated that Filipino overseas migrant workers are approximately equivalent to as much as
15 percent of the Philippines’ 26 million labour force. In Metro Manila, out of every three
households has a member who was abroad.
In economic terms, the impact of labour export was massive. Recorded remittances of
overseas workers rose from $103,000 million in 1985 to 4.88 billion in 1995. By 2000,
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workers’ remittances reached $6.9 billion, an increase attributable to the rise in the number of
higher-paid workers such as caregivers, engineers and performing artists in an area formerly
dominated by lower-skilled workers such as domestics and seamen. An International Labour
Organization study in fact claimed that remittances could come to more than 20 percent of
export earnings, and as much as 4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). What overseas
employment amounted to then was politically an absorber of energies that might otherwise
have gone into radical or revolutionary solution and, in return an external employment
mechanism in the absence of development. In fact, the economic function of labour-export
went beyond employment: remittances from overseas workers became the key factor in
propping up the peso after Asian financial crisis (Bello, 2009).
The country has a long and rich history of emigration spanning all of the 20th century
and continuing on to the present. Colonial links to the United States created the first
opportunities for labour migration even on small quotas for farm workers in Hawaii and
California plantations. Larger migration followed, first by engineers and technicians for
American bases in the Pacific after World War II and by doctors and nurses in the 1960’s
following the liberalization of the US immigration law in 1965. The law allows for
immigration of workers to fill occupations in excess demands and most importantly of close
relatives of the early migrants under its provision for family reunification. The Middle East
labour market opened in the mid-1970’s attracting thousands of Filipinos to work there. In the
late 1980’s, the high performing economies of East Asia became a major destination as their
labour market tightened with some reaching full employment. Subsequently, employment
opportunities were found in other destinations though in much smaller scale so much so that at
present, Filipinos are reported to be in some 190 destinations. Canada, Australia and New
Zealand have also become important places of permanent settlement since the 1980’s.
Additionally, international shipping has been an old steady and important employer of Filipino
crewmen.
The Philippines deployed barbers, artists, contract personnel, and musicians to its Asian
neighbours from 1950’s and 1960’s. They worked in the logging camps of Indonesian Borneo
and became construction workers in Vietnam, Thailand, and Guam during the Indo-Chinese
Wars. The 70’s through the 80’s saw the hiring of Filipino engineers and technicians in Iraq,
Iran and Saudi Arabia and other countries in the Middle East. From 1984 to 1989, Saudi Arabia
alone absorbed more than one million workers.
About 6 to 7.5 million Filipinos are working abroad. There are 36 million families
affected by migration trends. This is half of the total population of the Philippines. In other
words, at least a third of the total population will have a mother, a sister, an aunt, a daughter, or
a son working abroad. Actual statistics of registered Overseas Employment Administration
show a total of 831,643 in 1998; 837,020 in 1999; 841,628 in 2001; and 866,590 in 2001 (The
Economist, 2001).
The profile of the Filipino overseas workers changed over the years. In the 70’s the
overseas market opens its doors to blue-collar jobs because construction workers were in
demand. In the 80’s, the trend shifted to professional, technical and service workers like nurses,
hotel personnel, and other clerk. Meanwhile, the demand for Filipino seafarers continued to
grow. To this day, Filipinos figure prominently in manning international fleets (http//www.
Filipiniana.net/publication).
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Remittances from overseas work help migrant families, even extended families, survive
the Philippine crisis or even improve their lives and afford better food, send their children to
school, buy educational plans, buy or improve houses, seek better health care and even private
hospitalizations, buy health insurance, and enjoy rest and recreation (www. pinoy-abroad.net)
Philippine Migration Situation 2005).
Today, one of every 10 Filipinos is overseas, mostly migrant workers, including the
non-documented. One out of ten Filipinos is dependent in some way on the earnings of a
migrant worker, relative or kin. And nearly every Filipino has been touched or affected by the
fact that the Philippines are a global nation (www.pinoy-abroad.net).
Foreign Studies
Husband abuse has been and continues to be a topic of controversy within the field of
family violence although arguments persist over methodology prevalence, and ideology. This
study analyses the narratives of 12 men who claimed to have been abused by their partners and
compares their stories to the narratives and findings of past studies of wife abuse. In so doing,
this study identifies that the accounts of the relationships of battered men and women follow
similar patterns, including the structure of relationships, the acceptance of the abuse and the
socialist context of the situation. This reinforces the findings of wife abuse research showing
that abusive relationships display certain commonalities and reveals the necessity of future
studies of battered males (Miglaccio & Todd, 2002).
In the study of Rashid (2004), immigration is a complex journey that brings loss,
disappointments, and dissatisfactions in life. The losses are multiple and concomitant. They
include the loss of self and one’s identity, the loss of family, culture, traditions, and a way of
life. This research introduced the compound stressors that immigrant women experience in
their day to day lives. The predominant stressor that surfaced was severe loneliness. In addition
to loneliness, immigrant women encountered many other challenges (Rashid, 2004).
In the study of MacPatherson (2006), migration across health and disease disparities
influences the epidemiology of certain diseases globally and in nations receiving migrants.
While specific disease-based outcomes may vary between migrant group and location, general
epidemiological principles may be applied to any situation where numbers of individuals move
between differences in disease prevalence. Traditionally, migration health activities have been
designed for national application and lack an integrated international perspective. Present and
future health challenges related to migration may be more effectively addressed through
collaborative global undertakings.
Local Studies
The McCann Youth Study (1985) confirms what observers say about a Filipino family
being stressed when one or both spouses work abroad.
In the study of Morada (2001), he found out that households where the spouse is an
OFW are better off in terms of certain socio-demographic measures such as education, number
of sons and daughters and even elderly members. He also established that where the local
resident head is not economically active, the latter would most probably be attending to the
needs of the younger members of the households or is addressing the concerns of the
households. This is true whether or not the resident head is a male or a female.
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In the same year, Asis (2001) reported that three quarters of marital relationships
remained unchanged, with some even improving.
The Economist (2001) pointed out that it is hard to find “amah” (domestic helper)
whose husbands at home have not taken a mistress or fathered other children.
According to Aguilar (2002), some studies indicate that marital deterioration is linked
to migration of the partner.
Gresham described in his study that the Filipino migration is characterized by taking up
positions abroad that conform to gender roles, while the non-migrating household member
takes over the duties of the absent migrant. When those duties do not conform to one’s gender,
one is less likely to perform the duty. In the case of the migrating mother, the father, who is
“traditionally” seen as the breadwinner, but not as the primary parent, is put into a position
wherein he earns less than his wife and is expected to care of the children. However, men are
considered less capable of raising children despite communications, and advanced technology
that make dual parenting still possible from abroad. Fathers should not be seen as the only
parent in this situation. The stigmatization than men experienced as a result of their wife’s
migration has a serious effect on their feelings of masculinity and as further exacerbated by the
“new heroes” a national script put forward by the government which praises the migrants as
saving the nation while ignoring the equal (or greater) labour carried out in their absence. This
thesis, built upon fieldwork conducted in Cebu City disputes the widespread reputation of men
as incapable fathers who rely entirely upon their wife’s remittances and advocates calling more
attention to the gender-and vocation-biased praise of the New Heroes propaganda.
According to Suarez, a rise in the number of overseas Filipino workers resulting in
family break up increased in single-headed household, unsupervised children, emergence of
new family structures and systems and challenges to traditional family values.
At the rate of 30 percent, the Filipino family overseas workers became the major
economic activity of the Philippines. The OFW overseas remittances was the main reason why
the country is still surviving and even thriving in terms of economic growth according to the
Central Bank of the Philippines. The 2003 Children and Family Study cited that parental
absence creates displacements, disruptions and changes in care giving arrangements. The
children long for the presence of the migrant parent(s) especially when the mothers are away.
The study also suggests that children are attended by other female relatives and/or the fathers
when it is the women who leave.
Definition and concepts of the study

Co- researchers - refers to the ten (10) male co-researchers who served as the source
of data for the study.
Lived-experiences- refers to significant experiences of males from the time their wives
worked overseas which changed their life situations, roles, view of life, and
the way they relate with others.
Overseas Filipino Worker- refers to all Filipinos living and working abroad. This includes
temporary overseas workers, irregular/undocumented workers
OFW spouses- refers to wives and husbands who work in foreign countries
Male - represents the co-researchers as spouse of OFW even if they are not married
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Asis, M.B. (2001). Caring for the world: Filipino domestic workers gone global.
Battistela, G. & Asis, M.M.B. (Eds.). (2003). Unauthorized migration in Southeast Asia.
Quezon City, Philippines: Scalabrini Migration Center.
Bello, W., De Guzman, M., Docena, H. & Malig, M. (2009). The political economy of
permanent crisis in the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: Anvil.
Bustos, A.S. & Esiritu, S. C. (1996). Psychological, anthropological, and sociological
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MAPPING PRIVITY OF E-COMMERCE CONSUMER

CONTRACTS FOR SALE OF GOODS
Ong Tze Chin1*, Ow Yong Mun Geet2 & Ong Tze San3
1,2
Faculty of Business, Communication & Law
INTI International University
3
Faculty of Economics & Management
University Putra Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
E-commerce has change conventional sale of goods through global access in online
marketplace. The borderless online marketplace provides a worldwide platform for sale of
goods to consumers. A new group of tech-savvy consumers, also known as e-consumers
emerge and growing rapidly over the years for cheaper, easy access, convenient, more
varieties, quality of goods in e-commerce. E-commerce transactions on sale of goods involve
many parties, among others, the platform provider, the seller (either manufacturer,
intermediary, wholesaler or retailer), the internet provider, the financial service provider that
provides the transfer of money using data, the website, the logistics provider, the shipping
company, the delivering company and the consumers as buyer at the end of the transaction. In
some circumstances, consumers can even be the seller in e-commerce. The parties to the e-
commerce contract is essential to determine the rights and liabilities of the contracting parties,
which raise the issue of privity of contract and other related issues on contract law. The nature
and the complexity of e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods trigger many legal
issues; form the beginning of forming of the contract to the conclusion of the contract. This
paper focusing on the issue arising on the contractual rights and obligations of the e-commerce
contract for sale of goods. Pure doctrinal legal research by employing content analysis method,
this paper aims to draw connection among the parties direct and indirectly involved it the
contract. This paper also seeks to identify and analyses the relationship of various parties
involved in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. To examine and review the
relationship of the parties in e-commerce sale of goods contract with regard to their rights and
liabilities involved, with the aim to ascertain its’ coherent with the privity of contract doctrine.
Keywords: E-commerce, consumer, sale of goods, contract, privity.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
E-commerce describe by World Trade Organisation (WTO) as internet and other network-
based commerce through six main instruments of electronic commerce, namely: the telephone,
the fax, television, electronic payment and money transfer systems, Electronic Data
Interchange and the internet (Bacchetta, Marc et al, 1998). On the other hand, European Union
(EU) define e-commerce as “any business transaction concerning goods and services, where
participants are not in the same physical location and communicate through electronic means.”
(Lodder, A., & Kaspersen, H., 2002). The wide definition of e-commerce derived from many
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sources, depending on the different concept and perspective of its users (Molla, A., & Licker,
P.S., 2001). According to Cheeseman, e-commerce is the sale and lease of goods and services
and property and the licensing of software over the internet or by other electronic means
(Cheeseman, 2011). For businesses, e-commerce often views as doing business electronically
or it is among others one of the business model. Besides, providing sale of goods or services
through internet, doing business electronically also includes licensing software through internet
for the use of the techno-savvy consumers. For consumers, it is on-line shopping and payment
made by transfer of money through internet. E-commerce also refers as the transaction of
goods and services through internet. ASEAN refers e-commerce as cross-broader e-commerce
transactions or electronic trade on ASEAN Agreement on Electronic Commerce signed by
ASEAN Economic Ministers on 12th November 2018 (https://asean.org/asean-economic-
community/sectoral-bodies-under-the-purview-of-aem/e-commerce/).
E-commerce has become one of the major player in consumers’ economic worldwide, with
the advancement of information and communication technology, a generation of techno-savvy
consumers, also known as e-consumers, emerge contributing to the e-commerce growth every
day. According to Statista, an anticipated 1.8 billion e-consumers worldwide purchase goods
online in 2018 (https://www.statista.com/topics/871/online-shopping/). The same year, global
e-retail sales achieve 2.8 trillion US dollars (https://www.statista.com/topics/871/online-
shopping/). For the growing and developing ASEAN, based on the research conducted by
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, there is more than 50% of ASEAN’s population under 30
years old whose have greater affinity for technology and internet based transaction
(https://www.iseas.edu.sg/research/ssrtg, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2018). The rise
of the middle class young population further increase the growth of ASEAN e-consumers,
contributing to the growth of e-commerce in the region. With the recent ASEAN members
signing the ASEAN Agreement on Electronic Commerce clearly indicated that the
commitment of ASEAN in the growth of the e-commerce market.
The fast growing e-commerce has change the business transaction from physically going to
a traditional retail store to purchase goods to shopping online. E-consumers are contented to the
convenient and easy access of e-commerce as consumers can buy anything at anytime from
anywhere without physically going to the store (Naemah Amin & Roshazlizawati Mohd Nor,
2011). The transaction of selling and buying completed at the fingertips with the help of the
internet has become a part of the modern life style. The concept of bringing stores to shoppers
as compare to shoppers to the stores (Parsons, 2002) has well received and adapted by e-
consumers. The transaction of e-commerce, form the beginning of its formation to the
completion of the transaction online has change the traditional contract of sale. The traditional
legal theories that governs the elements of contract of sale were challenged and forced to adapt
to provide an appropriate explanation to the e-commerce environment. Many legal issues
remain unanswered and unable to provide an appropriate discourse to the e-commerce
environment. This is because there is no clear applicable laws in governing e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods, particularly, among the developing ASEAN countries.
The commitment of ASEAN member states in signing the ASEAN Agreement on Electronic
Commerce is one of the efforts in developing a conducive regulatory environment for e-
commerce to flourish. At the same time, maintain and adopt as soon as practicable, laws and
regulations governing electronic transactions taking into account applicable international
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conventions or model laws relating to e-commerce (https://asean.org/asean-economic-

community/sectoral-bodies-under-the-purview-of-aem/e-commerce/).
This paper focus on the issues arising out of privity of contract in consumer contracts of e-
commerce. This paper aims to identify the parties involved in the complicated and intertwined
rights and liabilities of the parties in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. For the
context of this paper, the parties involved would be the commercial party of e-commerce at one
side and on the other side is the consumer. The discussion mainly concentrate on e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods, which is the contract of e-commerce business to
consumers (B2C e-commerce). The commercial e-commerce contract that involved two
commercial parties at both side (B2B e-commerce) is not the focus of this paper.
Literature Review
The laws governing e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods are a complex area,
among others, the governing laws include contract law, the law on sale of goods, consumer
protection law and the laws on e-commerce. Contract law is a private law which governing
contractual relationship between individuals. Contracts entered into by parties are based on
mutual consent and voluntariness of the parties in the private law domain. The doctrine of
freedom of contract have long been rooted in the contract. According to Atiyah (1999) the rise
of the prominence of freedom of contract, which based on the liberalism of freedom of choice
have gradually decline in many directions.
Government involvement through regulation has replaced free contract as paternalism
interference in balancing the unequal bargaining power of the parties in contract. The market
economy that is nominate by the monopoly and oligopoly structure of business have triggered
the government involvement in regulating various contracts, in particular consumer contracts
for sale of goods. The law of sale of goods is one of the legislative interference in governing
contract of sale of goods departure from the doctrine of caveat-emptor to ensure quality and
fitness of the goods in the market (Atiyah et al, 2010). Caveat-emptor emphasized on the
notion of ‘let the buyer beware’ has place the burden in the buyer to examine the quality and
fitness of the goods prior to the completion of the contract originated from common law
doctrine (Atiyah, 2010). Common law doctrine is the major source of the contract law based on
the judicial precedent of the English courts derives from the laissez-faire principles of
economics. The origins of common law is much more ancient as early as 1180, largely
concerned with serious crime and land tenure (Furmston, 2012). The concept of contract law
and its associated body of legal doctrine only developed around mediaeval period and become
prominence in early sixteen century (Stone, 2008).
The abandonment of the doctrine of caveat-emptor to caveat-venditor emphasis on the
notion of ‘let the seller beware’ to provide protection to the weaker party in the sale of goods
contract, which is the buyer. The law on sale of goods impose implied terms on the sale of
goods contract with the aim of balancing the imbalance of bargaining powers in the sale
contract. The law of sale of goods remain a private law governing the jurisdiction of the
particular applicable law in the country. The law of sale of goods different from jurisdiction to
another jurisdiction depends of the emphasis of the particular government. In United Kingdom
(UK) the law on sale of goods have several sources, the most important legislation is the Sale
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of Goods Act 1979 and subsequently amended by the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994, the
Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994 and the Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1995. In
United States of America (US) a uniform commercial law have developed governing contract
in US jurisdiction, which is the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). UCC create the uniform
commercial law in 50 states in US including the District of Colombia. UCC provisions override
the common law of contracts and provide a uniformity of commercial law in contracts for sale
of goods (Cheeseman, 2011).
In the global arena, a uniform international sales law was established, the United Nation
Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods (CISG) governing the contract of
international sale of goods. Although, CISG does not apply to of goods bought for personal,
family or household use, unless the seller, at any time before or at the conclusion of the
contract, neither knew nor ought to have known that the goods were bought for any such use
(Article 2 of the United Nation Convention on Contracts for International Sale of Goods).
CISG is discuss here in order to provide some basic understanding of the law governing sale of
goods contracts. The law of sale of goods provided in Part III of the CISG. Article 35 provides
that the seller have the obligation to deliver goods, which are of the quantity, quality and
description required by the contract and which are contained or packaged in the manner
required by the contract (United Nation Convention on Contracts for International Sale of
Goods, 2010). The requirements of the goods to be conforming to the contract under CISG that
the goods must satisfied the requirements below:
a. are fit for the purposes for which goods of the same description would ordinarily be used;
b. are fit for any particular purpose expressly or impliedly made known to the seller at the
time of the conclusion of the contract, except where the circumstances show that the buyer
did not rely, or that it was unreasonable for him to rely, on the seller’s skill and judgement;
c. possess the qualities of goods which the seller has held out to the buyer as a sample or
model;
d. are contained or packaged in the manner usual for such goods or, where there is no such
manner, in a manner adequate to preserve and protect the goods.
On the other hand, with the recognition of the importance of consumer protection law in
equalizing the differences between traders and the consumers began the legislative intervention
of providing consumer protection globally. United Nations Guidelines on Consumer Protection
(UNGCP) is among others one of the global initiative in promoting and upholding consumer
protection. UNGCP were original adopted by United Nations (UN) in 1985, after years of
campaigning by consumer association in many countries through Consumer International. In
1999, through the UN resolution E/1999/INF/2/Add.2, UNGCP were later expended by the
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to further strengthen consumer protection law and
policy globally. Recently, in December 2015 UNGCP were again revised by the UN General
Assembly in resolution 70/186 to address the challenges of the disparity of economic and
market force in provide protection to consumers
(https://www.consumersinternational.org/what-we-do/consumer-protection/global-policy-
cooperation/un-guidelines-for-consumer-protection/). To further promote and enhance
consumer protection worldwide, The UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTED)
were held in October 2016. UNGCP adopted a set of principles for guiding the effective
consumer protection legislation, enforcement institutions and redress systems. UNGCP further
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assist UN Member States with diverse economic, social, and environmental circumstances in
formulating and enforcing consumer protection through regional laws, rules and regulations. It
is also the aim of UNGCP in promoting international enforcement cooperation among Member
States and encouraging the sharing of experiences in consumer protection (Preface
UNCTAD/DITC/CPLP/MISC/2016/1).
Consumer protection law is more than just a private law governing businesses and
consumers. It is a global effort in ensuring and encouraging the equal distribution of wealth in
the civil society. However, many countries remain passive in adopting and implementing
consumer protection law due to the pressure by various industries and businesses. Industries
and businesses which driven by profit maximization are the main source of the country’s
economic growth. Therefore, governments of many countries still facing the challenges is
balancing the interest of their civil society and the economic growth. E-commence is an up-
and-coming industry with many potentials that are capable in driving economic growth and
wealth generating. In light of the benefits that e-commerce generates, many governments of the
countries chose to ignore the core concept of consumer protection and the right of their civil
society. Besides that, e-commerce is a new industry in 21st century that is too new to be
capable of governing by effective laws and regulations. Further, with the nature of the internet
and the web with no boundaries and no limitations, which are very difficult and unendurable in
governing by laws and regulations.
The law relating to e-commerce was first produced in 24th April 1996 in the United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic
Commerce with Guide to Enactment. UNCITRAL Model Law was later amended in 1998 with
the aim to serve as a guideline for countries in formulating legislation to facilitate electronic
commerce. The purpose of the UNCITRAL Model Law is to facilitate electronic commerce by
providing equal treatment to paper-based and electronic information with no intention in
governing electronic contracting (Sheela & Rahmah Ismail, 2017). The UNCITRAL Model
Law serves as a guideline for the countries in formulating rules and basic structure to
recognized electronic contract in the relevant articles as follows:
a. Article 11 - Validity and formation of the contract
b. Article 12 - Recognition by parties of data messages
c. Article 13 - Attribution of data messages
d. Article 14 - Acknowledgement of receipt
e. Article 15 - Time and place of dispatch and receipt of data messages
Part II of the UNCITRAL Model Law provides for the electronic commerce in specific areas,
in particular, contract of carriage of goods. Article 16 of the UNCITRAL Model Law provides
for the recognition in furnishing the marks, number, quantity or weight of goods; stating or
declaring the nature or value of goods; issuing a receipt for goods; confirming that goods have
been loaded. The recognition of notifying a person of terms and conditions of the contract and
giving instructions to a carrier through electronic means. The recognition of e-commerce in
claiming delivery of goods; authorizing release of goods; giving notice of loss of, or damage to,
goods make the e-commerce contract possible in delivery and through carriage without
considering the other issues that might be arising from the contract law. Article 16 of the
UNCITRAL Model Law mainly make the formation of contract of carriage of goods through
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electronic means recognize in performing the dispatch, delivery and transfer of ownership of
the goods. The other issues in regarding the consumer contracts for sale of goods, in particular,
consumer protection in e-commerce were not address in the UNCITRAL Model Law.
Besides the governing laws on and international standard guidelines on the e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods, there are many external factors affecting the vulnerability
of consumer protection in e-commerce. The external factors such as lack of appropriate
information regarding the e-retailer, the lack of information about the product and sale process,
lack of information about the terms of the e-commerce consumer sale of goods contract
(Svantesson & Clarke, 2010). Further, there are also external factors in regards to cyberspace,
for example the security of information in cyber space, privacy issues on the cyber space, the
unauthorized access to consumers data and other IT related information (Naemah Amin &
Roshazlizawati Mohd Nor, 2013). The behaviors and the attitudes of e-commerce industry that
does not uphold the sanctity of contract are among others the external factors that affected
consumer protection in e-commerce contracts for sale of goods. The nature of the e-commerce
contracts and the nature of cyber space resulted lack of enforcement and lack of effective
governing laws are also the external factors that auxiliary deteriorate consumer protection in
the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. Others external factors include lack of
awareness on consumer protection, consumers’ economic, the extend of government
intervention, cross-border issues, a fair and realistic dispute resolution structure between e-
commerce and consumers, adequate remedies provided under the e-commerce consumer
contracts for sale of goods, product liability, product safety and many others.
The theoretical framework of the literature review in regarding to the e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods is illustrated in Diagram 1 below:
Diagram 1: Theoretical Framework of E-commerce Contracts for Consumer Sale of Goods

Realising the complexity of the laws governing e-commerce consumer contracts for
sale of goods, this paper seeks to make emphasis on the issue arising out of the doctrine of
privity of contract. This paper is tasked to identify the relationship and privity of the various
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parties involved in the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods by mapping the prvity
of e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods.
Methodology
The methodology adopted in this paper is based on doctrinal or pure legal research, which is a
content analysis based research paper in order to fulfill the objective of mapping privity of e-
commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. The paper concentrate on the legal issues
involved, particularly, the rights and liabilities of the parties involved in e-commerce consumer
contracts for sale of goods. In order to identify and analyse e-commerce consumer contracts for
sale of goods, legal theories and principles are explain and analyse to achieve the objective. All
relevant laws in governing e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods are examined to
explore the legal issue of privity of e-commerce consumer contracts in order to identify the
rights and liabilities of parties involved in e-commerce. The distinct and autonomous nature of
law as a discipline possesses its own unique legal analysis. The doctrinal exposition and
commentary provide authoritative statements of the meaning and scope of applicable
substantive legal tests and requirements for the topic discuss in this paper (Salter & Mason,
2007).
In order to examine and analyse the laws governing the e-commerce consumer contracts for
sale of goods, content analysis employed for analysing systematically the content of the legal
documents (Chatterjee, 2000). To identify the characteristics of the laws involved, content
analysis served to fulfill the objective in analysing the qualitative aspect of the e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods.
The approaches employed in this paper are descriptive, explanatory, analytical and critical. To
seek to ascertain the legal issues involved in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods,
descriptive approach employed to explain the doctrine of privity of contract in e-commerce
environment. Besides that, an explanatory approach is used to explain the e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods and why and how significant privity of contract in
identify the rights and liabilities of the parties involved in e-commerce consumer contracts for
sale of goods. To further examine and evaluate the rights and liabilities of the parties involved
in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods, analytical approach is used to draw
inferences from the understanding and explanation of the legal theories involved. The paper
also employed critical analysis approach to make judgments and form opinion to the
inadequacies and drawbacks of the laws in governing e-commerce consumer contracts for sale
of goods in a rational basis. Analytical and critical approaches were also engaged in forming
conclusion to achieve the objective in mapping privity of e-commerce consumer contracts for
sale of goods.
Discussion
The doctrine of privity of contract originated from the middle of nineteenth century common
law judicial decision that non-party of the contract cannot bring an action on the contract
(Furmston, 2012). In the decisive case of Tweddle v Atkinson (1861), Wightman J based his
judgement on the basis that no one can sue or be sued on the contract who has not provided
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consideration under the contract (Turner, 2013). English common law acknowledge that
consideration must move from the promise upholding the contract and bargain concept. The
doctrine of privity of contract is based on the doctrine of consideration that party who does not
provide consideration in the contract cannot be burden by the contractual obligations of a
contract. Similarly, as Wightman J point out in his judgement that “…it is now established that
no stranger to the consideration can take advantage of a contract, although made for his
benefit.” The doctrine of privity was further reiterated in the House of Lords judgement of the
case of Dunlop v Selfridge (1915).
On the perspective of liberalism, Collins (2003) stressed that it would be a serious
invasion of the liberty of the individual, if the parties to a contract agreed that a third person
should run the marathon. The doctrine of privity raise many problems in the modern
commercial transactions, which involved more than two parties in the contract. Adams and
Brownsword (1990) gave example of multi-linked contracts that regarded as ‘networks’ in
construction contracts which would made the doctrine of privity redundant and inappropriate in
application. Besides construction contracts, there are many contracts that involved multiple
parties such as the contracts for the carriage of goods and credit and financing arrangements.
Many arguments surrounding the issues of appropriateness of the doctrine of privity, in 1991
UK Law Commission produced a Consultative Paper which resulted the enactment of the
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 in UK (Law Commission’s Report on Privity of
Contract (No. 242). However, the 1999 Act does not abolish the doctrine of privity but merely
provides a large exception to the doctrine of privity (Furmston, 2012). Besides, many countries
without the legislature intervention still apply the doctrine of privity extensively in contracts.
In the context of the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods, the doctrine of
privity continue to play a part in the contracts. In the e-commerce consumers’ sale of goods
contract, the parties involved in the sales’ contract identify by way of seller as e-retailer and
buyer as consumer, hence the doctrine of privity remain appropriate. Moreover, the lack of
legislative intervention, the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods persist to be a
private law contract issue despite the nature of e-commerce that is borderless. Although e-
commerce is of current and fashionable phenomena, affecting the traditional contracts for sale
of goods, the UK House of Commons Select Committee on Trade and Industry warned the
policy maker not to be carried away by the hyperbola and exaggeration of the development of
the e-commerce (UK House of Commons Select Committee on Trade and Industry, Tenth
Report). Atiyah (2010) of the opinion that e-commerce that involve distribution of goods
dependent on the existing delivery system is equate to the traditional mail order. Therefore, it is
of significant that this paper seek to identify the doctrine of privity in the e-commerce
consumer contracts for sale of goods by mapping of the chain of distribution of goods in a
diagrammed form.
The traditional chain of distribution of goods explain through doctrine of privity by
Legh-Johes (1969) as:
“…the manufactured product descends down the chain of distribution from the maker
through various middlemen (wholeselers, distributors, etc) to the retailer who sells to
the public; ‘vertical privity’ is the privity which each of these persons has with his
predecessor and successor in the chain. ‘Horizontal privity’ is the ensuring privity of
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contract between the retailer and the first domestic consumer who buys from him, and
then between that consumer and any sub-consumer, if such there be.”
The doctrine of privity in the context of traditional sales of goods contract in the chain of
distribution of goods as demonstrated in Diagram 2 below by Legh-Johes (1969):
Diagram 2: Chain of Privity

Source: Legh-Jones (1969)
Findings
The doctrine of privity in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods differ as the
traditional doctrine of privity. As illustrated by Diagram 3 below, the chain of distribution of
goods in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods change significantly. The initial
stages of horizontal privity has not been affected, however with the e-commerce platform that
replace the middleman, there appear that more parties have been involve in the distribution
chain. The parties include the e-commerce platform, the internet provider, the data center
provider, the shipping companies either by air or by sea shipping and the delivery services.
This paper exclude the credit providers and the financial institutions because the other issues of
consumer credit were involved, which is outside the scope of this paper. The vertical privity of
the consumer contracts for sale of goods experience change tremendously with increase
number of parties and the privity were intertwined within many parties. Consequently, the
traditional laws governing contract for consumers’ sale of goods, which upheld the sanctity of
contract are not able to provide any protection to consumer. The finding of this paper clearly
indicate that the need for a comprehensive integrate consumer protection law in various area
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globally to govern the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. The rise of the e-
commerce trigger the phenomena increase disadvantage to the consumers, hence widen the
disparity of wealth between the e-commerce as industry player and the consumers. Besides, e-
commerce further divide the techno-savvy e-consumers with the under privilege consumers
whose do not have access to internet, credit card services, e-banking, e-payment that since been
created and initiated by e-commerce directly or indirectly.
Diagram 3: Chain of privity in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods as shown
below:
Diagram 3: Chain of Privity in E-Commerce Consumer Contracts for Sale of Goods
Conclusion
There are many challenges face by consumers in the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale
of goods in the borderless trading. The major challenge remains the absence of regulative
framework in provide consumer protection in the age of the digital world. The complexity of
intertwined laws and interventions from various parties resulted the minimum and limited
protection for the consumers in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. In the
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context of e-commerce, consumers are the defenseless against the industry and the
advancement of technology. Therefore, consumer protection measures are of paramount
important in protecting consumer interest in the e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of
goods. This paper effort in mapping the privity of e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of
goods serve as a small role in identifying the doctrine of privity governing the e-commerce.
The finding of the paper serve to aid the legislative policy makers in understanding the
contractual parties privity in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods.
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ORGANIZATION CULTURE AS THE SOURCE OF

COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Noremi Shaari1
1
Arsyad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Due to the constant expectation of the investors, employees, customers, and stakeholders, an
organization operating in the highly competitive markets is frequently under pressure in
ensuring their performance improved consistently. Organizational culture has become
increasingly crucial to any organization nowadays and identified as among the essential
intangible source, which contributes to a powerful effect on the organizations’ performance.
The top management of organizations spends most of their time and effort in search of answers
to performance enhancement question based on unpredictable and competitive industries. The
performance management challenges have attracted the attention of most researchers in
management and attempting to explain how the organization manages performance by finding
a suitable strategic fit between the organizations’ diverse range of resources and changes in the
external environment which may benefit the organization. While having culture only will not
guarantee organizational success. Cultivating the right and positive culture that aligns with the
organization goals; mission and vision offer a significant competitive advantage over
competitors due to the increase of performance and productivity. Organizations that do not
instill the right cultures are not able to engage in activities that will drive their cultures and
generate sustained superior financial performance because their modified cultures typically will
be neither rare nor imperfectly imitable in driving performance and productivity.
Organizations that have successfully cultivate the right cultures with the required attributes can
obtain sustained superior financial performance from their cultures. Leaders may employ one
of the crucial components that able to cultivate a sustainable performance and maintain a
competitive advantage is through building ethical and moral organization's culture that aligns
with the organization goals.
Keywords: organizational culture, performance, competitive advantage

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Organization culture impacted to employee motivation directly (Sokro, 2012) and according to
a highly motivated team of employees creates a robust workforce, which leads to a productive
organization. Uddin, Luva, and Hossian (2013) claimed that building an organizational culture
could improve performance in several different ways. Employees perform better within a
robust organizational culture because they are more motivated and work more efficiently.
Organizational culture is an arrangement of fundamental norms that a group has developed
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while dealing with internal and external problems. These norms have become viewed as the
correct way to behave (Schein, 1983). In evaluating a competitive advantage, it is best to use
the view of an influential culture. A strong organizational culture is one term that is widely
spread throughout an entire organization. According to Denison (1984), a strong culture is a
vital asset for an organization and one that encourages participation by employees. Denison,
1984) also opined that organizational culture must be one of the fundamental strategies that
businesses use to succeed. Smart, D. L., & Wolfe (2000) claimed that organizational culture
could be a source of a sustained competitive advantage because it is practically impossible to
imitate a program’s unique organizational culture. The culture of an organization is unique;
therefore, understanding how to strengthen organizational culture varies from organization to
organization. This paper examines the relationship between organizational culture and
sustained financial performance, which may eventually become the source of competitive
advantage.
First, some of the key concepts used in the analysis been study and defined.
Second, the attributes of sustained culture that a firm must have in order to be a source of
superior performance, which may lead to being the source of competitive advantage being
discussed in this paper. Next, the organizational cultures of at least some firms are examined
from the previous study done by other researcher are examined to see if they meet these
criteria. Finally, we examine consider whether or not for firms that do not currently have
organizational cultures that are a source of this level of performance can engage in managerial
actions to develop such cultures.
Literature Review
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is a broad term and defined in many ways over the years. In 1958,
Kluckhohn, as cited in Hofstede (1980), described culture as a systematic way of thinking
developed by symbols within human groups. According to Hofstede (1980), culture is the
shared thinking of human minds that distinguishes one group from another. Hofstede referred
to the culture of a group as its personality. Culture can reflect the character of a group, but it is
also viewed as a system of daily group function. (Pettigrew, 2007) described culture as a
collective thought process that guides individual behavior.
Organizational culture often referred to as corporate culture (Deal, T. E., & Kennedy,
1982; Kotter, J. P., & Heskett, 1992), refers to the adopted values, beliefs, and assumptions of
the staff and employees of an organization. Culture can be defined in many ways and styles,
and it has been documented and debated over the year on the importance of organization
culture towards an organization. Many metaphors have also been used to illustrate the
importance of organizational culture. Culture can be considered the glue that joins the
organization together (Tharp, 2009). It has also been considered the compass, the magnet, and
the lighthouse, amongst other things. Despite the numerous characteristics of culture, it lacks a
universal understanding. Perhaps the broadness of the term allows for a wide range of
application that causes ambiguity. However, there are common threads. Historical research
(e.g., Hofstede, 1984; Kotter, J. P., & Heskett 1992s; Lederach, 1995; Useem et al., 1963)
explains that culture is shared, culture is learned, culture is transferred, and culture is adaptive.
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Another study classified culture as a unifying force, though hidden that provides meaning and
direction (Bakar et al., 2008).
Organizational culture refers to the collective programming of the mind that
distinguishes the members of one organization from another. This includes shared beliefs,
values, and practice that distinguish one organization from another (Hofstede, 1980).
Culture is the infrastructure of an organization. The claims that organizational culture
significantly affects the long-term performance of an organization (Kotter, J. P., & Heskett,
1992), that culture can be a performance enhancer, and can create a competitive advantage
makes it a topic of interest for most companies. The need for a sustainability factor,
maximizing profitability, and increase in effectiveness is a driver for many organizations, and
now there is the realization that a significant piece of the puzzle is culture. As companies
expand into other nations to develop subsidiaries, they need to understand if the external
environment of an organization is a factor in how organizational culture relates to performance.
Organizational Culture also portrays as shared assumptions that guide what happens in
organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations (Ravasi & Schultz, 2006)
The first concept was introduced by Petigrew where he introduces the anthropologist
concepts like “symbolism, myths,” and “rituals” that could be used in organizational analysis
(Ismael Younis Abu-Jarad et al., 2012). There is no general agreement on the definition of
organizational culture, but authors agreed that organizational or corporate culture referred to
something holistic, historically determined (by founders or leaders), related to things
anthropologists study (like rituals and symbols), socially constructed (created and preserved by
the group of people who together form the organization), soft, and difficult to change. (Ismael
Younis Abu-Jarad et al., 2012). Table 1 below summarizes some earlier definition of
organization cultures found in this study.
Table 9: Earlier Definitions of Organizational Culture
Author(s) Definition
Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952) Transmitted patterns of values, ideas, and other symbolic systems that
shape behavior of an organization
Hofstede (1980) “The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members
of one organization from another. This included shared beliefs, values and
practices that distinguished one organization to another” (Hofstede, 1980).
Swartz & Jordon (1980 Patterns of beliefs and expectations shared by members that produce
norms shaping behavior
Ouchi (1981) Set of symbols, ceremonies and myths that communicate the underlying
values and beliefs of the organization to its employees
Martin & Siehl (1983 Glue that holds together an organization through shared patterns of
meaning. Three component systems: context or core values, forms
(process of communication, e.g., jargon), strategies to reinformce content
(e.g., rewards, training programs)
Uttal (1983) Shared values (what is important) and beliefs (how things work) that
interact with an organization’s structures and control systems to produce
behavioral norms (the way we do things around here)
Adler (1986) -Refers to something that shared by all or almost all members of some
social groups - something that the older members of the group try to pass
on to the younger members and - something that shapes behavior or
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structures of the organization

Denison (1990) Refers to the underlying values, beliefs and principles that serve as a
foundation for an organization’s management system as well as the set of
management practices and behaviors that both exemplify and reinforce
those basic principles
Trompenaars (1993) Is the way in which people solved problems. It is a shared system of
meanings. It dictates what we pay attention to, how we act and what we
value.
Goffee (1996) Is an outcome of how people related to one another
Schneider (1997) Shared patterns of behavior and the meaning of that behavior
Cameron & Quinn (1999) What is valued, the dominant leadership styles, the language success that
make an organization unique
Sullivan (2001) Refers to the total lifestyle of a people, including all the values, ideas,
knowledge, behaviors and material objects that they share
Wood (2001) The systems of shared beliefs and values that develops within an
organization or within its sub-units and that guides the behavior of its
members
Wiesner (2002) A way of looking at organizations by its shared values and behavior
Thomas & Tung (2003) Refers to evolving set shared beliefs, values, attitudes and logical
processes which provides cognitive maps for people within a given
societal group to perceive, think, reason, act, react and interact
Anthon (2004) Is the set of values, beliefs and understanding shared by an organization’s
employees and it ranks among an organization’s most powerful
component
Taylor (2004) Refers to what is created from the messages that are received about how
people are expected to behave in the organization
Wagner (2005) An informal, shared way of perceiving life and membership in the
organization that binds members together and influences what they think
about themselves and their work
Source: Adopted from Gregory et al. (2017)
A recent study defines cultural assumptions as beliefs innate to a group of people that
exemplify the idea of an organization. These deep-seeded beliefs guide the essential behavior
of employees. These assumptions create the values and norms of people within an organization.
According to the study also mentioned that a corrupt organization viewed competition as war
and its competitors as enemies. This assumption allowed many employees to rationalize
corrupt behavior to win the competition or war. Principles are created and learned through the
assumptions and values or an organization. (Campbell et al., 2014)
Even though both (Denison, 1996) and (Schein, 2010) agree that culture is developed
through the norms created by interactions of organizational members. Organizational members
react to events and actions in a certain way and create organizational norms (Denison et al.,
1995). For the purpose of this study, we shall focus and emphasis on the definition elaborated
by Denison that claimed organizational culture is based on the beliefs of organizational
members and formed through the daily interaction of its members (Denison, 1996). This theory
of organizational culture places more importance on the interactions of the entire organization
as opposed to a leader’s actions.
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Organizational Culture and Performance

Organizational culture plays a primary function in modeling the behavior and performance of
the firm through the collective efforts of individual members of the organization (Joseph et al.,
2019). According to Deal, T. E., & Kennedy (1982), it is the top management’s responsibility
in managing performance management. Hence, managers, it is important for them to make a
deliberated effort toward developing a performance-driven organizational culture.
Several studies have indicated positively linking organizational culture with a firm
performance which has been reported by Peters & Robert H. Waterman Jr. (1982), Deal, T. E.,
& Kennedy (1982), and Denison & Mishra (1995). Scholars support affirmatively the
relationship between organizational culture and performance, arguing strong culture is
necessary for superior performance because it enhances consistency in the efforts of the
organizational performance.
Acar & Acar (2014) broke down organizational culture into four major types which are the
clan (cooperative), hierarchy (control), market (competitive) and adhocracy (creative) which
derives from the Competing Values Framework (CVF) or better known as the Quinn model the
groundbreaking work of Robert Quinn as illustrated below.
Figure 2: Competing Values Model of Organizational Culture
In the model, Acar & Acar (2014) describe that Clan culture possesses affiliation of
teamwork and participation. Where Hierarchy culture reflects values and norms associated with
bureaucracy. Market Culture type of organization has strong traits of efficiency and
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achievement where employees in this type of culture are success-oriented. Adhocracy type of
culture is in a state of developmental where the organizational culture, which is based on risk-
taking, innovation, and change. It also associated with entrepreneurship, flexibility, innovative,
and creative areas with its external- oriented and dynamic structure.
Deshpande & J. U. Farley (1999) in their research identified four types of
organizational culture that can help managers identify the different cultures and determine the
appropriate behavior that can be used in managing and dealing with the culture throughout an
organization. The four types of culture are bureaucratic culture, competitive culture, consensual
culture, and entrepreneurial culture. A bureaucratic culture emphasizes the formal structures
and internal codes of an organization, the competitive culture places emphasis on an
organization’s competitive advantage; the consensual culture emphasizes allegiance and
tradition, and entrepreneurial culture places emphasis on developing new ideas and risk-taking.
Any form or combination of cultural types can form an organization’s culture.
Deshpande & J. U. Farley (1999) found that organizations that believe innovation and
competitive advantage tend to perform better than those that believe in a culture of tradition
and formal structures. In their research of the correlation of organizational culture and
performance, and supporting Deshpande and Farley’s findings. Bakar et al. (2008) findings
suggest that not all types of corporate culture can create an increase in performance. However,
most scholars appear to agree that corporate culture is significantly and positively correlated
with performance. Bakar et al.’s concluded that managers should create cultures that are more
accepting of the employees and organizational settings due to the level of impact culture can
have on performance.
Hierarchy cultures focus on the internal processes of the organization Daher (2016).
Hierarchy cultures are also referred to as bureaucratic and are internally focused. These
organizations have effective leadership but are very rigid and can lead to a loss of purpose
within the organization (Daher, 2016). According to Daher (2016), these organizations have
strict control and order within its culture. This strict control can have a negative effect on
production (Ogbonna et al., 2000).
The two culture types that are focused on external circumstances are adhocracy and
market cultures. According to Acar & Acar (2014), market cultures are focused on external
competition and motivated by achievement. Leaders within these cultures reward employees
for individual success to emphasize achievement. The external environment also influences
adhocracy culture within organizations. Acar et al. (2014) described adhocracy culture as
innovative and flexible to change. These organizations reward risk-taking and the ability to
adapt to external environments. Daher (2016) stated that organizations with these cultures
reward individuals who are able to create and adapt to new and changing circumstances
Another model introduces in measuring corporate culture is the Denison Model. The
model study’s business-performance measures, emphasizing on the organization’s ability to
generate income, are in keeping with a definition of effectiveness that focuses on an
organizations capacity to acquire resources from its environment. It consists of four traits into a
framework designed to acknowledge two contrasts: the contrast between internal integration
and external adaptation, and the contrast between change and stability. For example,
involvement and consistency have as their focus the dynamics of internal integration, while
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mission and adaptability address the dynamics of external adaptation This model is consistent
with Borovec et al. (2011) observation that culture is developed as an organization learns to
cope with the dual problems of external adaptation and internal integration
There is a study that opposes the idea that culture promotes and may have a direct
influence on performance. The study indicates that culture does not determine productivity—
actions do (Alvesson, 2014). Having said that by adding controls for the right actions should
reduce or eliminate any measured effect of culture on outcomes.
Technology companies are a prime example of the innovative culture because of how
quickly these organizations must adjust to rapid improvements to technology (Daher, 2016).
Ogbonna et al. (2000) identified four types of culture that affect performance. Innovative and
competitive cultures were shown to have a direct, positive effect on performance, while
bureaucratic culture had a direct, negative effect on performance. The norms within a
competitive and innovative culture were similar to the achievement norms described by
Xenikou et al. (2006) cultures that focused more on processes were found to have a negative
effect on performance, while cultures that focused on achieving objectives were found to have
a positive effect on performance (Cooke et al., 2013; Ogbonna et al., 2000; Xenikou et al.,
2006)
Ogbonna et al. (2000) claimed that leadership is directly linked to organizational culture
but indirectly linked to organizational results. Therefore, leadership has an impact on results
based on the impact it has on organizational culture. According to Ogbonna et al. (2000),
organizational cultures are not linked to performance based on the strength of the culture but
based on the leadership style linked to organizational culture. Cultures viewed as strong were
not linked to positive results unless the culture was externally focused. Leadership styles
focusing on followers’ improvement were directly related to external organizational cultures.
Xenikou et al. (2006)claim that organizational culture has a direct effect on
performance, whether it is positive or negative. Achievement culture had a positive effect on
performance. In an achievement culture, an organization is focused on goal setting and
providing feedback about those goals, as well as trying new ventures and ideas. Helpful and
flexible cultures were found to have an adverse effect on performance.
Cooke et al. (2013) stated that culture with achievement norms has a direct, positive
effect on performance. However, the authors (2000) claimed achievement norms that are
combined with helpful norms create a direct, positive effect. Organizations with both
achievement norms and helpful norms created cultures that were more productive, better at
adapting to change, and more innovative.
Organizational cultures with achievement-based norms combined with helpful norms,
have the most positive impact on performance. Xenikou et al. (2006) opined achievement
cultures have a significantly positive effect combined with a helpful culture because of the
relationship between goal achievement and team cohesiveness. Therefore, cultures that are
focusing on an achievement atmosphere, while helping group members work together, create a
culture that considerably enhances performance. According to Ogbonna et al. (2000),
leadership is indirectly linked to performance through its impact on organizational culture.
Organizational culture has a direct impact on performance, and leadership has a direct impact
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on organizational culture. For example, a manager uses a positive leadership style to enhance
organizational culture, which creates an increase in performance.
Organizational Culture as a Competitive Advantage

Many researchers state intangible assets, like organizational culture, are the strongest form of
sustainable competitive advantages (Barney, 1986; Chan et al., 2004; Muratovic, 2013; Smart,
D. L., & Wolfe, 2000; Uddin et al., 2013). According to Muratovic (2013), organizations
develop a competitive advantage through their activities. Organizational culture can be a
primary source of competitive advantage because culture teaches values and norms within a
company’s activities. Smart, D. L., & Wolfe (2000) posited that organizational culture is a
more sustainable competitive advantage because it is a resource that is problematic to replicate.
Physical and human resources are common among organizations and do not provide a
competitive advantage. However, organizational resources such as culture have a direct impact
on developing a sustainable competitive advantage.
Unlike previously, today, researchers believe that organizational culture can be used for
competitive advantage, effective employee performance, and productivity (Tharp, 2009).
Organizations that develop a competitive advantage have the ability or possess a quality that
gives it an edge over its competitors (Muratovic, 2013). For example, an organization that
focuses on innovation and creativity can create competitive advantage because employees can
come up with solutions to the changing environment quicker and more efficiently than
competitors. Muratovic (2013) stated that competitive advantages create exclusive
opportunities and place organizations in a position to outperform competitors. Barney (1986)
explained that organizational culture must provide value and be unique to create a competitive
advantage. Organizations need to develop strategies to sustain competitive advantages over a
long period for the best overall performance. Sustainable competitive advantages are assets that
can produce results and are unique to the specific organization (Muratovic, 2013).
According to Chan et al. (2004), a resource that is valuable, unique, difficult to imitate, and
difficult to substitute are the primary factors in creating a sustainable competitive advantage.
The ability of an organization to sustain a competitive advantage is based on the capability of
the organization to continually adapt, upgrade, and replenish effective resources. Organizations
that want a sustainable competitive advantage must also create a dynamic where the activities
to create unique assets are efficient enough to continually enhance value and make it difficult
for competitors to replicate.
Barney (1986) claimed that value, rarity, and imperfect imitability are the three
characteristics necessary in developing organizational culture as a competitive advantage. In
order for the organization to sustain this advantage, the culture must create value by taking
advantage of opportunities or minimalizing threats because it enables an organization to insert
strategies that increase efficiency. Sustainability enhances a culture that is rare and hard to
imitate.
Resources that many competitors have the ability to replicate will not become sustainable
competitive advantages. Organizational culture is a resource that creates value and is specific to
a particular organization (Smart, D. L., & Wolfe, 2000). According to Weese (1996),
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organizational culture is an asset that provides value and increases organizational effectiveness.
Barney (1986) claimed that strong organizational cultures are specific and difficult to imitate.
Many researchers claim organizational culture is a principal resource for creating
competitive advantage (Chan et al., 2004; Smart, D. L., & Wolfe, 2000; and Uddin et al.,
2013). Chan et al. (2004) stated organizational culture was found to be a valuable resource and
that people and their interactions may be the primary source of competitive advantage. For
example, a company that can create value within its culture has a sustainable competitive
advantage because the culture is unique to each organization.
According to Taneja et al. (2015), organizations can achieve competitive advantage by
efficiently and effectively increasing their employee engagement strategy. Therefore,
organizations should focus on the business strategy, which can increase the engagement level
of employees and thereby increase their motivational level for overall organizational success.
In Bill Leisy, a principal consultant at Ernst & Young LLP’s performance and reward division,
proposed that global organizational leaders must understand the needs and motivations of their
employees to provide opportunities to help different segments of demographics and to retain
the necessary skills and competencies for the overall success of the business organization
(Taneja et al., 2015). For Google, their core value statement “Don’t be evil” is found to be
unique and alive which is hard to be replicate as Google themselves made initiatives to
preserve the culture they have as they grow (Taylor, 2009).
Smart, D. L., & Wolfe (2000) agree that culture adds value, and the complexity of culture
makes it difficult to imitate. Organizational culture can become a sustainable competitive
advantage because culture creates the utilization of resources more efficiently than competitors.
According to Weese (1996), organizational culture implements values and norms clearly
throughout an organization, which creates more efficient strategy implementation and an
increase in production. The environment within an organization plays a vital role in producing
a competitive advantage.
Uddin et al. (2013) posited that creative and adaptive environments enhance learning and
enable people to respond more efficiently to adversity and exploit new opportunities. The
environment is created by organizational culture, which is the fundamental element of any
sustainable competitive advantage (Uddin et al., 2013). An effective culture can be valuable
because of the impact it has on employee motivation, production, and overall performance.
Organizational culture is directly related to employee motivation, according to researchers
(Sokro, 2012; Uddin et al., 2013). Sokro (2012) revealed that employee motivation is directly
impacted by organizational culture, and the stronger the culture becomes the more employee
motivation increases. Motivated employees feel responsible for the success or failure of the
organization. Organizational culture is linked to employee motivation through inspiration,
enabling employees, sharing success, organization-wide learning, and individual awareness.
The key to sustaining success is the ability to motivate employees and make them feel a shared
sense of ownership with all members of the organization. A motivated workforce creates value
through several different statistics (Sokro, 2012).
As such, the concept of organizational culture has received considerable attention in the
academic milieu in general. Motivational, organizational culture is one of the ways how to
reach sustainable manufacturing through the organization’s employees (Copuš et al., 2019)
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Organizational culture impacts behavior and encourages employees to work hard for the
organization instead of personal reasons. According to Sokro (2012), a motivated employee is
less likely to leave an organization because of the superior work environment. A strong culture
creates an environment where employees are motivated to do their job well and enjoy the job
they are doing. Sokro (2012) explained that all employees belong to a group, and an increase in
motivation increases the feeling of belonging to a group and decrease the likelihood of leaving
the organization. Lower rates of attrition increase overall employee production (Sokro, 2012).
According to Uddin et al. (2013), productivity is tied directly to employee satisfaction,
which is impacted by culture. For instance, a motivated employee is more dedicated to the
achievement of the organization and is compelled to perform better at work. A strong
organizational culture increases employee dedication to the organization and brings
performance and production up. Efficient cultures have defined norms, which lead to more
productive employees. Uddin et al., (2013) claimed employee performance is increased
because of the behaviors engrained by organizational culture, as well as the empowerment
achieved by the enhanced motivation a strong culture produces.
Khan (2016) agreed there is a strong connection between a positive culture and an increase
in employee motivation, which brings production up. A more motivated group creates an
efficient workforce that is more likely to achieve organizational objectives. Employees perform
well because they follow the organizational culture, which implies the direct influence of
organizational culture on employee performance (Sokro, 2012). Overall production increases
because employees understand the culture, operate efficiently within that culture, and feel more
dedicated to the organization.
Most researchers have claimed overall performance is increased by organizational culture
because the organization utilized its resources more efficiently (Smart, D. L., & Wolfe, 2000;
Sokro, 2012; Uddin et al., 2013). According to Uddin et al., (2013), organizational culture
supports flexibility within an organization and increases efficiency. An organization’s
performance is enhanced by having a clear purpose and a strong commitment to organizational
culture development. Widely shared values enhance organizational culture, which increases
performance through efficient use of resources.
Apple Inc.’s cultural traits are aligned with the drive for innovation, which is a major factor
that determines business competitiveness in the information technology, online services, and
consumer electronics industries. This business condition facilitated the fulfill of their corporate
mission and vision statement. Apple shapes its corporate culture and uses it as a tool for
strategic management and success (Meyer, 2019).
“Ohana” represents the idea that families – related or chosen – are bound together, with its
members feeling a sense of responsibility for one another imperfectly imitable culture that runs
in Salesforce. With such culture build around the spirit has been the fundamental of their
success (Donaldson, 2016). Since developing a strong and efficient organizational culture can
create a sustainable competitive advantage, it is important to understand how leaders can
develop this kind of culture. However, Smart, D. L., & Wolfe (2000) claim that culture is
intangible, which makes it difficult to understand and manipulate.
Culture can create sustainable competitive advantage, but developing culture intentionally
may be difficult (Smart, D. L., & Wolfe, 2000). On the other hand, Muratovic (2013) claimed
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that culture could be developed, strengthened, weakened, or maintained. The key element for
leaders to intentionally develop culture is to understand the existing culture and the most
efficient means of besting competitors. This dissertation found information on how successful
leaders have developed organizational culture intentionally to create a sustainable competitive
advantage and how this knowledge added to the management literature on organizational
culture. The key to using culture to improve performance lies in matching culture or attributes
to organizational goals (Tharp, 2009)

The literature review and evidence in this case study provided the research with an ample
amount of information regarding the impact of developing a culture, and the specific actions
leaders can take to strengthen organizational culture. The research showed that developing a
strong organizational culture is vital to the overall success of a college football program and is
necessary to create a sustainable competitive advantage. However, a focus on organizational
culture is only the foundation for creating a sustainable competitive advantage and was not
found to be the main factor. For example, to build a house, the foundation starts before the rest
of the house being. The data showed that this is similar to creating a sustainable competitive
advantage. Leaders must start with developing a strong organizational culture before creating a
sustainable competitive advantage.
To create a sustainable competitive advantage, leaders must find a strategy that is unique
and fits their culture. Organizations with a strong culture are not unique, but organizations can
create a unique advantage that is almost impossible to replicate by combining strategy and a
strong organizational culture effectively. For example, Zappos has a strong organizational and
unique corporate culture, which is the foundation of their competitive advantage, and the
advantage in itself. Baird et al. (2012) explained that a culture based on treating people well,
combined with a strategy that is founded on maintaining employee and customer satisfaction
created a sustainable competitive advantage which can be observed by the organizational
culture may influence its relationships with employees, customers, the environment, and
communities. According to Baird et al. (2012), the competitive advantage lies in the quality
with which they treat their people, employees’ satisfaction, and their focus towards their
customers. Their strategy to treat employees and customers with love and care fits their unique
culture based on treating people well. The correct combination of strategy and culture create
value, a unique approach, and difficulty to imitate. These factors lead to a sustainable
competitive advantage.
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PRELIMINARY STUDY ON TRADE CREDIT AND LATE

PAYMENT TREND - MALAYSIA CASE STUDY
Mun Geet OwYong1, Kar Ling Lee2, Tze Chin Ong3

1,
Fobcal, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia
2
3
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Trade credit is a tool that could supports a range of strategic business goals. However,
utilization of this tool has inherent risk, in the form of late payment or non-payment, which
causes cash flow uncertainty. This in-turn increases risk of a range of consequences that have
varying cost. Study these trade credit related risk and consequences is further complicated by a
set of moderating factors that are conditional in nature. Nevertheless, this paper aims to
establish the groundwork by quantifying a set of variables to gauge features of late payments.
A snapshot of these futures were derived from survey feedbacks collated from 319 firms in
Greater Klang valley, Malaysia. Our findings are largely in-line with literature, where prompt
payment is rare. In contrast, credit term violation is about six times more likely.
Keywords: Trade Credit trend, Credit Period, Outstanding Period, Average Collection Period.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction to mechanics of trade credit
When goods or services are received/ consumed by the purchaser, naturally its supplier expects
to be paid. Trade credit occurs when there is a time gap between fulfilment of purchase order
and fulfilment of payment. Essentially trade credit offered by a supplier acts as a form of short
term financing to its purchaser. Although provision of trade credit is a product of supply and
demand, specification of credit term is the supplier’s prerogative. Credit term denote a list of
terms and conditions attached to issuance of trade credit. Among this list is credit period (CP).
Essentially, CP is a grace period. A 30 days CP implies payment in-full is expected within 30
days. In this regard, the CP deadline is the 30th day, which is last day of the grace period.
Since credit term is the supplier’s prerogative, purchasers with identical transaction, may
receive varying CP. However, regardless of the offered CP, payment outcome (prompt
payment, late payment or non-payment) is essentially the purchaser’s prerogative.
Literature review
Tool to discriminate and to retain purchasers thru financing
In the context of financing, trade credit can be utilized to support effort to retain as well as to
discriminate purchasers. Credit term with long CP improves the purchaser’s cash flow, hence
elevating its treasury management. This is achieved by redeployment of excess cash for greater
yield or lessen financing cost to hedge against shortage of cash. Hence, customization of credit
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term towards targeted purchasers may lead to long-term and sustainable business relationships
(Petersen and Rajan 1994; Wilson and Summers 2002). In the context of a new purchaser with
no prior payment record, trade credit facilitates the supplier’s effort in creditworthiness
identification. This in-turn facilitates customization of credit term that would discriminate
against riskier or undesirable purchasers (Petersen and Rajan 1994).
Tool to instil confidence

From the purchaser’s perspective, risk of procuring from a new supplier can be mitigated by
warranty, refund and at times reputation of the supplier. In this context, a supplier with lesser
reputation may compete by instilling confidence of their product quality by offering trade
credit with longer CP. This signify the supplier’s quality confidence greater with respect to the
elevated risk non-payment, since a longer window is granted to access quality as proclaimed. In
this sense, trade credit acts as an implicit guarantee of product quality (Long et al. 1993; Lee
and Stowe 1993).
Tool to supplement demand control

In the context where goods are subjected to seasonal demand, tightening or loosing credit term
may yield subtle control over sales. This may be a preferred strategy, as adjustment of price
and/or production capacity could be deemed more costly (Emery, 1988).
Risk of late payment and non-payment

From the supplier’s perspective, a breach of CP by its purchasers, in the form of late payment
or non-payment, could cause varying degree of undesirable outcomes. Essentially, late
payments inject uncertainty towards the supplier’s cash flow. A range of mitigation options
exist (bank overdraft, fire sale, credit extension from creditors, and adjustment of non-core
expenses), however with varying cost. Paul 2007 indicated that these additional cost maybe
deemed as unaffordable and may erode profitability, especially when profit margins are tight.
On the other hand, the uncertainty injected upon a negative cash flow may lead to insolvency.
However, this may not be the ultimate price. The most undesirable outcome occurs when
financial stress faced by the insolvent supplier propagates toward the business ecosystem. As
exemplified by a study on construction firms in Malaysia, which suggests that a negative cash
flow caused by late payment would affects time, cost and quality of building and civil
engineering services that they provide (Ye and Rahman, 2010).
Compounding factors of trade credit risk

As discussed above, utilization of trade credit has inherent risk, however, this risk can be
further compounded by a set of factors that includes; poor trade credit management, firm size,
leverage and industry characteristics.
Previous discussion highlighted trade credit’s role in retraining, discriminating and instilling
confidence. However, effectiveness of these intended business goals rely greatly on sound
management of payment history, credit risk evaluation and policy driven credit term. In this
regard, effectiveness of trade credit of a small sized firm is bounded by its resource and
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manpower limitations. Paul and Boden 2011 reported that small and medium enterprises
(SMEs) generally have poor trade credit management, highlighting invoices not send on time
or in some cases, not send at all.
Counter measures to exert pressure on purchasers for prompt payment exists. However, they
are deemed not ideal, when the purchaser has significant leverage towards the supplier.
Especially the purchaser is in a monopolistic or oligopolistic position (Paul and Wilson 2006).
In this case, suppliers are likely to be coerced into offering unfavourable credit term. Pike and
Cheng (2001) reported a strong correlation between late payment and firm size, with smaller
firms experiencing the longest delays.
Lastly, industry characteristics may acts as an factor that grant suppliers with greater leverage.
If services provided has a long gestation period where switching cost is deemed costly, counter
measure, such as halting service provision, would exert pressure on the purchaser to abide by
the agreed credit term. However, such leverage is not likely to be enjoyed by a supplier in the
food and beverage industry.
Goal of this preliminary paper

The goal of this preliminary paper is to quantify a set of variables that would facilitates rich
trend and characteristics of late payments. They include; Credit Period (CP), Percentage of
Late Payment (PLP) Average Outstanding Period (AOP) and Average Collection period
(ACP).
Methodology
Empirical data utilized in this study was collated via self-administrated structured
questionnaires. Respondents were randomly selected from business directory of firms located
at the Greater Klang valley, Malaysia. Participation is strictly on a voluntary basis and
confidentiality is enforced. Hence, validity is limited by respondents’ disclosure and
knowledge. Data collection process was conducted via postal mail and online survey in
September. This cross-sectional survey, concluded in November of 2015, yielded a 13.7%
response rate with 319 usable data points.
Findings
Average Credit Period (CP)
Distribution in Figure 1.1 summarizes the average credit period (CP) offered by our
respondents. This aggregated distribution has a mean of 47.5 days. 30 days CP has the highest
response (42.8%), follows by 60 days CP (23.2%). This figure suggests that these two CP are
likely the standard practice within the Greater Klang valley.
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Figure 1.1: Average Credit Period (CP)
Percentage of Late Payment (PLP)

Our finding indicates that late payment is prevalent. Only 4.9% respondents claimed that they
never encounter any late payment in the past 12 months. On the contrary, 95.1% reported their
late payments varies from 1% to over 90%. The aggregated mean of the PLP distribution,
Figure 1.2, is 29.6%. This suggests that credit term violation is about six times more likely.
Figure 1.2: Percentage of Late Payment (PLP).

Average Outstanding Period (AOP)
As discussed above, late payments inject uncertainty towards the supplier’s cash flow. The
distribution of average outstanding period (AOP) experienced by our respondents in the past 12
months is illustrated in Figure 1.3. Aggregated mean of this distribution is 46.6 days where
outstanding interval of “15 to 30 days” followed by “31 to 60 days” were the top two response
with a combined percentage of 56%.
Figure 2.3: Average Outstanding Period (AOP).
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Estimation of Average Collection period (ACP)

Collection period is the time gap between the invoice’s issuance date and the date when
payment is received fully. In this context, ACP is estimated with a joint distribution between
CP and AOP. However, ACP > CP occurs, only if payment is deemed late, hence the PLP
distribution is utilized as the probability bound for this joint distribution. Our estimation
approach further assumes that all prompt payments were made exactly on the deadline.
This assumption produces an inflated ACP that may be perceived an upper bound. Table 1
tabulates the estimated ACP by percentile and by its aggregate mean. Note that ACP fluctuates
greatly. It shows that 90% of our respondents experienced ACP from as low as 15 days up to
219.8 days, where the aggregated mean is estimated to be 61.3 days.
Table 1: Estimated Average Collection period (ACP), sorted by percentile and aggregate mean.
Percentile CP AOP PLP ACP
5 15 7.5 0% 15.0
25 30 37.5 10% 33.8
50 45 37.5 30% 56.3
75 60 45.5 40% 78.2
95 105 127.5 90% 219.8
Mean 47.5 46.6 29% 61.3

Literature has highlighted roles and applications of trade credit in supporting a range of
strategic business goals. Utilization of trade credit is akin to an intricate dance between a
supplier and its purchaser that requires preplanning, however influenced by layers of
conditional factors. A misstep may be easily brushed aside or may causes the supplier to
tumble and fall.
This preliminary study has provided a snap shot on a set of variables that would facilitated
deeper analysis of late payment as well as trade credit trend. The average credit period offered
by our respondents is 47.5 days. However, the distribution skewness and substantial response
on 30 and 60 day CP, may be an indicator that conditional factors, such as firm size and
industrial characteristics may be in-play. Nevertheless, likelihood of violating this aggregated
grace period is 29.6%. As compared to prompt payment, credit term violation is about six times
more likely. This may suggest that late payment is a prevalent culture.
When credit term violation occurs, it would take, on average, additional 46.6 days for payment
to be collected in-full. The average collection period is estimated to be 61.3 days. Our analysis
shows that its range may fluctuates between 15 to 219.8 days. This wide range may suggest
that there are significant interaction factors between CP, AOP and PLP.
References
Emery, G. (1988), ‘Positive Theories of Trade Credit’, Advances in Working Capital
Management, 1: 115–30.
Lee, Y.W. and Stowe, J.D. (1993), ‘Product Risk, Asymmetric Information and Trade Credit’,
Journal of Finance and Qualitative Analysis, 28 (2): 285–300.
Long, M.S., Malitz, I.B. and Ravid, S.A. (1993), ‘Trade Credit, Quality Guarantees and
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Product Marketability’, Financial Management, 22 (4): 117–27.

Paul, S.Y. (2007), ‘Trade Credit Management and the Late Payment Problem: A Size Related
Issue’, Journal of the Institute of Credit Management, December: 22–4.
Paul, S.Y. and Wilson, N. (2006), “The determinants of trade credit demand: survey evidence
and empirical analysis”, Journal of Accounting Business and Management, Vol. 14, pp.
96-116.
Paul, S.Y. and Boden, R. (2011), ‘Size Matters: the Late Payment Problem’, Journal of Small
Business and Enterprise Development, 18 (4): 732–47.
Petersen, M.A. and Rajan, R.G. (1994), ‘The Benefit of Lending Relationships: Evidence from
Small Business Data’, Journal of Finance, 49 (1): 3–37.
Pike, R.H. and Cheng, N.S. (2001), “Credit management: an examination of policy choices,
practices and late payment in UK companies”, Journal of Business Finance and
Accounting, Vol. 28, pp. 1013-42.
Wilson, N. and Summers, B. (2002), ‘Trade Credit Terms Offered by Small Firms: Survey
Evidence and Empirical Analysis’, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 29: 317–
51.
Ye, K. M., & Rahman, H. A. (2010). Risk of Late Payment in the Malaysian Construction
Industry. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business
and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 4, 5.
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RECRUITMENT TRENDS IN THE ERA OF INDUSTRY 4.0

USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: PRO AND CONS
Wan Mohd Rusydan Wan Ibrahim1, Roshidi Hassan2

1
Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
2
Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a technology in computer science which creates machines that can
work and react like humans. Or we can say that AI can make machines or computer systems
simulate the human intelligence processes. Speech and image recognition, learning, planning
and problem solving are among of activities designed to perform by computers using AI. AI
were widely used now as we’re in the era of Industry 4.0. Popular apps such as Siri in iOS,
Google apps such as Gmail and Google Translate and Google Maps, Amazon, Netflix,
Facebook and Sportify used AI in their platform. Undercover Recruiter, a recruiting and talent
acquisition blog suggest that AI is expected to replace 16% of HR jobs within the next 10
years. One of the emerging use of AI is in the recruitment process. AI can helps HR managers
to perform recruitment more efficient especially when selecting the best talent available for
their organization. In Industry 4.0, the concept of Internet of Things (IoT) is very popular.
Currently, submitting hardcopy forms and resumes were replaced by application of online
forms or via job portals. HR Managers may also do headhunting of talents using online portals
such as LinkedIn, a business and employment-oriented service that operates via websites and
mobile apps. This way of recruitment process will be much smoother with the help of AI
technology. Thus, this paper will discuss some of the recruitment methods that can be made to
ease recruitment exercises using AI.
Keywords: Recruitment, Industry 4.0, Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Nowadays, people keep talking about Industry 4.0 and how this era of technology will affect
our life and not forgetting, business environment. The general aims of Industry 4.0 is to
increase productivity and definitely, profit using machines and intelligent components which
being connected to the internet. Components of Industry 4.0 includes Autonomous Robots,
System Integration, Internet of Things (IoT), Simulation, Additive Manufacturing, Cloud
Computing, Augmented Reality, Big Data, and Cybersecurity. Artificial Intelligence (AI) are
very much related to Industry 4.0. AI is a technology in computer science which creates
machines that can work and react like humans, or in other words, AI can make machines or
computer systems simulate the human intelligence processes. Among activities designed to
perform by computers using AI are speech and image recognition, learning, planning and
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problem solving. We may not realize that AI is currently in our hand. This is because, popular
apps in our mobile device such as Siri in iOS, Google apps such as Gmail and Google Translate
and Google Maps, Amazon, Netflix, Facebook and Sportify used AI in their platform. In
business environment, one of the emerging use of AI is in the recruitment process. AI can helps
HR managers to perform recruitment more efficient especially when selecting the best talent
available for their organization. Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y may still
remember that they used to look for job advertisements in newspapers and magazines, and
submit their resumes or job application forms in hardcopy. That situation may not being
experienced by the Millennials today as currently, submitting hardcopy forms and resumes
were replaced by application of online forms or via job portals. HR Managers may also do
headhunting of talents using online portals such as LinkedIn, a business and employment-
oriented service that operates via websites and mobile apps. This way of recruitment process
will be much smoother with the help of AI technology. This paper will discuss some of the
recruitment methods that can be made to ease recruitment exercises using AI.
Literature Review
Undercover Recruiter, a recruiting and talent acquisition blog suggest that AI is expected to
replace 16% of HR jobs within the next 10 years. (Forbes Coaches Council, 2018) Recruitment
and selection are part of the process in human resource management (HRM). Searle (2003)
stated that while both processes contain common elements i.e. attraction, identification and
retention of staff or employees, recruitment focuses on applicant outside the organization while
selection focused on internal applicants. Reilly (2018) suggest that recruitment as the area in
HR function that has been most transformed by technology. In this case, AI. This is because,
the source of applicant are more towards online base which creates larger pool of applicants.
The process of selecting suitable candidates for interview has become faster and more efficient
with AI technology and also revolutionized the relationship between applicant and employer
(Reilly, 2018).
Mengel (2018) listed more than 30 companies that offer recruitment service for their customers
using AI tools. Few examples of these companies are shown in Table 1. While in Malaysia, a
beta version of an artificial intelligence (AI) job matching system called adnexio was launched
on February 2019. Candidates will go through an interview with a machine named NEX on this
AI platform that designed to learn through the selection made by employers utilising the
platform, which is also free for both job seekers and employers (Annuar, 2019). This platform
can be accessed at www.adnexio.my.
Table 1: Examples of Recruitment Companies using AI Tools

Company URL AI Recruitment Tools Description
Xor https://xor.ai/ Chatbot recruiting assistant that communicates with candidates
in What’s App, Slack, Messenger, Viber, and Telegram.
European-based technology company.
Jane Chat Bot http://www.loka.com/jane/ Chat Bot designed to help HR teams develop better forms of
communication.
Arya - by https://goarya.com/ Offers automated AI sourcing: it scans the web selecting
leoforce candidates and arranges interviews.
Crya https://www.cyra.ai/ Cyra uses machine learning and natural language processing
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techniques to provide you with exactly the right candidates

you’re looking for.
EngageTalent https://www.engagetalent.com/ The ENGAGE platform allows recruiters to source, watch and
engage with passive talent utilizing a dynamic stream of over
100M candidates.
GoHire https://gohire.com/ GoBe is a recruiting chat bot that can import your company’s
jobs, pre-screen candidates, through customized pre-screening
questions, and route candidates to job specific recruiters, your
company career site, or your applicant tracking system.
Impress https://impress.ai/ Singapore-based company currently accepting beta invites.
Bots for help with candidate screening and candidate
engagement.
Jobo the Job https://www.jobbot.me/ Jobo is available on Facebook Messenger and Telegram
Bot developed in Berlin.
JobPal https://pal.chat/ Let candidates engage with your company 24/7 — they build
custom chatbots for your recruitment efforts.
Mya by https://hiremya.com/ Mya automates the process from resume to hire so you can
FirstJob cultivate and engage the best candidates.
Olivia by https://www.paradox.ai/ AI assistant that allows you to focus on what you do best,
Paradox while she focuses on candidate capture, screening, scheduling,
and candidate communication & engagement.
Further readings from journal articles and websites suggested mainly pros and certain cons of
AI in recruitment. This aspects will be discussed further in discussion and conclusion part of
this paper.

Basically, application of AI in recruitment process is mainly on how to facilitate the process
with lesser time, more efficient and most probably to overcome human bias factor. AI have
many advantages but in the same time, there’s also contra side or argument in accepting AI as
major tools in recruitments.
Pros of AI in Recruitment
AI can facilitate in screening huge data of application in faster and more efficient way
compared to traditional way do by humans. This is important as processing and screening huge
number of application must be done efficiently so that we didn’t miss the suitable candidate or
special talent during the process. By setting certain characteristics or filters, AI tools can do the
task in faster way and this can save time especially when there’s urgency in recruitment. For
example, statistic of job application for civil engineer position in Works Ministry, Malaysia for
2019 shows from more than 17,000 applicants, only 2,575 candidates were shortlisted for
interview to fill up 74 vacancies (Figure 1). Imagine how much time to consume if screening
this huge number of has to be done manually. Nowadays, job seekers tends to put their profile
online via business professionals social media such as LinkedIn and Monster. This makes
scouting or headhunting process by HR managers easier as all this data and profile are
available online. It is impossible for recruiters to analyze manually all this profile but it can be
done with the help of AI technology. Nowadays, many company outsource their recruitment
process to third party recruitment companies. This can save the operational cost of small
companies as they didn’t have to invest in this AI recruitment technology. Recruitment
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companies will receive job application and using algorithm, do the job matching process so that
right people are matched to the right jobs and the right companies. Example of factors used in
creating job matching algorithm are educational background, job scope and also company
culture. In this era of IoT, people are connected via internet anytime, anywhere without
geographical constrain. Recruitment process also are not limited to local applicants but also
international or worldwide. Job candidates may want to do further research on the company
they interested to work with. Previously, communication via letter and phone calls are used and
also emails during early era of internet. Today, a new technology in AI called chatbots are
making this communication more efficient. Chatbots enable real-time personal engagement
with candidates. Similar to virtual personal assistants such as Siri, and Google Now, chatbot
uses natural language processing to understand messages and respond to it. There’s also
companies uses this chatbot technology on interviews for recruitment process. Email, SMS,
social media and messaging apps are communication channels that can use chatbot application
to ease communication between applicants and companies without time and location constrain.
Travelling across state or nation borders to attend job interviews is like gambling, as candidates
will spend on travelling with uncertainty to get the job. With the IoT, the use of video interview
are getting popular. Interviews can be done anywhere with good internet connection and this
can save time and money. There’s also AI technology that can analyze body language pattern
and facial expression during video interview. This can facilitate recruitment process as the
candidate will become more relax and at the same time, the interviewer can analyze the
interview recordings later and this can result in more accurate and efficient decision making
process. In another way, this also eliminate the human bias factors during interviews. Another
important point is, this recruitment process facilitated by AI tools and software will save time
and lessen the job burden on certain HR managers. This means they can focus on other things
and will contribute to the work effectiveness and also organization performance.
Figure 1: Recruitment Statistics of Civil Engineer for Works Ministry, Malaysia on 2019 (Source: Public
Service Commission, 2019)
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Figure 2: Example of job matching system (source: May and Yew, 2015)
Cons of AI in Recruitment
Despite all the advantages of using AI in recruitment, one thing to highlight is, AI is not magic.
It’s a program that rely on data and algorithm written by a programmer in order to perform task
efficiently. The main thing for AI to do job matching, screening and analyzing pattern of
applicants are huge amount of data. Without these amount of data, the results given by the AI
assisted tools might not be as expected. So, there’s an issue of uncertainty of decision making
as this mainly rely on data rather than human approach. There’re also concern that AI may
‘learn’ to duplicate human bias decision in the future. This can be happen due to ‘machine
learning’ concept in AI where patterns of decision used by the human will be analyze and
replicate from time to time and resulting in human bias type of decision made. Another thing is
the skepticism in accepting AI technology. This may in the aspect of ‘human approach’ during
face-to-face interviews that absent when conduction video interviews using AI. It is hard to
explain this situation but most experienced interviewer always can see ‘something’ special
from a candidate that are not visible in resumes and physical appearance. Currently, this kind
of observation can’t be replicated by AI software.
Conclusion
To conclude, the role of AI in current recruitment trends is emerging. This is because the
current job seekers are mostly Millennials that very critical in technology especially with IoT
where social media are part of their life. There’re also a huge competition in job application as
tertiary education nowadays are common. For example, in Malaysia owning a bachelor degree
can be considered common among Millennials compared to the situation during the 80’s. This
situation makes the job applicant pool become higher resulting in the needs of technology help
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for screening and selecting the best candidates or talent that can drive an organization to reach
their full potentials. There might be concern that AI will take over certain human jobs in the
future, but whether we like or not, the technology of the world heading into AI application and
whoever can’t catch up with technology update will be left behind.
References
AI For Recruiting: A Definitive Guide For HR Professionals. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2019,
from https://ideal.com/ai-recruiting/
Andreas Eckhardt, Sven Laumer, Christian Maier, Tim Weitzel, (2014) "The transformation of
people,processes, and IT in e-recruiting: Insights from an eight-year case study of a
German media corporation", Employee Relations, Vol. 36 Issue: 4, pp.415-431
Annuar, A. (2019). Free AI Job Matching Platform Launched. Malay Mail. Retrieved from
https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/02/14/free-ai-job-matching-platform-
launched/1723047
Ashwani Kumar Upadhyay, Komal Khandelwal, (2018) "Applying artificial intelligence:
implications for recruitment", Strategic HR Review
F. K., May & C. C., Yew. (2015). Intelligent Job Matching with Self-learning
Recommendation Engine. Procedia Manufacturing. 3. 1959-1965.
10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.241.
Forbes Coaches Council. (2018). 10 Ways Artificial Intelligence Will Change Recruitment
Practices. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2018/08/10/10-ways-artificial-
intelligence-will-change-recruitment-practices/
Jarrahi, Mohammad Hossein. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Work: Human-AI
Symbiosis in Organizational Decision Making. Business Horizons. 61.
10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.007.
Mengel, C. (2018). List of 30 Useful AI Tools for Recruitment. Retrieved from
https://talentsum.com/list-useful-ai-tools-recruitment/
Public Service Commission, Malaysia (2019). Maklumat Urusan Pengambilan Jurutera
(Awam) Gred J41. (n.d.). Retrieved June 22, 2019, from
https://online.spa.gov.my/online/semak_statistik.php?no_pemerolehan=SM20180154&ski
m=JURUTERA (AWAM) GRED J41
Reilly, P. (2018). The impact of artificial intelligence on the HR function. Retrieved from
https://www.employment-
studies.co.uk/system/files/resources/files/mp142_The_impact_of_Artificial_Intelligence_
on_the_HR_function-Peter_Reilly.pdf
Searle, R. H. (2003). Selection and Recruitment: A Critical Text. Milton Keynes: Open
University/Palgrave McMillian.
Tanya Bondarouk, Emma Parry & Elfi Furtmueller (2017) Electronic HRM: four decades of
research on adoption and consequences, The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 28:1, 98-131
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SELFIE TOURISM CONCEPT AS A TOOL TO IMPROVE

CITY BRANDING
Mohamad Hadi Prasetyo1

1
Management Study Program
EKUITAS Business School, Bandung, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Cities in the world develop their tourism side and that is very important. One reason to visit a
city is tourism destinations. Tourism itself inseparable part of human life, especially concerning
social and economic activities. Hopefully this tourism can be developed in a community
empowerment strategy through community-based tourism development. Changes in consumer
behavior because of the development of information technology make it an opportunity to
make sustainable innovation. Digital technology changes the face of the business world such as
marketing activities. Technology has changed the way humans talk, communicate, act, and
make decisions. Taking selfies and sharing them with social media has now become an
important activity. In this case Bandung is the object of research. Bandung has a lot of tourism
potential. Bandung is a city known as parisj van java and has many tourism destinations such
as shopping tourism, nature tourism, culinary tourism, regional cultural tourism, and heritage
tourism. All tourism destinations in Bandung must have a spot for selfies. Moreover, there are
many tourism destinations in Bandung that only offer experience for selfies. From this idea that
a special concept of selfie tourism is needed which impacts on the increasing branding of the
city. This paper is aimed to describe the concept of selfie tourism as a tool to improve a brand
of Bandung. The research method used in this study is a descriptive-explorative method. The
results of this study are that cities that already have branding will have their own image for
tourists. because Bandung has a distinctive tourism characteristic from other cities so it gives
different memories. Every post uploaded on social media both photos and videos can be
watched by many people. This is what makes every photo and video can be an information for
everyone who sees it. This is what makes the branding of Bandung will automatically spread
from posting uploads.
Keywords: Tourism, Selfie, City Branding.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Technology in Indonesia was growing very rapidly, especially in the field of
communication. These developments are marked by the number of smartphones that have
sprung up with various specifications and interesting innovations offered by developers to meet
the needs and productivity of its users. Smartphones are mobile devices that are run with
certain operating systems that combine most functions on cellular phones. Some functions such
as Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), audio players, digital cameras and camcorders, Global
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Positioning Systems (GPS) receivers, and Personal Computers (PCs) contained in smartphones
can support more modern computing and connectivity capabilities (Schmidt, 2009).
Smartphones are now widely used by people, ranging from young to old. Based on
the research results of Yahoo! and Mindshare, which was conducted in mid-2013, was
announced that around 41.3 million people were smartphone users in Indonesia. Even 39% of
them consisted of young people or students ranging in age from 16 to 21. Smartphone users are
very spoiled by the attractive features provided by smartphones, one of which is social
networking. The use of smartphones is no longer just to communicate by simply calling or
sending short messages (SMS), but also used to express themselves by selfie.
Selfie is part of narcissism (Putranto, 2014). Taking selfies and sharing them to social
media to friends and followers, has now become a natural thing in everyday life. Almost all of
us do that without having to think long. In the digital era like now, doing this is very easy,
considering that there are many high-quality cameras that have been connected to the internet
in their bags and bags. Thus, it allows people to publish images so that they can be seen
directly by anyone and anywhere.
Tourists who visit a destination have their own experience of the destination, hoping
tourists can feel satisfied and loyal (Prasetyo and Maulani, 2016). For example, Bandung offers
not only a cool and beautiful atmosphere but also a variety of unique and Instagramable tourist
attractions. Instagramable is a new word that has recently become popular among internet
users. Instagramable comes from the words "Instagram" and "Able". Instagram is a social
media commonly used to share photos and videos. While the word "able" means to be able,
able, or capable. So Instagramable is something that can, is feasible, and is worth sharing with
social media. That is why nowadays many tourist attractions are competing to make the design
of places as innovative as possible to attract public interest.
Bandung is a city that has a lot of domestic and foreign tourism potential in various
regions. Tourism is one of the important factors in economic development in Bandung.
Tourism is a dynamic activity that involves many people and enlivens various business fields
(Ismayanti, 2010). Bandung as one of the tourist destinations that has several types of tourism
namely nature tourism, historical-heritage tourism, cultural tourism, special interest tours,
culinary tours, religious tourism, shopping tours. This is an attraction for foreign and domestic
tourists to visit Bandung. Of course to market each tourism object from each region is very
dependent on the marketing communication strategy carried out by the local government, so
that later the city can be easily recognized by tourists. Urban planning that has been made so
far has not been enough to win the competition between cities (Karim, 2012). Bandung is
known as Parisj Van Java. With the tagline "Bandung Juara", the mayor of Bandung make a lot
of improvements. Improvements here seen from several things: the beauty of city planning, city
administrative reform, as well as the development of smart city concept (Prasetyo & Maulani,
2018). Improvements a city park can be exemplified that many parks in the city of Bandung to
change the concept and also green concept. Changes in greening with a garden by the concept
of "thematic park". A concept which aims to improve the happiness of the residents and also
tourists. The thematic concept also is educational and a lot of elements of entertainment for the
visitors (Prasetyo & Maulani, 2018). Therefore, the concept of city branding arises in response
to these conditions so that existing planning can not only be implemented but also lift and
develop the distinctiveness of the city as a brand that has a high selling value. The aim is to
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increase the attractiveness of the city itself in attracting potential resources capable of driving
the development of the city. The establishment of city branding has been done for a long time
in world cities, this is because many cities in the world have been prepared as tourism
destinations that can be sold to local communities and the international community (Bungin,
2015).
City branding is part of urban / urban planning through various efforts to build
differentiation and strengthen city identity in order to be able to compete with other cities in
order to attract tourists, investors, reliable HR, industry, and improve the quality of relations
between citizens and cities (Yananda & Salamah, 2014). According to Kotler and Armstrong
(2014: 4) marketing is a process where companies create value for customers and build strong
customer relationships in order to get value from customers in return. So that in building a city
branding, a city must have a good planning and marketing strategy.
World development, especially in business, is strongly influenced by technology and
information. The internet is claimed to be a better communication medium because of its
versatility and superiority in targeting consumers (Shimp, 2010). Digital technology has
changed the face of the business world a lot, including marketing activities. Although digital
marketing does not include techniques and practices that fall into the category of internet
marketing with ways to reach the target consumers who do not need internet (mobile
technology). Technology has changed the way humans talk, communicate, act, and make
decisions. Technology has become very effective in maximizing an organization's bottom line.
Digital marketing is actually a promotional activity both for a brand or product using electronic
media (digital). Tens of years ago, digital marketing media was very limited, called television
or radio which can only convey information in one direction. Today, with the rapid
development of digital technology and the wide acceptance of almost all levels of society, no
doubt the digital marketing model is one of the main channels.
The internet does provide a lot of convenience in communicating with many people
in a short time. One of the media that is often used to interact using the internet is social media.
Currently there are 1.86 billion active social media users around the world. Every message
uploaded on social media both photos and videos can be witnessed by many people, and this is
what makes every photo and video can be an information for everyone who sees it. As well as
uploading photos of natural tourism uploaded on social media, whether consciously or not, the
photo or video is able to provide information, giving rise to attraction to the stage of action on
the person who saw it. The presence of social media for the development of the tourism sector
in a city is a blessing in itself. Social media is a forum for many people to show their existence,
one of them is through selfies in a tourist spot. And with the presence of social media such as
Instagram, Facebook and Twitter, displaying photos has its own space. Not a few also display
photos of the tourist photographed profile. Indirectly with the large number of social media
users who upload the travel photos into a promotion. No exception for tourism in Bandung
which has been promoted by social media. So, the number of photos of a tourist area on social
media can be an indicator of the city's tourism progress and also build a city branding for the
city.
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Literature review
Definition and concepts of marketing
According to Saladin (2007) marketing is a total system of business activities designed
to plan, determine prices, promote and distribute goods that can satisfy desires and achieve
market goals and objectives of the company.
According to Kotler and Keller (2016: 27) marketing is an organizational function and a
series of processes to create, communicate, and provide value to customers and to manage
customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders. Whereas
according to Kotler and Armstrong (2014: 4) marketing is a process where companies create
value for customers and build strong customer relationships in order to get value from
customers in return. Marketing is a process to introduce what the company has to its target
market (Paramitha, 2007). Referring to Paramitha, it is not only our products that must be
introduced but also ourselves that must be introduced. ourselves here means Bandung. so it's
not just a product from Bandung, but also what is in Bandung itself which is tried to be
marketed.
So that from some of these opinions, it can be concluded that marketing is a system or
series of processes in business activities to plan, communicate and provide value to customers
to get reciprocity that can benefit an organization or company. The value of tourism
destinations.
Marketing Tourism
The historical evolution of tourism marketing started in “marketing” focused on pro-
duction and sales towards the marketing based on consumer-orientation and later on the
societal or sustainability orientation (Palatkova, 2012).
Tourism in a country or region will be well known and have a good reputation in the
eyes of tourists when running good marketing activities. Marketing in tourism has the task of
planning to find market opportunities by identifying tourist desires so that tourists can get
optimal satisfaction. According to Muljadi (2009) tourism marketing is an effort to identify the
needs and desires of tourists, and offer tourism products according to the wishes and needs of
tourists. Whereas according to Liga and Vanny (2015: 115) tourism marketing is:
"The system of mutual coordination carries out various policies for tourism industry
groups, both individually and privately as well as government agencies. Both local, regional,
national, or international to achieve tourist satisfaction. "
According to Kotler and Bowen (2014: 11), that:
“Marketing for hospitality and tourism is the process by which companies create value for
customers and society, resulting in strong customer relationships that capture value from the
customers in return”.
City branding
City branding can be regarded as a regional strategy of both states and cities. This
means that the region will strive to build a strong positioning in the minds of target consumers
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(Prasetyo & Maulani, 2018). City branding is part of urban / urban planning through various
efforts to build differentiation and strengthen city identity in order to be able to compete with
other cities in order to attract tourists, investors, reliable HR, industry, and improve the quality
of relations between citizens and cities (Yananda & Salamah , 2014: 34). The decision about
where to stay, where to go on holiday, where to do business or where to invest, mostly more
use of rational and emotional feelings (Anholt, 2007). This is in line with what was said
Kavaratzis (2004), the main purpose of city branding and the results desired by the government
of a city is to increase the inflow of tourists and investment. According to Sugiarsono (2009:
35) in realizing a city branding, for a city there are several criteria that must be met, including
Attributes, Message, Differentiation, and Ambassador.
According to Sukmaraga and Nirwana (2016) City branding is an urban economic
development tool borrowed from marketing practices by urban planners and designers and all
stakeholders. City branding is also a process of brand formation through icons, slogans, events,
exhibitions, and good positioning, in various promotional media (Purwianti & Lukito, 2014).
Focus of City Branding is on the image of city itself. City Branding will describe a thought,
feeling, association, and expectations that come from some people when they hear, see, and
feel the concept (Prasetyo & Maulani, 2018). City Branding as a strategic management and
coordination of economics, commercial, social, cultural, and government regulations
(Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009).
So from some of the opinions above it can be concluded that city branding is part of an
urban planning to build an image or brand to be able to compete with other cities with various
promotional media. With the creation of a positive image of the city, it can be assumed that
many tourists who will visit the area (Prasetyo & Maulani, 2018).
Methodology and Data

The research method used in this study is a descriptive-explorative method.
According to Sugiyono (2017: 35) descriptive method is a method used to determine the
existence of independent variables, both only one variable or more without making a
comparison of the variables themselves and looking for relationships with other variables.
Whereas according to Arikunto (2006: 7) an exploratory method is research that aims to
explore extensively about the causes or things that influence the occurrence of something.
In this study, a descriptive-exploratory method is to explore and search deeply and then
describe it clearly about the phenomenon of selfie in a city in a city that ultimately creates
a city branding for that city.
Discussion on Empirical Results

The times and technological advances in this modern age are undeniable to have
various influences on human life, especially those living in big cities. Various kinds of
influences, both positive and negative, almost become commonplace in everyday life,
especially if it has become a phenomenon and lifestyle. The presence of smartphones such as
the iPod, iPhone and Android brings a new phenomenon among teenagers namely selfie.
According to Ahmad (2013) selfie is a term for photographing yourself.
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The word selfie has appeared on various social media and has been crowned from the
Oxford English Dictionary’s 2013 as Word of the Year with the use of hashtags (#) on the
word selfie which has increased to 17 thousand percent in the past year. Based on the TIME
Magazine survey there are 1 million selfies uploaded every day. One Poll, which is one of the
survey institutions in London, conducted interviews and trials for 2000 visitors who came to
Samsung Electronics. From the survey results it was stated that around 17 percent of men do
selfies, while women only 10 percent. However, as many as 57 percent of women uploaded
their photos on social media, while in fact, in Indonesia men uploaded more selfies than
women, and Bali became one of the cities in Indonesia with the most selfie uploaders (Hestya,
2013).
Photographs of camera shots of high-resolution smartphones are uploaded, and used as
Display Pictures (DP) to social media that are being widely used, namely Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, Flickr and others. This method can easily channel the nature of narcissism within its
users. The Oxford Dictionaries defines selfies as self-photos taken by oneself and usually uses
a smartphone camera and webcam which are then uploaded to social networking sites. Based
on BBC info, the outbreak of selfie actually did not start when the widespread use of
smartphones, but it may have been done since the 1800s by using a mirror or using a self-timer.
At that time it did not involve a single object like now but in large groups like taking pictures
with friends or family even some of them doing creative ideas, for example by using a mirror to
get the best picture of themselves.
Tourism in a country or region will be well known and have a good reputation in the
eyes of tourists when running good marketing activities. Marketing in tourism has the task of
planning to find market opportunities by identifying tourist desires so that tourists can get
optimal satisfaction. Urban planning that has been made so far has not been enough to win the
competition between cities (Karim, 2012). Therefore, the concept of city branding arises in
response to these conditions so that existing planning can not only be implemented but also lift
and develop the distinctiveness of the city as a brand that has a high selling value. The aim is to
increase the attractiveness of the city itself in attracting potential resources capable of driving
the development of the city. The establishment of city branding has been done for a long time
in world cities, this is because many cities in the world have been prepared as tourism
destinations that can be sold to local communities and the international community (Bungin,
2015: 82).
Implementing city branding in an area will influence the decision of tourists to visit it.
Cities that already have branding or brands will have their own image for tourists because they
have characteristics that distinguish them from other cities so that they provide different
memories. This makes the question whether tourists will be satisfied or not with the
implementation of the strategy. City branding was initially focused on city brand image
(Merrilees, et al., 2012). City branding can be said as a strategy from an area both state and
city. This means that the area will try to make a strong positioning in the minds of the target
consumers. In this case the consumer means tourists.
With the formation of a positive city image, it can be assumed that many tourists will
visit the area. This can happen because a positive image will make tourists' expectations high
enough and stimulate to visit the area. From tourist visits, behavior will arise from tourists who
can express satisfaction or not. Where there will be a comparison between expectations that
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exist in the minds of tourists with the performance contained in these product attributes. One of
the most important business goals is how to satisfy consumers and also try to impress
consumers. Customer satisfaction has become a central concept in marketing theory and
practice where customer satisfaction occurs after consuming the products / services it buys
(Kumala et al., 2010). All companies are competing to be able to satisfy their customers in
various ways so that customers become satisfied and fulfilled their expectations because it
refers to the theory that if customers are satisfied, consumers will buy more and continue to
buy again (Dewanti et al., 2009). In this case, the customer is a visiting tourist.
With an indication that a tourist will share experiences and also be able to tell positive
things about tourist visits to a place, it can be characterized that these tourists are quite satisfied
with the city's city branding concept. The creation of consumer satisfaction will benefit
producers of product or service providers because buyers feel fulfilled their desires and the
need to repurchase and create loyalty to services received, besides that they will recommend to
their relatives to use these products or services (Andalas & Kartika, 2015) Consumers who are
satisfied with certain brands / products tend to buy back the brand / product when the same
needs arise later (Sahiraliani, 2013). So basically here, tourists who feel satisfied or even loyal
can do a brand advocate about the city of Bandung to their relatives. As a result there will be an
information chain that is actually beyond the knowledge of the product provider (city
government).
In this globalization era, the tourism sector will be the main driver of the world
economy and become a globalizing industry. Tourism will provide a lot of income for regions
that are aware of their potential for the tourism sector. Tourism development in Indonesia is in
line with government programs in promoting tourism as an increase in foreign exchange
outside the oil and gas sector. The tourism development program launched since 1988 is
expected to be able to attract the presence of domestic and foreign tourists, which in turn will
bring income to the country's finances. To attract visiting tourists, of course, requires a good
marketing strategy. According to Saladin (2007) marketing is a total system of business
activities designed to plan, determine prices, promote and distribute goods that can satisfy
desires and achieve market goals and objectives of the company. Marketing in tourism has the
task of planning to find market opportunities by identifying tourist desires so that tourists can
get optimal satisfaction. According to Muljadi (2009) tourism marketing is an effort to identify
the needs and desires of tourists, and offer tourism products according to the wishes and needs
of tourists.
Digital technology has changed the face of the business world, including marketing
activities. Although digital marketing does not include techniques and practices that fall into
the category of internet marketing with ways to reach the target consumers who do not need
internet (mobile technology). Technology has changed the way humans talk, communicate, act,
and make decisions. Technology has become very effective in maximizing an organization's
bottom line. Digital marketing is actually a promotional activity both for a brand or product
using electronic media (digital). Tens of years ago, digital marketing media was very limited,
called television or radio which can only convey information in one direction. Today, with the
rapid development of digital technology and the wide acceptance of almost all levels of society,
no doubt the digital marketing model is one of the main channels.
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Bandung is the object in this study. Bandung is the capital city of West Java province
which has a myriad of tourist attractions that make tourists not run out of ideas for places to
visit, ranging from natural tourism, culinary to selfie tours. 2018 is a cool photo hunting trend
to upload to social media. Entrepreneurs in Bandung see this phenomenon as an opportunity
and create tourist attractions created to pamper visitors who want to take pictures. For this
reason, Bandung also known as the City of Flowers, more and more places that offer selfie
tours that attract public interest, especially tourists. The following are some selfie tours that can
be visited while in Bandung:
1. Rabbit Town
Rabbit Town is one of the selfie tourism locations in Jalan Rancabentang No.30,
Ciumbuleuit, Cidadap District, Bandung City, West Java. Rabbit Town became one of the
prima donna of selfie places in Flower City. There are a myriad of angles that can be so
cool to capture through camera shots. Open at 10.00 WIB, some rides that can be your
favorite photo spots are Lala Town Playground, Jungle Area, Love Light, and LA Store.
2. Candy House
When choosing the South Bandung area to become a holiday destination, don't forget to
stop by Candy House. A selfie place in Ciwidey offers a pink nuance that is equipped with
giant candies. The place is packed and feels so girly. Only need to pay Rp. 20 thousand, in
which there are several photographic areas, namely marshmallow heaven, candy light,
candy box, and pillow candy. Every corner in Candy House is so beautiful and must be
captured through camera shots.
3. This is Me
This Is Me is a brand new selfie tour in Bandung that has several rooms to take pictures,
there is a beauty room, a gym, a unicorn, and a ball bath. Inaugurated last November, the
selfie tourist spot on Cihampelas Street is now a favorite for photo lovers. The excellent
mainstay in this place is the feel of the photo like being on the edge of the beach. There is
beach sand, large umbrellas, and other ornaments that make you feel like you are on a real
beach.
4. D'Dieuland
Nuanced outdoor, D'Dieuland can be called the only tourist spot in the Punclut region. With
an area of 5,500 meters, you are guaranteed to be spoiled by the many photo spots here.
Come in the morning or evening, because the hot sun will be quite stinging during the day
and make your photos activities uncomfortable.
5. Centrum Million Balls
If you want to get a different selfie, come to Centrum Million Balls. There is a giant
swimming pool called Big Pool Party filled with orange plastic balls. The location is on
Jalan Belitung.
6. Kampoeng Tulip
Located in the Pasir Pogor Complex area, Banyu Biru Street, Kampoeng Tulip offers a
Dutch-style photo booth. Established since 2015 ago, here you can take pictures by renting
traditional Dutch clothes with style in some corners of the Netherlands.
7. Colourbox
There are eight rooms with 18 photo spots in Colourbox. The location is on Jalan Raya
Lembang, you only need to spend IDR 50 thousand to be able to take pictures in this area.
8. Farmhouse Susu Lembang
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Here tourists will feel they are in a Dutch-style village. The photo spots offered are super
numerous. The location is on Jalan Raya Lembang number 108.
9. Dago Dreampark
Not only a selfie tourist spot, tourist attractions on Jalan Dago Giri Km 2.2 Mekarwangi are
also interesting recreational places. These family attractions not only spoil both of their
parents, but also children will feel comfortable visiting here.
10. China Town
No need to fly to the Bamboo Curtain country to capture a Chinese-style photo. Just come
to China Town. Here you will find very Chinese photo attractions.
11. Upside Down World
The concept that presents a unique tourist spot, in the form of a photo tourist spot in this
upside down room, is in fact able to suck people who are curious to come to this place,
especially young people who exist in social media.
12. Amazing Art World 3D
This place will make hunters unique and artistic photos become more real because they are
specifically designed to satisfy tourists taking pictures with paintings or three-dimensional
backgrounds. Biggest 3D photo indoor.
As explained earlier, there are currently 1.86 billion active social media users
throughout the world. Each message uploaded on social media both photos and videos can be
witnessed by many people, and this is what makes every photo and video can be an information
for everyone who sees it. As well as uploading photos of natural tourism uploaded on social
media, whether consciously or not, the photo or video is able to provide information, giving
rise to attraction to the stage of action on the person who saw it. The presence of social media
for the development of the tourism sector in a city is a blessing in itself. Social media is a
forum for many people to show their existence, one of them is through selfies in a tourist spot.
And with the presence of social media such as Instagram, Facebook and Twitter, displaying
photos has its own space. Not a few also display photos of the tourist photographed profile.
Indirectly with the large number of social media users who upload the travel photos into a
promotion. No exception for tourism in Bandung which has been promoted by social media.
So, the number of photos of a tourist area on social media can be an indicator of the city's
tourism progress and also build a city branding for the city.
Conclusion
Digital technology has changed the face of the business world, including marketing
activities. Technology has changed the way humans talk, communicate, act, and make
decisions. Technology has become very effective in maximizing an organization's bottom line.
The implementation of city branding in an area or city will affect the decision of tourists to
visit it. Cities that already have branding or brands will have their own image for tourists
because they have characteristics that distinguish them from other cities so that they provide
different memories. Each message, both photos and videos uploaded on social media can be
witnessed by many people, and this is what makes every photo and video can be an information
for everyone who sees it. Moreover, the upload is a tourist spot in Bandung. With so many
people in general will be helped to get to know Bandung in depth from the tourist upload. As
well as uploading photos of natural tourism uploaded on social media, whether consciously or
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not, the photo or video is able to provide information, giving rise to attraction to the stage of
action on the person who saw it. The presence of social media for the development of the
tourism sector in a city is a blessing in itself. Social media is a forum for many people to show
their existence, one of them is through selfies in a tourist spot.
References
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ISSUES AND

CHALLENGES OF FOREIGN MIGRANT WORKER IN
MALDIVES: A CASE STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY IN MALE’
Mohammad Rauf1
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law and Islamic Studies, Maldives National University. Republic of Maldives.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Foreign migrant workers have become an integral part of construction industries in Maldives,
who have gradually become the main force and an indispensable component of development
tin the Maldives. A large numbers of foreign migrant workers are being recruited in the
construction sector each year, because the national workers have no interest to carry out such
works. This research paper evaluates the Socio- economic & legal issues and challenges faced
by the foreign migrant workers, who are being recruited particularly in the construction
industry of the Maldives. Therefore, the objectives of this study are to identify the factors that
contribute to the increase in the numbers of foreign workers, the problems faced by the
employers in employing foreign workers, and most importantly, the problems faced by the
foreign employees in working here and the factors that drive the employers to employ foreign
workers. On the basis of taking 100 migrant workers as sample to investigate, the paper
analyses on integration status in respects of their survival, employment and other levels, and
then gives the following countermeasures from four aspects: legal, social, economic and health.
The randomly selected respondents who are working in the construction sector of the Male’
City and their employers have been taken into account. Therefore, the study was carried out
using questionnaires forms which contain scale of 3 points. The data was analyzed and
presented using pie charts and bar graphs. The present study aims to analyze the problems of
construction workers in Male, Maldives in which the construction industries is booming at a
vast proportion and thus, there are greater migration construction workers. That’s why there is
a need to discuss the socio-economic and legal issues of Construction workers. The findings of
this study indicate that the foreign workers are being ill-treated here in this country which is
famous for beauty and is known as paradise of the world, due to inadequate legal mechanisms
to monitor the actions of the employers and the poor implementations measures. In addition,
their basic fundamental needs and rights are being violated, due to mistreatment done to the
workers. One in ten of the construction workers spent most of their time with those from their
own countries and only 10% spent any leisure time with Maldivian people. More than 79% of
the respondents had not received any training in health and safety and for the remaining 21%
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training that had been offered was generally limited to a short session at their induction. The
most predictable and significant factor identified by the results is
constructability, integrated design and construction which needs much more effort and
consideration in the Maldives construction industry and consequently, the recommendation
suggests that the changes need to be brought to the paper law regulatory framework.
Keywords: paradise, Construction industry, foreign workers, socio-economic
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The definition of ‘foreign migrant worker’ used in this paper is taken from the International
Labour Organization’s (ILO) definition of a ‘migrant for employment.2 Foreign migrant
workers are considered ‘regularly admitted’ or ‘regular’ when their entry and work activity
comply with the immigration laws of the country in which they work. (ILO).i
Labor migration is an important part of the current global economy (RMMRU Policy Brief 6,
iiiii
(2011). The construction industries in Maldives includes the construction of commercial and
non-commercial buildings and engineering projects like roads, bridges, and utility systems.
Construction includes both new construction and repairs. The building business and works of
construction industries in Maldives have made incredible progress in recent years. The growth
of the industry has also been subjected to increasing expatriate laborers in the country. In
addition to the Maldivian population of approximately 451,738, there are about 70,000 foreign
workers in Maldives, as well as 33,000 illegal immigrants, who make up about one-third of the
total population().3 The Maldives’ treatment of migrant workers is degrading enough for it to
be called ‘modern-day slavery.4 It is true that the construction sector is a very important sector
in the economy of the Maldives and plays a prominent role in providing the basic infrastructure
needed for socio-economic development. In this regard, it covers the construction of roads,
highways, harbours, ports and building of houses, offices, schools and apartments, etc.
Article 23 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right
to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to
protection against unemployment. This right to work and to just and fair condition of work is
guaranteed by the chapter 2 of the Constitution of the Maldives 2008 as well. However, in the
Maldives we see that foreign migrant workers face many social, economic & legal problems.
They often enjoy little social protection. At the same time, they face inequalities in the
employment and are vulnerable to exploitation and human trafficking. Though the construction
industry in the Maldives includes both large and medium sized private employer organizations,
and also public-sector employers operating in the sector, there had been number of companies
throughout the country recruiting and providing employment to the foreign workers, but the
majority of companies are located in Male’.
2
The definition of ‘foreign migrant worker’ used in this report is taken from the International Labour
Organization’s (ILO) definition of a ‘migrant for employment’, as being ‘a person who migrates from one
country to another with a view to being employed otherwise than on his or her own account’.
3
http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/maldives-population/ 2.10.2019
4
https://www.dhivehisitee.com/judiciary/migrant-workers-voice-illegal-and-silenced-in-the-maldives/ 2/5/2019
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Figure-1: Geographical Location of Study Area: Male
Most construction companies hire foreign worker through local recruitment agencies, both for
skilled technical jobs and unskilled labourer roles. Usually, the foreign labourers are from
neighboring Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines and India.5 However, the majority of
workers are recruited from Bangladesh. With the large increase in expatriate labour force, the
construction sector has also now become the single largest employer of the country’s expatriate
labour force and therefore, the construction industry is one of the sectors that attracted a large
number of foreign workers working at construction sites.
Statement of Problem
The foreign migrant worker or foreign employees who work in the construction sector are in an
adverse position in workplace. The foreign laborers who are working in the construction
industry in the Maldives are facing a number of socio-economic and legal challenges.
However, foreign or locals, we live in one society, after the foreign migrates to our country,
and on top of that we are humans, and all are same despite the fact that their native country is
different from us. Notwithstanding, foreign laborers are saddled with the burden of removing
social differences that exists between locals and migrant workers.
5
Bhattarai P. (2005). Migration of Nepalese youth for foreign employment: problem and prospects. (A review of
existing government policies and programmes). Youth Action of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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This social indifference has the result of maintaining the discrimination and ill treatment to the
foreign worker, which is against the objective of Article 7 of the Maldivian Constitution.6
Irrespective of this, employers have legal and moral obligation towards protecting the rights of
foreign workers in the workplace against unfair treatment. The sad truth is though the
employers are burdened with this responsibility, they are not fulfilling their obligation towards
the foreign workers recruited and working under them, in their construction companies. They
are also not abiding by to the laws that protect rights of the foreign labourers. Undocumented
migrant workers may not be willing to report a workplace injury because they are afraid of
being reported to immigration authorities or losing their jobs and not being able to find another
employer willing to take them on. Some workers are promised jobs to entice them to come to
the Maldives, but are not given the same type of job when they arrive.
The annual reports, assessments and surveys conducted by national and international
institutions over the past years is evident to prove that both the legal and institutional
framework relevant to foreign migrant workers need to be reformed. Greater emphasis needs to
be given to the foreign migrant workers in the legal system. Their rights need to be fully
protected under the law. Therefore, the goal of this study is to analyze the regulatory
framework of the Maldives in order to determine how well the socio-economic and legal rights
of the migrant workers are protected.
Literature Review
One of the subsequent results of the disparity between labour force and employment
opportunities is the high inflow of migrant workers into the Maldives, which is estimated to
exceed a quarter of the total population (Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report, August
2012). Therefore, the limitations of inspecting mechanisms for migrant workers, which at the
same time create exploitative work and living conditions for migrant workers and a heavy
economic burden on the country, has been an area of concern by the Government of the
Maldives.7
According to a study on lifestyle of Bangladeshi workers in the Maldives (Lifestyle of
Bangladeshi Workers in Maldives), the lifestyle of Bangladeshi workers will automatically
become favorable when legality is ensured. The study showed 87% of the Bangladeshi workers
stated that their work permit either expired or they were in the Maldives illegally after coming
on a visit visa.8
The protection of the rights of migrant workers has been the subject of increasing concern
throughout the United Nations system. Hence, a large array of international instruments exists
Chapter 2, Article 7 (a) of Maldives Constitution: Everyone is entitled to the rights and freedoms included in this
Chapter without discrimination of any kind, including race, national origin, colour, sex, age, mental or physical
disability, political or other opinion, property, birth or other status, or native island.
7
People’s Republic of Bangladesh: Updating and Improving the Social Protection Index, Technical Assistance
Consultant’s Report, Asian Development Bank, Project Number: 44152, August 2012, available at
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-document/76051/44152-012-reg-tacr-03.pdf, accessed on 7
November 2018.
8
Lifestyle of Bangladeshi Workers in Maldives, World Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 6. No. 2. July 2016
Special Issue. Pp. 144 – 154, available at
http://www.wjsspapers.com/static/documents/July/2016/13.%20Zaheed.pdf, accessed on 7 November 2018
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to provide parameters for the regulation of International migration and standards for human and
labour rights. This includes, International Human Rights Law, International Labour
Organisation and United Nations Conventions concerning migrant workers which provides a
complementary set of standards.9
In a publication issued by the Government of the Maldives (Labour & Migration- issue 1,
March 2016), the Government of the Maldives began work on reviewing the regulations
governing employment agencies to strengthen labour recruitment practices in the Maldives.
The Government of the Maldives also made initial steps in combating human trafficking issues
in the Maldives by enacting Anti-Human Trafficking Act (Law No: 12/2013) and publishing a
five-year National Action Plan on Anti-Human Trafficking in 2015. 10
Aim of Study
In the Maldives, migration and the economy are closely linked. Migrants dominate the
workforce, and represent nearly one-third of the entire population. The present study aims to
analyze the problems of construction workers in Male, Maldives in which the construction
industries are booming at a vast proportion and thus, there are greater migration construction
workers. That’s why there is an imminence need to discuss the socio-economic and legal issues
of Construction workers.
Scope & Area of the Study

The present research work titled “socio-economic and legal issues and challenges of foreign
migrant worker in Maldives: a case study of construction industry in Male`” study in detail the
various socio-economic, legal, health, and hygienic and safety equipment aspects of foreign
migrant worker. The study depends on six important construction companies of Maldives. The
study undertakes an in-depth analysis of foreign migrant worker and socio-legal awareness of
labourer, transactional security and problems. It examines the legal challenges, origin and
growth of migrant workers in Male. The study has been undertaken by random selection of six
construction companies. It will prove to be highly useful for academic, businessmen,
employee’s social worker and policy-makers, lawyer, young researchers and multinational
companies.
Research Objectives
The objective of the study is to identify the factors that contribute to the increase in the
numbers of foreign workers, the problems faced by the employees, and employers in hiring the
foreign workers and the factors that drive the employers to employ foreign workers. The
specific objectives are:
 To examine the standing of the ‘foreign migrant workers’ as a specific subject of protection
in Maldivian legal framework.
9
International Legal Framework For the Protection of Migrant Workers, available at
https://www.osce.org/eea/19246?download=true, accessed on 7 November 2018.
10
Maldives Anti-Human Trafficking National Action Plan 2015-2019, available at http://www.baliprocess-rso-
roadmap.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Maldives_Anti-Human-Trafficking-National-Action-Plan-2015-2019.pdf, accessed
on 7 November 2018
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 To study socio-economic and legal issues and challenges within the Migrant workforce in
the Male.
 To establish strong relationship between employer and employee.
Importance of the Study

The Foreign migrant workers are important for the construction industries of Male thus, this
paper explores importance in order to obtain greater understanding of foreign worker, and to
define the socio-economic and legal challenges and opportunities that they face in Male’.
Although foreign migrant worker is not a new phenomenon in itself, the importance of this
study which looks for a new perspective on this matter have not been studied thoroughly yet,
which makes the chosen research approach the most appropriate.
Assessment & Purpose of Study

The purpose of study is to improve the protection of migrant workers and to ensure that the
needs of the labour market, revise its migration and foreign employment policies, including re-
evaluating its quota system, increase awareness of arriving migrant workers of their rights and
the obligations of employers and the government, disseminate information on how to seek
assistance and increase the capacity of the government to collect and analyze data to assess its
labour market needs.
Assumptions & Hypothesis

The hypothesis created in this study is descriptive research which has studied the present
conditions of migrant worker that is, with the increase of migrant labor forces in the
construction industry of the Maldives, the number of challenges and issues faced by them are
increasing. Moreover, the legal mechanisms that are governing the foreign migrant workers are
inadequate and failure to implement and enforce it by the employers and the government
authorities, the basic fundamental rights of the foreign migrant workers are being violated.
The problem statement in this paper is focused on both qualitative and quantitative analysis
through survey methods, including questionnaire and a few interviews. Both primary and
secondary data was collected for the purpose of this study. Secondary data have been collected
from various sources including websites, newspapers, various published and unpublished
article etc.
The level of this analysis will be on foreign migrant construction workers. It is necessary to get
an in-depth knowledge about the entire possible foreign migrant construction industries worker,
meaning that the descriptive research approach will be qualitative and quantitative in order to
obtain greater understanding of foreign worker, and to define the challenges and opportunities
that it faces in the study area.
Questionnaire Design
The research design is the conceptual structure of which the research has been conducted. The
research is the overall configuration of a piece of the collected data.
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The questionnaire consists of 20 questions which were grouped into 5 sections social, legal,
economic, health & hygienic and safety issues. All questions were multiple-choice questions
with 3 possible answer choices including yes/no/can’t say statements. The questionnaire has
definite advantages of requiring a smaller time to be responded and more accuracy in the final
outcomes. Factors affecting the labour issues in construction Industries were identified through
the literature based on previous research, with input, revision, and modification by the
researcher.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

This research is based on the survey designed to gather all necessary information in effective
way. The survey presents a questionnaire which consists of twenty questions printed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms. The respondent has answered the questions on
available options. Objective type questions have been designed in survey. The results of survey
has been shown in images graphs & pie chart. The questionnaire was designed on socio-
economic and legal issues and challenges. Three-point scale has been used as: yes, no and can’t
say. The data collected were analyzed for the entire sample.
Data interpretation
Quantitative data can be analyzed using a spread sheet program like Microsoft excels to
calculate, calculate percentage of worker who responded in survey. Studied have been carried
out on foreign migrant workers. Questions are related to socio-economic and legal issues in
which the given options are Yes, No and can’t say.
Limitation of Study
The researcher usually come across many constraints and barriers in the course of his
study.The present study on socio-economic and legal issues and challenges of foreign migrant
worker in Maldives: a case study of construction industry in Male’ was not an easy task.
During the course of present study, the researcher faced many problems which were resolved
to the desired level; however, these were very cumbersome and time consuming. The
following are the main limitations of the study:
1. The procedure to visit the place and collect the data was very complex.
2. In this study, the data that was collected with the help of questionnaires from selected
respondents are taken due to time and cost constraints.
3. Few researchers have earlier conducted the research in the region on the foreign migrant
worker in construction industries, there for it was difficult to get information about the
same.
4. Majority of the employer do not maintain proper legal document of work timing, and socio-
economic security Process. However, efforts on the part of the researcher was to managed
and gather the adequate information as much as possible for the purpose of data analysis.
All the aspects relating to the foreign migrant worker in Maldives could not be covered in the
present study and thereby leaving scope for further research in the field. However sincere
efforts have been made by the researcher to make the study potentially meaningful which will
serve as a milestone for further studies in the field.
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Observation and Finding: Result

The questionnaires findings have been collected and presented under main categories which
reflects the major themes discussed in the questionnaires. It is important to note that the
migrant worker’s companies were selected by the researcher randomly. Finally, the fact that
some of the informants had limited English language ability (with some being questionnaires
through an interpreter) may have adversely affected the depth of their responses to the
questionnaires questions, thus affecting the identification of underlying socio-economic and
legal issues and challenges. This is a descriptive research which has studied the present
conditions. The relevant data was collected based on foreign migrant worker. A majority 52 %
of construction workers are 18-30 age groups, 13% construction worker are 16-18 while 35%
age groups of 30--55 are of construction workers.
The priority issues identified in study are social, economic & legal protection and promotion of
human rights which importantly highlights the inclusion of migrants in the host country.
Sometimes, there are evidences of discrimination and limited access to basic services to
migrants and their families. It is also important to ensure obligations of migrants towards host
country.
I: Legal Issues
Undocumented migrant workers may not be willing to report a workplace injury because they
are afraid of being reported to immigration authorities or losing their jobs and not being able to
find another employer willing to take them on. Some workers are promised jobs to entice them
to come to the Maldives, but are not given the same type of job when they arrive. 92% of
respondents are not aware of employment rights and protections guaranteed by the
Employment Act of Maldives.
Figure 2: Dhaka Airport View

(Source: http://1hu9t72zwflj44abyp2h0pfe-wpengine.netdna and goodle.com/search?)
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According to survey analysis 55% of workers have valid work visa, whereas 25% not having
validity of work visa and 20% answered no. The 56% of respondents don’t have pass port with
them, while.49% have written contract.
Figure3: Four Legal Issues
Protection means elimination of exploitation and respect for basic human rights and rights at
works of all migrant workers. Yet this is far from the case in practice. Majority construction
workers do not have safety committee on the construction site.
II: Social Issues

The key to understand an economy is by studying the number of persons engaged in different
economic activities. Most foreign laborers are employed in the construction industry, where
there are 34260 of them. Second comes the tourism industry, which has employed 13488
expatriates. In the fishing industry there are 1103 foreign workers.11 It costs 10,000-12000
rufiyaa to rent a one room flat in Male due to which of majority 92% Construction workers are
living up to 10 persons in one room in inhuman conditions.
11
https://en.sun.mv/8537
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Figure 4: Kind of Laborers & Equipment’s

(Source:http://statisticsmaldives.gov.mv/nbs/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/StatisticalReleaseIV-Employment.pdf)
Construction Laborers
Laborers work on site to do the hard physical work; such as digging, building, unloading,
clearing, and assisting craftspeople.
Construction Equipment Operators

In this type of job, expert drive or operate equipment and machinery such as; Excavator,
Bulldozer & Trencher to build and repair roads, buildings, and more. The foreign workers were
found to be valued in construction industries where they were employed; the survey found that
the employers were dependent on this source of labour. The role played by foreign workers was
widely expected to increase.
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Social Issues
100
89
90
80
70 65
60
50 45
39
40 35 33
28
30
20 20
20 15
9
10
2
0
Do you believe that Do you work more Do you have any Do you spent most of
you have a good than 48 hours per construction your time with your
relation with your week? experience in your own country people?
employees? country?
Yes no Can’t say
Figure5: Social Issues
The graph shows 41% of respondents explain that employment agency promises a higher wage
and a better job than what they were actually offered by the employer. 65% respondents works
on site for 8-9 hours., while 13% workers work for 9-10 hours. and 5 % construction workers
are works for above10 hours. Most of 89% respondents spent most of time with his own
country propels.
III: Economic Issues

Foreign migrant workers always face economic issues in getting equal treatment with that of
other workers. First and foremost, foreign workers often do not get their salary on time due to
the inefficient arrangement of their employers.
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Economic Issues
80 73
70
60
50 44
42
40
29 29 29
27
30
20 15
12
10
0
yes no can't say
Are you satisfied with your salary?
Do you have prior construction experience?
Did the employment agency promise you a higher wage and a better job than what
you were actually offered by the employer?
Figure6: Economic Issues
Only 15% of the workers had any prior construction experience while working in their home
country, although three quarters had worked exclusively in construction since coming to the
Male. 44% employment agency promise worker a high wage and a better job than they were
actually offered by the employer. All of the employers, suggested that foreign migrant
construction workers were required because of the current skills shortage in the Male.
However, they went on to add that, essentially, migrant workers were cheap, flexible and had a
different, more positive attitude to work. The wages of construction workers range from 44% in
the range $-300, 28 % are in the range of $-350 and 8% are of more than $-350.
IV: Health and Hygienic Issues

Migration is a social determinant of health that can impact the health and well-being of
individuals and communities. The construction industry has one of the highest incident rates of
psychosocial health problem such as stress, fatigue & burnout. Migration can improve the
health status of migrants and their families by escaping from persecution and violence, by
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improving socio-economic status.12 Undocumented workers are usually deprived entirely of

legal protection and are therefore highly vulnerable to exploitation. However, documented
worker also faces problems.
Health & Hygienic

100
89
90
80
67 69.1
70
60
50
50 41
40 30.9
30 30
30
20
7 9
10 4 3
0
Are you satisfied with your Are you satisfied with your Do you have current access Do you have regular
current accommodation in quality of life in the Male? to health care services? medical cheek up?
the Male?
yes no can't say
Figure7: Health and Hygienic Issues
The above graph shows around 89% of respondents are not satisfied with the current
accommodation in Male. Moreover 67% are not satisfied with the quality of life and round
50% of respondent subjects discussed their health problems, more than 50% of the respondents
do not have regular medical checkup, while they practiced common medicines (without the
prescription of Doctor) for their illness.
Labour workers may be housed in unsanitary conditions, which are especially dangerous for
health. If the company provides food for its employees, it is often low quality. With many male
worker living together in the same facility, important items such as showers and toilets may
break down, which may go against the essence of Article 37 (b) of Maldives Constitution.13
Migrant workers are also subject to harsh conditions on the job, such as working in extreme
weather for long hours with no breaks, thus violate Article 37(c) of Maldives Constitution.14
The sanitation and hygiene of the construction site remains unsatisfactory. Foreign migrant
workers can be exposed to many risk factors during their working life and they therefore face an
12
IOM Maldives Country Promme,2017: International Organization for Migration(IOM), the UN Migration
Agency
13
Article 37 (b) of Maldives Constitution (2008) enshrines that “Everyone is entitled to just and safe conditions of
work, fair wages, equal remuneration for work of equal value, and equal opportunity for promotion.”
14
Article 37 (c) of Maldives Constitution (2008) prescribes that “Everyone has the right to spend time on rest and
leisure, including limits on hours of work and periodic holidays with pay.”
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increased risk of developing health problems. To prevent ill health among construction workers, it is
important that effective measures are taken by both employers and workers.
V: Safety Equipment
Safety in construction sites is needed to be highly considered in order to reduce the risk of
being injured at work. Safety is also identified as one of the major factors affecting the image
of the company.
Safety Issues
44
Do you satisfied with the safety measures at
35
your work place?
21
6
Does your company have a safety committee 81
13
Does your company have an injury 2

management/rehabilitation/policy/program
69
for employees who suffer work related
29
injury/illnesses?
3
Does your company hold regular “toolbox” 76
safety meetings?
21
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Series3 Series2 Series1
Figure 8: Safety Issues
Graph, shows 76% 0f company does not hold regular “toolbox” safety meetings. 69 % of the
workers had gained any prior construction experience while working in their home country.
Most of workers have no prior construction experience, so employer have responsibility to
launch a multilingual safety initiative to reduce the number of site accidents. Thus most of the
company started a 10-20-minute discussion. which were in Bengali, Hindi and Hhiveli.
21 % respondents are satisfied with the safety measures at work place.
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Conclusion and Recommendation

From analyzed results about obtained data by the researcher and literature materials, it can be
seen that Construction is one of the industries with the highest projections for new employment
opportunities. Positions vary ranging from unskilled laborer and helper jobs to roles that
require extensive training, education, and skills. However, the problems related to the
employment of foreign workers are numerous. Migrant workers come to the Maldives in
search of jobs. They face challenges that are not present for native workers. Many of them do
not have the required paperwork to stay in the country legally, so they face the constant threat
of deportation. If government want to change their situations, there is a need to improve the
level of social integration, society and then the migrant workers must be allowed work together
to make them realize the fruits of welfare policies.
Therefore, assessments of the major problems faced by the foreign laborers and with what their
employer’s say in this regard are done. To achieve this, the views and personnel experiences of
the randomly selected respondents who are being working in the construction sector of the
Male’ City and their employers are being taken into account.
The most predictable and significant factor identified by the results the worsening condition of
worker, which needs much more effort and consideration in the Maldivian construction
industries. This confirms the significance of applying this concept to the construction industry
and asserting the pivotal role of the good and smooth relationship between employer and
employee in process. Thus the employer should provide strong assistance and support
regarding health and socio-legal issues of their workers in order to secure that the migrant
construction workers are safe and secure, and also able to access their basic rights.
Reference
Aziz A. (2001). Bangladeshi Migrant workers in Malaysia’s Construction Sector. Asia- Pacific
Population Journal
Ahmed, SN (2009). Study on the International Demand for Semi–skilled and Skilled
Bangladeshi Workers, Maxwell Stamp.
A. (2005). “Factors affecting construction labour productivity for Malaysian residential
projects.” J. Struct. Surv., 23(1), 42–54.
Chunguang Wang. The relationship between new-generation migrant’s social integration and
social identity, Sociology, 2001, p68-75
Chunguang Wang. The relationship between new-generation migrant’s social integration and
social identity, Sociology, 2001, p68-75.
Elias, J. (2008). Struggles over the Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia: The
Possibilities and Limitations of 'Rights Talk'. Economy and Society, 37(2), 282-303.
Islam and Chowdhuri, (2012). Socio-Economic Factors of Readymade Garments Workers in
Bangladesh, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 15, No. 1, Pp. 305-325
Ministry of Planning and National Development, 2006, Maldives, Population and Housing
Census 2006, Summary Tables, Population and Housing.
Kaur, A., 2012. ‘Labour Brokers in Migration: Understanding Historical and Contemporary
Transnational Migration Regimes in Malaya/Malaysia’. International Review of Social History,
57: 225–52.
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Kaur, A., 2004. Wage Labour in Southeast Asia since 1840: Globalisation, the International
Division of Labour and Labour Transformations. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kaur, A., 2006. ‘Order (and Disorder) at the Border: Mobility, International Labour Migration
and Border Controls in Southeast Asia.’ In Mobility, Labour Migration and Border Controls in
Asia, eds A. Kaur and I. Metcalfe, 23–51. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tirtosudarmo, R., 2011. ‘Migrant Workers as a Constitutional Challenge for Indonesia’. Paper
presented at the conference on ‘Migrant Workers in Asia: Policies and Practices in Social
Sciences’, MOST–LIPI, July (UNESCO).
Thoburn, J., 1977. Primary Commodity Exports and Economic Development: A Study of
Malaysia. Chichester: JohnWiley. Thompson, V.T., 1943. Post-Mortem on Malaya. New York:
Macmillan.
Liu, M., Ballard, G., & Ibbs, W. (2011). “Work flow variation and labor productivity: Case
study.” J. Manage. Eng.
Piirto, J., Johansson, A., Lang, V. (eds). (2011) Eurostat European Commission,
Luxembourg’Labour market’. In: Europe in Figures; Eurostat yearbook 2011.
Mohsin, S. (2015). Tragedy in the Maldives, Daily Tribune, Viewed on Jul 1 2015
Gomar, J. E., Haas, C. T., and Morton, D. P. (2002). “Assignment and allocation optimization
of partially multiskilled workforce.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
9364(2002)128:2(103), 103–109.
Petrongolo, Barbara, and Christopher A. Pissarides,2001, “Looking into the black box: A
survey of the matching function,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 39, No. 2.
UN Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families
(ICMW), 1990, United Nations: New York.
The State Council Research Task Force. Research Report on China's migrant workers. Beijing,
China Yanshi Press, 2006.
Shimer, Robert, 2005, “The cyclicality of hires, separations, and job-to-job transitions,”
Review, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Vol. 87, No. 4.
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SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR VAT FACILITIES RELEASED

TO PT RAI
(Transaction Case Study in January 2016)
Atin Hafidiah1
1
Business Administration Department, Faculty Of Social and Politic, Bandung, Pasundan University
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Basically all goods and services traded are taxable goods and taxable services, so they are
subject to Value Added Tax (PPN), except for the types of goods and services as stipulated in
article 4A of Law No.8 of 1983 concerning Value Added Tax on Goods and Services and Sales
Tax on Luxury Goods as amended several times, the latest by Law No.42 of 2009. This
research was conducted at PT VNP which aims to find out how the presentation of operating
income and non operating income in the income statement, how to report Value Added Tax
Period SPT and how to implement equalization between income statements with the report on
Value Added Tax Period SPT in 2017. This study discusses the presentation of operating
income and non operating income along with the reporting of the Value Added Tax Period SPT
that is correct. Furthermore, the implementation of equalization is the difference between
turnover in the income statement and the Value Added Tax Period SPT. Value Added Tax
(VAT) is the tax imposed on each value added of goods or services in circulation from
consumer producers. This tax is collected through a Tax Invoice at a single rate of 10% of the
Tax Base (DPP). However, in VAT Value Added Tax) there are several facilities provided by
the government for certain business sectors. This research was conducted at PT RAI which
aims to find out how the calculation of Value Added Taxes includes how Tax Invoice issued to
consumers, depositing Value Added Tax on the delivery of strategic Taxable Goods as well as,
reporting on import Value Added Taxes related to Value Added Tax Facilities freed from
import of feeder cattle at PT RAI.This study disc usses the special treatment in the form of
Value Added Tax facilities for imported calves at PT RAI. The problem that arises is when PT
RAI issues a tax invoice with a special stamp of Value Added Tax facilities discussed in the
calculation of Value Added Tax, there is no obligation to make a deposit but PT RAI still has
to report every month despite obtaining the Value Added Tax facility exempt from delivery and
/ or import of cattle is going. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that PT RAI
has carried out its obligation to carry out periodic reporting every month but there was an error
in giving a stamp that this happened because PT RAI staff were lacking so PT RAI had to issue
a Replacement Invoice with a stamp in accordance with applicable regulations.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The existence of globalization in the economic field has had such a huge impact on
some countries, one of which is Indonesia, with the globalization of the economy such as the
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ASEAN economic community making trade in the ASEAN region easier and more
productive. But in addition to having a positive impact, globalization in the economic field
has a negative impact including the increasing competitiveness of business actors both from
the same country and from different countries in all business fields. Seeing this concern, the
Indonesian government also provides facilities for businesses in Indonesia which are
expected to help increase productivity and sales at prices that are in line with the market so
that business people in Indonesia can compete with business people from various countries.
Even this has a good impact on the country because with the increase in the level of
productivity of business people it will also increase state income from one source of income,
namely from the tax sector.
Related to the facilities provided by the government to business actors is the existence
of special treatment in the form of Value Added Tax (PPN) facilities released and not
collected. Value Added Tax (VAT) is one type of tax that has a close relationship with
business actors. Value Added Tax (VAT) exists in every transaction carried out by everyone
whether it is done by taxpayers or non-taxpayers, they must still pay for it. Therefore, with
the special treatment in the form of VAT facilities being released and not collected, it is very
petrifying for businesses so that they do not need to pay VAT for the transactions they do,
but to get special treatment is not easy. The perpetrators must fulfill several conditions, one
of which is the product they sell is classified into taxable goods of a strategic nature and / or
goods not subject to taxation and / or services not taxable.
This happened to PT RAI, which is a company that runs a cattle feedlot business
whose raw materials are obtained from abroad, namely Australia. PT RAI is one of the many
companies that have entered the classification of business actors who receive special
treatment in the form of VAT facilities released, this occurs because the products sold by PT
RAI are classified as taxable goods of a strategic nature. So with the acquisition of special
treatment in the form of VAT facilities released there will certainly be several accounts in
the financial statements affected, besides that despite getting the VAT facility released PT
RAI must keep reporting it on Notification Letter (SPT) of VAT Period, whether reporting
SPA the special treatment in the form of a VAT facility was released which was carried out
by PT RAI in accordance with applicable regulations. In this final project the author focuses
on research for the period of 2016, but for the case of imports focused on January - June,
while for domestic sales in January alone, this is because the data obtained are quite
different so that there is a difference in the month of research. Therefore, based on the
problems that arise after obtaining special treatment as described above, the author is
interested in conducting research under the title "SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR VAT
FACILITIES IS FREE TO PT RAI (Transaction Case Study in January 2016)".
1. How is the calculation of Value Added Tax (VAT) on imports related to the special
treatment in the form of Value Added Tax (PPN) facilities released?
2. How is the deposit of Value Added Tax (PPN) related to the special treatment in the
form of Value Added Tax (PPN) facilities released?
3. How is the VAT Period SPT reporting related to the special treatment in the form of
Value Added Tax (PPN) facilities released?
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Literature Review
Tax according to Article 1 number 1 of Law No. 6 of 1983 as lastly amended by Law
No. 28 of 2007 concerning general provisions and procedures for taxation are "compulsory
contributions to the state owed by individuals or entities that are compelling based on the
Law, with no direct reciprocity and used for the state's needs for the greatest prosperity of
the people"
The tax collection system is a method used to calculate the amount of a person's tax to be
paid to the country he occupies. There are 3 types of collection systems, namely the official
Assessment system, the self assessment system, and the holding system, but what is
implemented in Indonesia is the self assessment system.
One type of tax that exists in Indonesia and is very inherent in our daily lives, namely
Value Added Tax (VAT). VAT is a tax imposed on each value added of goods or services in
circulation from producers to consumers.
Based on VAT Law No. 42 of 2009 article 4, the VAT object consists of:
a. delivery of Taxable Goods in the Customs Area carried out by the Entrepreneur;
b. import of Taxable Goods;
c. delivery of Taxable Services in the Customs Area carried out by Entrepreneurs;
d. utilization of Intangible Taxable Goods from outside the Customs Area within the
Customs Area;
e. utilization of Taxable Services from outside the Customs Area within the Customs Area;
f. export of Tangible Taxable Goods by Taxable Entrepreneurs;
g. export of Intangible Taxable Goods by Taxable Entrepreneurs; and;
h. export of Taxable Services by Taxable Entrepreneurs.
In Value Added Tax (PPN) there are facilities provided by the government with
various objectives including to meet the needs and maintain economic stability in Indonesia,
the VAT facility implemented in Indonesia in accordance with PPN Law No. 42 of 2009
consists of 3 types, namely:
a. Not subject to VAT (Article 4A of Law No. 42 of 2009)
b. VAT is not collected (Article 16B of the PPN Law No. 42 of 2009) on the delivery of
Taxable Goods (BKP) or Taxable Services (JKP), the Input Tax (PM) paid can be
credited.
c. VAT was released (Article 16B of the PPN Law No. 42 of 2009) on the delivery of
Taxable Goods (BKP) and Taxable Services (JKP), the Input Tax (PM) paid cannot be
credited.
While Income Tax (PPh) Article 22 is tax collected on the delivery of goods / services,
imports and other business fields.
Which is the object of pph 22 collection include:
a. Imported goods
b. Payment of goods purchased by the Directorate General of Budget, Treasurer of the
Government both at the Central and Regional Government levels
c. Payment of goods purchased by State-Owned Enterprises and Regional-Owned
Enterprises whose funds are from state expenditure and / or regional expenditure
d. Sales of domestic products made by business entities engaged in the cement industry,
cigarette industry, paper industry, steel industry and the automotive industry
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e. Sales of production carried out by Pertamina and business entities other than Pertamina
which are engaged in premix and gas fuels.
f. Purchase of materials for industrial or export industrial purposes and exporters engaged in
the forestry, plantation, agriculture and fisheries sectors of collecting traders.
g. Sales of the ranks that are classified as very luxurious,
Discussion and Conclution

PT RAI is a company engaged in cattle fattening farms or commonly referred to as
cattle feedlot companies, which are then resold to sellers of beef cattle or factories that make
canned food. PT RAI is located at Jalan Cisanggiri V No. 4 RT / RW 005/04 petogogan
village, Kebayoran Baru Subdistrict, South Jakarta.
Before making sales transactions to beef cattle agents or canned food factories, PT
RAI purchases supplies to cattle farmers in Australia with good quality. After conducting the
transaction, the cows will be sent to Indonesia by sea, which will then be taken at Tanjung
Priok Port. PT RAI must complete the Customs and Excise document and complete the tax
administration in the form of Value Added Tax (VAT). imports as well as article 22 import
Income Tax (PPh) which will then be paid by PT RAI.
Income Tax Article 22 imposed on PT RAI constitutes the PP 22 on behalf of the
payment of the tax that is directly carried out together with the payment of Value Added Tax
(VAT) over prior collection of goods at the port, while Value Added Tax (VAT) for the
distribution of tax due to strategic taxation of cattle is not necessary to collect Value Added
Tax. VAT) on the sale because it gets special treatment in the form of VAT facilities
released, along with calculation, deposit, reporting and different from the VAT Period SPT
report that gets the VAT facilities released and which does not get facilities.
Calculation of Taxes Added Value (VAT)

Table of import transactions of PT RAI
In carrying out the PT RAI feedlot business conducting transactions with Australian
countries to meet the availability of consumer goods, the transaction was PT RAI subjected
to 2 types of taxpayers' top 22 import and import VAT. However, for the import VAT of PT
RAI, the PPN facility was freed due to the object or the tax plots that were imported by PT
RAI from the illegal debt in the Taxable Goods (BKP) were strategic.
The following transaction data on purchase of installments are carried out by PT RAI:
Transaction Table Import

Month Unit Price of Quarantine Amount of VAT Import Tax Income Import
Unit and Import Duty
January 2599 13,747,340 35,729,337,101 2,217,769,000 37,947,106,101 Rp. 525,288,000
February 2148 14,164,043 30,424,364,023 1,857,120,000 32,281,484,023 Rp. 807,037,100
March 1419 14,455,641 20,512,554,678 1,171,605,000 21,684,159,678 Rp. 542.103,991
April 1000 13,380,884 13,850,883,766 1,212,844,000 15,063,727,766 Rp. 376,593,194
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May 534 13,414,238 7,163,203,232 885,001,000 8,048,204,232 Rp. 412,060,000

June 4846 10,677,513 51,743,228,149 2,828,075,500 54,571,303,649 Rp. 293,472,000
Table of transactions on local sales
PT RAI sells its inventory in the form of domestic feeder cattle to both individuals and
entities. For the sales transaction, PT RAI should have an obligation to collect VAT on
domestic donors. However, because the object or goods sold are classified as goods, why is
it not strategic? PT RAI got the VAT facility released.
The following recapitulation data on the sale of domestic cows in transactions in January
2016:
Recapitulation Table of Cattle Sales
Recapitulation Table of Cattle Sales

Name of User Unit Weight Amount Price Total Sales VAT
H AdiWarsitoh 292 130.690 19.599.093 5.722.935.156 0
H Abdullah Faqih 38 17.235 19.956.203 758.335.714 0
Andy Trianto 157 69.814 19.565.618 3.071.802.026 0
H Ahmad IbnuAtho 278 122.392 19.283.405 5.360.786.590 0
H AmatRachmat 128 56.369 19.375.976 2.480.252.928 0
H Mahidin 216 95.512 19.367.806 4.183.446.096 0
H Tohir 122 54.610 19.695.557 2.402.857.954 0
PT Halal Toyyiban Food 24 11.401 20.901.467 501.635.208 0
Yansen Alexander 354 154.152 19.073.048 6.751.858.992 0
BumiAgri Citra 8 3.603 19.817.173 158.537.384 0
PT RAI 2 0 0 0 Dead Cow
Even though PT RAI obtained the facility in the form of VAT, both for delivery and /
or import, but when importing goods and / or surrender strategic taxable goods in the form
of cows belonging to PT RAI livestock, they still have an obligation to issue VAT invoices
as the invoice issued by the company can not get the facility to issue VAT invoices, except
that at the bottom right next to the barcode there is a stamp that says "VAT IS RELEASE
ACCORDING TO PP NUMBER 146 OF 2000 AS HAS BEEN CHANGED BY PP
NUMBER 38 OF 2003".
Depositing Tax Added Value (VAT)

In carrying out the feedlot activities of PT RAI cattle has imported cattle to be used as
inventory to meet consumer demand, when PT RAI imports it, PT RAI will be charged some
administrative fees in the form of payment of Import Duty and Article 22 Income Tax so
that it can take imported, PT RAI must make deposits in advance, while for import VAT, PT
RAI has no obligation to deposit because cows are strategic taxable goods. This is different
from the VAT for domestic surrender that the VAT can be deposited no later than the end of
the following month. Depositing of VAT can be done through a post office or bank that has
been appointed by the government, amounting to the nominal stated in the Goods Import
Declaration (PIB). Whereas for VAT on the surrender of domestic PT RAI cattle getting
special treatment in the form of VAT facilities was released so that PT RAI did not need to
deposit VAT on domestic sales or surrender transactions.
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Reporting VAT Period SPT

Although PT RAI obtained special treatment for free VAT facilities and included tax
on impregnated VAT, PT RAI still had the obligation to report the Value Added Tax (VAT)
SPT by using the VAT Period Tax Return form.VAT SPT is a Value Added Tax report form
and Luxury goods sales tax (PPnBM) that must be filled and reported by Taxable
Entrepreneurs and generally delivered every month reported by Taxable Entrepreneurs and
generally delivered every month.
Even though the VAT Period SPT reporting can already be done electronically, but PT RAI
still uses the manual method namely as follows:
a) PT RAI takes the form of the VAT Period Tax Return every month for the Pratama Tax
Service Office in Kebayoran Baru 3.
b) Completion of VAT Period Returns
1. PT RAI fills in the Notification Letter in Indonesian using Latin letters, Arabic
numerals, rupiah units, and signs and submits to the office of the Directorate General
of Taxes where Taxpayers are confirmed.
2. Completion of VAT SPT must be completed completely, correctly and signed by the
president director of PT RAI.
3. The VAT Period Tax Return must be completed in full, in the form of an attached
statement, the SPT which is not complete is considered never delivered.
c) Submission of VAT Period SPT
PT RAI delivered the VAT Period Tax Return to the Pratama Tax Office (KPP)
Kebayoran Baru Tiga
Discussion and Analysis

In the author's paper, it will discuss the problems that are found in Chapter I with the data
obtained from PT RAI, so that it can be known whether PT RAI has made an obligation
and has access to applicable regulations.
Calculation of VAT on PT RAI's trip

In carrying out the PT RAI feedlot business conducting transactions with Australian
countries to meet the availability of consumer goods, the transaction was PT RAI subjected
to 2 types of taxpayers' top 22 import and import VAT. However, for the import VAT of PT
RAI, the VAT facility was freed due to the object or the tax plots that were imported by PT
RAI from the illegal debt in the Taxable Goods (BKP) were strategic.
The following transaction data on purchase transactions are carried out by PT RAI:
Calculation Method:
a. Import VAT
1. Month of January
Rp. 37,947,106,101 x 0% = Rp. 0
2. February
Rp. 32,281,484,023 x 0% = Rp. 0
3. March
Rp. 21,684,159,678 x 0% = Rp. 0
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4. April
Rp. 15,063,727,766 x 0% = Rp. 0
5. May
Rp. 8,048,204,232 x 0% = Rp. 0
6. June
Rp. 54,571,303,649 x 0% = Rp. 0
b. Income Tax 22 Imports

1. Month of January
Rp. 525,288,000
2. February
Rp. 32,281,484,023 x 2.5% = Rp. 807,037,100
3. March
Rp. 21,684,159,678 x 2.5% = Rp. 542.103,991
4. April
Rp. 15,063,727,766 x 2.5% = Rp. 376,593,194
5. May
Rp. 412,060,000
6. June
Rp. 293,472,000
Transaction table for local sales

PT RAI sold its inventory in the form of domestic feeder cattle to both individuals and
entities, for the sales transaction PT RAI should have an obligation to collect VAT for
domestic surrender. then PT RAI gets the VAT facility released.
The following are summary data on domestic cattle sales in transactions in January 2016
Table of Recapitulation on Sales
Recapitulation of Sales
Name Of User Unit Weight Price Amount Total Sales VAT
H AdiWarsitoh 292 130.690 19.599.093 5.722.935.156 0
H Abdullah Faqih 38 17.235 19.956.203 758.335.714 0
Andy Trianto 157 69.814 19.565.618 3.071.802.026 0
H Ahmad IbnuAtho 278 122.392 19.283.405 5.360.786.590 0
H AmatRachmat 128 56.369 19.375.976 2.480.252.928 0
H Mahidin 216 95.512 19.367.806 4.183.446.096 0
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H Tohir 122 54.610 19.695.557 2.402.857.954 0
PT Halal Toyyiban Food 24 11.401 20.901.467 501.635.208 0
Yansen Alexander 354 154.152 19.073.048 6.751.858.992 0
BumiAgri Citra 8 3.603 19.817.173 158.537.384 0
PT RAI 2 0 0 0 Dead Cow
Calculation VAT in the country:

Sumber : PT RAI 2018
1. H AdiWarsitoh
Rp. 5.722.935.156 x 0% = Rp 0
2. H Abdullah Faqih
Rp. 758.335.714 x 0% = Rp 0
3. Andy Trianto
Rp. 3.071.802.026 x 0% = Rp 0
4. H Ahmad IbnuAtho
Rp. 5.360.786.590 x 0% = Rp 0
5. H AmatRachmat
Rp. 2.480.252.928 x 0% = Rp 0
6. H Mahidin
Rp. 4.183.446.096 x 0% = Rp 0
7. PT Halal Toyyiban Food
Rp. 501.635.208 x 0% = Rp 0
8. Yansen Alexander
Rp. 56.751.858.992 x 0% = Rp 0
9. BumiAgri Citra
Rp. 5.722.935.156 x 0% = Rp 0
10. PT RAI
Rp. 19.817.173 x 0% = Rp 0
PT RAI is one company that gets special treatment in the form of Value Added Tax
(VAT) facilities. So that when importing goods and / or handing over strategic taxable goods
in the form of cows which are classified as livestock, the criteria are regulated in PMK No. 5
/ PMK. 010/2016, PT RAI has no obligation to pay and collect Value Added Tax (VAT).
However, with these facilities PT RAI still has an obligation to issue VAT invoices as well
as invoices issued if a company that does not get a facility issues a VAT invoice, only at the
bottom right next to the barcode there is a stamp that reads "VAT IS RELEASE
ACCORDING TO PP NUMBER 146 OF 2000 AS HAS BEEN CHANGED BY PP
NUMBER 38 OF 2003"
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When conducting a transaction, PT RAI is obliged to issue a Tax Invoice with

transaction code 08, namely the transaction code specifically made for transactions that are
submitted and / or imported to get the VAT facility released, this is stated in PER-24 / PJ /
2012. But the stamp contained in the tax invoice issued by PT RAI is not appropriate,
because PP No. 38 of 2003 discusses certain taxable goods for which VAT is released and /
or imported. Whereas, cows sold by PT RAI are strategic taxable items listed in PP 81 of
2015, so PT RAI should get a stamp that reads "VAT IS FREE AS PP 81 OF 2015".
With the findings as above, PT RAI should issue a replacement tax invoice because of
an error in the stamp stated and request a stamp in accordance with the goods delivered, so
that PT RAI can carry out tax obligations in accordance with the applicable rules.
Depositing Taxes Added Value (VAT)

In the management activities PT RAI has implemented a proposal to provide consumer
demand, when PT RAI implemented the PT RAI procedure, it will use several costs of
capital payments and import taxation, so that it can take care of PT RAI's actions, whereas
PT RAI's import VAT does not have the obligation to provide strategic taxpayers. Whereas
for VAT on the delivery of PT RAI's domestic offices, getting special treatment for VAT
facilities was released so that PT RAI did not report the VAT or transaction sales or
surrender in the country.
Reporting VAT Period Notice

Although PT RAI obtained special treatment for free VAT facilities and included tax
on impregnated VAT, PT RAI still had the obligation to report the Value Added Tax (VAT)
SPT by using the VAT Period Tax Return form. The VAT period SPT is a formulation of
the Tax Increment Value Report or Luxury Goods Sales Tax (PPnBM) that must be reported
by the Tax Entrepreneur and in the general report submitted every month.
PT RAI has reported VAT Period Tax Returns every month for Primary Tax Payments
for New Taxes before past reporting period..
References
Arianty, Nany. "VAT facilities in Indonesia". May 6, 2018.
Arfy, Nana. "Income tax article 22". Saturday, December 5, 2015.
Niamas, Maila. "3 tax collection in Indonesia". September 27, 2017."Understanding the
Letter of Deposit Tax". December 15, 2015
https://natanedan.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/245/
Widia, I Nyoman. "Value added tax facilities". June 4, 2009
https://inwdahsyat.wordpress.com/2009/06/04/fasilitas-pajak-pertambahan-nilai/"Payment
planning and reporting".
http://www.akuntansilengkap.com/pajak/3-sistem-pemungutan-pajak-lengkap/
http://www.pajak.net/info/PPh22.htm http://newblogelf.blogspot.co.id/2015/12/pph-pasal-22
pasal-22/
http://www.pajakonline.com/engine/learning/view.php?id=https://www.cekkembali.com/pp
h 23
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http://www.pratama.co/tata-cara-pembayaran-dan-pelaporan-ppn"Payment procedures and

VAT reporting". February 14, 2014
http://www.wibowopajak.com/2012/01/pengertian-surat-setoran-pajak.ht
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THE COMMUNITY’S INSIGHT OF CELEBRITY

ENDORSEMENT AND PRODUCT QUALITY ON PURCHASE
DECISION BEHAVIOUR
Terra Saptina Maulani1, Rizki Aditya Pratama2

1
Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Ekuitas. (E-mail: [email protected])
2
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The technology is currently growing rapidly. It’s application making the communication tool as
one of the main requirements. Nowdays, the smartphones are not only used for communication
but also being developed of the tools in the Electronic Sports (esport). The development of
games based on smartphone technology such as mobile legend, AOV, and PUBG, etc. It can
encouraging the esport community to grow, especially in big city cities in Indonesia. The
smartphone companies are currently competing to develop the quality of smartphone products,
and collaborating with some celebriries to promote their products. The purpose of this study to
determine the influence of celebrity endorsement (X1) and product quality (X2) which are the
independent variables on purchase decision behaviour (Y) as dependent variable from the
mobile esport community’s insight. This study is a quantitative research using descriptive and
verificative analysis. 100 questionnaires have been distributed to the members of mobile esport
community as a data collection tool. The study result show, most of them know the smartphone
products not from advertisements but the review on internet platform. The celebrity that was
endorses by company also fit of the products image. The main reason for buying smartphone is
easy to operating the products. There’s the influences of celebrity endorsement and product
quality simultaneously on smartphone purchasing decisions.
Keywords: Celebrity Endorsement; Quality Product; Purchase Decision; Behaviour;

Community; Esport
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Nowdays, The technology is growing rapidly. the phone not just as a tool has the basic
functions as a communication tool, but also it can be used for a variety of things supported by
Internet technology. There are 10 countries with the largest number of internet users in the
world.
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Mexico 85,000,000
Bangladesh 92,061,000
Russia 109,552,842
Nigeria 111,632,516
Indionesia 143,260,000
Brazil 149,057,635
US 292,892,868
India 560,000,000
China 829,000,000
Internets Users
Figure 1. Top 10 Country With The Highest Number of Internet User

Source: https://www.internetworldstats.com/
Based on the figure 1 above, Indonesia is one of country with the largest number of internet
users, number 5 in the world. The internet is not only accessed on PCs, but also on
smartphones. as times goes on, many people who use smartphones are not only a lifestyle but
become a primary need. Most of the activities of the Indonesian people use the internet for
social media access (29,5%), news and information (24,6%), entertaiment (16,8%), and many
more (https://databoks.katadata.co.id). smartphone usage is high in the world, and triggering
the companies to carry out various innovations to developing their technology, so the
competition cannot be avoided.
Curently, the company is competing in producing mobile phone devices not only for of
communication, but also adding other features to attract the customers, which is for playing
games. Based on The Global Games Report 2018, 51 % people playing mobile games (41 % on
the smartphone; 10% on the tablet), 10% people playing games on the PCs and 25% on the
console. Indonesia is one of country with the most active game players in the world, they are
10-50 years old. Most of them are 21 – 25 years old who’s the most active. The very popular
game are strategy, action and adventure, racing, simulation and arcade
(https://www.viva.co.id/indepth,). Baseon study by Pokkt, Decision Lab dan Mobile Marketing
Association (MMA) currently the gamers in Indonesia are 60 million people and predicted will
be increase to 100 million people in 2020 (https://www.tek.id). The high of using smartphones
to play game, it encouraging the games community (based- on smartphone technology) to
grow, esspecially in big cities. The types of games that are often played such as mobile legend,
AOV and PUBG. Esport has competed in many events, one of the biggest event is Asian
Gamses 2018. It’s intersting and potential market for the smartphone companies to enter. One
of the companies in the field of technology is involved in this industry is Asus Computer Inc.
This company originating in Taiwan is productive in produce its products. Not only produce
the motherbords, laptops,PCs, monitors, LCDs and many more but also they procuce the
smartphone. The demand of smartphone in Indonesia is high, Asus was see the opportunities in
this industry. The positioning of smartphone by Asus is gaming smartphone on serveral types.
Now, Asus is facing the competition with various brands. The Figure 2 bellow is market share
comparison data of smartphone brands in the world and Indonesia.
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Market share Worldwide Marketshare in Indonesia
30.99%
24.92%
22.94%
21.31%
18.09%
8.65% 9.60%
7.35% 7.03%
5.22% 4.44% 4.28%
Samsung Apple Huawei Xiomi Oppo Unknown Mobicel
Figure 2. Mobile Vendor Market Share, Apr 2018 -Apr 2019

Source: http://gs.statcounter.com
The competition in this industry is high, so the companies need the strategy getting the market
by the products offered, and good marketing communication startegy. Celebrity endorsement is
a common marketing communication strategy for building brand image. Advertisers believe
that the use of a celebrity affects advertising effectiveness, brand recall and recognition, as well
as purchase intentions and follow-through (Spry et al., 2011), because the customers get an
interest in celebrities who are chosen as marketing strategy for the creation of brands or
products (Gupta,2013). The advantage of using celebrity endorsement for product
advertisements is to create a great awareness and strong associative effect of the leading
celebrities on the products being promoted. Products are easily recognizable by the famous
brand image exclusively (Poghosyan, 2015). Celebrities who have high popularity, especially
because they can provide a positive impact on the brand (Sivesan, 2013). Not only the
attractive promotions, but also not forgetting product quality. The competition is getting
tougher, product quality has a major role of the company development (Purwati and
Rohmawati,2012). Quality of the product was a very important factor for consumers, although
it's not cheap but the consumers are happy (Paul and Rana, 2012) The buyer will come back
and buy again if they gets the satisfaction from the product or service quality produced by the
company (Fernando and Aksari, 2018). Product quality has the impact on buying decisions
provided some significant results (Ackaradejruangsri, 2014). The product quality has positive
influence on custumet’s willingness to buy (Beneke et al, 2013). The aims of this study are how
is the application of celebrity endorsement and product quality on smartphone products based
on a community’ insight or prespective. How much the celebrity endorsement and product
quality variable can influence the purchase decision.
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Literature Review
Celebrity Endorsement
The way to promote products to customers is growing develop and variery. Celebrity
endorsement is one of the marketing communivation tools to promote the products. Celebrity
endoser is a good person, they are the actor, artist, athele or the people are known to the public
and became an idol because of his achievement, they can deliver the advertising massage to
attract the attention of the terget market (Shimp, 2007). The celebrities can deliver the
advertisement massage in other tools or platform such as television, radio, billboard, social
media or other digital platform (instagram and youtube).
The product campaign should be very impressive by celebrities, and they are under the public
supervison, they should be able to increase the good image (Suki, 2014). The celebrities has the
own character of deliver the advertising massage and its effect on the receiver. The credibility,
expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness as key components (Jain, et al:2016). The
consumers’ relationships with celebrities can be classified into two types Entertainment-
oriented individuals enjoy learning about celebrities and discussing the information with others
casually, while intense-attachment based individuals think continuously and associate
parasocially with the celebrities (McCutcheon et al, 2002; Chan et al, 2013), the effectiveness
of advertisements using celebrity appeals depends on four factors: attractiveness,
expertise,trustworthiness of the celebrities, and congruity between image of brand and the
celebrity (Chan et al, 2013). There are five basic dimensions/ attributes to contribute of the
endorsers effectiveness is TEARS model (Shimp, 2007), there are:
1. Trustworthiness. Shows the honesty, integrity, and a person's confidence or endorser.
2. Expertise. Show the knowledge, the endoser’s skill and relate with the communications
topic.
3. Attractiveness. Not only the physical attraction, but also positive characteristics can be seen
in an endorser. There’s intellectual skills, personality traits, lifestyle characteristics, athletic
prowess, and so on. When the customers find the something interesting in their endosers so
the persuasion occurs through identification.
4. Respect. It means indicate the personal quality of a celebrity. A celebrity must be able to
care about his career, his acting skills, sports abilities and personality. Celebrities who
become advertisement endorsers shuld be care about his environment.
5. Simillarity. Represents a success rate of endorser in common with consumer characteristics
that are relevant to the products on offer, such as: age, gender, ethnicity and so on.
Similarity is an important attribute, in fact, the public tends like someone who has
something in common with them.
Product Quality
Quality is an important element for a product. Meutia (2017), in her research show the product
quality can influence the purchase decision. The product quality is the character of a product
that has the ability to satisfy customer needs (Kotler dan Amstrong,2014). The better quality of
product will encourage consumers to buy (Fernando and Aksari,2018). Product and service
quality, customer satisfaction, and company profitability are intimately connected. Higher
levels of quality result in higher levels of customer satisfaction, which support higher prices
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and (often) lower costs (Kotler and Keller, 2016).The framework of product quality is based on
serveral dimensions (Garvin, 1984; Sebastianelly and Tamimi, 2002), are:
1. Performance, is the main operating characteristics of the core product has purchased by
customer.
2. Features, is secondary or complementary characteristics. Kotler and Keller (2016), Most
products can be offered with different features that are basic supplements function. To
avoid feature fatigue the company should be prioritize features and tell consumers how to
use and benefit from them.
3. Reliability. It probably less of damaged or fail to use. The product will not malfunction
or fail within a specified time period.
4. Confermance to Specifications. It menas the degree to which all produced units are
identical and meet promised specifications.
5. Durability, menas how long the product can be used
6. Serviceability, includes speed, competence, comfort, ease of repair; and satisfying
complaints handling.
7. Esthetics, product attraction to the five senses.
Purchase Decision
Every individual, household or organization have the processes before deciding to make a
purchase decision, and its actions after acquiring and consuming products, services or ideas
(Kotler dan Armstrong, 2014). A purchase decision is a decision someone chooses one of
several alternative choices (Schiffman dan Kanuk, 2008). Kotler and Keller (2016), making a
product is influenced by various factors. There are cultural factors (culture, sub-culture and
social class), social factors (groups, references, family, roles and status) and personal factors
(age, occupation, economy, personality, and lifestyle). Swastha dan Handoko (2013:102), each
buying decision has six components about the type of product, brand, distributor, number of
products, time of purchase, and method of payment. The process of purchase decision (Kotler
dan Keller, 2016), includes:
1. Need recognition. The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need.
The consumer feels the difference between the actual and the desired condition
2. Information Search. The consumer will search the information. At this level someone will
be more sensitive to search the information about the product to be sought, by actively
reading online or offline material, asking friends and visiting the place where it is in located
to find out about the product. The sources of consumer information from preference groups
such as family or friends, advertisements, salespeople, suppliers, packaging and displays,
mass media, and experience.
3. Evaluation of the alternatives. The consumers do evaluations to make a choice between
different objects with many attributes. They will consider several attributes and give
different weights to each attribute.
4. Purchase decision. After consumers have a preference based on many brands, then they
choose to buy the most preferred product, and they believe to buy.
5. Postpurchase behavior. After purchasing a product, consumers will have the experience-
satisfaction or dissatisfaction. They feel satisfy if the product performance is equaly or
more exceeds than the expectations, so they will repurchase the product and give the
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recomendation to other people – become a loyal customer. Dissatisfaction that leads to the
behavior of not using / consuming the product. The marketer's job doesn’t end when the
product is purchased, but continued until the period after purchase.
This study is a quantitative research using descriptive and verificative analysis. The data
collection tool in this study is in the form of interviews, observation, library studies, and
questionnaires. The population of this study has 4.700 people, but based on the slovin formula,
the sample of this studi has 100 respondents. They are the member of esport community in one
of big cities in Indonesia – Bandung City. The descriptive analysis is done by determining the
interval range that refers to the statistical formula:
c= class width/ class size/ class length

k= the amount of class
Xn = The bigest observed values
X1 = The smallest observed values
To identify the influence of celebrity endorsement and product quality as the dependent
variables on purchase decision as the independent variable is using the multiple regression. The
hypotheses in this study are:
H1: There are the influence of celebrity endorsement and quality product on purchase decision
simultaneously
H2: There’s the influence of celebrity endorsement on purchase decision
H3: There’s the influence of product quality on purchase decision
Finding and Result

Respondents’ Profile
This study using the questionnaires as data collection tools. The respondents of this
study are the member of esport community in Indonesia, the location in Bandung City.
Table 1. Respondens’ Profile

Gender
Male 87%
Female 13%
Age
15-19 62%
20-25 34%
26-30 4%
Ocupation
Students 85%
Private Sector 11%
Others 4%
Intencity Change The Smartphone
Once 76%
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2-5 times 21%

Over 5 times 3%
How Long Using Asus Smartphone
1 year 72%
2 Year 21%
3 Year 5%
Over 3 Year 2%
Type of Smartphone
Asus M1 51%
Asus M2 43%
ROG (Republic of Gamers) 6%
Source: Develop for this research, 2019

Based on table 1 above, it can be seen that the respondens’ gender 87% are male and 13% are
female. The composition of their age between 15-19 years old (62%), 20-25 years old (34%),
26-30 years old (4%). Most of them are studens and collage students (85%). They changed
smartphones as much as once time a year (76%), and most of them used Asus products for
about a year (72%). And the most used type for playing games is Asus M1 for playing games.
Validity and Reliability Test

The validity and reliability has been done. The validity showed showed the coefficients
correlation of all the questions has the coefficient of Pearson product-moment correlation
(rxy)> r table (0.196), it means each question in the questionnaire are valid. the reliability of
less than 0.60 was considered bad. The reliability in the range of 0.70 is acceptable, and more
than 0.80 are good (Sekaran, 2003). The reliability test for this study, coefficient Cronbach
Alpha value of each variable: Celebrity Endorsement = 0.766; Quality Product = 0,744;
Purchase Decision = 0,771. So, the reliability test in this study is reliable.
Descriptive Analysis
The following table shows the range of intervals that are used in making the category the
answer of variables that has been applied,
Table 2. Categories determine answers of Celebritty Endorsement, Product Quality and Purchase Decision
Variables
Variabel Score Range Interval Range Mean Criteria
Celebrity Miximum 960 < 2160 1 < 1,8 Very Bad
Endorsement 5x 12 x 100 = 6000 (6000-1200)/ 5 2160 ≥ 3120 1,8 ≥ 2,6 Bad
Minimum = 960 3120 < 4080 2,6 < 3,4 Neither
1x 12 x 100 = 1200 4080 ≥ 5040 3,4 ≥ 4,2 Good
5040 < 6000 4,2 < 5 Very Good
Quality Miximum 1300 < 2340 1 < 1,8 Very Bad

Product 5 X 13 X 100=6500 (6500-1300)/5= 2340 ≥ 3380 1,8 ≥ 2,6 Bad
Minimum 1040 3380 < 4420 2,6 < 3,4 Neither
1x13 x100= 1300 4420 ≥ 5460 3,4 ≥ 4,2 Good
5460 < 6500 4,2 < 5 Very Good
Purchase Miximum 1100 < 1980 1 < 1,8 Very Bad

Decision 5 X 11 X 100=5500 (5500-1100)/5= 1980 ≥ 2860 1,8 ≥ 2,6 Bad
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Minimum 880 2860 < 3740 2,6 < 3,4 Neither

1x11 x100= 1100 3740 ≥ 4620 3,4 ≥ 4,2 Good
4620 < 5500 4,2 < 5 Very Good

The descriptive analysis of celebrity endorsement based on the community’s insight as the
respondents. It can be seen at the following table,
Table 3. Respondent's Assessment Regarding of Celebrity Endorsement

Question Mean / Score
Trustworthiness The celebtrities are suitable to promote the smartphone 4,21
Believe in product promotion is carried out by celebrities 3,83
Expertise The celebrities’ knowledge / insights on the product being promoted 3,94
The celebrities’ ability of promote the product 3,77
The communication skills of celebrities in promoting products 3,95
Attractiveness Celebrities have an attractive appearance in promoting products 4,10
The celebrities’ image are suitable with the product 4,00
The celebrities’ ability to deliver the advertising messages 4,01
Respect The cleberities care about products being promoted 3,76
The cleberities care about the exposure of the message delivered / promote 3,79
the product with good word
Similiarity The celebroties are suitable with the characteristics of the product 4,02
The celebrities are suitable with the age of target market / audience 3,98
Mean Score 3,946
Total Score 5.932
To find out about celebrity endorsement on smartphone gaming products, based on the
member of community’ insight. Asus has the collaboration with the celebrities and influencers
in Indonesia. Based on survey result, the respondents answer 75% the famous celebrity who
has collaboration with Asus is Jess No Limit (Indonesian youtuber of gaming). 12 % has
answer is Chandra Liow (Indonesian Youtuber, Actor), 2 % has answer is Tatdjana Saphira
(Indonesian Artist), and 2% has answer is other influencers.
Based on the result of respondents respons is measure by 12 questions. The total score 5932
and the mean score 3,946. The value is in the range interval score 4080 ≥ 5040. The celebrity
endorsement variable has good criteria. Excellent ratings from respondents are the dimensions
of trustworthiness, they considered that the celebrity who in endrorse by Asus, are suitable to
promote the product. The respondents believe in products that celebrities promote. They
considered that each indicator on the dimension of expertise was considered good because the
celebrities knowledge in promoting products is good, and has communication skill to promote
the products to consumers. Each indicator of the attractiveness dimension is good because the
respondents have the assement about the celebrities have an attractive appearance in promoting
products, good personal image and suitable with the product being promoted. The celebrities
have the good capability of delivered the advertising messeges. Each indicator of the respect
dimmension is good because the respondents have the assessment about the celebrities are care
about products being promoted and care about the message exposure / promote the product
with good word, suitable with the product image. Each indicator of the similarity dimension is
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good because the respondents have the assement that the celebrities are suitable with the
characteristics of the product and suitable with the age of target market or audience.
To find out about the product quality of smartphone by the respondents perspective/ insigt, then
conducted a descriptive analysis. It can bee seen in the following table:
Table 4. Respondent's Assessment Regarding of Quality Product

Performance Easy to using the product 4,13
Smooth operation the product 3,83
Feature Screen resolution has compitable of gaming activity 3,74
Internal specifications has compitable of gaming activity 3,64
Reliability The touch screen has easy sensitivity 3,82
Confermance to Standard Chipset of products has compatible with gaming activities 3,80
specification Product has compitable of communication needs 3,70
Durability Durable of product during use 3,80
The material is not easily damaged 3,69
Serviceability Ease of finding information product services 3,73
Ease of repair service in service center 3,68
Esthetics The attractiveness of the product design 3,67
impressive product design and adds confidence to using it 3,51
Mean Score 3,749
Total Score 4.873
The product quality of smartphone based on the esport community prespective as the
respondents in this study is good criteria. The total score of this variable 4.873 or with the
mean score 3,749. The value is in the range interval score 4420 ≥ 5460. Each indicator of this
variable is good because the mean score in the range interval score 3,4 – 4,2. The performace
indicator because the product is easy to use and smooth to operate. The feature is considered
good because the product screen resolution is good and the internal specifications are suitable
to support the playing games. Reliability of the product is considered good because the touch
screen has good sensitivity and makes it easy to support needs. Confermance to specification
on products is considered good by respondents because smartphone products are very
supportive, not only for basic communication activities, but also in playing games has good
standards. The serviceability dimension is also considered good, because the respondents has
the assement, it easy to find information about product services in big cities, and the ease of
products to be improved in the service center. The esthetic dimension of the product is
considered good because the product has a attractive design , stylish, and adds to the
confidence of users.
To find out about the purchase decision variable by the respondents perspective/ insight, then
conducted a descriptive analysis.
It can bee seen in the following table:
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Table 5. Respondent's Assessment Regarding of Purchase Decision

Need Suitability in using a smartphone for communication 3,61
Recognition Suitability in using a smartphone for gaming activities 3,74
Information The intensity of finding information about smartphone products 3,67
Search The ease of finding information based on social media sources 3,75
Evaluation Comparison with other smartphone brands before purchase 3,56
Alternatives Asus is a main alternative choice when buying a smartphone 3,94
Purchase Confidence in buying products because of competitive prices 3,74
Decision Confidence in buying products according to needs 3,62
Postpurchase Satisfaction after using the product 3,64
Behaviour Recomended to other people 3,67
If there is a new type, interested to buying products of the same brand 3,65
Mean Score 3,690
Total Score 4.059
The process of purchase decisions is part of consumer behavior, which is consists of five stages
in the process. Decision Purchase variable has good criteria. The total score 4.059 is in the
range interval ≥ 4.620 or 3.740. The mean score 3,690 is in the range interval from 3.4 to 4.2.
Before the respondent makes a purchase, they identify the need recognition. Needs recognition,
their need to use a smartphone is not only for their daily communication needs but they are
looking for the right smartphone to support their hobby of playing games. Then they looking
for various information about smartphones that suitable of their needs. They have the
assesment that easy to finding the information about smartphones in this era, and they are
looking for various information from social media. Before making a purchase decision, they
compared the various brands of smartphones that were felt to suitable of their needs, but the
Asus was chosen as the main brand in buying smartphones for gaming activities. The purchase
decision dimension, the respondens has the assesment that they believe buy the product
because its suitable of their need and has the competitive price than others. After they buy the
product, and feel the product performance, they postpurchase behaviour is good because they
because they are satisfied, they also recommend these products to other people, If there is a
new type, they interested to buying products of the same brand. They will be become the loyal
customer.
Verification Analysis - Hypothesis Test
The Influence of Celebrity Endorsement and Quality Product on Purchase Decision
To find out the influence of celebrity endorsement variables and product quality simultaneously
on purchasing decisions, it can be seen in the following table,
Table 6. Anova
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 382,845 2 191,422 12,842 ,000b
Residual 1445,915 97 14,906
Total 1828,760 99
a. Dependent Variable: Purchase Decision
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Based on the table 6 above, it calculated that F value is 12,842 which is the criteria for
accepted the H1 because F value (12,842) > F table (3,09), with the degress of freedom is 100
-2-1 = 97 , and a confidence level of 95% And based on the calculation of significance figure
of 0.000. It showed 0.000 < 0.05 so H0 is rejected, and H2 accepted, it means the variables of
celebrity endorsement and quality product can influence the purchase decision significantly
and simultaneously.
To find out the influece between variables partially can be seen in the following table,
Table 7. Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 18,406 5,662 3,251 ,002
Celebrity Endorsement ,070 ,077 ,082 ,908 ,366
Product Quality ,350 ,071 ,444 4,897 ,000
a. Dependent Variable: Purchase_Decision
This is a multiple regression analysis, two independent variables, and one dependent variable.
If the t value is bigger than t table, so the H0 will be rejected. It can be seen that from the table
above, the celebrity endorsements variable doesn’t has influence on purchase decision, because
t value (0,908) < t table (1,98) dan sig value is 0,366 > 0,05, it’s not significant. So, the H2 is
rejected. Whereas, the product quality variable can influence the purchase decision
significantly because t value (4,897) > t table (1,98) dan sig value is 0,00 < 0,05, it menas
significant. So, the H3 is accepted.
To find out how much influence of celebrity endorsement and product quality on purchase
decision variable simultaneously can be seen in the following table,
Table 8. Model Summary

Adjusted R Std. Error of the
Model R R Square Square Estimate
a
1 ,458 ,209 ,193 3,861
a. Predictors: (Constant), Quality Product, Celebrity_Endorsement
The amount of influence between the celebrity endorsement and product quality
simultaneously on purchase decision by looking at the R Square value in the table above. The
R square is also called as the coefficient determination is 0,209. It means the influence of
endorsement and product quality simultaneously is 20,9% on purchase decision, and the
remainder is influenced by other factors outside the research model. But partially, the celebrity
endorsement variable has no influence on purchasing decisions, it means that anyone who
promotes the smartphone product does not affect consumers in making purchases decision. In
this case, the consumers has more attention to product quality factors that can satisfy their
needs in supporting their activities to communicating and playing online games on smartphone,
because of the ease in using and operating products, features and specifications that can
compete, good durability, ease of repair, and attractive designs and competitive prices.
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Conclusions and Suggestions

Currently the mobile phones are not only used as a communication tool but also for other
activities as playing games. The high market for smartphones, the companies compete to show
off their own technology. One of companies has positioning as the company who’s produce
smartphone for gaming on serveral tipes is Asus. Several strategies performed in terms of the
promotion of one of them is with celebrity endorsement by working with celebrities and the
young inluencer. Not only promotion, but also product strategy is done by producing the
products has quality and competitive prices. Based on the analysis, the celebrity endorsement is
good because they are suitable with product characteristics, clearly to deliver the product
information, attractive appearance and good words of speech. The quality of the product is
considered good because of the ease in using and operating products, features and
specifications that can compete, good durability, ease of repair, and attractive designs and
competitive prices. But anyone who does a promotion does not influence the consumers to buy
the products, because consumers see the product quality factor as the dominant factor to buy
smartphone products.
The results of this study are limited, so it is expected that in the future research can
complement and develop this research in the development of research variables and population
and research samples.
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Kotler, P and Amstrong, G. (2014). Principles Of Marketing, Globa Edition, 14 Edition,

Pearson Education.
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THE EFFECT OF AD FEES AND PERSONAL SELLING COSTS

ON SALES VALUE
Case Study at PT.Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk

Aneu Kuraesin RS1 ,Silvi Apriliyani Chaidir2
1,
Accounting;STIE Ekuitas Bandung Indonesia
2
Accounting;STIE Ekuitas Bandung Indonesia
(E-mail: ; [email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Promotional activities consisting of advertising and personal selling needs to be done so that
people know the capabilities of products offered by the company. The greater the cost incurred
by PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk (Telkom), then the achievement of the company's goal
in communicating its products to the public will also be greater, resulting in an increasing
number of buyers.The increasing number of buyers will ultimately increase the value of the
sale. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of advertising costs and personal costs
seling on the value of sales.The method used in this research is quantitative research method
using descriptive verifikatif analysis. Population in this research is all data of financial
statements of PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk 2007-2016 period. Sampling technique used
is Nonprobability Sampling for sample data used is data financial statements of PT.
Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk 2007-2016 period. Technique of data collecting is done by
library research and report of publication data. Statistical analysis using multiple linear
regression analysis to test the hypothesis using t test and F test to test its significance.Based on
the results of the data. Multiple linear regression model does not occur deviation on the
classical principle test. From the test results partially explain the cost. Simultaneously, the cost
of advertisement and personal selling cost also have a significant effect on Sales Value equal to
71,06%, while the rest 28,94% by other factor not examined in this research.
Keywords: Advertising Cost, Personal Selling Cost, Sales Value

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
In Indonesia, many technology companies utilize a variety of ways to introduce their products
to the public. PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk (Telkom) is one of the largest
telecommunications companies in Indonesia according to Forbes Indonesia Magazine which
has been listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange.
But the problems that occur at PT. Telekomunikasi Indonsesia, Tbk is a value of sales that
continues to increase, but advertising costs and personal selling costs for ten years have
fluctuated, and even advertising costs and personal selling costs have decreased but the sales
value continues to increase as seen in the table below:
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Table 1.1
Fluctuations in Advertising Costs, Personal Selling Costs and Sales Values
PT. Telecommunication Indonesia, Tbk in 2007-2016
(in billion rupiah)
Years Advertising % Person % Value Of %
Costs Enhansemen Costs Enhansemen Sale Enhansemen
2007 Rp 944 - Rp 425 - Rp 59.400 -
2008 Rp 1.301 37,82% Rp 417 -1,81% Rp 60.690 2,10%
2009 Rp 1.724 32,52% Rp 438 5,04% Rp 67.627 11,43%
2010 Rp 1.994 15,66% Rp 398 -9,13% Rp 68.629 1,48%
2011 Rp 2.743 37,56% Rp 427 7,29% Rp 71.253 3,82%
2012 Rp 2.494 -9,08% Rp 491 14,99% Rp 77.143 8,27%
2013 Rp 2.401 -3.73% Rp 253 -48.53% Rp 82.967 7.55%
2014 Rp 2.383 -0.75% Rp 333 31.66% Rp 89.696 8.11%
2015 Rp 2.525 5,96% Rp 376 12,92% Rp102.470 14,24%
2016 Rp 3.134 24,12% Rp 495 31,67 % Rp116.333 13,53%
Source : : www.idx.co.id
Promotional activities consisting of advertising and personal selling need to be done so that the
public knows the capabilities of the products offered by the company. The greater the costs
incurred by PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk (Telkom) then the achievement of corporate
objectives in communicating its products to the public will also be greater, resulting in an
increase in the number of buyers.
Literature Review
According to Kotler and Keller (2012; 498-501):
"Advertising is all paid forms of non-personal presentation and promotion, goods or services
through clear sponsors through print media (newspapers and magazines), radio broadcast media
(radio and television), network media (telephone, cable, satellite, wireless), and electronic
media (sound recordings, video recordings, CD-ROMs, website pages), and exhibition media
(billboards, road signs and posters). "
According to Kotler and Keller (2012: 478) suggest that:

"Sales Promotion is a collection of mostly short-term incentive tools designed to encourage the
trial or purchase of products or services including consumer promotions (such as samples,
coupons and premiums), trade promotions (such as advertising and hosting) and business and
promotion sales force (context for sales reputation) ".
According to Mulyadi (2014) sales are activities carried out by sellers in selling goods or
services in the hope that they will profit from the existence of these transactions

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis
Multiple linear regression analysis is used for the relationship of mathematical relationships
between output / dependent relations (Y) with one or several input variables / independent (X).
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Mathematical relationships are used as regression models that are used to predict or predict
output values (Y) based on certain input values (X).
The main objective of multiple regression analysis is to measure the ratio of the relationship
between two or more variables and make an estimate of the percentage of Y over X. In this
study, we will discuss the relationship between advertising costs and personal selling costs as
independent variables on sales value as the dependent variable. By using the SPSS Version 23
program, the results of multiple regression analysis are as follows:
Table 1.2
Results of Multiple Linear Regression
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients Collinearity Statistics
Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
1 (Constant) 3,31
71,202 10,175 ,013
2
Biaya Iklan ,137 ,079 ,432 ,377 ,017 ,984 1,016
Biaya Personal Selling 1,09
,285 ,098 ,684 ,020 ,984 1,016
5
Based on the table above, multiple linear regression equation can be obtained as follows:
Y = α + b1x1 + b2x2 + ε
Value of sales = α + 71,202 + 0,137 x1 + + 0,285 x2 + ε
The regression equation can be interpreted as:

1. The constant value of 71.202 indicates that if the advertising costs and personal selling costs
are zero, then the sales value obtained is 71.202.
2. The advertising cost coefficient of 0.137 shows a positive direction, which means that if the
advertising costs increase by 1 unit with the assumption that other variables remain, the
sales value will increase by 0.137. The advertising cost coefficient value is positive,
indicating that the more local taxes increase, the sales value will increase.
3. The personal selling cost regression coefficient of 0.285 shows a positive direction which
means that if personal selling costs increase by 1 unit with the assumption that the other
variables are fixed then the local revenue will increase by 0.285. The regression coefficient
value of the regional retribution is positive, indicating that the more regional levies increase,
the original regional income will increase.
Multiple correlation analysis

Model Summaryb
Adjusted R Std. Error of

Model R R Square Square the Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 a
,760 ,152 ,090 5,29361 1,698
a. Predictors: (Constant), Personal Selling Costs, Advertising Fees
b. Dependent Variable: Value of sales
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R in multiple linear regression shows the value of multiple correlation, namely the correlation
between two or more independent variables on the dependent variable. based on the table
above it can be seen that the calculation results obtained by the correlation coefficient of 0.760.
If we compare with the table of interpretation of the correlation coefficient, the above values
are in the interval of 0.600 - 0.799 which has a strong level of relationship so the independent
variable of advertising costs and personal selling costs has a strong level of relationship with
the Sales Value variable.
Effect of Advertising Costs on Sales Values

Based on the processing of the data obtained, with the value of t table with the number of
samples (n) = 10, the number of independent variables (k) = 2, the significance rate is α = 0.05
/ 2 = 0.025, degrees of freedom (dk) = nk-1 = 10-2-1 = 7 for the variable cost of advertising
(X1) the result of tcount ≥ ttable (2,377 ≥ 2,36462) then H0 is rejected and Ha is accepted,
meaning that there is a partial influence between the cost of advertising on the value of sales.
Besides that, it can be seen from the significance level of 0.017 <0.05 so that the result of H01
is rejected. So that we can conclude that advertising costs have a partial effect on sales value
with a positive value obtained.
This shows that by allocating the right advertising costs it will have an impact on increasing the
value of sales at PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk.
Effect of Personal Selling Costs on Sales Values

The cost of personal selling has a value of t count of 3.887 with a significance level of 0.020.
So that we can find out whether personal selling costs have an effect on sales value, we must
compare t count with t table. The value of t table with the number of samples (n) = 10, the
number of independent variables (k) = 2, the significance rate α = 0.05 / 2 = 0.025, degrees of
freedom (dk) = nk-1 = 10-2-1 = 7 obtained a value of 2.36462.
Thus tcount> t table or 3.095> 2.10982 so that the result H02 is rejected and the significance is
0.02 <0.05 so that the result H02 is rejected. So that we can conclude that the cost of personal
selling has a partial effect on the value of sales with positive obtained values. This shows that
there is a positive influence where the alternating personal costs increase, the sales value will
also increase.
The results of this study are in line with the results of Efriza (2014), Rinna (2015), and Lilis
(2014) which states that personal selling costs have a significant influence on the value of sales.
Conclusion
Advertising costs at PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk fluctuated in the period 2007-2016.
The average advertising costs in the 2007-2016 period were 14.01%. The highest advertising
costs occurred in 2016 amounting to Rp. 3,134,000,000 while the lowest advertising costs
occurred in 2007 amounting to Rp. 944,000,000. PT.Telecommunications Indonesia, Tbk
optimizes costs, one of which is advertising costs in 2012-2013 and 2014 which are part of a
series of product marketing strategies by reducing advertising costs by 9.08% from 2011,
3.73% from 2012 and 0.75% from 2013 was caused by more selective media selection and
changes in inset dealer schemes at Telkomsel.
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Personal selling costs at PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk fluctuated in the period 2007-2016.
The average advertising costs in the 2007-2016 period were 4.40%. The highest advertising
costs occurred in 2016 amounting to IDR 494,700,000, while the lowest advertising costs
occurred in 2013 amounting to IDR 252,700,000 In its operations, face-to-face sales (personal
selling) were more flexible compared to other forms of promotion seen in table with an
increase of 31.66% in 2014, and a decrease of 1.88% from 2007, 9.13% from 2009 and 48.53%
from 2012 due to the optimization of the marketing burden.
The sales value at PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia, Tbk has fluctuated in the period 2007-2016.
The average value of sales in the 2007-2016 period was 7.84%. The highest sales value
occurred in 2016 amounting to Rp 116,330,000,000, while the lowest sales value occurred in
2007 amounting to Rp 59,440,000,000. The increase continues to occur in the value of sales
even though the percentage increase in sales value of 1.48% in 2010 was greater than the
previous year which amounted to 11.43% in 2009 and the same as in 2013 and 2016 increased,
but the percentage increase was greater in the previous year.
Partially Advertising Costs have a positive and significant effect on Sales Value. Advertising
costs have a value of t count of 1.377 with a significance level of 0.017. Thus thitung> t table
or 2,377> 2,36462 so that the result H01 is rejected and the significance is 0,017 <0,05 so the
result H01 is rejected. So that we can conclude that advertising costs have a partial effect on
sales value with a positive value obtained. This shows that by allocating the right advertising
costs it will have an impact on increasing the value of sales at PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia,
Tbk. Personal selling costs have a value of t count of 3.887 with a significance level of 0.020.
Thus tcount> t table or 3.095> 2.10982 so that the result H02 is rejected and the significance is
0.02 <0.05 so that the result H02 is rejected. So that we can conclude that the cost of personal
selling has a partial effect on the value of sales with positive obtained values. This shows that
there is a positive influence where the alternating personal costs increase, the sales value will
also increase. While simultaneously, advertising costs and personal selling costs together have
a strong correlation with the value of sales with Fcount> Ftable (10.629> 4.47), with a
significance level of 0.009 <0.05. The two variables together have a significant effect on sales
value and have an effect of 71.06%. The remaining 28.94% is explained by other factors not
examined in this study.
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Dona Erika (2012). Pengaruh Biaya Iklan dan Biaya Tenaga Penjual (Personal Selling)
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THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON BUY DECISIONS

RABBANI MUSLIM FASHION IN BANDUNG, WEST JAVA,
INDONESIA
Sussy Susanti1, Siti Nuraisyah 2
1
Management Study Program, STIE Ekuitas, Bandung, Indonesia
2
Management Study Program, STIE Ekuitas, Bandung, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
This study is motivated by decreasing of purchasing transaction for Rabbani muslim fashion in
the 2014-2017 period. This tendency could be interpretated as decreasing of buy decision on
Rabbani’s product. The marketing mix is one of the factors that influence buy decisions of
consumers.The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of marketing mix consisting
of Products, Price, Place and Promotion of the Purchasing Decision on Rabbani products.. This
study uses descriptive and verification methods. Data was collected by questionnaire and
interview techniques. The sample used in this study were 100 male and female respondents
wearing Muslim clothing in the city of Bandung. The analytical method used in this study is
Logistic Regression Analysis. The results of this study indicate that Marketing Mix has a
significant influence, both partially and simultaneously on purchasing decisions. The
Marketing Mix dimension partially which has the greatest influence is the place, while the
smallest influence is indicated by the promotion dimension.
Keywords: Products, Prices, Promotions, Places and Buy Decisions
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Fashion are accessories to complement the appearance of someone both men and
women such as sunglasses, watches, belts, shoes, clothes, bags and more. Of the many kinds of
fashion one of which is clothing. Clothes can be one of the clearest markers of outer
appearance, which makes one different from the others, which then evolved into the identity of
individuals and certain groups or communities. Fashion is not just about the clothes, but also
plays a role in social actions that can express a particular identity. If we talk about fashion as
culture, Indonesia became one of the few countries that follow the fashion culture. One of the
fashion culture in Indonesia is Muslim Clothing fashion culture.
Bandung is known as a Muslim fashion producer in Indonesia. According to the
Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy the value of Indonesian Muslim fashion trade to
reach USD $ 7.18 billion in 2017. From this figure, Bandung is the region with the largest
contribution. "Seeing these conditions, the government has made a blue print that contains
planning so that Bandung becomes the center of the Muslim fashion business.
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Along with the high growth of the clothing industry, especially Muslim clothing, the
competition between Muslim clothing companies is getting tighter. To be able to win the
competition, every company is required to create creative and innovative strategies in seeking
new breakthroughs. Marketing strategies are needed to influence a person's behavior so that
they are interested in the services or products that the company will offer. One strategy that can
be used is through the marketing mix so that the company's goal to increase profits can be
achieved.
The next company's challenge lies with consumers. Consumers are people who will
buy goods offered by the company. Every consumer has different criteria in determining his
choice to buy a product or service. Therefore, what needs to be considered by business people
or companies is how to create uniqueness in terms of the products offered, and can provide
satisfaction to their customers. When customer satisfaction has been fulfilled, it can influence
the consumer's decision to buy the product or service.
One of the leading Muslim clothing companies in Indonesia, especially in Bandung, is
Rabbani. Based on Rabbani's website (www.rabbani.co.id, downloaded on September 24,
2017) Rabbani is a well-known brand in Indonesia, because this brand has grown into a market
share of Muslim fashion clothing marked by Rabbani has received various awards, such as
Indonesia Original Brand, Franchise Top of Mind, and become a Top Brand for 4 years, from
2014 to 2017. The number of outlets spread in major cities in Indonesia reaches approximately
141 branches. In the city of Bandung the number of Rabbani outlets has four branches.
Although Rabbani is famous in the minds of consumers but still with the presence of other
Muslim fashion companies similar to Rabbani products, competition is getting tighter. This is
evidenced by the declining data on the number of consumers who make buy transactions.
Table 1. Number of Consumers Performing Buy In Rabbani Products
Month 2014 2015 2016 2017
January 2,781 2,744 2122 2,559

February 2577 2,610 2,398 2,648
March 2,569 2,730 2,600 2,636
April 2632 2,400 2,599 2,421
May 2511 2430 2,680 2463
June 2,896 2660 2497 2,410
July 2,510 2,431 2511 2469
August 2,653 2,425 2,397 2,555
September 2790 2,767 2,538 2,394
October 2,991 2869 2761 2,747
November 2,855 2,799 2,799 2,496
December 2,459 2655 2,800 2,447
amount 32 224 31 520 30 702 30 245
Source: Dipati Ukur Branch, 2017
From the data table 1, we can observe that when viewed in detail the number of
consumers who make purchases in Rabbani each month tend to go up and down. In 2014-2015
the number of consumers who made buy transactions decreased from 32,224 transactions to
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31,520 transactions and continued until 2017 to only 30,245 transactions. The data shows that
sales on Rabbani products every year continue to decline.
Marketing mix is one of the factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions.
According to Kotler and Armstrong (2010), the marketing mix is a set of marketing tools used
by companies to achieve their marketing goals. Marketing mix is included in modern marketing
systems, namely products, prices, places, promotions (Lovelock, 2011). Rabbani must pay
attention to the marketing mix concept to meet the needs of its customers so that it will be
easier to implement the right strategy for marketing Rabbani products. The purpose of this
study was to determine the effect of the marketing mix on consumer purchasing decisions in
determining the right marketing strategy for Rabbani..
According to Kotler and Armstrong (2012: 29), Marketing management is a series of
processes performed by the company to create a value for our customers and build strong
relationships with them in order to create a value of those customers. Meanwhile, according
Assauri (2013: 198), reveals that the marketing mix is a combination of variables or activities
that constitute the core of the marketing system, a variable that can be controlled by the
company to influence the reaction of the buyers or consumers. As Kotler and Keller (2012:
166) explains that the buy decision is the decision of consumers to buy a product through the
stages through which consumers before making a buy that includes the perceived needs,
activities before buying, behavior while taking, and feeling after buy.
In the study Sarifa Marwa, et al (2014), showed that at least five of the marketing mix which
had an influence on purchasing decisions of life insurance, and product mix is the most
influential variable on life insurance buy decisions. While the research conducted Algrina Ulus
Agnes (2013), concluded that simultaneous or partially, product, price, place, dominant variable
is a variable product, price, and location, and for the weak is the variable promotion.
Based on the above theory, the proposed framework is presented in the following figure
Marketing Buy Decision (Y)

Mix (X)
indicators:
indicators:
Product options
product
Agnes Algrina
Brand selection
Price
Ulus, (2013) Dealer options
Place
number of Buys
Promotion
The right time to make a
Kotler and payment
Keller (2012:
47) Kotler and Keller
Figure 1. The framework
(2016: 187)
Source: Processed Data (2017)
Based on this conceptual framework, it can put forward a hypothesis as follows: "Marketing
Mix affect the Buy Decision On Rabbani’s Products in Bandung".
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The method used in this research is descriptive and verification methods. Sugiyono
(2013: 206), explaining that the descriptive method is a method used to depict or describe the
collected data as it is without intending to generally accepted conclusion. While the verification
method is a method used to determine the relationship between two or more variables through
the collection of field data, the nature of the verification basically wanted to test the truth of a
hypothesis which is implemented through field data collection.
The study was conducted in 2018 in Bandung, West Java Province, Indonesia. Data was
collected using a questionnaire with five point Likert scale. In order to collect data to determine
the effect of the marketing mix on consumer purchasing decisions Rabbani, a questionnaire
was distributed to 100 consumers Moslem determined using Slovin and taken using systematic
random sampling
Variable Definition and Measurement of Variables

Marketing Mix(X) is a set of marketing tools combined controlled by the company to produce
the desired response target market. The dimensions used to measure the Marketing Mix
variables Kotler and Armstrong (2012: 75):
1. product
2. Price
3. Promotion
4. Place
Buy Decision (Y) is the decision of consumers to buy a product through the stages through
which consumers before making a buy that includes the perceived needs, activities before
mebeli, wear time behavior, and feelings after buy. Dimensions used to measure the buy
decision variables Kotler and Keller (2012: 166), namely: Product options with indicators
Purchasing and not buying.
Population and Sampling Techniques

According Sugiyono (2013: 115), states that the population is a region consisting of the
object or subject that has certain qualities and characteristics defined by the researchers to learn
and then drawn conclusions.
Infinite population, ie the population that has a data source can not be determined
quantitatively exhaustible limits. Therefore, the vast population is infinite and can only be
described qualitatively. The population in this study is consumers who use Moslem is in the city
of Bandung.
The sample is part of a number of karaketeristik owned by the population. When large
populations and researchers may learn all there is in the population, the researchers can use a
sample drawn from that population. (Sugiyono, 2013: 16).
Sampling method taken in this study is a probability sampling technique that is
sampling among respondents random or random. The determination of the number of samples
in this study were taken in accordance with that have been suggested by Fraenkel and Wellen
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(1993: 92) in Soehardi cited by Sigit Prasetyo (2008), stating that in a study of a minimum
sample size of 100 people.
Data collection technique

Data collection techniques are ways in which to obtain data. So in this study, the technique of
data collection is done by:
1. Research Field (Field Research)
2. Direct observation (Observation)
3. Interview
4. Spreading Questionnaire (Questionnaire)
5. Research Library (Library Research)
Data Analysis and Hypothese Testing

In analyzing the data used logistic regression analysis with the following stages:
1) Logistic Regression model building
In principle, the logistic regression aims to estimate the probability of certain events in a
population as a function of clear. This regression using a variable response / bound in the
form of a dummy.
2) parameter estimation
Methods to estimate the unknown parameters in the logistic regression model is the
Maximum Likelihood method as this method is more practical. Maximum Likelihood
method would estimate the parameter values that maximize the likelihood function.
3) Model significance test
The statistical test used was:
(3)
Lo = Maximum Likelihood Model reduction (Reduce Model) or a model consisting of only
constants
Lp = Maximum Likelihood of the full model (full model) or with all the independent
variables.
G2 statistic follows a Chi-square distribution with p-degrees of freedom so that the

hypothesis is rejected if the p-value <α, which means that the variable X together affect the
dependent variable Y.
4) Partial Test and Formation Model

The statistical test used is
(4)
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the hypothesis is rejected if the p-value <α which means partial Xj independent variables
affect the dependent variable Y.
5) odds ratio
The odds ratio is a measure of the risk or predisposition to experience the events 'success' of
the category to other categories, defined as the odds ratio for XJ = 1 for the XJ = 0.
Odds ratios denoted by θ, is defined as the ratio of these two values the opportunity XJ = 1
and xj = 0, so that
(5)
6) Determination analysis
Determination Analysis is used to look at the ability of independent variables in explaining
the dependent variable, this study uses coefficients Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke
R Square. These values are also called Pseudo R-Square. Cox & Snell R Square is a
measure that seeks to imitate the size of R Square on multiple regression estimation
technique based on a probability with a maximum value of less than 1 so that it is difficult
to interpret. Therefore, Nagelkerke R Square which is a modification of the Cox & Snell in
which the value varies 0-1, it will be easier to be interpreted as an interpretation of R
Square on multiple regression or Pseudo R-Square in multinominal logistic regression

The research data is the number of scores obtained from the respondents' answers to the
statement regarding the variables studied, the Marketing Mix and Buy Decision, while source
data based on questionnaires distributed randomly on 100 respondents Bandung society. The
questionnaire consisted of 13 questions, with 12 questions for variables Marketing Mix (X),
and one question for the buy decision variable (Y). Respondents from a number of questions
will be presented and analyzed based on the most frequently appearing later were presented.
The method used to process the data and analyze the data in this study is the Logistic
Regression Analysis.
1. Validity test
Table 2. Validity Test Results

variables Indicator Item code Criteria
Marketing Quality P1 0.514 0.306 valid

Mix
Design P2 0.653 0.306 valid
product Variety P3 0.529 0.306 valid
list Price P4 0.345 0.306 valid
Discount P5 0.669 0.306 valid
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allowances P6 0.562 0.306 valid

Sales Promotion P7 0.571 0.306 valid
advertising P8 0.380 0.306 valid
Sales Force P9 0.612 0.306 valid

Channels P10 0.472 0.306 valid
coverage P11 0.359 0.306 valid

assortment P12 0.535 0.306 valid
Sources: Primary data are processed, 2017
Based on table 2, it can be seen that r count is greater than r table (0.306), which means that all
indicators for the Marketing Mix (X) variable are declared valid.
2. Reliability Test
Table 3. Results of Reliability Test

variables Cronbach N of items Status
Alpha
Marketing Mix (X) 0,745 12 reliable
Based on the examination table reliability test is known that all the variables have Cronbach
Alpha> 0.70 it can be stated that the variables of the Marketing Mix (X) in this study is
reliable.
3. Testing of Logistic Regression Parameter
Table 4. Test Omnibus Coefficient Models

Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients
Chi-square df Sig.
Step 1 Step 76.646 4 , 000
Block 76.646 4 , 000
Model 76.646 4 , 000
Based on Table 4 gives the value of chi-square goodness-of-fit test of 76.646 with
degrees of freedom = 4 and shows significance value models of P-value = 0.000 because this
value is smaller than = 0.05. So it can be concluded that Marketing Mix which consists of
Product, Price, Place and Promotion has a significant effect on Purchasing decisions
simultaneously. Further testing can be continued to examine the significance of variables
partially.
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4. Partial test
Table 5. Partial Test Parameter Estimation
Variables in the Equation
B SE Wald Df Sig. Exp (B)
product 1,183 , 290 16.671 1 , 000 3,266
Price , 734 , 268 7.503 1 , 006 2,084
Step 1a Promotion , 557 , 220 6.430 1 .011 1,746
Place , 521 , 213 6.002 1 .014 1.684
Constant -28.546 6.227 21.012 1 , 000 , 000
a. Variable (s) entered on step 1: Product, Price, Promotion, Place.
Based on table 5 it can be seen that the significance value for Products, Price, Place and
Promotion. less than 0.05, it can be concluded that partially Products, Prices, Place and
Promotion significantly influence purchasing decisions.
5. Odds Ratio
Table 6. Estimated Parameter Odds Ratio

Variables in the Equation
B SE Wald Df Sig. Exp (B)
product 1,183 , 290 16.671 1 , 000 3,266
Price , 734 , 268 7.503 1 , 006 2,084
Step 1a Promotion , 557 , 220 6.430 1 .011 1,746
Place , 521 , 213 6.002 1 .014 1.684
Constant -28.546 6.227 21.012 1 , 000 , 000
a. Variable (s) entered on step 1: Product, Price, Promotion, Place,
According to the table 6 to odds Ratio can be seen in the column Exp (B) value that is
generated can be interpreted as follows:
1. Exp (1,183) = = 3.266 means that the higher the quality, design and the selection
of other products, the tendency to buy 3,266 times compared to not buy.
2. Exp (0.734) = = 2.084 means that the higher the level of labeling, discount, and
pieces of every buy of a particular activity then, the tendency to buy 2,084 times
compared to not buy.
3. Exp (0.557) = = 1.746 means higher advertising and promotional tool salesperson
then, the tendency to buy 1,746 times compared to not buy.
4. Exp (0.521) = = 1.684 means that the higher the ease of finding the place and the
diversity of products sold then, the tendency to buy 1,684 times compared to not buy.
6. Binary Logistic Regression Models
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Binary logistic regression model was used to see whether the dependent
variables dichotomous scale (Y = 0 and Y = 1) is affected by the independent variable.
After testing the same time, the logistic regression model is obtained as follows:
g (x) =
and logistic regression model is:
() =
7. Determination analysis
Table 7. Model Summary
Model Summary
Step -2 log Cox & Snell Nagelkerke R

likelihood R Square Square
1 56,167 , 535 , 728
According to the table 7 shows the value of Nagelkerke R Square equal to 0.728 or 72.8%,
which mean the variability of buy decisions that can be explained by marketing mix (product,
price, promotion, and place) equal to 72.8%. While the remaining 27.2% is explained by other
variables.
References
Book
Assauri, Sofyan. (2013). Marketing Management. Jakarta, Rajawali Pers.
Frankel, Jack R dan Norman E. Wallen. (1993). How to design and Evaluate Research in
Education. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw hill Inc
Kotler, P. & Armstrong. G. (2012). Marketing Management. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Group
Index.
Kotler, P. & Keller, P. (2012), Principles of Marketing, 13th Edition, Volume 1, Jakarta:
Erland.
Kotler, Philip and Kevin Lane Keller. (2012). Marketing Management, 14th Edition, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall Published.
Prasetyo, Sigit, MH (2008), Analysis of Consumer Grouping Based Brand Dimensions Trush
For Honda Motorcycle Products, Thesis Maranatha Christian University (not for
publication), Bandung
Sugiyono, S. (2009), Quantitative Research Methods, Qualitative and R & D, Bandung:
Alfabeta.
Sugiyono, S. (2012), Methods of Education, Bandung: Alfabeta.
Sugiyono, S. (2013), Educational Research Methods (Quantitative Approach, Qualitative and R
& D). Bandung: Alfabeta.
Sugiyono, S. (2014), Quantitative Research Methods, Qualitative and R & D. Bandung:
Alfabeta.
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Sumarwan, Ujang, et al (2012), Marketing Research and Consumer. Bogor: Pt Publisher IPB
Press.
Umi Narimawati. (2007). Research in Human Resource Management Application Examples &
Calculations. Jakarta. Supreme Media.
Widiyanto, L. (2008), Pointers Research Methodology, Semarang: CV. Dikalia.
Journals
Algrina Ulus, Agnes (2013). Marketing Mix's Influence Buy Decision Mobil Daihatsu At PT.
International Astra Manado. EMBA Journal. Vol.1 No 4. Dec 2013. pp 1134-1144.
Sarifa, Ujang and Rita. (2014). Marketing Mix Influencing Purchasing Decisions in Purchasing
Individual Life Insurance. Jurnal Ilmu Keluarga dan Konsumen Vol.7 No 3. pp 183-
192.
Website
http://www.jabarprov.go.id/index.php/news/14696/Bandung_Kiblat_Busana_Muslim,
Downloaded on October 16, 2017
http://www.rabbani.co.id/page/company_profile.php, Downloaded on 24 September 2017
.
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THE EFFECT OF WORKING CAPITAL TURNOVER TO NET

PROFIT MARGIN AT PT XYZ
Jaka Maulana.,M.Ak.,Ak.,CA.,CPSAK1, Aura Ganesha, S.Tr.,Ak2

1
Indonesia Pos Politechnic, Bandung, Indonesia (E-mail: [email protected])
2
Indonesia Pos Politechnic, Bandung, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Working capital turnover is one of the ratios to measure or assess the effectiveness of the
company’s working capital during a certain period. Working capital turnover can be used to see
how good the company management increasing the profitability of the company. This research
aims to determine if any influence between working capital turnover on profitability measured
by the net profit margin at PT XYZ. The sample in this research was PT XYZ’s report in 2012
until 2016. Data were analyzed by SPSS program for windows release 20. The independent
variabel (X) of this study was working capital turnover and the dependent variabel (Y) was
profitability measured using net profit margin ratio. This type of rsearch is quantitative with
assosiative causal relationships. In this study, data was contributed normally which measured
using the normality test on SPSS and based on simple linear regression variable X had no
significant effect on variabel Y. The two-party test also showed that the X variable had no
effect on Y variable because the value of tcount<ttable.
Keywords: Working Capital, Company Profitability
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
A company is any form of a business carried out by each type of business that is permanent and
continuous and is established works and is domiciled in the territory of Indonesia to aim for
profit or profit ((Undang-undang No. 3 Tahun 1982 pasal 1 huruf b Undang-Undang
Perusahaan UWDP). Based on the definition of the company above, all types or forms of the
company both have the same goal, namely to get feedback or return on operations that have
been done. Based on the company's main objectives mentioned above, for this reason, the
company must prepare an excellent strategy to improve its products and provide funds intended
to carry out all activities and transactions carried out, in this case, the funds used to carry out
operations are called working capital.
Working capital owned by the company, it is suitable for companies to know how
working capital works efficiently and effectively by calculating the turnover of working capital
itself. Working capital turnover or working capital turnover is briefly defined as one of the
ratios to measure or assess the effectiveness of the company's working capital for a specified
period. To evaluate the effectiveness of working capital, the ratio between total sales and the
amount of average working capital can be used.
Profitability is significant for the company because it can reflect the success and
survival of a company, where the company's ability to generate profits during a specified
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period is called profitability. A profitability ratio is a ratio that assesses a company's ability to
seek benefits. In this study, profitability is measured using the Net Profit Margin (NPM).
Freight Forwarding Company is one example of a company in the service sector.
According to Andi Susilo (2008: 109) freight forwarders are document and transportation
management services companies that are named after the shipper/consignee and carry out
routine activities such as stuffing / unstuffing cargo, storage/warehousing, regulating local
transport and carrying out ocean freight payments. PT XYZ, a company engaged in logistics
and freight forwarding services.
Tabel 1 PT XYZ Working Capital and Profit
Year Working Capital Net Profit
2012 Rp 2.896.723.442,45 Rp 709.020.153,38
2013 Rp 6.191.943.782,09 Rp 2.980.043.380,61
2014 Rp 9.787.702.036,81 Rp 3.619.904.856,92
2015 Rp 14.968.748.313,59 Rp 5.043.078.176,40
2016 Rp 11.882.751.582,49 Rp 6.509.253.923,49
Source: Financal Statement PT.XYZ
The table above explains the phenomenon that occurred in the company PT XYZ where
working capital in 2012 to 2015 where during the last five years has increased, starting in 2012
available working capital of Rp2,896,723,442.45 then in 2013 available working capital
amounted to Rp.6,191,943,782.09 continued with working capital in 2014 standing to
9,787,702,036.81 and in 2015 the available working capital was as much as
Rp14,968,748,313.59 but in 2016 working capital decreased with available working capital of
Rp11 882.751,582.49. Then in the net profit column, the increase occurs during the five-year
accounting period.
In this case, the working capital of PT XYZ is not in a condition that can be said to be
useful as the condition of PT XYZ's working capital fluctuated from 2012 to 2016. This is a
benchmark and interesting to study because according to working capital, an increase in
working capital will reflect how inefficient the management of working capital in a company.
1. How does working capital turnover occur at PT XYZ?
2. How is the state of profitability measured using the ratio of net profit margin at PT XYZ?
3. How much influence does working capital turnover have on profitability as measured by
the ratio of net profit margin at PT XYZ?
Literature Review
Financial Statement
According to Harahap (2016: 105), Financial statements describe the financial
condition and results of operations of a company at certain times a specifeid period. The types
of financial statements commonly known are Financial position statements or Profit / Loss or
business results and cash flow statements.
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The purpose of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position,
financial performance, and entity cash flows that benefit most users of financial statements in
making economic decisions. The financial statements also show the results of management's
responsibility for the use of the resources entrusted to them. To achieve these objectives, the
financial statements provide information about the entity which includes Assets, Liabilities,
Equity, Income, and expenses, including profits and losses, Contributions from distribution to
the owner in certainty as owner and Cashflow
Such information, along with other information contained in the notes to financial
statements, helps users of financial statements in predicting the entity's future cash flows and
certainty of obtaining cash and cash equivalents.
Financial Ratio Analysis

According to Harahap (2016: 297), Financial Ratio is a number obtained from a comparison of
one financial statement post with another that has a relevant and significant relationship. If we
analyze the company's financial ratios, it means describing the mathematical relationship
between the sum of the one with the other amounts in the form of a percentage (%), rates or
simple proportions.
The Role of Working Capital

Available working capital in sufficient quantities allows the company to operate economically
and not experience financial difficulties. The importance of the role of working capital in the
company, according to Riyanto (2010: 57) states: where money or funds issued are expected to
get back again in a short time through the sale of the product.
According to Munawir (2016: 119) working capital consists of two main parts, namely:
1. A fixed or permanent part, namely the minimum amount that must be available so that the
company can run smoothly without financial difficulties.
2. The variable amount of working capital whose amount depends on seasonal activities and
needs outside the usual activities.
Working Capital Turnover

The length of the working capital turnover period depends on how long the turnaround period
of each component of the working capital. (Riyanto, 2011: 62) To assess the effectiveness of
working capital, the ratio between total sales and the amount of working capital turnover can be
used. This ratio shows the relationship between working capital and sales will show the number
of transactions that can be obtained by the company (in rupiah amounts) for each rupiah
working capital (Munawir, 2016: 80).
The following is an equation or formula that can be used in calculating the amount of working
capital turnover contained in a company or an entity. According to Riyanto (2016: 112), the
turnover of working capital is formulated as:
Working Capital Turnover (WCT)= Sales

Current Asset – Current Liabilities
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Profitability ratio
Definition of Profitability Ratio
According to Harahap (2016: 304), Profitability Ratios describe the ability of companies to
earn profits through all available capabilities and sources such as sales activities, cash, capital,
number of employees, number of branches and so on.
Net Profit Margin

Profit margin is a ratio that compares net income after tax with net sales. This ratio
measures net income after tax on sales. The higher the Net profit margin, the better the
operation of a company. Net profit margin is calculated by the formula:
Net Profit Margin=Earning after Tax

Sales
Discussion
This research method uses a quantitative approach with an associative formulation in the form
of a causal relationship.
a. Working Capital Turnover at PT XYZ

Working capital turnover that occurred in PT XYZ in 2012 and 2013 was fairly good
where the first two years experienced an increase in working capital wherein 2012 available
working capital amounted to Rp2,896,723,442.45 with an annual turnover of 2.88 times and in
2013 working capital available as much as Rp.6,191,943,782.09 with an annual turnover of
6.25 times. In 2014, working capital was available as much as Rp. 9,787,702,036.81 with
annual turnover of 5.10 times. This decline occurred because in 2014 sales only increased
slightly from 2013, compared to 2012, which experienced a very high increase. In 2015
working capital turnover occurred 3.06 times. This figure was less than the previous year. This
is because even though the available working capital is relatively stable from the previous year,
which amounted to Rp14,968,748,313.59 but on the sales side it shows a decline from 2014,
the reason for the decline in sales figures is the tax exchange rate on transactions that occurred
at PT XYZ. However, PT XYZ's management tried well were in 2016, both working capital
turnover and sales return improved and increased from the previous year.
b. A Profitability that Occurs at PT XYZ

Profitability experienced by PT XYZ from year to year is calculated using the net profit
margin where this ratio is used to see how a company is managing each asset and other things
properly. In 2012 and 2014 PT XYZ's net profit margin decreased, from 0.09; 0.08 and 0.07.
However, in 2015 and 2016 experienced an increase of 0.11 and 0.12. The fluctuations that
occur illustrate the poor condition of the sales activities carried out by PT XYZ during this
period.
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c. The Effect of Working Capital Turnover on Profitability at PT XYZ

Good working capital turnover shows a good condition of the company where the amount
of available working capital depends on the total current assets minus current liabilities. The
higher current assets and the smaller the current debt owed by a company will help the
company in providing sufficient working capital to carry out the company's mandatory
operational activities.
Kasmir (2016: 300) defines that:
"Working capital is the working capital used to carry out company operations. Working
capital can also be interpreted as investment invested in current assets or short-term
assets, such as cash, securities, accounts receivable, inventory, and other current assets.
The better or if the working capital is high then the profitability will also increase"
But the conditions that occur in PT XYZ are not by the theory. Although working
capital that is owned or available every year increases does not become a benchmark in terms
of increasing profitability. The net profit margin shows a decrease in profitability at PT XYZ
even though profit is always increasing. From the results of this study, it was found that
significant working capital does not necessarily produce high profitability. In this study, capital
turnover (working capital turnover) has no significant effect on profitability measured using the
net profit margin. This is also supported by previous research conducted by Asep Saeful Falah
(2016) with the title "Effect of Working Capital Turnover on Net Profit Margin at PT XYZ"
which concluded that working capital turnover does not affect the net profit margin. So that in
the absence of the influence of working capital turnover on profitability as measured by the net
profit margin ratio, it is expected that company management will be wiser in making a decision
in allocating available funds, able to determine its objectives and policy direction, improve the
ability to plan well on funds that will be used by the company in the future.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion
Based on the research that has been done and refers to the discussion of the research in the
previous chapter, the following is a conclusion of the research conducted at PT XYZ:
1. Based on the results of the analysis on working capital turnover that occurred at PT XYZ,
it can be concluded that although available working capital has increased for 2012 to
2016, PT XYZ's sales side has decreased, resulting in unstable working capital PT XYZ.
2. In this study, PT XYZ's profitability measured using net profit margin fluctuated, which
illustrates the poor condition of the company from the sales side. When tested using a
coefficient of determination analysis tool, the amount of contribution or influence of
working capital on profitability is 0.214, which means the effect of working capital on
profitability is 21.4% and the remaining 78.6% is influenced by other factors not
examined.
3. Based on the results of the t-test that has been done, see that t count <t table. So the
hypothesis is rejected, where it can be concluded that working capital does not have a
significant effect on profitability at PT XYZ.
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Recommendations
Based on the results of the analysis that has been carried out and refers to the conclusions
above, then suggestions are proposed that can be taken into consideration for PT XYZ in
making decisions, namely:
1. From the results of tests that have been done, it can be seen that working capital has no
effect on increasing profitability, but in theory, it should be influential, so that each
company needs to be careful in managing working capital and to be used as effectively and
efficiently as possible to obtain profit.
2. Apart from working capital as for other factors that must be considered in increasing
profitability, namely the management of production costs or operating costs so that
profitability can continue to improve and attract the interest of prospective investors
because of the company's excellent performance in managing finances.
References
Agus Tri dan Nano Prawoto. 2016. Analisis Regresi Dalam Penelitian Ekonomi & Bisnis.
Cetakan Pertama. Edisi 1. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.
Asep Saeful Falah. 2016. Pengaruh Working Capital Turnover Terhadap Net Profit Margin
pada KUD Mitrayasa Kecamatan Pageraung.
Fahmi, Irham.2014. Analisis Laporan Keuangan. Bandung : Alfabeta.
Harahap, S Sofyan. 2016. Analisis Kritis Atas Laporan Keuangan. Cetakan ketigabelas. Edisi
1. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada.
Hery. 2015. Pengantar Akuntansi. Jakarta. Grasindo
Kasmir.2016. Pengantar Manajemen Keuangan. Jakarta : Prenadamedia Group.
Merry Christiani. 2016. Pengaruh Perputaran Modal Kerja Terhadap Net Profit Margin dan
Current Ratio pada PT Hero Supermarket Tbk, Periode 2009-2013.
Munawir.2014. Analisis Laporan Keuangan. Yogyakarta : Liberty.
Silviana Dwi Sulistianingrum. 2012. Pengaruh Perputaran Modal Kerja Terhadap
Profitabilitas Pada perusahaan Property dan Real Estate terdaftar di BEI.
Susilo, Andi. 2008. Buku Pintar Ekspor Impor. Cetakan ketigabelas. Edisi 1. Jakarta:
TransMedia Pustaka.
Sugiyono.2015. Metode Penelitian. Bandung : Alfabeta.
Sugiyono. 2016. Metode Penelitian Bisnis. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Sugiyono.2017. Metode Penelitian. Bandung : Alfabeta.
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INVERTED CLASSROOM

LEARNING MODEL FOR PRE-UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY
STUDENTS: THE PRELIMINARY STUDY
Ayu Afiqah Nasrullah*, Mohd Azrul Abdul Rajak, Nur Hazwani Dahon, Megawati
Mohd Yunus, Sazmal Effendi Arshad and Wardatul Akmam Din
Preparatory Centre for Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Moving a step closer in achieving Vision 2020, Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Education has always been a priority for Malaysia. Malaysia Higher
Education Institution is implementing one of the goals which were to establish a scientific and
innovative society. STEM provides students with the opportunity to investigate the information
provided to them through inverted classroom (IC), in order to understand it based on their own
experiences and makes learning more relevant as students are exposed to the concept of
problem-based learning (PBL). In the Traditional Teaching Method (TTM) frustration has
arisen when students were not able to translate information given during lectures into useful
information that would allow them to complete their homework. Lecturers are continually
being challenged to think about how best to integrate digital technologies meaningfully and
effectively in their lectures. Reflecting this is the rise of IC. The purpose of this study was to
assess the effectiveness of an IC by using the problem-based method in Chemistry subject
among Pre-University students. Students were divided into two groups; experimental (EG) and
control (CG) group. A topic in Chemistry had been selected, and the model paper test was
given to both group before and after the lecture session. The EG will experience a shift in
learning culture where student-centred approaches were implemented through given materials
and asked to solve a PBL study case. On the other hand, the CG will comply with the TTM
before given a similar study case. The result indicated significant improvement in model paper
test marks for EG if compared to the CG. This reflects the effectiveness of IC as a central
platform that helps to improvise and enhance teaching and learning methodology in the Pre-
University Chemistry level
Keywords: inverted classroom, effectiveness, chemistry education, inverted problem-based
learning, pre-university, University Malaysia Sabah
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Nowadays, the educational system for the institutions of higher education is facing other
challenges in refining the efficiency of teaching and learning process, especially for the STEM
courses. The conventional educational systems are likely to content with the learning and
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teaching approaches as it keeps students away from realising their potential and develop their
soft-skills.
Nevertheless, many studies addressed about the varies pedagogy of teaching and learning such
as personalized learning (Azida & Bilal, 2013; Netcoh & Ph, 2017), PBL (Gorghiu et al., 2015;
Yew & Goh, 2016), an IC (Teo et al., 2014; Smith, 2013; Bergmann & Sams 2012; Bishop,
Beach & Engineering, 2013; Christiansen, 2014) and e-Learning (Wan & Niu, 2018;
Hubalovsky, Hubalovska, & Musilek, 2018; Chang, 2016) which are followed three
pedagogical principles: personalization, participation and productivity (Luna, 2015); have been
used in the classroom as the alternative for the conventional educational systems.
In recent years, IC has gained attention to be applied during the learning and teaching process
as it can substitute the conventional pedagogy approach. An IC is the independent learning
process, as the students were exposed with the lecture contents outside of the classroom
through the lecture videos or readings (Smith, 2013; Teo et al., 2014; Fitzgerald & Li, 2015). In
other words, students can self-learn the course contents at their own learning time and learning
pace (Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). For this model, a lecture period in the classroom was
substituted with the active learning activities such as the PBL activities, discussion and debates,
as the instructor was involved only for guiding problems solving and clarifying information
(Christiansen et al., 2017; Fautch, 2015). Many literatures show the significant results in
applying the IC model as it enhances the students’ engagement, participation, level of interest,
enthusiasm and performances as well (Bishop, Beach, & Engineering, 2013; Teo et al., 2014;
Fulton, 2012). The support system and technology in this model provide the flexible and
interactive conditions to promote students to think effectively and creatively, fast-feedback and
highly-responsible to their learning process (Herreid & Schiller, 2012; Lo, Hew, & Chen 2017;
Flaherty & Phillips, 2015).
Literature Review
Literature in implementing an IC in Chemistry subject for the high school, college and
university students show the positive outcomes (Ryan & Reid, 2016; Science, 2016; Cormier &
Voisard, 2018; Yestrebsky, 2015; Bradley et al., 2002; Teo et al., 2014; Smith, 2013;
Fitzgerald & Li, 2015; Christiansen, 2014). The combination of new technologies in this model
are practical tools since it provides comfortable and flexible approaches to the students in the
learning process, as it is appropriate in the 21st century (Fitzgerald & Li, 2015; Revell, 2014).
Furthermore, the problem-based solving activities and discussions during classroom enhanced
the interest level and soft-skill materials of students due to their engagement and participation
in the activities, resulting in the improvement of their comprehension of the topics (Bergmann
& Sams, 2012; Fautch, 2015). As a result, it increases the performance of students on the
summative assessments (Fautch, 2015). The study on the implementation of an IC for
Chemistry subject among the Pre-University students has not been reported.
Furthermore, the difficulties of learning and teaching process for the students in Pre-University
are not similar to other levels due to the structure of course contents, teaching styles and the
behaviour of students. Hence, the present study performs the investigation of the effectiveness
of an IC for Chemistry subject among the Pre-University students. In the study, a topic that
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relates to the state of matter; solid and liquid have been focused on the IC. The present study
should give significant outcomes since it could provide new perspectives in the integration of
an IC to support the learning process of Chemistry subject among the Pre-University students.
Methodology
Research Design
For this study, a sample of 84 pre-university students was chosen from all students registered
for the Foundation of Science, University Malaysia Sabah intake 2018/2019. Students were
purposely selected according to two effective teaching-learning approaches namely, inverted
problem-based learning classroom (IPBLC) and traditional teaching methods (TTM). The
experimental design was divided into two groups which were experimental group (EG) and
control group (CG). TTM conducted the CG meanwhile the new teaching approach which is
IPBLC goes to the EG. The same lecturer taught both groups thus eliminates the teacher factor.
As for the experimental treatment, the researcher was supplying different lecture materials to
the EG (e.g., they were provided with online resources including video lectures, theoretical
slides, chapter exercises and quizzes as well as online discussion with their lecturers during the
flipped classroom session).
On the other hand, the CG is undergoing the TTM for the similar topic for a two-hour session.
Theoretical slides and exercises were provided to this group during the class period. The PBL
was conducted to assess the students' understanding towards the topic learned after the
experimental treatment, thus both groups were tested with an identical problem and expected to
present their findings at the end of the sessions with only a team of five in each group.
Data Collection
The model paper test consists of 9 questions that used for both pre-test and post-test. The
questions address to chapter four in their chemistry syllabus semester one which covered solid
and liquid phase. The model paper test was administered for both groups at the beginning of
the semester to determine before and after implementation in term of student performance.
During PBL intervention, students were divided into a group of 16 that consisted of EG and
CG. The student task was related to that the solid and liquid phase issues whereas it required
they solved the problem among their group members in a given time before proceeding to the
presentation. In that problem, lecturer encourages the students to develop their solution,
support the student by asking a question in becoming an effective thinker. Students can use
information resources (all media types) and lecture materials as sources of information. The
materials do not teach, but rather support the student's inquiry or performance. After the
discussion, the students are all engaged while presenting their problem-solving. At the end of
the session, the same model paper was given to the same groups as a post-test reviewed to
make comparison analysis against the pre-test results.
Data analysis
A statistical software package, SPSS version 23, was used to analyse the data and to produce
descriptive statistics. To analyse the students’ performance based on the results obtained from
the pre- and post-tests, independent t-test was used to test for differences in terms of mean
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marks in both pre-test and post-test between the EG and the CG. Statistical significance was set
at Sig. value<0.05.
Discussion
In order to help identify any a priori differences between the EG and CG, their performance in
the past Chemistry SPM 2017 grades was compared as shown in Table 1. From the sample of
35 CG students and 49 EG students, it can be said that the distribution of the sample of the
study is well distributed according to their past Chemistry SPM 2017 grades. There was no
statistical difference between the two groups, suggesting that the CG and EG groups were very
similar in background and ability before the Pre-University Chemistry course. Nonetheless,
where applicable, course grades were used as a covariant in statistical analysis.
Table 1: Distributions of students’ Chemistry SPM grades for control and experimental group
Group Grade Frequency Percentage (%)

Control A+ 0 0.00
A 0 0.00
A- 8 22.90
B+ 15 42.90
B 10 28.60
C+ 2 5.70
Total 35 100.00
Experimental A+ 3 6.10
A 3 6.10
A- 9 18.40
B+ 18 36.70
B 10 20.40
C+ 6 12.20
Total 49 100.00
Content coverage was compared in the TTM and IC offerings. The topic that is chosen for this
study is the States of Matter: Solid and Liquid phase. The reason being is that this topic has
been taught during high school and for Pre-University level, this topic being teachers in depth.
Thus, it will make the IC much more interesting and ease the students. Both groups were
assessed through a pre-test or exam in the 1st week before the topic being introduced. The
following week was the TC & IC and followed by problem-based learning and a post-test.
For us to evaluate the effectiveness of the IC, students' performance on the pre-test and post-
test in the IC and TTM courses were compared. This study uses the independent t-test to see
whether there is a statistical difference in terms of mean marks for both pre-test and post-test
between the EG and the CG. The results are shown in Figure 1. It is seen that there is no
significant difference in the mean marks of Chemistry pre-test between the EG and the CG
before the implementation either for the inverted classroom or traditional classroom. After the
implementation of both TTM and IPBLC, the mean marks of the post-test by the CG and the
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EG has increased from 14.5429 to 20.4857 and from 14.9388 to 22.8980 respectively.
However, it is important to note that the EG has shown a more significant improvement in
terms of mean marks for the pre- and post-test after the intervention of inverted classroom.
According to Table 2, it shows that there is no statistically significant in the Chemistry pre-test
result between the control and experimental groups as the p value is higher than 0.05 but the
Chemistry post-test result in the EG is significantly higher than the CG with U=604.500 &
p=0.008 (p value is lower than 0.05).
Figure 1: Performance comparison of Pre-test and Post-Test for Experimental Group and Control Group
Table 2: Mann-Whitney U test analysis for Test 1 and Test 2 from the control and experimental group
Test Statistics
Pre-Test Post-Test
Mann-Whitney U 901.000 604.500
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.938 0.008
The study result showed significant improvement from EG compared with the CG. This proves
that the IC method is more effective in pedagogy. This effectiveness influenced by various
factors that include digitalisation, learning time flexibility, and independent learner.
As the world emerges into a world of digitalisation, information is better consumed through a
digital platform such as online, video content, and even from social media (Smith, 2013; Teo et
al., 2014; Fitzgerald & Li, 2015). The digitalisation helps to reduce hustle and time consuming
to access the information. Thus, it allows the student to gain access to information needed
easily anytime and anywhere. On top of that, there is various similar information available
online for the same topic. The student will have more content to make a comparison of the
sources available for their better understanding of the topic.
Flexible learning is one way to address these shifts. Flexible learning gives students choices in
learning pace, place and mode of learning. This is because some students prefer to study during
the day while others during the evening or night. The time at which the lecture is schedule
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could have an impact on the learning ability and subsequent performance of the student. Thus,
the student would be able to choose the most suitable time, place and mode of learning for
them to study at their best focus. (Flaherty & Phillips, 2015).
Furthermore, through IC students will have enough time to study and understand the subject, as
they have time to study the material given such as online lecture videos, lecture notes and
tutorial questions. Adequately produced video motivate students and focuses their energy
through engagement and excitement. Students respond very well to high-quality videos because
it helps them to understand difficult material. They have the opportunity to replay the video
several times to ensure they mastered a particular topic. The student may pause, fast forward
and rewind as they wish. Compare with the traditional method whereby the student is required
to attend class and to try to understand the lecture in certain hours of lecture. (Buzzetto-More,
2006)
Besides, the students are becoming an independent learner, where they are better prepared in
solving their PBL case. The students tend to source for information independently which makes
their understanding towards the topic far more in-depth compared with CG which usually are
given information during the lecture period. As the TTM had a less profound impact on
students learning performance, IPBLC shows promising performance in their post-test result
(Bishop, Beach, & Engineering, 2013; Teo et al., 2014; Fulton, 2012). Thus, this finding
encourages educators and test practitioners to provide more effective educational tools for an
active students' engagement in the classroom.
Conclusion
Through this research of Inverted problem-based learning classroom (IPBLC) method, it has
proven its effectiveness in enhancing students understanding towards solid and liquid topics in
Chemistry. It showed definite improvement of result during the pre-test and post-test. The
implementation of digitalisation much influences the effectiveness of IPBLC through exciting
and engaging study materials such as video content, lecture note, and online discussion.
Although the IPBLC brought positive results, it cannot be taken lightly, as there are needs for
proper monitoring and control system to ensure the participation of students in the learning
process.
On top of that, study material produced must always be attractive and in good quality to ensure
student having the best learning input. To further understand the effectiveness of this method, a
series of surveys on student's perceptions should be conducted to define the correlation
between learning performance and students learning outcomes. Hence, different level of
difficulties and more challenging Chemistry subject should be tested to evaluate the validity of
this method effectiveness — for instance; chapters in Organic Chemistry
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Universiti Malaysia Sabah Research Grant Scheme
(SGPUMS) from Universiti Malaysia Sabah (SBK 0294-SSI-2016).
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Every Class Every Day. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in
Education.
Bishop, Jacob Lowell, Daytona Beach, and Biological Engineering (2013). “The Flipped
Classroom : A Survey of the Research.”
Bradley, Alexander Z, Scott M Ulrich, Maitland Jones Jr, and Stephanie M Jones. (2002).
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Buzzetto-More, N. A. (2006). Principle of Effective Online Teaching. Santa Rosa, California:
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Chang, Victor. (2016). “International Journal of Information Management Review and
Discussion : E-Learning for Academia and Industry.” International Journal of Information
Management 36 (3). Elsevier Ltd: 476–85. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2015.12.007.
Christiansen, Michael A. (2014). “Inverted Teaching: Applying a New Pedagogy to a
University Organic Chemistry Class.” doi:10.1021/ed400530z.
Christiansen, Michael A, Alyssia M Lambert, Louis S Nadelson, Kami M Dupree, and Trish A
Kingsford. (2017). “In-Class Versus At-Home Quizzes: Which Is Better? A Flipped
Learning Study in a Two-Site Synchronously Broadcast Organic Chemistry Course.”
Journal of Chemical Education 94: 157–63. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00370.
Cormier, Caroline, and Bruno Voisard. (2018). “Flipped Classroom in Organic Chemistry Has
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Fautch, Jessica M. (2015). “Research and Practice The Flipped Classroom for Teaching
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Fitzgerald, Neil, and Luisa Li. (2015). “Using Presentation Software To Flip an Undergraduate
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Flaherty, Jacqueline O, and Craig Phillips. (2015). “Internet and Higher Education The Use of
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Gorghiu, Gabriel, Sorin Cristea, Ana-maria Petrescu, and Laura Monica. (2015). “Problem-
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Herreid, Clyde Freeman, and Nancy A Schiller. (2012). “Case Studies and the Flipped
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Hubalovsky, S, M Hubalovska, and M Musilek. (2018). “Computers in Human Behavior
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THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA AND ONLINE BOOKING

ON ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR, ETHICAL WORK
CLIMATE AND EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT IN A TRAVEL
AGENCY
Zarena Abdul Karim1*, Roshidi Hassan2

1
2
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
In describing the organizational behaviour, ethical work climate and employee commitment in
a travel agency which trend of social media and online has given a tremendous impact to the
industry. As we know, 20 years back, in any travel agency, people who tend to travel, will refer
to their preferred travel agency for consultation. They will organize their holiday or business
plan with the travel consultants on which is the best destination for them to travel. But now
days, with the vast information technology, gadgets and social media, a travel agency is
seemed to be dying off and this gives a negative impact to the behaviour, ethical work climate
and employee commitment towards organization performance and achievement. This is
because the trend of people visiting their travel agency is slowing down as travellers tend to
book their travel arrangement directly through social media or online booking. Even though
there are few travel agencies in Malaysia that have down sized, merged and even closed their
business due to high operational cost incurred with poor sales turnover. For example, recently
Reliance Travel has totally closed its business due to its inability to sustain its operation. The
impact of social media does this gives negative impact towards the organizational behaviour,
ethical work climate as well as employee commitment in a travel agency. In a working climate,
the substance of building an organizational behaviour could not distinguish from the existing
commitment within employees in an organization. The challenges and contribution of
organizational behaviour is to be a driving force in the foundation of effectiveness of travel
industry.
Keywords: social media, organizational behaviour, tourism industry

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Social media and online booking have been the main platform for travellers to plan for their
travelling. With vast technology and gadget at their fingertips; social media and online booking
has become a necessity for travellers to have the apps on their hand-phones, Ipad or any devise
that they have. It has become a way of life for travellers as well as travel industry practitioners
to use social media as their marketing platform. Social media such as Facebook and Instagram
are widely use by employee of a travel agency as their tool. The information shared and
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gathered via social media will be used to transfer within employee in a travel agency. The
organizational behaviour must be change parallel with the technology era or trend use by
travellers.
Now-days, a travel agency is not obsolete as they cannot implement the traditional way of how
it was being done 10 years ago. Even-though a travel agency do produce a segmentation of
60% on airline booking, 30% on travel packages and remaining on other travel product such as
cruise, transportation, visa and insurance. Most travel agencies have shifted their focus the
traditional way to online as they need to adopt with the new technology and trend.
No doubt 15 years ago, travellers would still refer or visit their preferred travel agency for
advice on their travelling arrangement. Due to technology and innovation change, travellers
shift the way of travelling by arranging themselves using online booking. Social media or
online booking such as TripAdvisor, Expedia, Agoda or Booking.com influence traveller’s
decision making in their travelling need.
They do not visit and seek anymore advice from their travel consultant on their travelling plan.
This situation has changed the mind-set and attitude of travellers which indirectly the growing
role of social media in tourism has been increasingly an emerging research topic. Social media
can be interpreted as a way of life for travellers and consumers which it has become an element
in travel industry’s marketing strategy. How can this be affected and influence the
organizational behaviour in a travel agency.
Social media and online booking have become the main competitor towards travel agency.
Before this era became popular and mostly used, travel agency is a company that customer will
refer to for their travelling needs.
Organizational ethical climate can be referred to the moral atmosphere of a working
environment and the level of ethics that are being practiced within the company itself.
What we can defined here is that in a travel industry, social media is now influencing the
organizational behaviour of an employee in a travel agency. This is because, client is now able
to browse and compare price and product with social media and online booking. When this
comparison is being done, client will then compare with the product and price that a travel
agency provides.
Organizational behaviour can be interpreted as social systems, combination of humanity and
technology. Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how
people react within the organizational. From the interpretation, we can relate on how social
media and online booking influence the organizational behaviour in a travel agency. It can also
define as systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within the
organization.
Travel agency seldom able to match the price and product that being offered by social media or
online booking. OTA or online travel agent is another name for social media or online booking.
They provide services via online and social media.
At certain times, employee of a travel agency may feel stress as they must compete with the
social media or online booking who offers lower price compare to what they have in their
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travel agency. Travel agency has its own overhead cost that need to be look into yearly
compare to social media or online booking companies.
Online booking such as Expedia, AGODA, Booking.com, hotel.com has its own strategy in
producing volume rather than percentage on profit margin. At certain time, there are OTAs that
are illegal, and they are not bind with the policy from Ministry of Tourism Arts and Culture
(MOTAC)
Nowadays, social media and online booking plays an important role in many aspects
of tourism, especially in information search and decision-making
behaviours, tourism promotion as well as in focusing on best practices for interacting with
consumers. Consumers are now be able to make their own airline or hotel reservation without
referring to any travel agency. They can refer to Trip Advisor for references from visitor who
shared their travel experience in their website. These feedback or recommendations can be used
as information search and references in consumer decision making. Nevertheless, consumers
must be sensitive and be-careful on which social media or online booking that they would like
to use to avoid scammers or even fraud.
Significantly, most travellers will like social media pages which are related to their travel plan.
This information is useful for them as well as travel agency to penetrate the market itself and to
gather information. This can be used as their strategy to attract travellers to purchase the
destination with them. From social media, it gives both positive and negative impact to an
employee of a travel agency. This is because they need to identify what is the current trend and
marketing tool to attract more customer.
According to (Kim, Li, & Brymer, 2016) internet innovations have played an important role in
business performances. This can relate to how it can give an impact to a travel agency on their
daily transactions, indirectly it may result to lower sales performance.
It is true that social media and online booking will allow a change information within
employees of a travel agency that gives an impact to their ethical and work climate.
The advantage of social media and online booking in a travel agency provides opportunity for
an organizational behaviour change. Employee will feel its impact on how social media and
online booking influence the way they work in the organization. They learn new information,
how to strategies the way to promote product in the right market. There will be a feeling of
eagerness to compete and being competitive in the travel industry within the employee.
Sigala & Chalkiti, (2014) has mentioned that Web 2.0 applications provide the opportunity to
transfer internet capability to the social environment where individuals are able to interact
online by using social media.
According to Hur, Kim, Karatepe & Lee, 2017, popularity of a destination in social media
helps and facilitates organizational behaviour and change within employees. It allows users
without being to be physical presence and be able to communicate. Employee commitment and
change helps travellers’ decision making on a destination.
At an event, social media provides an effective information for better business performance in
an organization. An employee must take the initiative and be able to change due to change of
technology. According to Chang and Hsiao (2014), social media have changed the revolution
in communication in people’s lives with their explosive growth and widespread application
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In the nineties, travellers were not exposed with social media, online booking or even any
technology know how gadget. Travellers then will visit their preferred travel agent for advice
and recommendation on destinations that they intend to go. They will get information and
updates from them before deciding. They will make their decision after being recommended by
their consultants. Or even travellers will refer to newspaper cutting whom travel journalist have
visited such as hotels, exciting places (Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014) which now can be obtain via
TripAdvisor or any travel bloggers.
Compared to the new era, travellers make their own decision making without consulting any
travel agency. They used social media and online booking for information search before
proceeding for a decision making (Munar & Jacobsen,2014). Within years, the travel industry
has grown gradually, rapidly and steadily without any limitations (Wood, 2017). We cannot
stop any technology change that brings an organization’s effectiveness.
There are four factors affecting Organizational Behaviour; people, structure, technology and
environment. From these four sectors we can relate that due to technology change from the
traditional way of how travellers organize their holiday plan by seeking travel agency to social
media. With this change it has affected the people which is the employee from the point of
commitment, ethical and behaviour towards technology change.
McAfee, 2006 mentioned that the ubiquity of social media has even penetrated at workplace,
facilitating organizational communication and knowledge work which was impossible in the
past
Literature Review
A travel agency is not just a profit-oriented organization and servicing travellers but there are
other components or resources which relate to it. Physical building, location, facilities, human
resources along with other organizational units such as Finance, Information technology,
Marketing which relate to strategies and knowledge sharing (Gannon et.al., 2015; Leonidou,
Fotiadis & Zeriti 2013)
Social media and online booking can be benefited in a travel agency when there is networking
occurred within (Trainor et.al., 2014). According to Harrington & Ottenbacher,2011, the
knowledge sharing, activities which can influence change in organizational behaviour of
employee’s commitment towards company. Employee work ethic will reflect in the result of
the company’s performance.
According to (Barreda et al., 2015) sharing information in social media is an effective process
where it enhances the purchasing power among travellers as well as to help the decision
making in travel related. It defined as an internet-based resource capability that enables
technology know how. This compliment other resources in an organization (Sigala, 2012)
Despite the growing research on tourism innovation (Gomezelj, 2016) for a systematic review,
the existing literature has focused mostly on the inputs into (investment, knowledge, actors,
etc.) and especially the outputs from (nature and types of innovation, impact on performance,
etc.) the ‘black box’. While all these areas are important, the aim of this research is to focus on
the innovation process itself, providing an overview perspective which is lacking in tourism
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except for the recent case study by Nordin, S., & Hjalager, A. (2017). of the innovation
process in the Ice Hotel in Sweden.
Analysis was conducted and found that tourism has been seen by many entrepreneurs as well as
businessman a strong and strategic economic sector that performed relatively during economic
crisis. Travel practitioners identify that tourism industry is the first industry that will be
affected during any political, economic or natural disaster occur. And this industry will be the
last to recover which it may take time depending how seriously the crisis occurs.
In common situation, leisure holiday is one of important product that travellers may consider.
Travellers has their own yearly budget that they have allocate to travel. By using social media
and online booking, it gives the opportunity for them to choose and make decision. Niche
product such as skiing, golfing and other related travel product is substantial to a travel agency.
Employee of a travel agency will experience the process of change in order to provide
extensive services to travellers’ need and requirement.
Travel industry, which is leisure related, may been affect by social media and online as
travellers are free to select the best medium to satisfy their needs. But for corporate
organization, they would still require travel agency to organize or plan their business or
meeting requirement. It is potentially value generating and few entrepreneurs feel that travel
industry provide opportunities for a highly motivated work, regardless in a hotel or travel
agency. While the first and second main reasons are structural, the last two are individual scale:
a dominant personal motivation to be an entrepreneur and a lifestyle orientation, respectively.
Travelers be able to choose hotel accommodation, touristic destination, holiday package,
restaurant to dine in, they will refer to advise or recommendations via social media or online
platform before decision is being made. They will ask for advice or opinions or
recommendations prior to what others have experienced. Word of mouth, advertisement, flyers
or viral in social media plays an important aspect towards travellers’ decision making.
Travellers able to get first-hand information from the reviews given and posted by bloggers
which this can increase the traveller’s decision making and they have choices to choose (Xiang
& Gretzel, 2010). All online posting reviews which contain their experiences, food, hotel,
photos and videos of travel and hospitality product and experiences can influence travellers’
decision making. Employee organizational behaviour do affect from this which they can learn
and used the information as tool and strategies to increase the company’s performance. Micro-
blogging has also emerged, where users post a short message, usually via a mobile phone, on
forums such as Twitter.
According to Akehurst, 2009; Flanagin & Metzger, 2013, ratings of travel product, services
and experiences are being shared in Trip Advisor. This information may influence traveller
future planning in their decision making. Employee at a travel agency will also use this sharing
knowledge to advise their client the destination. The feedback given by experience travellers
are reliable and trustworthy. It can be used as reference and may change the employee
commitment and organizational behaviour in a travel agency.
Online reviews and comment via social media can be positive or negative. These reviews will
be used by travellers as reference for their decision making. Reviews on restaurant, places of
interest, hotel will be used for travellers’ weather to proceed with their plan for holiday. First-
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hand experiences and reviews are beneficial for traveller so that they are aware of what to
expect when they arrived at the destination (Yoo & Gretzel, 2008). Employee at a travel
agency will also use this information to explained further on the destination chose by a
traveller.
Maximizing the benefits, and minimizing the negative impacts, of online reviews are
challenges facing many tourism and hospitality businesses. In the past, word-of-mouth was
generally equated with personal communication, involving one-to-one communication from
business to consumer (B2C) or between consumers (C2C).
Word of mouth (Ewom) play an important role and influence the organizational behaviour in a
travel agency. Reviews and online comments shared within the social media gives an impact to
the decision making of a traveller. This relate to travel services and product (Hennig-Thurau,
Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler, 2004).
Can social media influence employees’ work performance, ethical and organizational
behaviour?

Social media and online booking strengthen the knowledge sharing and resource locating that
can benefit travelers. This can be adopted in a travel agency to change the organizational
behavior, employee work commitment and ethical. Through social media, employee may be
able to adopt information shared within the team. Knowledge sharing can be shared among
employees.
It is belief that social media can accommodate employee’s social capital and subsequently
facilitate knowledge transfer. Both social media and knowledge transfer help to promote work
performance. Employee will adopt, shared information and trust to represent respectively the
structural, cognitive and relational dimensions of social capital.
The maintenance and development of network ties is no longer needed to rely largely on face to
face communication but instead can rely on the virtual community created by social media.
From the study, we can see that how social media and online influence employees’
commitment, ethical and organizational behavior in the travel agency. It has both positive and
negative impact which results to the performance of company. With the social media, travelers
tend to compare price and product that they obtain from online travel agencies.
How do we react? Can travel agencies compete with what social media and online booking
offers? Employees in a travel agency has to study the price and product given to and explained
thoroughly to travelers what the inclusions and exclusions of a product shown. A travel agency
may not be able to compete or offer the price shown in the social media or online booking due
to factors as price shown are too low, operational cost that is not affecting the social media
compared to travel agency. But what can a travel agency sustain in the tourism industry is by
the services rendered to their clientele.
An employee in a travel agency professionally be able to use and leverage social media and
online booking in the organization. Travel agency can collaborate and coordinate with other
social media platform and gain knowledge sharing with them. Indirectly this can increase the
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performance of the company. The collaboration is a positive move that a travel agency can
obtain from social media. It will be much easier for the employees to develop shared vision
and mission of the company.
Social media and online gives huge impact towards working performance of an employee in a
travel agency. The knowledge that they shared and obtain from social media will be used
towards travelers who require advise for their travel arrangement. Proven that cooperation,
sharing information, communication and interaction can reduce conflicts within employee in a
travel agency. Indirectly it can develop successful decision making and will increase
effectiveness within department (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998)
Stasser and Titus, 1985 from knowledge transfer gained from social media and online booking
will provide comprehensive consideration as well as providing options in problem solving.
This may lead to effective decision making that may reflect positive organizational behavior in
a travel agency.
In fact, through control variable, we can expect that individual experience with social media
may have a positive effect on work performance. Employee who have extensive rich expensive
with social media are likely be better foster their social capital in virtual communities,
increasing the extent to which knowledge is effectively transferred.
With the impact of social media and online booking, it gives a change of working climate
whereby due to change of technology, employees may experience an organizational behavior
towards organization’s change. It gives a positive change towards employee’s commitment in
the day to day work.
As conclusion, the social media and online booking gives an impact towards organizational
behaviour, ethical, work climate and employee commitment in a travel agency. Travel agency
must move forward and look on how to maintain its business in order to compete the vast
technology change into social media and online booking.
Social media and online booking are taking over everyone’ s daily life which everything can be
done via apps. Travel agency has to strategize on how to sustain in the travel industry with the
influence of social media and online booking which will affect the organizational behaviour of
their employees’ ethical and commitment.
References
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Hur, K., Kim, T. T., Karatepe, O. M., & Lee, G. (2017). An exploration of the factors
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THE INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF INVESTMENT DECISION

MAKING IN MALAYSIAN PUBLIC LISTED COMPANIES
Arifha Mohamad1, Nor Suziwana Tahir2, Yarina Ahmad3
1
Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia.
2
Malaysia.
3
Malaysia.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
Individual shareholders made investment decision making based on their main objectives from
the trading activities, in reducing risk with high return. This study seeks to identify the
influential factors of investment that affect the individual shareholders’ investment decision
making, specifically in the Malaysian Public Listed Companies (PLCs). Using quantitative
measures, questionnaires were distributed to the individual shareholders during the company’s
Annual General Meeting (AGM). This study managed to collect 680 respondents from the
survey. It was found that accounting information, personal financial needs, advocate
recommendations and images of the company are the drivers that affect individual
shareholders’ decision to invest in a certain PLC. Meanwhile, individual shareholders in
Malaysia did not rely on corporate social responsibility (CSR) in their investment decision. The
limitation of this study is its respondents of individual shareholders as the unit of analysis while
leaving out other investors. Due to the numbers of constraints, such as incurred huge costs,
required human effort and time shortage, this study only managed to collect a sample from
trading services sector, industrial product sector and consumer product sector traded by
individual shareholders as a representation from a group of individual shareholders’ trading
shares in the Malaysian PLCs. This paper provides new insight into the development of
financial and non-financial factors to the investment decision making in the Malaysian Public
Listed Companies (PLCs). Thus, it is recommended to analysts the implication of other factors
that might be influence investment decision making other than individual shareholders.
Keywords: Accounting information; personal financial needs; advocate recommendations;

images of company; corporate social responsibility (CSR); investment; decision making.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
In Malaysia, investment activities can be made widely in various types of securities
provided. However, investment in stocks has consistently proved to be one of the most
profitable forms of investment available. This is due to the several values associated with the
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investment in stocks, such as affordable transaction cost, easy monitoring, and ability to
maximize the return. As the mainly stock marketplace that handle the daily securities trading,
Malaysia stock exchange had been recognized as the 27th largest exchange out of the 79 stock
exchanges. As of March 2018, Bursa Malaysia’s Market Capitalization is $445.95 Billion and
the country has a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $312.4 Billion (Department of Statistics
Malaysia, 2018).
According to the CEO of Bursa Malaysia, Datuk Seri Tajuddin, there is a positive
response in the involvement of Malaysian in trading activities as there were 36% of younger
investors entering the market in larger numbers (Aruna, 2017). The betterment shows that the
initiatives developed by the Government and regulatory authority have paid off, even though it
is not fully utilizing. Among the initiatives are improve the law, education and training, and
provides a growth opportunity in the regulated environment.
However, every success there must have been the drawback. Generally known, the
investment experience does not involve only the internal environment, between the company
and investors, but it is also affected by the external environment, such as political, legal
requirement and economics. It might be very challenging to the investors in making a wise
investment decision, especially the individual shareholders. Plus, the investment decision also
affected by the psychological factors, on how the individual shareholders interpret and adapt
the information provided. It is because, in the consistency of the behaviour, the individual
shareholders will make irrational thinking, which leads to high risk and loss in the investment.
The recent cases that given the impact on the investment environment in Malaysia is
political impacts. The new government in Malaysia, Pakatan Harapan’s stunning victory at the
14th General Election (GE14) had given impact to the Malaysia stock market, especially stocks
that are relying heavily on the previous government, and foreign investors. The unprecedented
electoral victory by Pakatan Harapan was unfavourable to many stocks, namely, MyEG
Services Bhd, George Kent (M) Bhd, Nexgram Holdings Bhd, and Ahmad Zaki Resources Bhd
(Kana, 2018). Meanwhile, some of the favourable stocks, such as Nestle Bhd, Berjaya
Corporation Bhd, FGV Holdings Bhd and Fraser and Neave Holdings Bhd (Chin, 2018).
From the internal overview, the riskiness of investment decision is contributed by
enough capital, investment goal or objectives, understand the concept and occupied with
reliable information. That is one of the major reasons many cases had been reported for the
investment scams that made most of the individual shareholders incurred a loss in the
investment. Recently, State Commercial Crime Investigation Department head (JSJK),
Superintendent Annual Amri announced that there were 47 police reports received losses of
RM 2.6 million from victims of investment schemes organized by a company (Ahmad, 2019).
It is proved that the investors, especially the individual shareholders have to well-being
prepared with the investment risks, in order to achieve the high return. It is very common that,
the high risk associated with the high return. But it goes back to the capabilities and abilities of
an individual in making a wise investment decision. So, this study ought to examine the factors
contribute to making the investment decision among individual shareholders. The next section
will highlight the literature review of the study.
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Literature review
Investment Decision Making
Shah, Ahmad and Mahmood (2018) had examined the influence of heuristics behaviour
on the individual shareholders that are actively trading on the Pakistan Stock Exchange. The
result showed that heuristics behaviour, which composed of the overconfidence,
representativeness, availability and anchoring does not give impact to the individual investors’
investment decision making. The study conducted by Bellofatto et al. (2018), the result of the
study showed that investors that have a higher level of financial literacy tend to invest more in
the stock market due to the overconfidence behaviour. More surprisingly, those overconfidence
investors have a better investment performance even after controlling for transaction costs and
on a risk-adjusted basis.
Further, this is some other findings also from Rasheed et al. (2018), which showed that
the psychological factors, namely, representative bias and availability bias influence the
investment decision making among investors whose are operating at Islamabad, Lahore and
Sargodha. It is indicated that the loss in the investment is attributed by irrational thinking. The
well-controlled of the psychological factor with the full information and experience able to
mitigate the wrong investment decision.
Seetharaman et al. (2017) asserted that individual investors in Singapore have an
insignificant relationship between the risk profile and the choices of the investment portfolio.
The study was modelled using the smart-pls statistical packages (PLS-SEM) in determining the
investment behaviour among the individual investors. Behavioural explanations of an
individual fail to assess the risk of the company and uncertainty events in the investment
scenario. The finding is in contrast to some study, by Hunjra, Qureshi and Riaz (2017), which
found that the investors from Islamabad Stock Exchange have to deal with the determinants of
the propensity of risk, the framing of the problem, asymmetry of information and perception of
risk in making a financial decision.
According to Anum and Ameer (2017), the behavioural in the psychological factors
give an impact to the individual investors’ investment decision making. The study had been
conducted by distributing the questionnaires among investors from Pakistan Stock Exchange
and were analysed through SPSS software. In comparing among the behavioural factors,
consisted of heuristics, prospect, market and herding, the highest mean value is undertaking for
the prospect variable, followed by herding, heuristics and market. It can be interpreted that
Pakistani individual investors were mostly committed a behavioural error from the prospect
factors, such as loss aversion, regret aversion and mental accounting biases in their investment
decision making.
Images of Company
In India, Gupta et al. (2018) found that the images of the company depend on the
credibility of the management of the company. The role of the CEO’s personal characteristics
proved to be significantly influential to investment decision making. In addition to that, Nelson
(2017) proved that most of the investors strongly support companies that have a more credible
Board of Directors and greater board accountability. Cal and Lambkin (2017) conducted
research on stock exchange brands as an influence on individual investors’ investment in
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Turkey and Ireland. Stock exchange brands are the proxy for the good images of the company.
Based on the analysis, all those brands have a direct relationship with investment decision
making. Based on the telephone survey conducted by Shandwick (2017) among investors, the
study found that the most influential intangible factor that influences investment decision
making is the quality of the management in playing such important roles.
Ariful et al. (2015) examined the factors of investment decision making in Bangladesh.
The result showed that images of the company are one of the 25 factors that influence investors
in Bangladesh. Sultana and Pardhasaradhi (2012) conducted a survey on factors influencing
Indian equity investors’ decision making and behaviour to the 1500 individual equity investors.
According to the factor analysis, information related to the firm image of the company also
influencing Indian individual equity investors’ decision making and behaviour. Merikas et al.
(2011) reported the factors influencing Greek investor behaviour on the Athens Stock
Exchange. The result proved that firstly, economic criteria together with the other diverse
variables influence the stock purchase decisions. Expected corporate earnings, the condition of
financial statements, or firm status in the industry are the most important variables. Secondly,
other than variables above, more than half of the respondents consider no other factor
important indicating that investors truly employ diverse decision criteria when choosing stocks.
Accounting Information
In the Rwanda Stock Exchange (RSE), Barayandema and Ndizeye (2018) found that
from the economic perspective, expected corporate earnings and ownership structure are the
most influential factors for the active investors who are operating in RSE. Babanic (2018)
surveyed the impact of a financial section of income statement referring to the accounting
condition of the company to the investment decision-making process of investors and
managers. He found that the effect significantly influences and ensures the profit of the
company.
Nouri, Motamedi and Soltani (2017) found that financial factors, such as stock price
and profitability of the company influence shareholders’ decision to buy and sell stocks in the
Tehran Stock Exchange. In addition, Suryani (2016) stated that if investors possess a
fundamental knowledge of financial information, they would form the intentions and
confidence to invest. The information also works as an indication for investors to make any
changes in their investment decisions. Accounting information provided by a company also
slightly influenced the share price of a company, and directly, investors also investigate the
share price for their investment decision making.
Jagongo and Mutswenje (2014) examined the factors that influence individual
investors’ decision making at the Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE). They found that accounting
information is one of the key factors influencing investors’ decision. Obamuyi (2013)
conducted a study to investigate the factors influencing investment decisions of investors in the
Nigerian capital market proved that social economic factors, such as past performance of the
company’s stock, expected stock split or capital increases or bonus, dividend policy, expected
corporate earnings and get-rich-quick were found to be significant among investors.
According to Sultana and Pardhasaradhi (2012), the most factors influencing Indian
individual equity investors’ decision making and behaviour is the accounting information of the
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company, which is 42%. They conducted a study on the factors influencing Indian individual
equity investors’ decision making and behaviour. Factors under accounting information,
namely dividends paid, expected dividends, the condition of the financial statement, expected
corporate earnings, affordable share price, past performance of the firm’s stock and stock
marketability have high factor loadings.
Personal Financial Needs

A study analysed by Barayandema and Ndizeye (2018) proved that there were two factors that
are truly influential to the investment decisions in the Rwanda Stock Exchange. One of the
factors is a psychological factor, whose items are irrational thinking, desire to get rich quickly,
and cognitive biases. The mean value for the second item is 4.27 which are quite high in
comparison to the other items and factors.
Nair and Ladha (2018) examined the influence of investor characteristics (values and
beliefs) on investors’ non-economic investment goals by Indian investors. They concluded that
religiosity and beliefs are the main determinants of Indian investors’ pursuit of non-economic
investment goal. Ahmad (2017) and Bashir et al. (2013) on the other hand, examined the
factors that influence individual investors’ behaviour in the Pakistani financial markets. The
studies found that personal financial needs are among the factors which influence the behaviour
of Pakistani investors.
From a study by Janor et al. (2016), the salient points that emerged during their research
are personal financial needs, composed of invest for the investment diversification, high
accessibility to borrowing and loan, risk acceptance with the minimal risk and loss, and
maximization of returns. Bashir et al. (2013) conducted a study to identify the factors that
influence Pakistan’s individual investor behaviour. The variables are a firm image, neutral
information, accounting information, personal financial needs and advocate recommendations.
From the results of the calculated mean, it is shown that all the variables are affecting the
decision-making behaviour of the investor.
Sultana and Pardhasaradhi (2012) studied the factors influencing Indian individual
equity investors’ decision making and behaviour. In order to gather the data, the questionnaires
were sent to 1500 equity investors. According to the analysis, personal and financial needs are
the second highest factors influencing the decision making and behaviour of Indian individual
equity investors.
Advocate Recommendations
A study conducted by Lieber and Skimmyhorn (2018) proved that peer
recommendations give an impact to financial decision making. This is mainly because
individuals are generally lacking in experience and the cost of decision making can be very
high. Katariya and Joshi (2017) found that Indian investors take into consideration the
recommendations made by brokerage houses, individual stockbrokers, family members and co-
workers in their investment decision making.
Farj, Jais and Md. Isa (2016) found that Libyan investors depend mainly on the pieces
of advice obtained from brokers to take their decisions before looking at corporate annual
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reports. In a study by Jaiyeoba and Haron (2016) found that many of the interviewees relied so
much on their findings from fundamental analysis, rather than relying solely on third parties’
recommendations. In a study to examine the effect of financial literacy and investment
decisions in Malaysia and United Kingdom conducted by Janor et al. (2016) it was revealed
that there is an emergence of additional factors, which are professional service, and advisor
(advice or recommendation from the broker, family members, friends or stockholder).
Ponnamperuma (2013) argued that factors influencing investor behaviour in the
Colombo Stock Exchange are a recommendation from the family, company’s image and
consultation. Ng and Wu (2010) had conducted a study in the investment decision making
made by individual investors from Mainland China, which is their culture and social structure
are totally different from Western countries. From their study, it showed that China’s
individual investments are primarily influenced by social interactions and word-of-mouth
behaviour. However, the influencing by word-of-mouth behaviour from the peers that maintain
their brokerage account at the same branch.
According to the study by Das (2012), many of the small investors in Assam consider
38 factors before making investment decisions. However, the top five highly influence their
investment decisions are financial statements, referral, public information, and profitability
variables. A study conducted by Bennet et al. (2011) shows there were four factors with the
lowest influence on the stock selection decisions by retail investors, which are a
recommendation by analysts, broker and research report, recommended by friends, family and
peer, geographical location of the company and social responsibility.
Corporate Social Responsibility

In a recent study by Miralles-Quiros et al. (2018), they concluded that environmental
performance is positively and significantly valued by the investors, scoring at 95% confidence
level. It is important for the companies to implement CSR policies because it can lead to a
stronger sustainable performance, which is important to the Brazilian investors. Timbate and
Park (2018) however uncovered a different result in their study. They found that even though a
company which has better CSR practices tends to have better financial reporting quality;
shareholders did not evaluate those practices as a value-relevant activity conducted by the
company.
Besides that, Lee, Kim and Kwoon (2017) found that foreign investors’ investment in
Korea was driven by the CSR disclosure made by the companies. Gennari and Salvioni (2017)
stated that the assertion of CSR is important to the long-term value creation, not only for the
companies but also to the investors. It is due to the risk minimization for the business and
investment among investors. In Taiwan, Lee (2016) studied the impact of CSR on Taiwanese
investors. He found that CSR disclosure made by the company can enhance investment
efficiency because it can reduce agency problems and information asymmetry. Based on a
study by Villiers and Staden (2010), in comparing of shareholders’ requirements for corporate
environmental disclosure between Australia, UK and US, it proved that more than 50%
respondents of each country demand environmental information disclosure as part of their
investment decision making in a company. It is due to financial decision making, responsibility
to environmental issues and concern about climate change.
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A study conducted by Saleh et al. (2010) found that “Corporate social responsibility
disclosure and its relation on institutional ownership” proved that all the dimensions under
corporate social responsibility, which are employee relation, product, community involvement
and environment, are significantly correlated with the institutional ownership. However, there
is a positive significant relationship between employee relation and product to the investors,
while the remaining dimensions are a negative relationship. Many prior studies (Dhaliwal, et
al., 2011; Fiori, et al., 2009; Frankel & Lee, 1999; Ioannou & Serafeim, 2011) have analysed
the relationship between share return and CSR activities by the companies to ensure that they
can attract more investors while at the same time can reduce the cost of equity capital. The
different variables such as investment decision making, accounting information, personal
financial needs, images of company and CSR are being reviewed thoroughly in the literature.
The effect of these variables is empirically tested on the individual shareholders which is
discussed in methodology.
Methodology
This section highlights the research method that has been applied. This study adopted
an exploratory approach using descriptive survey design to investigate the factors of investment
that affected individual shareholders’ investment decision making in the Malaysian Public
Listed Companies (PLCs). This study managed to collect a sample of 680 individual
shareholders as representation from a group of individual shareholders’ trading shares in the
Malaysian PLCs. The respondents are limited to the individual shareholders that made an
investment in the three main sectors in Malaysia, which are trading services sector, industrial
product sector and consumer product sector, in the Klang Valley area. The information about
the company intends to organize the AGM was gathered from the Bursa Malaysia website.
During the AGM, the individual shareholders were randomly selected to fill up the
questionnaires.
The questionnaires were divided into three sections, which are (i) demographic
information (ii) investment decision making and (iii) factors of investment. Using a 5-point
Likert scale, the respondents were asked to evaluate the importance of each question on factors
and investment decision-making section. There were five choices against each of the question
ranging in varying degrees from 1 to 5, where 5 represents strongly agree to 1 representing
strongly disagree. The survey instruments were adopted by the previous researchers, namely
Sultana and Pardhasaradhi (2012), Obamuyi (2013), Nagy and Obenberg (1994), Gnani (2012),
Akhter and Ahmad (2013) and Shafi (2014).
This study employs a 5-point Likert scale. Respondents were required to respond to
indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of the series of statements about the
stimulus objects. Each number represents an agreement, which is 1- strongly disagree, 2-
disagree, 3- neutral, 4- agree and 5– strongly agree. Also, the demographics were measured on
a nominal scale. The instrument was administered in English and Malay. The data was
analysed using SPSS Version 22, focusing on descriptive and regression analysis. The next
section will accentuate on the discussion of the result.
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Result And Discussion

The respondents were asked about their background information, such as age, gender,
race, years of investment experience, either size of the company influence investment or not,
the size of the company and sector of the company. Table 1 shows that out of 680 respondents,
many of them were age from 46-55 of years (31.8%). Only 35 respondents were between the
age of 18 and 25 years’ old. The old-age investors are believed to have the strong financial
support that can be deviated to the investment. For the young age, generally fresh-graduated
individual, they might have to commit to the educational loans. Results showed that most
individual shareholders were male which was 56.0%. The huge gender-differences in the
investment is supported by many previous studies like Farj, Jais and Md. Isa (2016), Obaidat
(2016) and Pandey, Chaubey and Tripathi (2016). Most of the individual shareholders that
were attending the AGM’s were namely Chinese (325), followed by Malay (197) and Indian
(158).
Results showed that more than 50% of individual shareholders agreed that the size of
the company (total assets) influence their investment decision making in the invested
companies. The individual shareholders will investigate the size of the company that is aligned
with their objectives in the investment. The trading in a small and large size of the company
was shared a same number of respondents (340). From the demographic analysis, out of 680
respondents, individual shareholders that have 3 to 11 years of investment experience have
more than 100 number of respondents. They are actively engaging with the company’s
activities in order to monitor the management of the company. Lastly, there were 285 of the
respondents representing the trading services sector, followed by consumer product sector
(260) and industrial product sector (135). Subsequently, this study reports the regression
analysis output to test the relationship between factors of investment and individual
shareholders’ investment decision making in the Malaysian PLCs. Table 1 depicts the
demographic profile of the sample:
Table 1: Profile of Respondents (N=680)

Variable Respondent Profile Frequency Percentage (%)
Age 18-25 years 35 5.1
26-35 years 70 10.3
36-45 years 185 27.2
46-55 years 216 31.8
56-65 years 121 17.8
Above 65 years 53 7.8
Gender Male 381 56.0
Female 299 44.0
Race Malay 197 29.0
Chinese 325 47.8
Indian 158 23.2
Year of experience Below 1 year 38 5.6
1-2 years 98 14.4
3-5 years 155 22.8
6-8 years 173 25.4
9-11 years 137 20.1
12-15 years 54 7.9
More than 15 years 25 3.7
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Size influence Yes 587 86.3

investment decision No 93 13.7
Size of company Large 340 50.0
Small 340 50.0
Type of company Trading Services 285 41.9
Consumer product 260 38.2
Industrial product 135 19.9
Table 2 depicts the results of the regression analysis for the individual shareholders’
investment decision making. The results demonstrate that a model is significant (p<0.05)
showing a significant relationship between investment decision making and various
independent factors (R2 = 0.217 and F-value = 25.6) in which R2 shows the fitness of the model
as independent variable account for 21.7% variation independent variable. It means that
independent variables contribute 21.7% in investment decision and remaining are the other
factors. Then, the variables were analysed individually, began with the factor of accounting
information and investment decision making.
The result showed that there is a significant positive relationship between accounting
information and investment decision making (B=0.247; p<0.05). Other than that, there is also a
significant positive relationship between personal financial needs and investment decision
making significant at 0.000 value and Beta value of 0.335. Factors of investment in advocate
recommendations have a significant negative relationship to the investment decision making
(B= -0.076; p<0.05). In addition, the result showed that there is a significant positive
relationship between images of company and investment decision making (B= -0.074; p<0.05).
Meanwhile, the remaining factor, which is CSR, is having no relationship on investment
decision making with a value of B= 0.012; p>0.05.
When each of the variables was investigated, a significant relationship is found between
all the variables associated with the investment decision making, unless the factor of corporate
social responsibility. Plus, the factors of accounting information and personal financial needs
have a positive and significant impact on investment decision making. In contrast, advocate
recommendations and images of the company showed an indirect path on investment decision
making. Therefore, the Beta value indicated that personal financial needs are the most
preferential variable for the investment decision making, though, followed by the factor of
accounting information, advocate recommendations and images of the company.
Table 2: Regression Analysis Output

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
Constant 2.365 0.269 8.789 0.000
Accounting Information 0.289 0.042 0.247 6.942 0.000
Personal Financial 0.284 0.029 0.335 9.678 0.000
Needs
Advocate -0.086 0.039 -0.076 -2.204 0.028
Recommendations
Images of Company -0.079 0.037 -0.074 -2.150 0.032
CSR 0.010 0.027 0.012 0.353 0.725
Notes: Dependent variable: Investment Decision Making; R 2=0.217; F-value: 25.6<0.01
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The study also reveals that among all the factors of investment decision making, the
ones that have the influential impact on the individual shareholder’s investment decision
making in the Malaysian PLCs are accounting information, personal financial needs, advocate
recommendations and images of the company. This result is supported by Suryani (2016), who
explained that individual shareholders prefer to invest in a company that has a healthy financial
condition conducted by the management and give an affordable return to their shareholders. In
line with the better accounting information provided by the company, it indirectly secures the
individual investors for their personal financial needs for the future. Normally, the individual
shareholder analyses the accounting information of the company through the annual report
provided by the company.
Findings from the analysis within this study found that Malaysian individual
shareholders placed their personal financial needs in making an investment decision. This
finding is consistent with Sultana and Pardhasaradhi (2012) who found that investors’ personal
financial needs influence their decision in investment. Generally known, the main investment
objective is to gain a high return. As part of that, an individual shareholder will choose the
company for the investment that is able to provide a good return with better management.
With respect to the Malaysian stock market, individual shareholders have been proven
to have a lack of investment skills; they are incapable of making investment decisions
personally. The findings proved that an individual shareholder seeks investment advice from
brokerage, family, friends, and their co-workers, which is consistent with the result from
Islamoglu et al. (2015). The information and advice from others might be helpful in making a
wise investment decision making and reduce loss, especially among the individual
shareholders.
Other than that, Malaysian individual shareholders also invest in a company that has a
better image in term of business performance, stock performance and qualified management
which was also proven by Hayat and Shanza (2012). The better images of the company reflect
the growth of the company. Surely, the individual shareholders will be appointed credibility,
accountability and capable management in assessing the company’s business operations.
This study showed that individual shareholders do not really take into consideration any
CSR activities conducted by the company. Results in this study are consistent with Timbate
and Park (2018). It might be due to the least investment impact from the information about a
company and the social activities of a company towards the individual shareholder's investment
decision making. There is a conflict arises when the profit attributed by the company transmits
to the other than owners. This study draws conclusions on the research objectives and were
presented in the next section.
Conclusion
This study aimed to check the influence of five different independent variables used in
the study, namely accounting information, personal financial needs, advocate
recommendations, images of company and CSR which might affect the investment decision of
any individual. The result shows that accounting information, personal financial needs,
advocate recommendations and images of the company are the influential factors on the
individual investment behaviour of an individual whereas they are less influenced by CSR. The
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individual shareholders in Malaysia were much more weight on their financial support. This is
the main reason for their participation in investment trading.
Further, other than internal factors, the result also discovered that the individual
shareholders were considering the characteristic of the company, which are accounting
information and images of the company. It is easy to gain the company’s information as it is
compulsory especially for the PLCs to disclose all the material information to the public
through the Bursa Malaysia, Securities Commission of Malaysia or mass media. Plus, the
individual shareholders also seek investment advice from the others in helping them to make a
wise investment decision and occupied a full knowledge about the investment. It is hoped that
this will provide insights into potential shareholders to not only take financial factors into
consideration but also non-financial factors that have proven to be an important element in their
investment decision making.
The considering implications are implemented to the existing and potential investors in
Malaysia and possibly in other countries. This research found that personal financial needs are
an important part of building an investment decision making process. As generally known, the
main objectives in investment participation is to generate more income than savings. The
investors will not secure a high dividend if they made a wrong process. It is very impossible for
the investors in aiming the high dividends without the environmental analysis and advice from
the experts. Those wishing to have great money should accumulate the investment knowledge
and information of making investment decisions. In practice, the regulatory authority will drive
the investment knowledge to the investors and public through the educational empowerment,
so that, they be able to manage the financial needs effectively. As the vital aspects are on the
financial information, the implications to the Government is to formulate strategies to control
and monitor the financial condition of the country.
The findings in this paper would help stock market regulators and policymakers in
assisting them to understand the role of both financial and non-financial factors on individual
shareholders’ decision making. The Malaysian PLCs can also look at the influential factors and
focus more on these factors to attract the investors to invest in them. For the brokerage houses,
they should equip themselves with the full knowledge about investment and advice investors
on asset allocation in ensuring risk reduction with high return. This study will enrich the
information about investment decision making among individual shareholders in the research
field, by highlighting socially responsible companies towards individual shareholder's
investment decision making.
This study reveals that there are only five factors examining the individual shareholder's
investment decision making in the Malaysian PLCs. The companies for the PLCs were in the
Klang Valley area that consisted of trading services sector, consumer product sector and
industrial product sector only, and the approaches in getting the individual shareholders were
only during the company’s AGM.
For future research, it is recommended to examine how factors of investment decision
influence the institutional investors in their investment decision making. There is a dire need to
undertake similar studies with the different respondents and examine other factors that might
have an impact. Other companies that have conducted their company’s AGM other than Klang
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Valley area can be considered for future research. It is also should be interviewing the
respondents in getting a wide perspective on the investment scenario in Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by grants from the 600-IRMI 5/3/GIP (042/2018) of Universiti
Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor.
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THE MODERATION VISITING AND DISTANT RESIDENCE

OF LOCAL COMMUNITY ON THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND
GREEN MARKETING IN BIOMASS POWER PLANT, NORTH
OF THAILAND
Nititorn Wongchastha1, Mahadzirah Mohamad2, Monchanok Upata3, Phatnista

Naranon4
1
Faculty of Economic and Management Science, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Economic and Management Science, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Business Administration, North ChiangMai University, Thailand
4
Faculty of Economic and Management Science, University Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
For many decade, Thailand’s energy has become a business-driven key element in producing
the goods and services. The beginning of global warming directly affects mankind. The effects
of global climate change are pointing to the energy industry. The final energy demand is
expected to grow under business-as-usual (BAU) assumptions at an average annual rate of 26%
over the outlook period (a 92% growth in total). In 2035, industry and non-energy use together
will account for 48% of the total final energy demand. According to Thai Government policy
under National Energy Power Committee (NEPC) in order to meet the tremendous demand for
demand expected in. Thereby, Modern business needs to realize the importance of renewable
energy as an alternative energy because it not only saves the cost of production but also does
not harm the natural environment and local community. Biomass is one of all raw materials
which earning residual from farm in post-harvest in order to generate electricity. In the study,
choose SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company which largest one as a biomass energy
power plant site upper north of Thailand since 2011. Nowadays, the company confronts green
marketing unfavorite among local community as biomass power plant is a cause of pollution in
WiengYong and Pasak district within 144 square kilometers, cover 8,724 households in 26
villages (National Statistic Office of Thailand, 2015) For sample size, the calculate formula of
Taro Yamane is 383 sample size. This study selected the systematic sampling as a versatile
form of probability. It is simple and flexible, and easier to choose the dwelling unit listed on
every kth line of a listing household in each village. The sample will be selected every 22th for
that respondent on the list. In this study purpose examine the moderation “local people who
used to visiting in the company” and “the distant of residence” on the relationship between
CSR and green marketing. The result show that visiting of local lead to green marketing
perception and also distant of residence influence on the relation between CSR and green
marketing.
Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility, Green Marketing, Biomass Energy Power.
___________________________________________________________________________
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Introduction
For a many century, the beginning of global warming directly affects mankind. The effects of
global climate change are pointing to the energy industry. Modern business needs to realize the
importance of renewable energy as an alternative energy because it not only saves the cost of
production but also does not harm the natural environment and local community. Renewable
energy is any energy resource that is naturally regenerated over a short time scale such as
thermal, photochemical, photoelectric, wind, hydropower, geothermal and biomass (Radim,
Dusan, and Martin, 2015). For decades, renewable energy has become a substitute product and
can reduce energy demand for non-renewable energy many types of raw material such a
Biomass is a kind of renewable energy which was biological materials derived from living
things, including living organisms from farming, land management and forestry sectors to
support renewable energy generation.
Alternative energies are derived from five distinct energy sources and are specified as follows;
(1) virgin wood such as logs, chips or pellets from forestry and arboricultural activities or co-
product from wood processing; (2) clean non-virgin wood referred to any timber or timer
product that has not been treated; (3) energy crop and short rotation forestry as fast growing
tree species are harvested on a regular cycle; (4) dry agricultural residues; parts of arable crops
such as straw, maize, stover, husks, kernels, and (5) industrial waste and co-products; discarded
material from manufacturing and industrial processes including woody wastes and residues
(SAHACOGEN, 2015). Nowadays, Thailand has approximately 309 stations of biomass
energy power plants, but only 93 have license approval. SAHACOGEN green Lamphun
Company is the first company and only one station in the upper north of Thailand which was
granted approval by the department of alternative energy development and efficiency, Ministry
of Energy of Thailand. It produces electricity generating a capacity of 9.0 Megawatts and 25
tons of steam per hour, located in the area of SAHA Group Industrial Park, Lamphun province
in the north of Thailand. The company began to operate the commercial electricity generator in
March 2011 (Renewable energy annual report, 2015). That is show in Figure1.1.
Figure1.1 Biomass Energy Power Plants in the Upper North of Thailand 2019
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A cause of problem that green marketing is not favorite among local community, is
“Information barriers” refer to insufficient biomass technology information and interpretation
which is essential to build the confidence of local community. The success of green marketing
was quite limited because the information was not precise enough to gain the local people’s
confidence. Public support barrier refers to a lack of awareness of green technologies for
biomass energy and doubts about the image of electricity power plants as a cause of pollution
impacting the local community and their lifestyle. These lead to opposition from the local
communities towards SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company (Sorayuth, 2015). Somehow,
Diana et al. (2012) suggested that the problem faced by SAHACOGEN Green Lampuhun
Company can be solved by improving of green marketing image of the company by enhancing
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
CSR is a framework for formulating and implementing the expanded roles and responsibilities
of the corporate sector to include incorporation of the expectations and needs of the wider
community in the business model (UNECA, 2010). CSR creates sustainable relationship
among local community and the private sector based on social cooperation, environment
protection, and energy conservation (Prasertsang 2010). CSR has become the key factor for the
biomass energy power producer, such as SAHACOGEN Green Lampuhun company, to
enhance the efficiency of green marketing which could be resolve the conflict with the local
community (Hamann, R., & Kapelus, 2004). CSR is not only a strategic management which is
vital to the company in response to the changes in the business environment in the long-term
period, but it is also a wizard tool for the corporation in demonstration with stakeholder’s
perception of biomass energy technology.
Literature Review
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
In the beginning, Carroll (1999) defined CSR as “the obligations of businessmen to pursue
those policies, to make those decisions or to follow those directions which are agreed in terms
of values and objectives by our society” when many people believed that actions of a
corporation were closely related to society and the public and should conform to the society
and satisfy social values and expectations (Bowen, 1953). Traditional perspectives believe that
when a corporation provides cheap services and maximizes profits, it is to meet their social
responsibility. Besides, Khoury (cited in Alexander, 2008) defined CSR as “the overall
relationship of the corporation with all of its stakeholders concerned; customers, employees,
communities, owners, investors, government, suppliers and competitors”.
Lynes and Andrachuk, (2008) defined CSR as “where the business sector plays a deeper role
in society than only producing well and making profits, including society and environmentally
driven actions, referring that the business sector goes beyond its profit-oriented commercial
activities and increases the well-being of the community.” These comply with Dalia and
Rusian (2009) who identified the CSR concept as including the triple bottom line, social,
environment, and economic. Hopkins (2004) defined CSR as treating the stakeholders of the
firm ethically or in a responsible manner. Bowen (1953) identified as the pioneer in providing
the modern literature on CSR, offered one of the earliest definitions seeing CSR as the
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“obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow

those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society”.
Mahlouji and Anaraki (2009) referred to a definition by David Waldman et al. (2008) who
defined CSR as actions on the part of the firm that appear to advance, or acquiesce in the
promotion of some social good, beyond the immediate interests of the firm and its
shareholders, which is required by law. Such actions may result in a company embodying
socially responsible attributes in their products. CSR could bring a sustainable relationship
between the company and community concerned with eco-friendliness and demands of
consumption beyond customer citizenship, public relationship, and investors in the context of
globalization and the large-scale industrial sector (Asad and Patricia, 2011). Additionally,
Kusum, Scot, Jackie, and Gail (2014) represented that CSR not only initiates relationships
among customers, investors, and the broader community, but also competes for natural
resources as an alternative to be channeled to other areas such as transportation or service
improvement.
CSR is an organizational strategy that benefits from solving the current situation of
controversy in renewable energy issues (Robinson, 2005). Generally, CSR supports corporate
oriented-profit and increases the well-being of the community for green marketing. CSR
contributes to the results of a company’s improvement beyond providing revenues,
employment, and maximized profit, further increasing shareholder’s values to empower the
company. CSR has become a major key player for effective communication with customers
and stakeholders as a vital instrument related to corporate image for stakeholder acceptance
(Castka, 2009).
CSR could bring a sustainable relationship between the company and community concerned
with eco-friendliness and demands of consumption beyond customer citizenship, public
relationship, and investors in the context of globalization and the large-scale industrial sector
(Asad and Patricia, 2011). Additionally, Kusum, Scot, Jackie, and Gail (2014) represented that
CSR not only initiates relationships among customers, investors, and the broader community,
but also competes for natural resources as an alternative to be channeled to other areas, such as
transportation or service improvement. The company should not invest in CSR for making
profits in the short-term period but rather to have good relations with the local community and
support a clean environment and society. In the renewable energy context, CSR positively
creates customer’s attitudes and evaluations that have an impact towards the corporate
understanding and engage general customer-specific knowledge of modern technology
(Jayachandran, Satish, Sharma, Peter, and Pushkal, 2005).
By literature review, CSR consists of three dimensions, that is, community development,
environmental consideration, and product innovation (Pasertsang, 2010). These are explained
in more detail as follows: Firstly, Community development is defined as the corporate
commitment under stakeholder engagement, corporate transparency and avoiding unethical
behavior referring to philanthropic activities; for example, providing scholarships and
volunteerism (Ibrahim, Howard, and Angelidis, 2007).
Secondly, environmental consideration is defined as a concern about environmental
management, and resource conservation such as green products (Lopez-Gamero, Molina-
Azorin, and Claver-Corters, 2009). Environmental consideration involves the effective
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protection of the environment, maintaining natural resources and reduced consumption

(Jenkins and Yakovleva, 2002). The environment is based on the guidance standard of the
organization (Castka and Balzaravo, 2008). Furthermore, environmental consideration is
concerned with recycling resources and reducing demands for remanufacturing products
(Pasertsang, 2010).
And thirdly, product innovation is a strategy of organization to the community with
stakeholders. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) starts with a fair process of producing
quality such as expanding marketing research to enhance product quality leading to
acceptability and profits among stakeholders (Chahal and Sharman, 2006). In addition, the
research develops high quality by reducing waste, energy consumption, and carbon emissions
(Monika, 2014) that might result from the production processes (Prasertsang, 2010). There are
show in Table 1.1.
Table1.1: Dimensions and Attributes determining CSR

Dimensions Attributes
Community development Education Supporting
(Monika et al, 2014)  Scholarship
 Free meals
 Education institution
Social welfare
 Adopting old age homes
 Public health
 Local industry
Agriculture support
 Livestock wasteland
 Rainwater and harvesting
Environmental Pollution
consideration  Air pollution
(Monika et al, 2014)  Noise pollution
 Biodiversity
 Water pollution
Product innovation Carbon Emission

(Monika et al, 2014)  Reduction carbon
 Carbon emission management
 Emission disclosing to public
Green Marketing
Green marketing is the process of planning, pricing, promotion and distributing products in a
way that could fulfill requirements outlined such as customer satisfaction, achieving
organizational goals and process compatibility with ecosystems (Fuller, 1999). The conception
of green marketing has evolved over time, being outlined into three phases: ecological,
environmental and sustainable, which appeared in 1990s, and revealed attributes regarding the
development of sustainable business (Peattie, 2001).
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In terms of product development, green marketing is “a tool for green product promotion
purposes to respond to customer’s needs, and is basically comprised of product modification,
changes to the production method and processes, packaging, and modification of advertising.”
(Polonsky; cited in Polonsky, 2011). In addition, green marketing or environmental marketing
encompass all activities related to product modification, production processes and packaging
changes, as well as exchanges that intend to satisfy the needs or wants of customers and
society, and also simultaneously pave way for organizational growth in a profitable manner
with minimal negative impact on the natural environment (Welling and Chavan, 2010; Peattie,
2001).
Furthermore Punitha (2013) extended green marketing in terms of relationship and social
interaction as “the way to conceive the exchange of relationship that goes beyond the current
needs of the consumers, considering at the same time the social interest in protecting nature.”
Likewise, Peattie (1995) and Welford (2000) described green marketing as “being the
management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies the needs and wants of customers
and society in a profitable and sustainable way”. According to Soonthonsmai (2007) discussed
green marketing as “action carried out by organizations that are apprehensive about the ecology
or green problems by providing the environmentally friendly goods or services to bring
satisfaction among stakeholders and community.”
Hussain (2000) state “basically of green marketing is to affect tastes and perception”, personal
individuals for character of environment friendliness is tendentious signal of the preference by
selecting the green alternative. By the literature review, many scholars discussed about green
marketing concept. In term of green marketing and environment aspect; Fisk (1998) identified
“areas that must be examined for their effect in the marketing, environment relationship,
namely economic, political and technological dimensions of the cultural frame of reference”.
Grove (1996) attempted to bring attention to the general and pervasive exclusion of green
industries from discussions of green marketing practices.
Manrai (1997) described green marketing that “emphasizes the environmental friendliness of
the product, attributes such as degradability, recyclability, lower pollutions are considered to be
environmentally friendly”. The principle states how the strength of a green claim. For
example, renewable energy the extent of pollution reduction claimed in an advertisement for a
new automobile and the consumer's disposition. Green marketing has influence on product
evaluation and corporate image were more favorable for customer with highly positive
customer’s disposition than for customer with less positive customer’s disposition when the
green claim was moderate in strength. However, when the green claim was extremely low or
extremely high in strength, the reverse was true. Theoretical rationale for these approaches
draws upon several areas of green advertising either latitude of acceptant assimilation or
rejection contrast.
Green marketing has become a significant approach for the firms to survive in the market and
sustain their marketing competitive advantage. Mu et al. (2009) remarked that the company
while adopting the phenomena of green marketing can improve their market position and
enhance their image and organizational performance. Hansen (2005) state “green marketing
supports environmental performance in terms of reducing emissions from production which
can have a positive influence on their economic performance”. Menguc and Ozanne (2005)
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recommended that “organizations that engage in green practices may be able to benefit the
business in multiple ways”.
Green marketing plays an important role in promoting the idea of environmental protection and
sustainable development (Ottman, 201; Crane, 2005), from both perspectives of customer and
corporate. The green marketing is viewed as ways to achieve company goals (Keller, 1987), to
ensure social responsibility (Davis, 1992), to meet customer expectations (Delmas and Toffel,
2004; Hoffman, 2001) to change the overall culture of business, (Carter and Jennings, 2002), in
a profitable and sustainable manner (Peattie and Crane, 2005). Green marketing proposes the
development of a multi-dimensional measure of value, such as the triple bottom line that
includes social and environment values in addition to economics (Robins, 2006).
Furthermore, the importance of green marketing is to generate and to facilitate any exchange
intended to satisfy customers’ environmental needs or wants (Polonsky, 1999). Singh and
Pandey (2012) argued that companies have adopted green marketing activities under the
pressure of legislative measures, but they further added that today’s customer is more informed
and aware regarding the green marketing initiatives. Therefore, companies are shifting their
perception about green marketing from a legislative paradigm to a customer satisfaction
paradigm.
By literature review green Marketing consist of three dimensions; firstly, complaint handling
dimension is “an expression of dissatisfaction made to about an organization, related to its
products, services, staff or handling of a complaint, where a response or resolution is explicitly
or implicitly expected or legally required” (Thorsten, Isabelle, and Roediger, 2009); Secondly,
ethical behavior is “a behavior that considered right or wrong and direction what people should
do and should not do” (Beauchamp and Bowie, 2000). Ethical behavior referred to individual
and organization as contingency and argued that ethical dilemma emerges from the social
economic (Fue-Zeng et al, 2013); and thirdly, resource commitment is discussed as how
valuable resource are allocated or target to do the most good in which a firm dedicates its
resources is critical, especially with regard to performance-enhancing environment initiatives.
The attribute of these dimension is illustrated in Table 1.2
Table1. 2: Dimensions and Attributes determining the green marketing
Dimensions Attributes
Complaint handling Personal
(Thorsten, Isabelle,  Complaints quickly
Roediger, 2009)  Timing in handling complaint
 Impression of taking complaint
Active listening
 Employee’s listening
 Hearing complaint
Competence
 Complaint management
 Sufficient service complaint
Ethical behaviour Honesty

(Chan, 2008)  Quality of green raw material
Fairness
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 Natural resources
Safety
 Green production
Resources Finance
commitment  Financial commitment for green marketing
(Robert, Carolyn,  Financial assets for green marketing
Stephanie, and Colin,  Cash for green marketing
2014)
Employee
 Green marketing training
 Coordinating green marketing
 Executing green marketing
 Green marketing culture
Partnership
 Green business partnership
 Green superior shareholder
Visiting
Visiting company referred to people who used to visit into SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun
Company included internal and external factory. Kristen (2010) studied “conversion of local
winery awareness: an exploratory study in visitor and non-visitor attitude and perception”
which complied with this study. The necessary, visiting company is in a position to openly
offer advice without contrast of knowledge and perceived limitation of the company. Visiting
company is important for this study as recommend either positive word-of–month or negative
word-of-month communication among local community controversy, are used most as
indicators of local people’s perception.
Distance
Distance of residence is a factor in terms of geographic distance which is the physical
separation between one location, and another typically concerned with space between residents
and the company’s location of perceived products and services. The measurement of the space
between the company and residents in kilometers added time, costs to commercial transaction
information and communication to customer within a local size in terms of effort to increase
communication efficiency (Dunning, 2001).
Research Methods
Population and Sample Size Determination
Population is defined as the group of people, events, or things of interest that a researcher
wishes to investigate (Sekaran, Cavana, and Delahaye, 2001). The population in this study was
members of each household above twenty years in age living in Wieng-Yong and Pasak
districts located in the SAHACOGEN green Lamphun company site. The sample size of this
study is calculated by using Taro Yamane (Yamane, 1973) formula the following;
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n = sample size required

N = number of people in the population
e = allowable error (%)
Therefore, this study has area contains approximately 8,724 households in 26 villages (National
Statistic Office of Thailand, 2015) with 95% confident level. The calculate formula of Taro
Yamane is represented as the follows.
n= 8,724
1 + (8,724) (.05)2
n= 8,724
1 + 21.81
n= 8,724
22.81
n= 382.46
Sampling Random Method

This study selected the systematic sampling as a versatile form of probability. It is simple and
flexible, and easier to choose the dwelling unit listed on every kth line of a listing household in
each village. In this approach, every kth element in the population is sampled beginning with a
random start of an element in the range of 1 to k. The kth element or skip interval is
determinate by dividing the sample size into the population size to obtain the skip pattern
applied to the sampling frame.
As the population of this study is eight-thousand seven hundred and twenty-four households,
the target sample size mentioned by Yamana (1973), it would be four- hundred as mentioned in
Table 3.1. Therefore, population starting with the randomly chosen element between 1 till the
end of household in each village, the sample will be selected every 22th for that respondent on
the list.
Skip Interval = Defined target population list size

Desired sample size
Skip Interval = 8,724 / 400

= 8.724 ≈ 22
Instrumentation
In this study, a survey instrument was utilized to measure the construct of the study. The
instrument consists of four major sections. The first and second sections of the instrument
contained items measuring CSR and GM respectively. The last section contains items to
capture the demographic data of the respondents. The items to measure; (1) CSR was adapted
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from Monika et al. (2014) and Chiu and Hsu, (2010), total of 30 items; using a 10 point rating
scale, where 1 is equal to strongly disagree and 10 is strongly agree. It consists of three
dimensions; they are community development, environment consideration, and production and
innovation. And (2) green marketing measured by Robert et al. (2014), Fue-Zeng et al, (2013),
and Keith, et al, (2005) a total of 27 items. Green marketing was manifested by twenty-seven
(27) items, also using a 10-point rating scale, where 1 is equal to strongly disagree and 10 is
strongly agree. It consists of three dimensions; ethical business, resource commitment, and
complaint handling.
The Result of Research
Conceptual Framework
Pilot test
As the pilot study determined the dimensionality items and internal reliability; it should be
minimum 100 respondents from the same population (Zainudin, 2015) for better suitability and
accuracy. Thus, the researcher set a pilot test for 150 respondents. The number of pilot tests for
each village is calculated based on the number of households divided by the population size
and multiplied by the total pilot test.
The number of items, dropped and retained
This section presents the result of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) represented the
examination of construct for suitable variables such as; (1) corporate social responsibility
(CSR) construct there were 30 items, after the extracted, 23 items were dropped and 7 items
were retained for Confirm Factor Analysis (CFA); green marketing (GM) construct were
manifested 27 items, after extracted 20 items dropped and 7 items were retained for
Confirmation Factor Analysis. Therefore, the numbers of items retained in the final survey
questionnaires were 21 items. There are illustrated in Table 1.3.
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Table1.3: The number of items, dropped and retained in pilot study
No. Constructs Initial items Dropped Retained items

items
1 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 30 23 7
2 Green Marketing (GM) 27 20 7
Total 73 52 21
EFA (Extract Factor Analysis) Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

The results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) for CSR
This study used Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood and Rotation Method: Varimax with
Kaiser Normalization was performed for 7 items of CSR. The results indicate that the Bartlett’s
Test of Sphericity was significant (Chi-Square=1790.725, p-value < 0.000). The measure of
sampling adequacy by Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) is 0.916 that is excellent since it exceeds
the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1974). The two measures (KMO value close to 1.0 and
the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity significant value close to 0.0) suggest that the data is
appropriate to proceed with its reduction procedure, the result of KMO and Bartlett’s test for
CSR illustrated in Table 1.4.
Table1.4: KMO and Bartlett’s test for CSR
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .916

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1790.725
Df 21
Sig. .000
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization
Total Variance Explained for CSR

CSR was extracted into one distinct dimension based on eigenvalues exceeding 1.0. For
dimension that concerned with “community development”, initial eigenvalues total 5.169,
percent of variance was 73.841, and cumulative percent was 73.741. After extraction sums of
squared loading were total 4.867, percent of variance was 69.536, cumulative percent was
69.536. There are illustrated in Table 1.5.
Table1.5: Total Variance Explained for CSR
Total Variance Explained

Dimension Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Community Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
development Variance % Variance %
5.169 73.841 73.841 4.867 69.536 69.536
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Factor Loading for CSR

CSR was extracted dimension matrix by Maximum Likelihood and rotated method by based on
eigenvalues exceeding 1.0. Those with factor loading higher than 0.6 should be analysed and
items lower than 0.6 should be dropped from analysis (Zainudin, 2012). The result of study
found one latent variable namely “community development” that identified by seven items
such as the company has established several educational institutions. (R4), the company
organizes villages’ adoption programs. (R6), the company helps to improve agriculture
productivity. (R8), the company provides sports equipment to the community. (R9), the
company has sponsored meals for local children. (R10), the company contributes to social
welfare. (R11), the company commits on environmental sustainability in its operation. (R17).
There are presented in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Rotated Factor Matrix for CSR
Rotated Factor Matrix

Item Statement Factor Loading
1. The company has established several educational institutions. (R4) .804
2. The company organizes villages’ adoption programs. (R6) .854
3. The company helps to improve agriculture productivity. (R8) .838
4. The company provides sports equipment to the community. (R9) .842
5. The company has sponsored meals for local children. (R10) .844
6. The company contributes to social welfare. (R11) .867
7. The company commits on environmental sustainability in its operation. .787
(R17)
Green marketing
The results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) for green marketing
This study used Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood and Rotation Method: Varimax with
Kaiser Normalization was performed for 7 items of green marketing. The results indicate that
the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (Chi-Square=1604.702, p-value < 0.000). The
measure of sampling adequacy by Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) is 0.894 that is excellent since it
exceeds the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1974). The two measures (KMO value close to
1.0 and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity significant value close to 0.0) suggest that the data is
appropriate to proceed with its reduction procedure, the result of KMO and Bartlett’s test for
CSR illustrated in Table 1.7.
Table1.7: KMO and Bartlett’s test for green marketing
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .894

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1604.702
Df 21
Sig. .000
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization
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Total Variance Explained for green marketing

Green marketing was extracted into one distinct dimension based on eigenvalues exceeding
1.0. For dimension that concerned with “ethical behavior”, initial eigenvalues total 4.987,
percent of variance was 71.245, and cumulative percent was 71.245. After extraction sums of
squared loading were total 4.652, percent of variance was 66.461, cumulative percent was
66.461. There are illustrated in Table 1.8.
Table 1.8: Total Variance Explained for green marketing
Total Variance Explained

Dimension Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Ethical Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
behavior Variance % Variance %
4.987 71.245 71.245 4.652 66.461 66.461
Factor loading for green marketing

Green marketing was extracted dimension matrix by Maximum Likelihood and rotated method
by based on eigenvalues exceeding 1.0. Those with factor loading higher than 0.6 should be
analysed and items lower than 0.6 should be dropped from analysis (Zainudin, 2012). The
result of study found one latent variable namely “ethical behaviour” that identified by the
company helps stakeholders to make investment decision by organizing a formal dialogue
(M5), the company has approachable staffs to interact with (M15), the company commits
financial assets to green marketing (M20), the employees of this company have training in
green marketing (M22), the employees of company have a superior ability in coordinating the
green marketing related operations (M23), the company has the ability in performing the green
marketing related with production (M24), the company has business partners that can boost its
ability to execute green marketing initiatives (M27). There are presented in Table 1.9.
Table 1.9: Rotated Factor Matrix for green marketing
Rotated Factor Matrix

Item Statement Factor Loading
1 The company helps stakeholders to make investment decision by organizing 0.803
a formal dialogue. (M5)
2 The company has approachable staffs to interact with. (M15) 0.786
3 The company commits financial assets to green marketing. (M20) 0.779
4 The employees of this company have training in green marketing. (M22) 0.839
5 The employees of company have a superior ability in coordinating the green 0.813
marketing related operations. (M23)
6 The company has the ability in performing the green marketing related with 0.855
production. (M24)
7 The company has business partners that can boost its ability to execute green 0.828
marketing initiatives. (M27)
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Reliability
Reliability of an instrument is the “extension to which a variable or set of variables is
consistent in what is intended to measure, that it differs from validity in that it relates not to
what should be measured, but instead to how it is measured” (Hair, 2006). Reliability proposes
to measure how well a set of manifest indicators measure the scale (Hair et al, 2006). It uses
Cronbach’s Alpha for each construct higher than 0.6 for a dimension and reflects the measuring
items under the particular dimension to provide a reliable measure of internal consistency. Each
construct achieved the acceptable level of reliability (CSR = 0.94and GM = 0.932. Cronbach’s
Alpha for each construct are higher than 0.6.
Data Collection
After performing the pilot study, the actual survey was conducted the questionnaire to
distribute questionnaires, the research team consisted of five people responsible for distributing
questionnaires to five villages each-twenty-five villages altogether. The research was
responsible for village no. 18, Jatujak Market, due to dense population. The research team
focused on the target address number as specified to ask the head of the family. In case that the
head of the family was not at home, leave the questionnaire with his wife, and two weeks later
the team would arrange an appointment to collect the questionnaire by asking the telephone
number from the respondent.
Cross Tabulations of Demographic Profile, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and
Green Marketing
Besides mean and standard deviations as demonstrated in Total Variance Explained for
Harman’s Single Factor Test, further analyses of cross tabulations were computed to compare
categorical constructs of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Green Marketing. Table
1.13, initiatively present cross tabulation of demographic profile; green marketing, and green
marketing as the following; Firstly, gender of respondents which male is not quite different
with female have higher mean score in green marketing and CSR; Secondly, Age of
respondents 50 – 60 years old which lower mean score for green marketing, corporate, and
CSR; Thirdly, Marital status of respondents which others status higher mean score for green
marketing and CSR; Fourthly, Educational level of respondents which bachelor degree highest
mean for green marketing and CSR; Fifthly, Type of Job of respondents which unemployment
highest mean score for green marketing; Sixth, Income household per a month which more
than RM 3,401 highest mean score for green marketing and CSR; Seventh, Member of
household which more than 5 persons highest mean score for green marketing and CSR;
Eighthly, Visiting of the company which local people who never (no) visited in the company
higher mean score for green marketing, but and CSR; And Finally, the distance of resident
from the company which less than 5 kilometer higher mean score for green marketing, but
lower for CSR. There are shown in Table 1.10.
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Table 1.10: Cross Tabulation for Demographic, CSR and Green Marketing
Demographic Frequency Percentage CSR Green

Marketing
(N=302) %
1 Gender Mean
Male 156 51.66 7.97 8.20
Female 146 48.34 7.82 8.12
2 Age
20 – 25 years old 21 6.95 7.62 8.30
26 – 33 years old 39 12.91 7.94 8.14
34 – 41 years old 59 19.54 8.09 8.25
42 – 49 years old 57 18.87 8.01 8.27
50 – 60 years old 83 27.48 7.77 8.04
60 years old above 43 14.24 7.83 8.05
3 Marital status
Single 55 18.21 7.85 8.30
Married 223 73.84 7.92 8.12
Divorced 15 4.97 7.77 8.29
Separated 5 1.66 7.71 8.02
Others 4 1.32 8.03 7.92
4 Educational level
Primary school 112 37.09 7.88 8.13
High school 115 38.08 7.89 8.16
Vocational level 37 12.25 7.76 8.13
Bachelor Degree 36 11.92 8.06 8.25
Master Degree 1 .3 - -
Doctor Degree 1 .3 - -
5 Type of Job
Civil Servant 19 6.30 7.96 8.35
Farmer 182 60.30 8.00 7.96
Owen Business 45 14.90 7.84 8.08
State Enterprise 9 3.00 7.78 8.13
Company 32 10.60 7.44 8.65
Unemployment 15 5.00 8.29 8.45
6 Household Income per a

month
Less than RM 800 54 17.88 7.89 7.96
RM 801 – RM 1,400 115 38.08 7.84 8.26
RM 1,401 – RM 2,000 79 26.16 7.91 8.10
RM 2,001 – RM 2,600 19 6.29 7.89 7.93
RM 2,601 – RM 3,400 9 2.98 7.60 8.14
More than RM 3,401 26 8.61 8.25 8.46
7 Member of Household
1 person 15 4.97 8.00 8.35
2 persons 54 17.88 7.74 8.07
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3 persons 95 31.46 8.04 8.29

4 persons 75 24.83 7.76 8.04
5 persons 54 17.88 7.84 8.05
More than 5 persons 9 2.98 8.60 8.57
8 Visiting SAHACOGEN
Yes 152 50.33 7.80 8.28
No 150 49.67 8.00 8.03
9 Distance of residence
Less than 5 km 152 50.33 7.94 8.12
More than 5 Km 150 49.67 7.79 8.26
The result of actual test

Structural Equation Modelling
Construct Validity and Convergent Validity
An overall measurement model test that consisted of all constructs has been conducted to test
the adequacy of the measurement model, which were represented by Absolute fit; RMSEA =
0.073, GFI = 900; Incremental fit: CFI = 0.954, TLI = 0.946, NFI = 0.928; and Parsimonious
fit: Chisq/df = 2.611. And the value of AVE should be 0.5 or higher for validity to achieve.
The result of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) is represented for CSR, corporate image, and
green marketing as 0.69, 0.69, and 0.67 respectively.
Table 1.11: Good-of-fit index for overall measurement
Absolute fit Full Name Level of Level of model

acceptability
RMSEA Root Mean Square of Error < 0.080 0.073

Approximation
GFI Goodness of Fit Index > 0.90 0.900
Incremental fit
CFI Comparative Fit Index > 0.90 0.954
TLI Tucker-lewis Index > 0.90 0.946
NFI Normed Fit Index > 0.90 0.928
Parsimonious fit
ChiSq/df Chi Square/Degree of < 5.0 2.611
Freedom
The composite Reliability

The composite reliability (CR) indicates the reliability and internal consistency of construct. A
value of CR ≥ 0.6 is required in order to achieve composite reliability for each constructs such
as CSR and green marketing that represented as 0.93, and 0.91 respectively. Average Variance
Extracted (AVE) that indicates the average percentage of variation explained by measuring
items for a construct. An AVE ≥ 0.5 is required for every construct such as CSR and green
marketing that represented as 0.69 and 0.67 respectively.
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Factor loading
After pooled model achieve good of fit index, the standardized loading of factor loading
estimates which higher 0.6 in each constructs such as; firstly CSR that compound one
dimension namely “community development” identified by the company has established
several educational institutions (R1), the company helps to improve agriculture productivity
(R3), the company provides sports equipment to the community (R4), the company has
sponsored meals for local children (R5), the company contributes to social welfare (R6), the
company commits on environmental sustainability in its operation (R7);
And secondly, green marketing that compound one dimension namely “Ethical dimension”
which identified by the company has approachable staffs to interact with (M1), the company
commits financial assets to green marketing (M3), the employees of this company have training
in green marketing (M4), the employees of company have a superior ability in coordinating the
green marketing related operations, (M5), the company has the ability in performing the green
marketing related with production (M6). Those are presented in Table 1.15.
Table1.12: The validity of the constructs
Construct Item Loading AVE CR

CSR 1. The company has established several educational .771 .69 .93
institutions (R1)
2. The company helps to improve agriculture .799
productivity (R3)
3. The company provides sports equipment to the .862
community (R4)
4. The company has sponsored meals for local .848
children (R5)
5. The company contributes to social welfare (R6) .883
6. The company commits on environmental .815
sustainability in its operation (R7)
GM 1. The company has approachable staffs to interact .779 .67 .91
with (M1)
2. The company commits financial assets to green .788
marketing (M3)
3. The employees of this company have training in .841
green marketing (M4)
4. The employees of company have a superior ability .845
in coordinating the green marketing related
operations, (M5)
5. The company has the ability in performing the .845

green marketing related with production (M6)
The Assessment of Normality Distribution of Data

Skewness and kurtosis were used as the criteria to assess the data normality. The measure of
skewness should fall within the ranges of -3.0 to 3.0 (Kline, 2005) to indicate that the data is
normally distributed. The result of skewness represented value for each item range from -1.326
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to -.479 and Kurtosis also presented the value for each item range -.011 to 2.533. Therefore, the
normal requirement is met, and further parametric statistic tests can be performed. There are
present in Table1.13.
Table1.13: skewness and kurtosis
Variable min max Skew c.r. kurtosis c.r.
M1 2.000 10.000 -.945 -6.701 1.253 4.446
M3 1.000 10.000 -1.056 -7.490 1.717 6.091
M4 1.000 10.000 -1.326 -9.408 2.533 8.984
M5 2.000 10.000 -.928 -6.582 1.436 5.093
M6 1.000 10.000 -1.080 -7.659 1.571 5.571
R1 3.000 10.000 -.479 -3.398 -.011 -.041
R3 2.000 10.000 -.673 -4.777 .725 2.571
R4 4.000 10.000 -.720 -5.110 .506 1.794
R5 3.000 10.000 -.823 -5.839 .838 2.972
R6 4.000 10.000 -.644 -4.567 -.036 -.127
R7 3.000 10.000 -.877 -6.220 1.014 3.596
Multivariate 184.882 63.205
Hypothesis Testing
H1: CSR has a significantly positive effect on green marketing.
For hypothesis 1, the study aimed to investigate the influence of corporate social responsibility
(CSR) on green marketing. Results from SEM of the proposed model exposed that standardised
coefficient for path “green marketing  corporate social responsibility” was 0.189 with a
standard error of 0.106 and T-value (C.R) of 2.048 that presented in Table 1.14. Therefore, the
study concludes that CSR has a significantly positive effect on green marketing. Hypothesis 1
was supported.
Table1.14: Influence of corporate social responsibility on green marketing
Variable Construct Coefficients SE C.R. P

Unstandardised Standardised
GM  CSR 0.216 0.20 0.106 2.048 0.041
H2: Visiting moderates the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR)
and green marketing.
Hypothesis 2 proposed that the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
green marketing (GM) was moderated by the visiting status of the respondents, which was
categorized as “Visiting” and “Never visiting” group. The group was named “Visited” for the
respondents who had visited SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company, while the other group
was named “Never-visited” for the respondents who had never visited the company. It means
that “Visiting” variable may alter the direction or strength of the relation between CSR and GM
(Frazier, Tix and Barron, 2004). The structural model was analysed by using the multi-group
analysis (Hair et al, 2006).
It initially performed the multi-group analysis that was divided into two groups based on the
respondent’s level of visiting; one group was named “Visited” for the respondents who had
visited SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company, while the other group was named “Never-
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visited” for the respondents who had never visited the company. As suggested by Hair et al.
(2006) and Awang (2015), Multi-Group CFA was suggested as an alternative method for
assessing the effect of moderator variable in the model. In this case, the two groups were
labelled as “Visited” and “Never Visited” group. Each group was constrained by putting a
parameter =1, identified as constrained model and the other one was unconstrained model, the
one without the parameter =1. Moderation effect existed when there was significant difference
between the two models, namely constrained and unconstrained model, based on the difference
in Chi-Square values.
First of all, in the constrained model a parameter with the coefficient value equals to 1.0 was
inserted in the path between CSR and GM. Chi-Square value was ascertain for the constrained
model. Table 1.15 illustrated that the value of Chi-Square is 248.167. The next step was to
determine the Chi-Square value for the unconstrained model. Table 1.17 indicated that the
value of the unconstrained model is 231.523. In order to determine there is a significant
difference between the constrained and unconstrained model for Visited group, the value of
Chi-Square Constrained model (248.167) minus the value of Chi-Square Unconstrained model
must be more than 3.84 (Awang, 2015). As illustrated in Table 1.18, the value is equal to
16.644 (248.167 - 231.523) meeting the requirement to support there is a significant difference
between the constrained and unconstrained model of Visited group. Therefore, the moderating
effect of Visited group was significant since the difference in Chi-Square between the
constrained and unconstrained models is more than 3.84.
Table1.15: Chi-Square Value and DF for the constrained model (Visited)
Model NPAR CMIN DF P CMIN/DF

Default Model 36 248.167 117 .000 2.121
Saturated Model 153 .000 0
Independent Model 17 2149.661 136 .000 15.806
Table1.16: Chi-Square Value and DF for the unconstrained model (Visited)

Default Model 37 231.523 116 .000 1.996
Table 1.17: The Moderation Test for the visited group
Constrained Unconstrained Chi-Square Result on Result on

Model Model Difference Moderation Hypothesis
Chi- 248.167 231.523 16.644 Significant Supported

Square
DF 117 116 1
The hypothesis statement
H2: Visiting moderates the relationship between CSR and green marketing.
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The next step was to proved the significant effect of “Never visited” group on the relationship
between CSR and GM. Similar procedure was applied to the constrained and unconstrained
model of “Never visited” group. Table 1.18 and Table 1.19 illustrated the Chi-Square values of
constrained and unconstrained models for the “Never Visited” group. Results in Table 1.20
suggested that there is a significant difference between the constrained and unconstrained
model of “Never Visited” group since the value of the difference in Chi-Square of the two
models is (265.288 – 244.441) = 20.847, which is more than the required value of 3.84.
Table1.18: Chi-Square Value and DF for the constrained model (Never visited)

Default model 36 265.288 117 .000 2.267
Saturated model 153 .000 0
Independent model 17 2254.264 136 .000 16.575
Table1.19: Chi-Square Value and DF for the unconstrained model (Never visited)

Default model 37 244.441 116 .000 2.107
Table1.20: The Moderation Test for the Never Visited Group

Chi- 265.288 244.441 20.847 Significant
Square Supported
DF 117 116 1
The hypothesis statements

H2: Visiting moderates the relationship between CSR and green marketing
The above result suggested that the “Visited” and “Never Visited” group had significant
moderating effect on the relationship between CSR and GM. Therefore the moderator variable
“Visiting” moderated the relationgship between CSR and GM. The results in Table 1.18
indicated that the beta estimate values for “Visited” group is 0.11 while “Never Visited” group
is 0.35. Thus, it can be concluded that the effect of CSR on GM is more pronounced in “Never
visited” compared to “Visited” group.
The next step was to determine whether the moderator variable “Visiting” had a full or patial
moderating effect. This can be achieved by comparing the unconstrained models of the two
groups’ (“Visited” and “Never Visited” group) standardized estimates and their significant.
Full moderating effect existed when standardized estimate is non significant in any of these two
groups. On the other hand, partial moderating effect occurs when standardized estimates for
both groups are significant. Based on the results in Table1.21, the standardised estimate for
“Visited” group is not significant while “Never visited” group is significant. Thus, the result
indicated that the moderating variable “Visiting” has a full moderating effect on the
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relationship between CSR and GM. In this case, “Visiting” is a significant moderator in CSR
and GM relationship, implying CSR increases GM only for “Never visited” group than for the
“Visited” group. Therefore, CSR effords should be undertaken by the company among “Never
visited” group to improve their green marketing image.
Table 1.21: The effect of CSR on green marketing for “visited group” and “never visited”
Type of group Standardized P-value Result

Path Beta Estimate
Visited GM  CSR 0.11 0.370 Not
Significant
Never visited group GM  CSR 0.35 0.019 Significant
H3: Distance moderates the relationship between CSR and green marketing
Hypothesis 3 proposed that the relationship between CSR and GM was moderated by the
length of distance (Distance) of a respondents’ residence from SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun
Company. It means that “Distance” variable may alter the direction or strength of the relation
between CSR and GM (Frazier, Tix and Barron, 2004). The same steps of testing the
moderation effect used to test Hypothesiss 2. Multi-group analysis that was divided the
moderator variable “Distance” into two groups based on the respondent’s level of distance was
performed: one group was named as “5 km and less” that means the distance of residence from
SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company was 5 km and less, while the other group was
named “5-10 km” that refers to the distance of residence from the company, 5-10 km.
The first step is to ascertain the moderation effect of a moderator variable “Distance” is to
create constrained models for both groups. The constrained model for the first group, “less than
5km” group, was created by inserting a parameter coefficient equal to 1.0. Table 1.23 and
Table 1.24 illustrated the values of Chi-Square for constrained and unconstrained model of
“less than 5 km” group respectively. The difference between the Chi-Square values of
constrained and unconstrained model was ascertained and the value is 36.206 (319.823 –
283.617) as illustrated in Table 1.22.
Table1.22: Chi-Square Value and DF for the constrained model (less than 5 km)

Default Model 36 319.823 117 .000 2.734
Table1.23: Chi-Square Value and DF for the unconstrained model (less than 5 km)

Default Model 37 283.617 116 .000 2.445
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Table1.24: The Moderation Test for the visited group

319.823 283.617 36.206
Chi- Significant Supported
Square
DF 117 116 1
The hypothesis statement
H3: distance moderates the relationship between CSR and green
marketing.
In the case of “5-10 km” group the Chi-Square difference between the constrained and
unconstrained model were also ascertain. Table 1.25 and Table 1.26 illustrated the Chi-Square
values of constrained and unconstrained model respectively. The results in Table 2.27
suggested that the difference of Chi-Square value (161.423 – 152.151 = 9.272) is significant
and meeting the requirement of moderation effect since the value of the difference of Chi-
Square value between constrained and unconstrained model is more than 3.84. Therefore, the
moderator variable “Distance” has moderation effect in the CSR and GM relationship.
Table1.25: Chi-Square Value and DF for the constrained model (5-10km)

Default model 36 272.916 117 .000 2.333
Table 1.26: Chi-Square Value and DF for the unconstrained model (5-10km)

Default model 37 268.475 116 .000 2.314
Table 1.27: The Moderation Test 5-10 km group

Chi- 161.423 152.151 9.272 Significant
Square Supported
DF 75 74 1
The hypothesis statements
H3: distance moderates the relationship between CSR and green
marketing
The second step is to determine the type of moderation effect of “Distance”. The group effects
of the moderator variable were determined by examining the standardized estimates and their
significant of both groups, “less than 5 km group” “5-10 km group” is 0.293. The results in
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Table 1.28 suggested that stadardized estimate of “less than 5 km” group is significant while “
5 – 10 km” is not significant. Therefore, “Distance” has full moderation effect suggesting that
CSR has positive relationship on GM only among “less than 5 km” group. Thus CSR activites
should be concentrated among residents living less than 5 km away from SAHACOGEN Green
Lamphun Company to improve green marketing image of the company.
Table 1.28: The effect of corporate image and greeen marketing for “lessthan 5 km and 5-10 km”
Type of group Standardized P-value Result

Path Beta Estimate
“Less than 5 km” GM  CSR 0.199 0.041 Significant
Not
“5-10 km” GM  CSR 0.293 0.204 Significant
Conclusion and Discussion

This study has given several important implications to the problems aformationed which public
support and information had no support by the company. The study found solving of conflict
between the company and local community focus on CSR identified by the company has
established several educational institutions; the company helps to improve agriculture
productivity; the company provides sports equipment to the community; the company has
sponsored meals for local children; the company contributes to social welfare; the company
commits on environmental sustainability in its operation. CSR activities have a significant
positive effect on green marketing which identified by ability in performing the green
marketing related with performing the green marketing which indentified by the company has
approachable staffs to interact with; the company commits financial assets to green marketing;
the employees of this company have training in green marketing; the employees of company
have a superior ability in coordinating the green marketing related operations; the company has
the ability in performing the green marketing related with production.
Furthermore, visiting of local people in community; CSR effords should be undertaken by the
company among “Never visited” group to improve their green marketing image. As CSR has
positive relationship on GM only among “less than 5 km” group. Thus CSR activites should be
concentrated among residents living less than 5 km away from SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun
Company to improve green marketing image of the company. Therefore this study is helpful in
revealing the appropriate social activities as perceived by the local people so that
SAHACOGEN Green Lamphun Company can effectively promote social responsibility
activities in order to enhance green marketing as the company’s staff have a superior ability in
coordinating with green marketing related to its operation and promote local people never
visiting and less than 5 km in order to insight the company commitment.
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THE PRACTICES OF DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY OF

ADAT-BASED LOCAL GOVERNANCE OF ACEH AND THE
STATE AGENCY OF MAHKAMAH KONSTITUSI IN
INDONESIA
Sahruddin Lubis1, TB Massa Djafar2, Hari Zamharir3

1
Faculty of Social & Political Sciences, Universitas Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia
2
Graduate School of Political Science, Universitas Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia
3
Faculty of Social & Political Sciences, Universitas Nasional, Jakarta, Indonesia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Democratic ideal stipulated in Indonesia’s 1945 Constitution—along with its four-stage
consecutive amendment after 1998—mentions the call for implementing some forms of
deliberative democracy. (Morfit, 1981; Zamharir, et al. 2014, Aur, 2014). Such a call for
returning to deliberative type of democracy has not been easy given a few critiques addressed
to the democratic ideal of musyawarah. Just an example: Sanit (in Mudhoffir, 2006; 123), once
had ad hoc thesis of old-fashioned mode of democratic ideal of musyawarah mufakat
(deliberation), arguing that such a deliberation is incompatible with modern culture.
As political reform began in 1998, the country has been engaged in political
development in several levels and agencies aiming at institutionalization of democratic
mechanism both in public policy making and power politics. While there are some bright signs
of progress, we have witnessed a number of problematic situations especially in improving
better quality of participation of the society in public policy formulation—not to mention
Indonesian current anomaly of power politics in June 2019, especially the politics of
presidency. Public participation in various levels and agencies have not been satisfactory in
terms of its quality—little contribution in shaping the formulation, rare fruitful dialog or
negotiation, resting more heavily on the government officers’ preferences. This is so given the
weaknesses both in the way the government runs the affairs and relatively weak capacity on the
parts of the society. From theoretical perspective, public participation employs concepts
availed in Participatory Democratic Theory (PDT).
In consonance to the need for bringing democratization on the track, it is deemed
necessary to turn political development to promoting deliberation and dialog to ensure our road
to the return to the ideal of democracy stipulated in the Constitution. The questions are among
others: How have efforts been made in materializing this need? Where or who should the
agenda be initiated?
It is our interests in exploring the practice of better quality of public participation that
share the ideals promoted in theoretical perspective of Deliberative Democratic Theory (DDT).
Among the few and interesting cases are the adoption of deliberative democracy by the office
of Mahkamah Konstitusi or Constitutional Court at the national level, whose main
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responsibility is to tackle complaints expressed by members of the society and deliberative

feature in the local government mechanism employed by Syari’ah-based regulation or Qonun
(Law) in the province of Aceh respectively. These two cases—one at the national level and the
other one at the local level—are products of political development after the amendment of the
1945 Constitution.
Literature Review
Deliberation becomes paramount in more contemporary discourse on democracy. In
order for a society to be capable of doing it, Habermas’s theory of public sphere and
deliberative democracy demand for dual aspects to develop—nomocracy or in his term
normatifity, and democracy or factifity. (Habermas, 1996). Is is a great thing that since the
1998 political reform in Indonesia, the country has adopted this duality in its 19945
Constitution that has experienced four-time amendment. With this reform, supremacy of law
(normatifity) gains its paramount position and democracy would not rest heavily on factifity—
the sole will of political communities or elites.
One mechanism for segments of the society to control the output of legislative body is
the establishment of Mahkamah Konstitusi or Constitutional Court. In the framework of
judicial review, Mahkamah Konstitusi has the task to insure the conformity of law produced by
political elites in the parliament to the mandate available in the amended Constitution. The
1945 Constitution after the amendments has called for visions among the judges in Mahkamah
Konstitusi to interpret texts of law for better understanding the tasks in the framework of
context that include taking into consideration of adat law. (Maladi, 2010; 460). Such a call is
generally referred to the practice of the U.S. Judge John Marshall who in 1803 who was brave
to do a rule-breaking in tackling a very crucial isuue in judicial matters.
Deepening democracy has been the famous jargon when scholars speak of deliberative
democracy—the most contemporary theory of democracy whose main concepts are claimed
capable to improve other theories. From Habermas’s description and contention of DDT to
currently modification and enlargements of such concepts as rationality and communicative
action, the incorporation of non-rationality and culture-context have been the concern of this
theory. Especially it is Dryzek’s claim that deliberative democracy does exist in non-western
culture. DDT has presented the following ideals: the need for larger public segments to be
involved in public deliberation—for which it is at the office of Mahkamah Konstitusi that this
point has been one feature in their exercise of the responsibility. Also DDT’s recommendation
that in order for the discourse to be evolve fruitfully, participants should not prioritize his or
her own preferences but rather give rooms for ideas to emerge for further take-and-give dialog.
Furthermore, setting aside his or her own preference is a generative of Habermas’s notion of
de-ontology of his post-secular social science. Within this axiom, participants are to avoid
absolute belief in things like political ideology or philosophy (especially secularism). Three (3)
criteria for public policy formulations to be considered deliberative according to Carson &
Karp (in Farihah & Wahyuni, 2014; 7): (1) influence of public opinion are; (2) inclusion i.e.
inviting diverse segments’ views; and (3) deliberation—“open dialog, access to information,
respect, space to understand and reform issues, and movement towards consensus”.
In addition to Dryzek’s proposition that deliberative democracy is culture-context, it is
advisable for political scientists to accept existence of other modes of democracy like the ones
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in Taiwanese context—with what Richard Madsen call Democracy’s Dharma—or Gotong

Royong Democracy in Indonesia (Zamharir & Lubis, 2015). Whether or not Gotong-Royong
democracy is thought of as more mystical spirit with its conception of musyawarah, mufakat,
and mutual help (Suteki, 2018), this culture-context is an exposure of what Dryzek propose—
culture-context democracy. It is also the writers’ experience that to understand local democracy
like the one in North Halmahera, Indonesia, the adat-based social institution of Ambonese’s
Hibua Lamo, the practice of deliberation and dialog seem difficult to be understood only with
Habermas’s conception of communicative rationality. On the basis of the two perspectives—
de-ontology of Habermas and Dryzek’s culture-context democracy, we find the Syari’ah-based
Qonun at Aceh Province with its provision of public deliberation worth studying. It is a co-
incidence that Dryzek’s study was also exploring deliberation of the movement in Egypt who
are pre-dominantly religious movement.

The Practice of Deliberation at the Local Governance of Aceh.
It was a long history of Aceh society and government. After independence of Indonesia,
1945, during Soekarno’s administration there were times when the villagers were away from
their homeland in villages or gampong because of the failure of politics of development that
made villages become culturally and economically poor or disrupted. “Urbanizing move”
without any pulls generated by welfare cities. During Suharto’s administration, again, Aceh
experienced severe conflict of local vs. central government in issues mostly of natural
resources—especially LNG (liquid natural gas) at Arun area in Aceh. The policy making Aceh
top emergence of military operation or DOM (Daerah Operasi Militer) really reflected such a
situation.
Only after the 1998 political reform along with the fall of Suharto, Aceh together with
other regions across the country enjoys better system of local or self-government. The adat-
based governance that includes re-installing the adat institution of self government at gampong
(village) level—though partially—was enacted in 2006 under the Law of Aceh Government or
Undang-undang Pemerintah Aceh. (Gayatri, 2016). Before this re-installment, local
bureaucracy at the village was under the mechanism of government that excluded adat-based
authority.
At the municipal and district level, the deliberation among the larger segments of the
society starts from village or gampong level. As was reported by Dani, Suhaimi and Maulana
(2016), in the City of Lhoksemawe, the allocation of Dana Desa or budget set aside for village
by central government (the Law No. 6/2014 along with its Government Regulation No22/2015)
are to proceed a bottom-up processes that involve Long Term Development Plan at the
gampong level discussed at gampong level. This starting point is mandated in Qonun at
gampong level.
At the village level in the Province of Aceh since the enactment of Qanun, the
revitalization of adat-based self-government has been promoting more deliberative processes in
several fields of activities, including those at the administration at villages. It is also worth
noting that the existence of gampong is also obvious in the Municipal City of Banda Aceh. In
the Municipal City of Banda Aceh, the capital city of the province, during our field work in
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2018, it was observed that along the roads we traveled, there are signs of gampong in many
places. Amdani has the following description of one field of dispute resolution at the village or
gampong level. (Amdani, 2014; 1-30). Fisrt, the re-installment of adat law of Hadih Maja as
the philosophical ground— the thing that in the jargon of political thought in the national level
is called philosophical basis of the 1945 Constitution making up of the civic virtues of
Indonesian society. This social institution reflects the trias politica involving the religious
leader or Syiah Kuala being one of the local leaders in the management of dispute resolution.
Second, the social institution at village level has the gampong apparatus that include keuchik
who is the CEO in the village along with other local authorities including religious leader
called Imam Mukim. Third, referring to the guide book, Pedoman Peradlan Adat di Aceh, the
local leaders must assure that any dispute resolution is to be dealt with on a dialogue processes
to insure that all parties in conflict accept it. To materialize more deliberative or talking-centric
procedure, some familial approach is done by the local leaders prior to formal session of a
dispute resolution: the leaders pay a visit to the parties in conflict for possible peace deals to
avoid formal procedure. Fourth a given dispute is settled at the Meunasah—simply defined as
small mosque or hall functioning as praying premise as well as public space for problem
solving sessions. Fifth, among the values or principles that the law holds are (a) enforcing the
law equally, (b) voluntariness, (c) consensus, and (d) holding the mandate or amanah firmly to
enforce the adat law. Sixth, several objects of social dispute include (a) family matters, (b)
sexual harassment regulated by Syari’ah, (c) violating environment of micro issues, and (d)
conflict in business transaction. Seventh, the Qanun regulates that in implementing the adat
law, coordination with authorities at the city or district level must be made. This includes
coordinating with the police.
Adoption of Deliberative Values at the Mahkamah Konstitusi

The establishment of Mahkamah Konstitusi was one of the products of the third
amendment in 2001, and is meant for assurance that all legal products enacted conformed to the
Constitution and that any constitutional complaints coming from citizen are to be dealt with in
such a way that political rights of the citizen are fulfilled. To achieve this, the decision made
must be made within the framework of the principle of supremacy of law and democratic
governance whereby deliberation and public participation are highly called for. (Malik, 2010;
378)
Another subsequent results of such an adoption has been the emergence of discourse to
possess more dialogical process in its task of reviewing legislation. Currently Mahkamah
Konstitusi is rather inferior in that it waits for any complaints from segments of the society to
be submitted to the agency—a task that is more or less passive, waiting for any feedback
coming out from a Law enacted. The discourse is to be pro-active prior to the final draft of the
bill by way of consultation with Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (People Representative Assembly)
to insure better final draft of the political decision. (Ali Rido, 2017). When such a forum comes
into being then it means that deliberation takes place: two institutions are in building
communication on a more talking-centric mode.
With Suteki’s approach we are confirmed that local values and adat spirit of Aceh are
worth taking into consideration in enforcing the law exercised by local governance in the Aceh
Province: syariah-based qonun is justified. Secondly, within the ADR (Alternative Dispute
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Resolution) perspective we can say that the Qonun in which deliberation has been an inherent
part of both formal mechanism as well as informal mechanism of tackling social affairs in
Aceh reflects the acceptance of ADR approach but involves state domain. In other words, the
Qonun with its deliberation is partly in line with the idea of Society domain as preferred by
ADR and partly state domain.
So far the adoption of deliberative democracy in Mahkamah Konstitusi (MK) has been
bright signs of making larger segments of the society involved prior to solution to problems
made. While the sole legal bases for MK to do the work is the 1945 Constitution, the basis
implies the room for interpretation. The prime function is to guide the Constitution; and as a
consequence of this function is to guide democracy—this has been MK’s concern for adopting
deliberative democracy. It has become MK’s culture to listen to more people before they come
to a solution (Zoelva, 2014). Controversy exists, however, among others in view of the way
MK’s responsibility is seen. Typical criticism includes a view that MK has been doing extra
work that violates the very idea of division of authority in the various agencies responsible for
carrying out justice (Salman, 2017). it is our account that such a critique may have emerged as
a side effect of misunderstanding the values of deliberative democracy on one hand and lack of
information that MK has been making engagement with novelty of approach adopted by new
thoughts in science of law that rate highly deliberation with the public. Such new thought in
science of law is expressed given the need to “reconcile” law and public opinion : the tension
between the two would exist as long science of law adopt fossilized or absolete approach to
responding to dynamic of public opinion. (Putra, 2010; 63). Democratic politics at the
sociological level is to be assessed by judicial function of MK—referring to Pildes’ s The
Constitutionalization of Democratic Politics (2004), Zoelva (2014; 12) wrote that such a review
by MK has been the real manifestation of constitution-bound democratic politics. Or in
Habermas’s duality of nomocracy and democracy, it is an acceptance of both factifity—the
social proceses of political contestation—and normatifity by which the will of people must
conform to the Norms in the constitution. To give more insights, the step taken by the president
to call on elite deliberation with several prominent leaders in the dilemma of appointment of
the Police Office Head of the Republic of Indonesia in 2008 was also criticized by those are
lack of knowledge of the importance of deliberation in democracy. To Sani (2009), elite
deliberation was in use in Malaysia before Tun Razak: however, it might be a misfortune that
while today’s Malaysia is moving towards deliberative democracy—among others with the
setting up of TPCC or Temorleh Parliament Consultative Council; “ a collective and
consensual forum, or grass roots parliament” (Sani, 2009; 120), there was a huge corruption
done by PM Tun Razak and further forcing him to be defeated from power through fair
democratic Pilihan Raya (general election), putting Mahathir in power again.
Acknowledgement
The writers express our great gratitude especially to Rector, Universitas Nasional and the
government of the Republic of Indonesia (Directorate General of Higher Education, the
Ministry of Research & Technology, and Higher Education) for granting the 2nd year research
fund, PTUPT 2019. Our last year paper was presented at the NTU, Singapore.
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References
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Dani, T. Fakhrial , Edi Suhaimi and T. Angga Maulana. (May, 2016). Analisis Implementasi
Alokasi Dana Desa Pada Kota Lhokseumawe Tahun 2015. Jurnal Ekonomi dan Kebijakan
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Farihah, Liza & Della Sri Wahyuni. (2014). Demokrasi Deliberatif dalam Proses Pembentukan
Undang-undang di Indonesia: Penerapan dan Tantangan Ke Depan. Paper. Website:
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Gayatri, Irene Itiroswari. (2016). Dinamika Kelembagaan Desa: Gampong Era Otonomi
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Politik, Jurnal Konstitusi, 3 (4), 121-143.
Putra, Anom Surya. (August, 2010). Wacana Constitutional Questions dalam Situs Mahkamah
Konstitusi: Konteks e-Deliberative Democracy. Jurnal Konstitusi, 7 (4), 61-90.
Rido, Ali. (2017). Gagasan Pemberian Kewenangan Forum Konsultasi (Consilium Forum )
pada Mahkamah Konstitusi Republik Indonesia terhadap Rancangan Undang-Undang. Thesis.
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Salam, Radian, (2017). Pengujian Undang-Undang oleh Mahkamah Konstitusi Dalam
Perspektif Konstitusionalisme dan Demokrasi. Dissertation. Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya.
Sani, Mohd. Azizuddin Mohd. (2009). The Emergence of New Politics in Malaysia: From
Consociational Democraay to Deliberative Democracy. Taiwan Journal of Democracy. 5 (2),
97-125
Suteki. (2018). Hukum Progresif: Hukum Berdimensi Transendental dalam Konteks
Keindonesiaan. Paper. Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, 27 January.
Maladi, Yanis. (October, 2010). Eksistensi Hukum Adat dalam Konstitusi Negara Pasca
Amandemen. Mimbar Hukum. 22 (3), 450-464
Zamharir, Hari & Sahruddin Lubis. (October, 2015). Political Reform in Contemporary
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Failed to Be Understood and Implemented?. Paper Proceedings, International Conference on
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Zoelva, Hamdan. (2014). Perkembangan Penafsiran Konstitusi dalam Pelaksanaan Fungsi dan
Kewenangan Mahkamah Konstitusi. Paper (Orasi Ilmiah Ketua Mahkamah Konstitusi).
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OWNER-MANAGER

CHARACTERISTICS AND INNOVATION ORIENTATION OF
SMES
Ahmad Aminu Daneji1, Kamran Shavarebi1, Jeffrey Boon Hui Yap2
1
Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, International University of Malaya-Wales,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
2
Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Selangor, Malaysia.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
This paper aims to highlight a gap in knowledge on the relationship between Owner-Manager
Characteristics and Innovation Orientation in SMEs. Systematic review of the related literature
is employed to achieve the objective of the study. The findings of the study show that there is a
need to better understand the concept of Innovation creation and innovation adoption
(innovation orientation) by establishing its relationship with Owner-Manager Characteristics.
Literature suggests that there might be a significant relationship between these two concepts,
but the level of significance is yet to be empirically determined. Thus, this study recommends
that empirical research is needed in order to determine the extent of the relationship between
Owner-Manager Characteristics and Innovation Orientation.
Keywords: Owner-Manager Characteristics, Innovation Orientation, Innovation, SMEs.
___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Innovation creation and innovation adoption of products, processes, and services have been a
cornerstone for determining the performance and growth of SMEs (Abdu & Jibir, 2017;
Schumpeter, 1934). Firms are now aware of the need to gain a competitive advantage against
competitors in order to remain relevant in the market. However, most SMEs owners and
managers lack the capacity and strategy to engage in innovative activities, this might be due to
the complex nature of innovation orientation that has received conflicting views by various
researchers (Anderson et al.,2014; Wolfe, 1994). Owner-managers need a better understanding
of the concept of innovation in order to successfully introduce new and improved products to
the market and gain competitive advantage (Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006). There are
numerous studies that have investigated the innovation activities of firms at a different level of
analysis; individual level, group level, organizational level, multilevel and across different
disciplines and industry (Anderson, Potočnik and Zhou, 2014). There has also been a growing
number of studies that concentrate on investigating innovation activities in firms, however
much is still needed to be done. This study, therefore, seeks to address the literature gap in
knowledge by determining the relationship between owner-manager characteristics and the
innovation orientation of SMEs. In the next sections that follow, the relevant literature on this
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subject will be discussed and the need for an empirical investigation regarding this concept will
be highlighted in order to improve owner-manager`s understanding of this complex innovation
concept.
Literature Review
SMEs and Innovation
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have been recognised as the main drivers of economic
growth and technological development of most economies (Abdu & Jibir, 2017; Akinwale et
al., 2017; Aminu & Shariff, 2015; Aliyu & Abimiku, 2015). Both developed and developing
countries have gained great benefits from the growth and performance of SMEs (Daksa et al.,
2018; Olughor, 2015). SMEs are also the main employers of labour and thus a vital vehicle for
poverty alleviation through creation of employment and are a hub for technological
development and entrepreneurial training and have especially been identified as a platform for
innovation development (Akinwale et al., 2017; Olughor, 2015; Aliyu & Abimiku, 2015).
One of the important issues in the area of research regarding SMEs are the antecedents that
lead to improving their performance. Innovation has been identified as one of such antecedents
and a necessary tool for the growth of SMEs (Abdu & Jibir, 2017). Innovation is the main
strategy employed by SMEs in order to remain relevant in the market and gain competitive
advantage (Aliyu & Abimiku, 2015; Nguyen et al., 2008; Spielkamp & Rammer, 2006).
However, innovation has been a complex and dynamic concept to fully understand by
researchers, government bodies and most importantly SMEs` owner-managers (Baregheh et al,
2009; Rogers & Rogers, 1998); this results into overlaps and inconsistencies in various studies
of innovation.
Furthermore, innovation is an essential element of a firm’s strategy because it is important in
exploring new business opportunities by introducing new or improved products and processes
to the market (Bigliardi, 2013). In today`s growing competitive business world, small and
medium firms need to engage more in innovative activities as an important means to stimulate
their efficiency and sustainability (Bala-Subrahmanya, 2012). If these SMEs are to adapt to
continuous changes in their external environment and market situations and also to gain
competitive advantage, they must be able to adopt the right strategy when it comes to
innovation, most importantly; owner-managers need a better understanding of innovation. The
continuous development and growth of the most successful firms are based on continuous
involvement in innovation activities (Sun et al., 2009). However, despite the availability of
literature on the importance of innovation to SMEs growth and overall national development
and studies on innovation orientation, there are still some gaps in the literature. Thus, this study
seeks to contribute to breaching this knowledge gap.
Innovation Orientation
The concept of innovation is complex as described in many theories (Fagerberg & Srholec,
2008; Rogers, 2004; Sundbo, 1995; Drucker, 1985; Schumpeter, 1961). Innovation has been
defined as the introduction of a new or significantly improved product or process that is new to
the market or to the adopting organization. The introduced products have to be different from
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existing products and processes as a result of new technology, knowledge or materials (OECD,
2005; Rogers, 1998). The understanding of what is termed as “new” or “significantly
improved” has been a point of contention among scholars. More studies need to be done
regarding the definition and categorization of innovation creation and innovation adoption
(innovation orientation).
Innovation orientation has been defined as the path through which firms follow to introduce
new products, processes, and services. Innovation orientation refers to the creation or adoption
of a product and process that is new to the adopting firm or market (Yusof et al., 2017).
Previous studies on innovation orientation have been varying among scholars (Yusof & Abidin
2011; Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006). Past studies have shown innovation creation and
adoption as a two-step process- idea generation is the initial step (creativity) while innovation
is the implementation stage (adoption) and they have also been studied as the same concept or
process (Rietzchel & Zacher, 2015; Anderson et al., 2014; Cheung et al., 2012; Yusof &
Abidin 2011; Paulus, 2002). Innovation orientation has also been categorized as radical and
incremental innovation (Bhaskaran, 2006).
In contrast, other studies have shown that these two orientations (creation and adoption) are
two different concepts (Yusof et al., 2016; Perez-Luno et al., 2011; Naranjo-Valencia et al.,
2011; Anderson et al.,2004). Several recent studies have shown that innovation creation and
innovation adoption have different characteristics, organizational cultures, drivers and
strategies (Kamal et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2016; Yusof et al., 2016; Naranjo-Valencia et al.,
2011). Table 1 highlights the previous studies regarding innovation orientation.
Table 10 Previous studies on Innovation Orientation

S/N Authors Location Industry Level of Variables
Analysis
1 Dansoh et al. Ghana Construction Firm Level Internal Firm Characteristics
(2017) SMEs
2 Yusof et al. Malaysia Construction Individual Entrepreneur`s effort, Risk attitude
(2017) SMEs Level and R&D spending
3 Lai et al. (2016) Malaysia Construction Firm level
SMEs
4 Kamal et al. Malaysia Construction Firm level Firm Characteristics
(2016) SMEs
5 Hosseini et al. Malaysia Manufacturing Multi-Level Export orientation, collaboration in
(2014) SMEs R&D, technical support, export
supply, R&D incentives and
support from mother firm
6 Magadley and UK Multi Industry Individual, Domain expertise and Self
Birdi, (2012) Team and Firm efficacy, Team Support and Safety,
level Organisational Support and
flexibility
7 Escriba´-Esteve Spain Manufacturing Individual level Managerial Intrinsic and Extrinsic
and Montoro- SMEs values
Sańchez, (2012)
8 Naranjo-Valencia Spain Manufacturing Firm level Organisational Culture
et al. (2011) SMEs
9 Abujarad and Literature Matrix
Yusof, (2010)
10 Pérez-Luño et al. Spain Manufacturing Individual level Entrepreneurial Orientation and
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(2010) and Service Environment Dynamism

SMEs
11 Robson et al. Ghana SMEs Multi-level Firm Export, Educational level and
(2008) Entrepreneurs Firm size
12 Damanpour and U. S Literature Firm level Firm Characteristics, Innovation
Wischnevsky, Characteristics
(2006)
Most studies shown in Table 1 have explored the concept of innovation orientation at a
different level of analysis. For example, at the individual level; in a study of 400 Spanish firms;
entrepreneurial orientation that comprises of Proactiveness and risk-taking propensity
combined with environmental dynamism was used to distinguish between firms that introduce
innovations that are “new to the world” (innovation creation) and “new to the firm” (innovation
adoption). It is found out that EO is highly related to “new to the world” innovations (Pérez-
Luño, Wiklund and Cabrera, 2010). Also, Escriba´-Esteve and Montoro-Sańchez (2012) in
their guest editorial paper discussed how managerial antecedents’ influence innovation and
creativity. They showed that managerial intrinsic and extrinsic values and managerial
idealization and creativity affect employees’ climate to create or adopt innovation. Yusof, Lai
and Kamal (2017) in their study on Malaysia`s construction firms identified and classified the
characteristics of innovation orientation (creation and adoption) and determined the innovation
orientation among these firms. They found out that innovation creation is associated with
pioneer`s effort, risk-taking attitude and R&D spending. For innovation adoption, they found
out that it involves being a creative imitator and safe player (minimum risk taking) and lastly,
the firms were determined to be mainly innovation adoption-oriented.
Consequently, other studies investigated innovation orientation at the firm or organisational

level of analysis. For example, Kamal, Yusof and Iranmanesh (2016) investigated the
relationship between construction firms` characteristics and their innovation orientation in
Malaysia. They found out that firms` business scale and size significantly determine their
innovation orientation. Also, Damanpour and Wischnevsky (2006) in their study on innovation
generating and innovation adopting organizations found out that the two concepts are distinctly
different from each other. They used organizational characteristics (size and age), innovation
characteristics (radicalness and source) and measurement of innovation (magnitude and speed)
to distinguish between organizations that generate or adopt innovations. Other studies
concentrated on internal factors of firms, cultural and resources dimensions to determine
innovation orientation at the organizational level. Dansoh, Oteng and Frimpong (2017) in their
study on Ghanaian small construction firms investigates on the internal conditions and
resources that influence firms to develop or adopt innovation. They concluded by listing 12
conditions under which small construction firms develop or adopt innovations. Naranjo-
Valencia, Jimeńez-Jimeńez and Sanz-Valle (2011) used organizational culture in their study
to distinguish between firms that innovate (create) and firms that imitate innovation (adoption).
They found out that organizational culture is a determinant of innovation strategy in firms.
There also exist some studies on a multi-level analysis (individual, group and organizational) of
innovation orientation. For example, innovation orientation (idea generation and idea
implementation) has been investigated by (Magadley and Birdi, 2012). They used mixed-
method to examine the relationship between individual, group and organizational level factors
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and idea generation and implementation. They found out that individual-level factors have a
more significant influence on idea generation than idea implementation and vice versa for
group and organizational level factors. Other studies considered the firm resource influence on
innovation orientation. Hosseini and Narayanan (2014) categorized innovation orientation into
adopters, adapters and creators and examined the factors that motivate firms to engage in these
innovative activities. They found out that for small and medium firms; export orientation,
collaboration in R&D, technical support, export supply, R&D incentives and support from
mother firm had a significant relationship with innovation creation, adaptation and adoption.
Although these studies have contributed immensely to the body of knowledge regarding the
understanding of innovation orientation, there are fewer studies that examined the relationship
between managerial characteristics and innovation orientation.
Owner-Manager Characteristics
SMEs are mostly individually owned and managed, family owned or owned and run by a top
management team. Previous studies have explored the characteristics of CEOs, top
management and manager’s characteristics that cover their demographic, social, psychological,
managerial and leadership characteristics (such as innovativeness, education level, social
networks, age, attitude towards risk-taking, innovation awareness and professional experience)
and their relationship and effect on innovation and firm performance (Salehi 2018; Wadhwa
2017; Ammari et al., 2016; West and Bogers 2015; Chouaibi 2010). However, these studies
have not clearly linked owner-manager characteristics with a particular innovation orientation
(adoption or creation) among SMEs. In order to understand the concept of innovation
orientation better; there is a need to study its relationship with managerial factors (Kamal,
2016). The inability to understand and study these two orientations as distinct may result in
unsuccessful and wrong integration of innovation strategies (Kamal, 2016; Lai, 2016). Thus,
this section will highlight the gap in the literature by previous researchers on the relationship
between Characteristics of Owner-Managers and innovation orientation. Table 2 summarizes
the previous studies on the relationship between managerial characteristics and innovation:
Table 11 Previous Studies on Owner-Manager Characteristics and Innovation
S/N Owner-Manager Authors

Characteristics
1 Age Laguir & Besten (2016); Rietzchel & Zacher (2015); Boyer & Blazy (2013)
2 Gender Laguir & Besten (2016); Ruiz-Jimenez & Fuentes-Fuentes (2015); Boyer &
Blazy (2013); Kasseeah (2013)
3 Level of education Martinez-Roman & Romero (2016); Quazi & Talukder (2011); Farace &
Mazzotta (2015); Kasseeah (2013)
4 Experience Martinez-Roman & Romero (2016); Laguir & Besten (2016); Mateu & March-
Chorda (2016); Boyer & Blazy (2013)
5 Risk-taking attitude Mutterlein & Kunz (2017); Blanchard (2017); Martinez-Roman & Romero
(2016); Beyer et al (2012)
6 Innovativeness Mutterlein & Kunz (2017); Blachard (2017)
7 Proactiveness Mutterlein & Kunz (2017); Blachard (2017)
8 Awareness of Martinez-Roman & Romero (2016)
innovation
9 Training Antonioli & Torre (2015); Farace & Mazzotta (2015); Martinez-Ros & Orfila-
Sintes (2012); Quazi & Talukder (2011)
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10 Personal networks Yesil & Dogan (2019); Wadhwa et al (2017); Bucktower et al (2015); Farace &
Mazzotta (2015); Beckett & Chapman (2014); Fitjar et al (2013)
11 Leadership style Martinez-Roman & Romero (2016); Ayranci, (2011)
12 Managerial skills and Custodio et al (2017); Ruiz-Jimenez & Fuentes-Fuentes (2015); Chen et al
competency (2015); Fitjar et al (2013); Martinez-Ros & Orfila-Sintes (2012)
13 Attitude towards Quazi & Majharul (2016); Beckett & Chapman (2014)
innovation
Table 2 reveals that the personal characteristics of the owner-manager who is in charge of
decision making and strategy in the firm are major determinants of the innovative activities the
firm undertakes (creation and adoption). The personal background of the owner-manager is
what builds up his cognitive behaviour and attitude towards innovation. Previous studies have
explored the effect of educational level on the innovative activity of the firm (Ahn et al., 2017;
Martinez-Roman & Romero., 2016). It has been shown that the higher the level of education of
the manager, the better his cognitive capacity and the ability to explore new opportunities
(Farace & Mazzotta, 2015; He, 2014; Kasseeah, 2013) although some studies have conflicting
result on the effect of education on innovation (Keizer et al., 2002). Thus, the educational level
of the owner-manager is an important determinant of innovation orientation of the firm.
Moreover, owner-managers professional experience (Ahn, 2017; Martinez-Roman & Romero,

2016) and leadership style effect on innovation have been discussed in the literature (Martinez-
Roman & Romero, 2016; Ayranci, 2011). It has been shown that these features affect the
innovation capability and activities of the firm. Although there are some conflicting findings
that might be due to methodology or measurement inconsistencies (Tuan, 2012). In terms of
gender, previous studies have explained why there exists a difference between male and female
performance in firms. However, the majority of the studies have shown male owned and
managed firms to perform better than their female counterparts because women are more
conservative and less risk tolerant (Laguir & Besten, 2016; Ruiz-Jimenez & Fuentes-Fuentes,
2015; Ahn et al., 2012). The conflicting findings on the effect of gender on innovation
activities and performance mean that there is a significant relationship that need to be tested.
On the other hand, managerial skills, capabilities and competencies to be able to utilize the
limited resources of the firm to gain profit and competitive advantage by engaging in
innovative activities (Ruiz-Jimenez & Fuentes-Fuentes, 2015). These skills and capabilities
might be due to life long experience and technicalities gained by the manager, the skills gained
might also be general or specific to an organization (Custodio et al., 2017). With the growing
need for special skills in order to gain competitive advantage, managerial skills and capabilities
will highly influence the innovation orientation the firm engages in.
Entrepreneurial orientation comprises of 3 dimensions (innovativeness, risk-taking propensity

and Proactiveness) have also gained the attention of researchers in studies regarding
determinants of innovation activities (Mutterlein & Kunz, 2018; Ahn et al.,2017; Blachard,
2017; Ahn et al., 2012). Innovativeness has to do with the willingness, capability and intention
to adopt or create innovation. The risk-taking propensity of the owner-manager is the
willingness and boldness to venture into innovative activities with little knowledge of the
outcome. Risk-taking has been linked to higher innovative performance (Mutterlein & Kunz
(2018). Proactiveness is the ability to act in anticipation of future occurrence of events
(Mutterlein & Kunz, 2018; Ahn et al.,2017; Blachard, 2017). This gives the owner-manager
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advantage of early gainers over market competitors. Studies on social capital and personal
networks have defined as the resources (tangible and intangible) gained by owner-managers
due to their personal networks of family, friends, supply chain and market counterparts.
Owner-managers` personal networks are the main sources of knowledge and information that
influence the innovation orientation of the firm (Bucktower et al., 2015; Farace & Mazzotta,
2015; Beckett & Chapman, 2014; Fitjar et al.,2013).
Conclusion and Implication
In conclusion, this paper has reported the studies on innovation orientation and has shown the
lack of studies on the relationship between owner-managers characteristics and innovation
orientation in SMEs. Conceptually, this paper has shown that there might be some level of
significance to the relationship between innovation orientation and owner-manager
characteristics. This means that for SMEs owner-managers, a better understanding of which
innovation orientation to engage that is based on their personal characteristics will enhance the
performance and growth of their firms. Thus, this paper proposes that there is a need for
empirical research to investigate the extent of the significance of each variable of owner-
manager characteristics that can influence the choice of innovation orientation by SMEs.
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THE TRAINING METHODS THAT ENHANCE PROJECT

PERFORMANCE
Majid G. Al-Nabae1, Dania Sammani2
1
Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, International University of Malaya – Wales,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, International University of Malaya – Wales,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract:
The failure or success of the projects can be determined by many factors, shortage of skilled
project managers and workers have become worldwide issue and a crucial risk that hindering
the projects in achieving their objectives and increase the opportunities of project successful.
The objective of this paper is to determine the training methods role in project teamwork
training to enhance project performance. This paper uses literature survey of the content of the
research papers in project management training and training methods, to identify what extent
training methods are relevant to project performance. Results of this paper emphases the
importance of training strategy to enhance the project performance and reveals that on-the-job
training, lectures and case study methods are most commonly used in project management
training. This paper contributes to increase awareness of the importance of training methods in
project management as a feasible strategy to improve performance of the projects and amply
highlights the importance of skills in project management.
Keywords: training, training methods, project management, project performance

___________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Projects play a vital role in current enterprises as the project management are so essential in
projects implementation and effective learning for the project managers (Ramazani & Jergeas,
2015). As a main participant, the skills and competences of the project manager help the
project to succeed (Erbas, 2016). in the opposite side, the poor performance of team members
in the project phases has led to project failure (Kum, Cowden, & Karodia, 2014). It is broadly
accepted that the performance of the skilled project managers is higher than unskilled ones
especially in concluding projects successfully, according to their planned budgets and
schedules (Telukunta, Kota, Potti, Shashank, & Reddy, 2014). Progress in projectification
creates a rapid increasing demand to improve the skills, such as knowledge, attitudes, and
skills, of the project managers (Jałocha, Krane, Ekambaram, & Prawelska-Skrzypek, 2014).
Understanding the project managers’ abilities will help organizations to consider training
impacts more seriously in the future (Ramazani & Jergeas, 2015).
Training focuses on activity of an organization which aims to develop the performance of staff
and teams in organizational setting (Vinesh, 2014). Generally, organizations have increasingly
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been applying projects and programs to achieve their planned goals (Bredillet, Tywoniak, &
Dwivedula, 2014). Hence, the teamwork skill qualification is executed as a serious restriction
to the objective function to the accomplishment of the projects (Zhang, Yu, & Lv, 2017).
Therefore training is required to acquire critical work-related knowledge, skills, and techniques
(Vinesh, 2014). An experienced project team management is essential and professional training
for beginner team members at elementary levels to master basic working qualifications and
skills is essential to enhance the enterprise growth and achieve employees’ professional success
(Zhang et al., 2017). Nowadays, and due to the complex work environment, a gap emerges
between theoretical knowledge which is offered by education providers and the realistic
demand to manage projects. Effective project management training emphasizes flexibility
structure, and creativity (Ramazani & Jergeas, 2015).Training participants, training providers
and managers highly value the execution of new knowledge, attitudes, skills which are
developed by training (Erina, Ozolina-Ozola, & Gaile-Sarkane, 2015). Training, in general,
includes all activities planned to improve the skills of the team members of a project (PMI,
2017). In training world, two main training methods, through which trainees can be cross
trained, are adopted. They are the off-the-job training and on-the-job training (Falola,
Osibanjo,Ojo, 2014; S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019). The first training method, off-the-job
training, takes place out of the workplace, which helps eliminating stress, frustration and bustle
of day-to-day job, whereas the second method, on-the-job training, is conducted within the
work environment, the trainees perform a job while training and learning (S.Vasanthi &
Basariya, 2019).
This paper reviews the content of the papers in project management training and training
methods, to identify what extent project training methods are relevant to project performance.
This paper intent is to focus on the academic journals in the project management field, and
training methods and the first stage began with data collection through a literature review and
focused on discussing the papers outcomes, emphasizing the significance role of training and
training methods in the literature.
Literature Review
Training and Project Performance
Training involves different activities created to boost the skills and abilities of the members
project team (Project Management Institute, 2017). Organizations usually become more
sensitive and conscious because they need to provide some proofs about the positive impact of
training on project performance in order to justify the training costs (Kagona, Shukla, &
Oduor, 2015). and the project schedule determine when and how to provide training to the
members of project team and develop the skills required at different phases (Project
Management Institute, 2017).
Soft skills play a central role in determining project performance or the project success and that
soft skills required for the success of institutions (Ibrahim, Boerhannoeddin, & Bakare, 2017).
The design of training methods can have an significant effect on the trainees’ skills acquisition,
the growth of integration of technology in existing systems, in addition to the newer systems is
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higher than that of development in training methods (Nazir, Øvergård, & Yang, 2015).
Generally, each project executed in organizations needs a team with certain abilities, skills and
competences. Therefore, the project manager has to form a team of expert engineers and
scientists before carrying out the project for the project success (Zhang et al., 2017).
Training Methods
The training methods can be broken down into two types of training which are off- the-Job
training and on-the- Job training (S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019). On- the -job training contains
mentoring , coaching, job instruction technology, understudy method, job rotation, and
apprenticeship technique, whereas Off –the- job training is classified into simulation exercises,
lectures, case study, business games, audio- visual method, vestibule training, role play,
behavioural modelling, discussion method, conference, Seminars, and workshop (Falola et al.,
2014;Oseghale, Malik, Nyuur, Pereira, & Ellis, 2018; S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019).
On the job training

On-the-job training (OJT) can be defined as a method of training that takes place at the
workplace to perform a specific job, during the performance of a job and within the work
environment (Matsuo, 2014; S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019). On-the-job training has a crucial
role in improving the skills and competencies of the manpower (Konings & Vanormelingen,
2014) ,and hence outstanding OJT trainers executes four types of training skills: monitoring
their progress, extending the objectives of the trainees’, providing them positive feedback, and
encouraging reflection on the outcomes (Matsuo, 2014). On- the -job training can classify into
many methods, for example mentoring , coaching , job instruction technology , job rotation ,
understudy, and apprenticeship (Falola et al., 2014; Oseghale, Malik, Nyuur, Pereira, & Ellis,
2018; S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019).
Coaching
Coaching is the process of supporting and challenging a team or a person to develop styles of
learning, ways of thinking, and ways of being and it play a significant role in facing the
obstacles of project management (Thompson & Cox, 2017). It has been identified as an
effective training method to the development of project managers (Savelsbergh, Havermans, &
Storm, 2016). The organization’s project managers practice different ways and methods of
coaching. they utilize coaching as a means to solve daily problems , to develop confidence and
solid self-efficacy , and to support the growth of a give culture (Berg & Karlsen, 2016).
Mentoring
Mentoring method is a personal interaction and one-to-one communication between the expert
employees and the novice employees , it concentrates on the development of personal attitude
(S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019). Hence, a good mentoring process is a vital to accomplish the
projects successfully (Nakanjako et al., 2014). In project management , mentoring is an active
method to onboard newcomers and to subdue challenges aroused due to weak system
documentation (Fagerholm, Guinea, Münch, & Borenstein, 2014).
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Job rotation
This method is a systematic process of shifting staffs from project to project or job to job in the
same project, within a firm, as a way to achieve different human resources aims (Santos, Fabio,
Teresa, & De, 2017).Job rotation affects positively the employees’ job performances, favorably
and significantly in businesses and reduces boredom and exhaustion due to repetition, job
simplification, and specialization (Oparanma & Nwaeke, 2015; Santos et al., 2017).
Job Instructional Technique (JIT)

This training method is essential to shift the staff from one department to another in order to
comprehend what happens in that selection. The core of this method of training program is to
expand their experiences in difference tasks (Abomeh & Peace, 2015).This method is a
profitable and valuable means for all participants. It helps us to recognize when the trainee has
learned , to deliver step-by-step instruction and to be due diligent in different organizational
environments (Indira, 2017).
Apprenticeship
It is a system of training novice staff from beginning to proficiency under the supervision of
skilled experts (Downey, Dalidowicz, & Mason, 2015).It is a formalized tool of training
program that involve of both formalized on-the-job training method and classroom education
under close guidance supervision (Corseuil, Foguel, & Gonzaga, 2019). Apprenticeship
training gain access to skills and knowledge that is related to the innovations limit and that
eventually enhances innovations (Rupietta & Backes-Gellner, 2018).
Understudy
In this method the superiors train an assistant as his understudy to prepare him for taking the
full duties and responsibilities (Raheja, 2015). In this context, The subordinate participates in
tackling day-to-day problems therefore he practices and learns through observation and
experience (S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019).
Off-the-Job Training
Off-the-job (OTJ) are types of training programs organized away from the workplace, however
study materials are provided. In this type of training a full focus on knowledge learning rather
than skills performing, and there is freedom to discuss and express your views (Raheja, 2015).
The off-the-job training methods are: lectures and conferences, games-based training ,vestibule
training, simulation exercises, sensitivity training (Akter, 2016; Indira, 2017; Raheja, 2015;
S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019).
Lectures
It is the popular method of training and it is executed for much of project management terms
and requirements is delivered through lecture method, regardless of its effectiveness
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(Ramazani & Jergeas, 2015).The trainer of this type of training distrubutes training material to
a group of trainees, by means of verbal instruction (Martin, Kolomitro, & Lam, 2014).
Simulation Exercises
Simulation is a tool for learning by experimentation through artificial environments exactly
similar to the actual situations. management games, case study, in-basket training, and role
playing are used for imparting training as the main simulation techniques (Jeong & Bozkurt,
2014; Raheja, 2015). The simulation training exercises are valuable training tools, which both
project and engineering managers can use and they are used in project management training
(Jeong & Bozkurt, 2014). In project management, engineers and pre-service workers play the
simulation games to experience engagement and intrinsic motivation, in addition to thinking
strategically about the options available, and hence put attention towards all the issues that
might go wrong in their work ,and there are many types of simulation exercises, such as
games-based training , case study ,role playing, and in basket training (Misfeldt, 2015).
Games-Based Training: The games-based is a competitive training type, which is usually a
motivating characteristic for the most of trainees (Martin et al., 2014). The concept of utilizing
these games is to provide unskilled project managers with the opportunity to face professional
difficulties and challenges, in a fun and motivating style, leading the participants to act and
make their own decisions (Eduardo et al., 2015). the application of games-based method will
reinforce training in project management by bringing real situations into the learning and
training processes (Calderón & Ruiz, 2014; Telukunta et al., 2014).
Case Study: This method presents investigative nature and can be defined as immersive
exploration method of realities, (Minniti, Melo Jr, Oliveira, & Salles, 2017). It used in project
management training to provide descriptive situations to enhance team skills , it occupies a
very significant ranks among the other methods (Erbas, 2016).
Role playing: In this method every participant performs the role of an affected person by some
elements and studies the effects of these elements on human life and/or the impacts of human
activities on the reality from the perspective of that affected person (Indira, 2017). The role
play method inspires trainees to see the outside world from different perspectives, and guess
how they would behave if in a specific role (Thomas et al., 2018).
In-basket training: In-baskets training method is high-fidelity simulations executed to expect
performance in a various jobs such as managerial occupations, clerical, and law enforcement
(Whetzel, Rotenberry, & Mcdaniel, 2014). It provides participants with information and
requests, or written text which would be handled by administrator , engineer, manger, or
reporting officer (Miri, Mansor, Chasempour, & Anvari, 2014).
Sensitivity Training: This method focuses on how to make participants understand themselves
and others rationally. It is done by developing social sensitivity and behavioural flexibility in
them(Miri et al., 2014). Sensitivity training motivates project managers and employees to be
involved in perspective-taking so that it is easier for them to appreciate others points of view to
reach a mutual understanding. Sensitivity training also helps employees to appropriate skills for
respecting others in workplace (Chaubey & Subramanian, 2014).
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Vestibule Training: Vestibule Training is a type of training and is called near-the-job training.
In this method, the employees practice their skills with equipment, material, or instrument that
they use at their work place (Abomeh & Peace, 2015). Mostly this training method uses in
project to train employees, technical staff, and administrative staff who work with machines
and tools (Singh & Jain, 2017).

Training method in project management
This paper concluded what are the training methods using in project management training and
their effects on project performance. The literature analysis revealed that on- job and off -the-
job training methods are profitable methods to motivate the employees and then enhance the
performance of projects. the training and development methods have been classified into two
classes on-the-job which includes mentoring, coaching, job instruction technology, understudy
method, job rotation, and apprenticeship technique) and Off-the-job which includes simulation
exercises, lectures, case study, business games, audio- visual method, vestibule training, role
play, behavioural modelling, discussion method, conference (Falola et al., 2014;2018;
S.Vasanthi & Basariya, 2019). A great deal of learning takes place on the job training and they
emphasized the importance of on-the -job training methodology (Kum et al., 2014; Matsuo,
2014; Tamm, 2018).
On-the-job training methods and project performance

Few scholars (Savelsbergh et al., 2016; Thompson & Cox, 2017) come to conclusion that
coaching method is treated as an approprite method for skills development of project managers.
Other scholars (Brien & Hamburg, 2014; Fagerholm et al., 2014) stated that mentoring is an
approprite method to train junior staff and to face challenges resulting from weak system
documentation in project management . Moreover, mentoring and coaching methods can be
effective tools to develop leadership in project management according to (Smits, Bowden,
Falconer, & Strasser, 2014). A group of scholars (Oparanma & Nwaeke, 2015; Rodriguez &
Walters, 2017; Santos et al., 2017) presented job rotation method as a good method uses in
project management training that allows project manager to shift one expert staff from the
source project to another project (the target project) within the firm to enhance the
performance. In addition, Indira (2017) discussed Job Instructional method and described it as
a valuable tool for all trainees, it helps trainers to provide gradual and step-by-step instructions,
to realize when the trainee has learned and to be due diligent in different work environments.
Few scholars (Raheja, 2015; Rupietta & Backes-Gellner, 2018; Vaughan, 2017) suggest that
apprenticeship technique is a method of training that a new generation of practitioners of a skill
will be able to complete projects on time and it is in vogue method today in business, technical
jobs, and crafts. In addition, the understudy assignments perform to the technical skills learning
and Interpersonal. However, skills such as problem-solving strategies are acquired more
effectively through training that occurs off the job (Rui, Ismail, & Hussaini, 2015).
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Off-the-job methods and project performance

The second class of training methods is off-the job which conducted in separate from the job
environment, in this section some scholars (Martin et al., 2014; Ramazani & Jergeas, 2015)
investigated the role of lecture as a popular method widely used in project management
training mainly for its characteristics it can perform for a wide number of audience ,its
designing takes lower time. Other scholars (Calderón & Ruiz, 2014; Eduardo et al., 2015;
Jeong & Bozkurt, 2014; Lui, Leung, Ng, & Lee, 2015; Misfeldt, 2015; Telukunta et al., 2014)
focused on Games-Based Training as an ideal training tool, which project managers can use
and it is useful for project management training. Damnjanovic, Asce, Rispoli and Asce (2014 )
emphasize that the case study method creates a simulated environment to think analytically and
to understand engineering decision-making process. moreover , sensitivity training and
vestibule training are off-the-job training techniques which are to train the project team who
deal with machines and tools and respecting others in workplace (Chaubey & Subramanian,
2014; Singh & Jain, 2017).
Conclusion
This paper focusses on the training methods. And the authors used two criteria to compare and
analyze and these training methods, the usage of these methods in project management training
and their impacts on project performance. Form this paper, we concluded that the is a positive
relationship between training methods and project performance and project managers need a
continuous training for improving competencies and skills and updating information and
knowledge. Also, the result of the study reveals that on-the-job training methods are common
methods in training and they are highly used in project management training because they are
simple, economical, effective and their positive impact on projects performance. In addition,
Lecture method as traditional method is still used in project management training to give skills,
knowledge, basic concepts and ideas and simulation is a tool for learning by experimentation
can improve trainees’ skills and allow them to learn from error.
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AGD SYSTEM – INOVASI PENGESAN KEBOCORAN GAS

MELALUI SENSOR MQ-2
Aishah Mahat1*, Siti Nurul Izah Musa2, Muhammad Alif Syafiq Md Takiyuddin3,
Muhammad Arif Akmal Mohd Alias4, Muhamad Haikal Shoib5
1
Fakulti Sains Komputer & Matematik, Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Johor Kampus Pasir Gudang,
Johor, Malaysia
2
Akademi Pengajian Islam Kontemporari, Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Johor Kampus Pasir Gudang,
Johor, Malaysia
3
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam, Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Johor Kampus Pasir Gudang, Johor,
Malaysia
4
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Johor Kampus Pasir Gudang, Johor,
Malaysia
5
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam, Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Johor Kampus Pasir Gudang, Johor,
Malaysia
*Pengarang Koresponden: [email protected]

_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Seperti yang kita lihat melalui akhbar dan media elektronik, kerap berlakunya kes
letupan yang berpunca daripada gas petroleum cecair. Banyak kerugian yang terpaksa dihadapi
ekoran oleh kemalangan itu, baik dari kerosakan bahan malah boleh mencederakan sehingga
membawa kepada kematian. Oleh itu, sebuah sistem bagi mengatasi masalah kes kebocoran gas
ini telah dicipta bagi menjamin keselamatan masyarakat dan juga alam sekitar.Satu idea inovasi
yang dikenali sebagai Automatic Gas Detection Equipment System atau nama singkatannya
adalah AGD System telah direka khas untuk mengatasi masalah kebocoran gas pada peringkat
awal. AGD System berfungsi dengan mengeluarkan isyarat bunyi dan memancarkan lampu
berwarna merah sebagai amaran berlakunya kebocoran gas dalam sesebuah ruang bangunan.
AGD System merupakan sebuah sistem yang berfungsi bagi mengesan kebocoran gas dalam
sesebuah ruang pada peringkat awal sebelum berlakunya kebakaran. Ianya boleh diletakkan
berhampiran dengan tong gas atau mana-mana tempat penyimpanan gas supaya dapat dikesan
awal sekiranya berlakunya kebocoran gas. Selain itu ia amat mudah untuk dipasang serta tidak
memerlukan voltan penggunaan yang tinggi untuk beroperasi. Dewasa kini, hampir sebahagian
bangunan kurang diberi penekanan tentang aspek keselamatan sehingga boleh kehilangan
nyawa, maka dengan terciptanya AGD System ini dapat membantu mengesan kebocoran gas
pada peringkat awal di sesebuah ruang di dalam bangunan tersebut. Sasaran utama pengguna
sistem ini adalah mereka yang berada di kawasan perumahan, restoran, makmal ujikaji dan
kilang perindustrian. Ini kerana skop aplikasi sistem ini boleh diubahsuai mengikut kriteria
yang diperlukan terutama sekiranya penggunaan sistem itu diletakkan di makmal ujikaji dan
kilang perindustrian. AGD System wajar dikomersialkan kerana ianya dapat memberi manfaat
dan impak positif dari aspek penggunaan kepada masyarakat secara keseluruhannya.
Kata kunci: kebocoran gas, AGD System, gas petroleum cecair
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Abstract: As we have seen through newspapers and electronic media, frequent cases of
accidents happened due to explosion of liquefied petroleum gas or (LP gas). We have to face
many losses lead by the accident, from material damage which can hurt and caused death.
Therefore, a system in addressing this gas leakage problem has been created to ensure the
safety of the community as well as the environment. An innovative idea known as the
Automatic Gas Detection Equipment System or AGD System has been specially designed to
address gas leakage problems in an early stage. The AGD System works by performing sound
signals and transmitting red lights as a warning of gas leakage in a building space. AGD
System is a system which function in detecting gas leakage in a space at the early stage of fire.
It is located near gas cylinders or any gas storage area so that gas leakage can be detected early.
In addition, it is very easy to install and does not require high voltage usage to operate.
Nowadays many buildings are less emphasized on security aspects which leads to lose of lives.
With the AGD System in place, it can help to detect gas leakage at the early stage for space
inside the building. The main target users of this system are those staying in residential areas,
restaurants, experimental laboratories and industrial plants. This is because the scope of this
system application can be modified according to the required criteria especially if the use of the
system is placed in experimental laboratories and industrial plants. The AGD System is to be
commercialized as it can benefitted and give positive impact in term of community usage as a
whole.
Keywords: gas leakage, AGD System, liquefied petroleum gas
___________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Gas merupakan salah satu sumber tenaga yang penting kepada manusia dalam melaksanakan
tugas harian seperti di rumah, perindustrian, pendidikan dan perhotelan. Kebiasaan gas yang
digunakan adalah gas LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) kerana harganya berpatutan dan cara
penyelenggaraannya lebih mudah. Namun demikian, gas LPG ini turut memberi kesan negatif
terhadap kesihatan manusia, alam sekitar sehingga membawa kepada kemusnahan harta benda.
Gas LPG juga boleh menyebabkan kerugian yang besar sekiranya ia tidak dikendalikan dengan
berhati-hati terutama apabila berlaku kebocoran gas. Kebocoran gas berlaku disebabkan gas
LPG yang bersifat mudah terbakar jika digabungkan bersama udara dengan kepekatan antara
2% sehingga 10% [1]. Ini disebabkan kandungan gas sangat tinggi dan padat melepasi had
yang ditetapkan iaitu had bahan letupan rendah akan meletup dengan mudah. Gas yang
mengalami kebocoran akan menjadi lebih berat dan tidak akan mudah keluar dari kawasan
yang tertutup menyebabkan ia akan terkumpul dan tersebar ke seluruh ruang dalam sesebuah
bangunan [2]. Oleh yang demikian, langkah yang proaktif perlu diambil bagi menangani
kejadian kebocoran gas pada peringkat awal.
Banyak kajian telah dijalankan untuk membuktikan tentang cara memantau dan mencegah
kejadian kebocoran gas melalui alat pengesan kebocoran gas [3,4]. Dua kajian yang
berasingan ini telah menunjukkan bahawa sistem pengesan kebocoran gas ini dapat berfungsi
dengan baik sekiranya berlaku kebocoran gas pada peringkat awal di samping memudahkan
pengguna mengetahui berlaku kebocoran pada gas LPG.
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Justeru itu, kajian ini membincangkan sebuah sistem yang telah direka bagi mengesan
kebocoran gas yang dikenali sebagai Automatic Gas Detection Equipment System atau nama
singkatannya adalah AGD System. Prototaip yang dihasilkan ini telah diuji keberkesanannya.
Manfaat yang terhasil daripada hasil penciptaan sistem mengesan kebocoran gas ini adalah
lebih mesra pengguna di mana ia dapat disesuaikan mengikut ruang dapur, makmal dan kilang
perindustrian. Selain itu, AGD system ini mudah untuk dipasang siap serta menawarkan kos
yang mampu dimiliki oleh semua pengguna.
2. Komponen dan kaedah

2.1 Komponen Utama AGD System
AGD System terdiri daripada enam komponen utama iaitu Arduino UNO, sensor gas MQ-2,
penggera, diod pemancar cahaya, geganti dan kipas.
a. Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO merupakan papan mikrokontroler sumber terbuka dan dibangunkan oleh
Arduino Creative Commons Licensed. Papan cip ini dilengkapi dengan set pin input dan output
digital dan analog yang boleh dihubungkan dengan pelbagai papan cip dan lain-lain. Papan ini
mempunyai 14 pin digital, 6 pin analog dan boleh diprogramkan dengan menggunakan perisian
sumber terbuka iaitu Arduino IDE melalui kabel USB jenis B. Ia boleh menampung kuasa
melalui kabel USB atau bateri berkuasa 9 voltan secara luaran, namun ia mampu menerima
voltan berkuasa antara tujuh hingga 20 voltan. Fungsi Arduino dalam sistem ini adalah ia dapat
menerima isyarat dari sensor gas yang digunakan lalu menghantar maklumat kepada penggera
dan diod pemancar cahaya (LED).
Rajah 1: Arduino UNO
b. Sensor Gas MQ-2

Sensor gas MQ-2 berfungsi sebagai pengesan asap sensitif terutama kepada asap dan bahan-
bahan mudah terbakar seperti LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), butana, metana, alkohol, dan
hidrogen. Ketahanan sensor adalah berbeza bergantung kepada jenis gas. Pengesan asap yang
terbina ini membolehkan sensor dilaraskan mengikut sensitivitinya iaitu bergantung kepada
ketepatan yang diperlukan bagi mengesan gas. Output sensor adalah bersifat analog. Litar dari
sensor ini bersifat sederhana. Oleh itu kuasa yang diperlukan sensor ini adalah di antara sifar
sehingga lima voltan sahaja. Dengan adanya sensor gas MQ-2 ini, kebocoran gas dapat dikesan
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pada peringkat awal dan penggera akan dibunyikan bagi memberitahu pengguna terhadap
kejadian yang berlaku.
Rajah 2: Sensor gas MQ-2
c. Diod Pemancar Cahaya (LED)

Diod pemancar cahaya atau lebih dikenali sebagai lampu LED adalah komponen elektrik yang
memancarkan cahaya monokromatik. Lampu LED mempunyai jangka hayat dan kecekapan
elektrik yang beberapa kali lebih besar daripada lampu pijar dan jauh lebih cekap daripada
lampu kalimantang. Lampu LED ini mampu menghasilkan kecerahan yang penuh tanpa
memerlukan bantuan masa pemanasan. LED berfungsi bagi menarik perhatian pengguna
setelah penggera dibunyikan iaitu daripada LED hijau yang memberi isyarat selamat kepada
LED merah sebagai tanda berlaku kebocoran gas.
Rajah 3: Diod pemancar cahaya
d. Penggera
Penggera adalah sejenis peranti sebutan yang boleh menukar isyarat kepada isyarat bunyi. Ia
digunakan secara meluas dalam pelbagai produk seperti alat permainan elektronik, perkakas
rumah, penggera peribadi, sistem penggera bank dan juga sebagai keselamatan di tempat
awam. Penggera digunakan secara meluas dalam bidang elektronik dalam penghasilan produk
yang lebih komersial. Fungsi penggera dalam AGD System ini sebagai isyarat bagi
mengeluarkan bunyi mengikut rentak berdasarkan kod yang telah diprogramkan pada papan
Arduino.
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Rajah 4: Penggera
e. Geganti (Relay)
Geganti ialah suis yang dibuka dan ditutup secara elektrik dengan menggunakan magnet
buatan. Geganti digunakan untuk mengawal litar dengan isyarat yang berkuasa rendah secara
berasingan atau keadaan di mana beberapa litar mesti dikawal dengan satu isyarat. Geganti
tersebut mengulangi isyarat yang datang dari satu litar dan dihantar semula ke litar lain.
Geganti digunakan secara meluas dalam pertukaran telefon dan komputer untuk melaksanakan
operasi logik. Di dalam AGD System, geganti yang digunakan pada papan Arduino adalah
berfungsi sebagai mengawal litar yang berkuasa rendah secara berasingan. Litar yang
beroperasi pada voltan tinggi atau arus tinggi tidak dapat dikawal oleh Arduino. Sebaliknya,
jika mendapat isyarat kawalan voltan yang rendah dari Arduino untuk mengawal geganti, ia
mampu dikendalikan dan seterusnya dapat menukar litar kepada voltan berkuasa tinggi.
Rajah 5: Geganti (Relay)
f. Kipas DC
Kipas DC ini akan dihidupkan secara aktif apabila menerima isyarat daripada papan arduino.
Ini akan berlaku sekiranya bacaan gas yang terkumpul adalah melebihi had yang ditetapkan.
Melalui konsep AGD System, kipas DC ini berfungsi sebagai penarik gas agar dapat dilepaskan
keluar daripada kawasan gas yang terkumpul sehingga menyebabkan penggera berhenti
mengeluarkan bunyi dan seterusnya cahaya lampu LED bertukar daripada warna merah kepada
warna hijau. Kipas DC ini hanya menggunakan kuasa sebanyak lima voltan dan secara tidak
langsung dapat menjimatkan tenaga yang dikeluarkan dari sumber tenaga.
Rajah 6: Kipas DC
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2.2 Kaedah Penyediaan Sampel

a. Penyambungan Wayar Menggunakan Pateri
Kaedah ini digunakan bagi menyambung wayar ke papan litar. Seterusnya, ia dilaksanakan
dengan mencairkan timah supaya wayar dapat disambung dengan lebih kemas dan tahan.
Kaedah ini dipilih bagi memastikan jangka hayat produk akan lebih bertambah di samping
dapat meningkatkan kualiti pemasaran.
b. Kaedah Pasang Siap (Tidak Memerlukan Sambungan Yang Kompleks)

Komponen-komponen yang sedia ada hanya memerlukan kaedah pasang siap di mana wayar
boleh disambung dengan menggunakan soket. Dengan cara ini, ia boleh memudahkan
penggantian komponen jika terdapat sebarang kerosakan. Oleh itu, ia dapat meningkatkan
fleksibiliti produk untuk diaplikasikan ke semua sektor seperti di makmal ujikaji dan kilang
perindustrian.
Rajah 7: Rangkaian pemasangan AGD System secara keseluruhan
3.0 Hasil Dan Pengujian

Terdapat beberapa proses yang dijalankan dalam mengesan kebocoran gas. Proses pertama
adalah pembuatan carta alir dan seterusnya memuat turun perisian sumber terbuka iaitu
Arduino IDE. Pada peringkat pertama pengujian dilakukan, sistem akan melakukan proses
untuk mendapatkan input serta output dengan dibantu oleh komponen-komponen yang sedia
ada seperti sensor gas MQ-2, penggera, diod pemancar cahaya, kipas DC dan geganti. Apabila
semua komponen telah disambung dengan baik dan pengaturcaraan program telah dibangunkan
dalam sistem arduino, pengujian ini terus dilakukan dengan menggunakan prototaip. Pada
peringkat awal, gas dihidupkan dahulu bagi mengaktifkan sensor gas MQ-2 untuk mengesan
kebocoran gas. Seterusnya, sistem bermula dengan menghubungkan semua komponen kepada
sumber kuasa menggunakan adapter yang berkuasa 5 voltan. Bagi memastikan sistem ini dapat
berfungsi dengan baik, ia dimulakan dengan menyalakan lampu diod pemancar cahaya yang
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berwarna hijau. Pada peringkat ini juga sensor gas MQ-2 telah dihubungkan dengan penggera
supaya sensor tersebut dapat menghantar isyarat ke papan Arduino. Jika berlaku kebocoran
gas, maka diod pemancar cahaya yang berwarna merah akan bernyala, diikuti penggera akan
aktif berbunyi serta kipas akan berfungsi secara automatik dan program dapat menghasilkan
output dari sistem Arduino. Sebaliknya jika kebocoran gas yang diukur adalah kurang daripada
data-data yang telah disetkan maka program akan memastikan kipas dimatikan serta penggera
tidak dibunyikan.
Rajah 8: Carta Alir bagi mengesan kehadiran gas
3.1 Pengujian Sensor

Setelah melakukan pengujian terhadap sensor gas MQ-2 di dalam keadaan persekitaran yang
mengalami kebocoran gas, maka hasil pengukuran diperoleh seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam
Jadual 1.
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Jadual 1: Hasil pengujian sensor gas MQ-2
Bil. Kehadiran gas Bacaan data
1. Tiada gas 0
2. Ada gas 30-1022
Daripada Jadual 1 menunjukkan jurang bacaan data yang menunjukkan kehadiran gas yang
dikeluarkan oleh kod melalui papan Arduino. Bacaan data bernilai sifar menunjukkan bahawa
tiada gas yang hadir di kawasan tersebut manakala bacaan data yang diperoleh dalam jurang
30-1022 menunjukkan bahawa terdapat gas yang hadir di kawasan tersebut.
Semasa komponen disambung dan sensor gas MQ-2 diaktifkan, komputer akan memaparkan
penghasilan pengaturcaraan program dari aplikasi Arduino IDE bagi memantau keadaan
kebocoran gas seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Rajah 9.
Rajah 9: Hasil pengaturcaraan program dari aplikasi Arduino IDE

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Digital Value seperti di dalam Rajah 9 diatas menunjukkan nilai kepekatan gas apabila dikesan
oleh sensor gas MQ-2. Apabila nilai Digital Value semakin tinggi ia menunjukkan bahawa
kepekatan gas tersebut menjadi semakin tinggi. Nilai bacaan Digital Value yang bermula dari
angka sifar hingga 400 adalah berada dalam tahap normal disebabkan keadaan dalam udara
sekeliling mempunyai gas tetapi dalam kuantiti yang sedikit, manakala bacaan 400 sehingga
1022 menunjukkan kepekatan gas pada tahap yang merbahaya.
4. Perbincangan dan Kesimpulan

Dapatan kajian yang dilakukan secara keseluruhan bermula dari perancangan dan pembuatan
sistem ini menunjukkan AGD System dapat mengesan kebocoran gas dengan baik. Ini dapat
dibuktikan melalui komponen dapat berfungsi dengan lancar. Diod pemancar cahaya akan
mengeluarkan isyarat berwarna merah, kipas dihidupkan dan penggera berbunyi. Apabila
berlakunya kehadiran gas, sensor gas MQ-2 dapat mengesan kebocoran gas dan menghantar
isyarat bagi penghasilan output ke sistem Arduino. Secara keseluruhan, AGD System dapat
memberi manfaat dan impak positif dari aspek penggunaannya kerana pengguna dapat
mengetahui kebocoran gas LPG pada peringkat awal sebelum berlaku kebakaran [5].
Rujukan
Soemarsono, B,E., Listiasri, E., Kusuma, G.C. (2015). Alat Pendeteksi Dini Terhadap
Kebocoran Gas LPG. JURNAL TELE, Volume 13(1), Mac 2015, 1-6.
Rifa’i, A.F., (2016). Sistem Pendeteksi Dan Monitoring Kebocoran Gas (Liquefied Petrolum
Gas) Berbasis Internet Of Things. Jurnal Informatika Sunan Kalijaga, Vol. 1, No. 1, Mei 2016,
5 – 13.
Putra,M. F., Kridalaksana, A. H., & ArifiN, Z. Rancang Bangun Alat Pendeteksi Kebocoran
Gas LPG Dengan Sensor Mq-6 Berbasis Mikrokontroler Melalui Smartphone Android Sebagai
Media Informasi, Jurnal Informatika Mulawarman, Vol. 12, No. 1, Februari 2017, Issn 1858-
4853.
Novrian, D. (2014) Rancang Bangun Alat Pencegah Kebakaran Dari Kebocoran Gas
Menggunakan Sensor Mq135 Berbasis Mikrokontroler Atmega16. Tesis Politeknik Negeri
Sriwijaya.
Dewi, S.S.,Satria, D.,Yusibani, E., & Sugiyanto, D. (2017) Sistem Deteksi Kebakaran Pada
Kasus Kebocoran Gas Berbasis Sms Gateway. Seminar Nasional Kemaritiman Aceh, Vol. 1,
106-109
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CABARAN DAN LIMITASI PENDIDIKAN UNTUK KANAK-

KANAK TANPA WARGANEGARA DI PULAU MABUL,
SEMPORNA, SABAH
(Education Challenges and Limitation for Stateless Children in Mabul Island, Semporna,
Sabah)
Nadzira Miskiman1*, Khalim Zainal2

1
Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
2
Pusat Citra Universiti, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Hak pendidikan merupakan hak untuk semua seperti yang telah dinyatakan oleh
Bank Dunia. Pendidikan merupakan satu keperluan yang penting kepada seseorang individu
samada untuk membantu pergaulan sosial individu tersebut dengan masyarakat mahupun untuk
pembangunan ekonomi dan jati diri. Namun masih terdapat golongan-golongan terpencil di
negara ini yang tidak berpeluang untuk mendapatkan pendidikan. Ini kerana terdapat cabaran
dan limitasi yang terpaksa ditempuhi oleh mereka untuk mendapatkan pendidikan. Golongan
yang dikaji dalam kajian ini adalah kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara yang terdapat di Pulau
Mabul Semporna, Sabah. Seramai 30 orang responden telah dipilih untuk kajian ini yang terdiri
daripada kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara, guru dan ibubapa. Kaedah kualitatif dengan
menggunakan rekabentuk kajian etnografi dipilih untuk kajian ini. Pengkaji telah meluangkan
selama enam bulan untuk melakukan kajian lapangan di lokasi kajian. Kaedah pemerhatian dan
perbincangan kumpulan terarah dengan menggunakan temubual separa berstuktur telah
digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data. Pengkaji menggunakan perisian Nvivo 10 untuk
menganalisis dapatan kajian. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat tiga faktor utama yang
menjadi cabaran dan limitasi untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara mendapatkan pendidikan.
Selain itu juga pengkaji menperolehi dua aspek utama yang memberikan kesan terhadap kanak-
kanak yang tidak mendapatkan pendidikan iaitu masalah sosial dan jenayah dan diskriminasi
sosial.
Kata kunci: Pendidikan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara, diskriminasi sosial, limitasi

pendidikan
Abstract: Education rights are a right for all as mention by World Bank. Education is
important needs to be socializing with community, economy and their own identity. However,
there are still group of community still facing with education challenge and limitation. There
are 30 respondance was selected for this research which included stateless children, teachers
and parents from Mabul Island Semporna, Sabah. This is qualitative research with ethnography
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design. Researcher was spent six month in this location for this research field. Observation and
focus group interview was use as data collection method and Nvivo 10 software are used for
data analization. Research finding shows there are three factors of education challages and
limitation for stateless children. In the other hand, there are two main effect for this minority
which is social and crime problem and also social discrimination.
Keywords: stateless education, social discrimination, limitation of education

___________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Kanak-kanak merupakan golongan rentan iaitu golongan yang sering ditindas dan dirampas
haknya.Ini termasuklah kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara yang terdapat di Malaysia amnya dan
di Sabah khususnya. Kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara adalah kanak-kanak yang tidak dianggap
sebagai warganegara oleh mana-mana negara di bawah kuasa undang-undang (UNCHR, 2018).
Isu pendidkan untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara bukanlah suatu isu yang baru. Namun isu
ini dikategorikan sebagai isu yang terpencil dan kurang diberi perhatian.Ini kerana rakyat
Malaysia kurang terdedah mengenai masalah ini. Walaubagaimanapun, isu ini telah menjadi
bualan pada awal tahun 2018 apabila timbul di media yang melibatkan beberapa buah negeri di
semenanjung seperti Kedah, Terengganu & Negeri Sembilan (BERNAMA, 2018).
2. Ulasan Kajian Lepas
Kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara

Menurut Konvensyen 1954, seseorang yang didefinisikan sebagai tanpa warganegara adalah
seseorang yang tidak mempunyai ikatan undang-undang dengan mana-mana negeri, seseorang
yang mempunyai tuntutan yang sah untuk kewarganegaraan tetapi tidak mempunyai bukti
seperti dokumen dan juga keengganan kerajaan untuk memberikan kewarganegaraan. Kanak-
kanak yang tidak didaftarkan dan direkodkan kelahiran juga merupakan salah satu golongan
yang tanpa warganegara. (Jessica et al, 2014)
Di Malaysia, terdapat empat kumpulan utama yang dianggap tanpa warganegara atau berisiko
tanpa warganegara: pelarian Rohingya dari Burma, keturunan India yang dilahirkan di
Malaysia, kaum yang berpindah dari satu tempat ke satu tempat seperti Bajau Laut dan kanak-
kanak pelarian dan pendatang di Sabah (Catherine, 2014).
Kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara adalah kanak-kanak yang tidak dianggap sebagai warganegara
oleh mana-mana negara di bawah kuasa undang-undang (UNCHR, 2018).Terdapat pelbagai
punca yang menyebabkan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara di Malaysia. Antara punca-punca
yang menjadikan seseorang kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara adalah seperti ibubapa berkahwin
di luar negara, ‘kahwin kampung’, atau ibubapa bukan warganegara dan tidak mendaftarkan
perkahwinan. Apabila anak dilahirkan, kesukaran semasa ingin mendaftarkan kelahiran anak
kerana tiada dokumen perkahwinan ibubapa. Antara punca lain adalah anak-anak kepada
pelarian yang datang ke Malaysia dan tidak mempunyai dokumen pengenalan diri. Selepas
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anak-anak ini dilahirkan, anak-anak ini tidak boleh mendaftar kerana ibubapa tidak mempunyai
dokumen pengenalan diri. (Mazura &Nor Hafizah, 2018).
Satu kajian yang dijalankan oleh Catherine pada tahun 2012, kurangnya pengetahuan mengenai
proses mendaftarkan kelahiran dikalangan pelarian dan pendatang di Sabah menyebabkan
ramai anak-anak mereka yang lahir di negeri ini tidak mempunyai sijil kelahiran dan sekaligus
menyebabkan mereka berstatus sebagai tanpa warganegara. Selain itu juga, kos melahirkan
anak di hospital yang tinggi menyebabkan mereka memilih untuk tidak melahirkan anak-anak
di hospital dan menyukarkan mereka untuk mendapatkan sijil kelahiran bagi anak-anak
mereka.
Mengikut data yang dikeluarkan UNHCR sehingga 2016, 50% kanak-kanak pelarian dan tanpa
warganegara tercicir dari mendapatkan pendidikan di sekolah rendah dan 75% kanak-kanak
pelarian dan tanpa warganegara tercicir dari mendapatkan pendidikan menengah di sekolah.
Ketinggalan pembelajaran sewaktu tempoh pelarian yang lama dan tinggal di negara yang maju
menjadi punca kanak-kanak ini tercicir dari sekolah (Malala, 2016).
Hak pendidikan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara dan undang-undang

Pada tahun 1995, Malaysia telah menandatangani Konvensyen Hak Kanak-kanak (CRC) 1989
(Hema, 2013).Dengan penyertaan tersebut, adalah menjadi tanggungjawab Malaysia untuk
memastikan setiap kanak-kanak di negara ini mendapat pendidikan yang berkualiti tanpa
mengira status warganegara. Namun terdapat banyak kekeliruan dan kesamaran mengenai
status hak kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara di Malaysia (Mazura &Nor Hafizah, 2018). Ini
kerana, dalam Dasar Pendidikan Negara (DPM), pendidikan rendah adalah wajib untuk kanak-
kanak warganegara Malaysia sahaja dan tidak dinyatakan kewajipan kepada kanak-kanak
bukan warganegara dan tanpa warganegara. Tambahan pula Malaysia adalah salah satu negara
yang tidak menyertai Konvensyen 1951 Pesuruhjaya Tinggi Pertubuhan Bangsa-bangsa
Bersatu Bagi Pelarian (UNCHR) dimana melalui konvensyen ini, setiap negara yang
menyertainya wajib memberi perlindungan dan hak-hak kepada pelarian dan termasuk juga
orang tanpa warganegara (Dina, 2014).
Sebagai sebuah negara yang tidak menyertai Konvensyen Pelarian 1957 dan Protokol 1967,
Malaysia tidak mempunyai peruntukan khusus untuk memberikan perlindungan terhadap
golongan pelarian (Hidayat et al, 2016).Ini termasuklah peruntukan untuk pendidikan buat
anak-anak pelarian.Ketiadaan peruntukan untuk pendidikan kanak-kanak pelarian ini
menyukarkan kanak-kanak ini mendapatkan pendidikan di negara ini.
Menurut Catherine (2014), tidak mempunyai sijil kelahiran dan dokumen yang lengkap
menyebabkan kanak-kanak di Sabah tidak dapat mendaftarkan diri sebagai murid di sekolah
kerajaan. Namun, tambah Catherine lagi walaupun kanak-kanak ini mempunyai dokumen yang
lengkap, tapi disebabkan status mereka bukan warganegara, mereka tidak dibenarkan untuk
menghadiri sekolah kerajaan seperti kanak-kanak warganegara yang lain.
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Kesan tiada pendidikan dikalangan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara

Dalam satu kajian yang dijalankan oleh Catherine pada tahun 2014 mendapati kanak-kanak
tanpa warganegara di Sabah bekerja sebagai buruh kasar dan penangkap dan penjual ikan
kerana mereka tidak dapat mendaftarkan diri di sekolah kerajaan.masalah ini terjadi apabila
mereka dianggap sebagai pendatang kerana tiada sijil kelahiran dan dokumen yang sah.
Menjadi buruh di ladang-ladang mahupun menjadi penangkap dan penjual ikan bukanlah satu
pekerjaan yang sesuai untuk kanak-kanak. Namun, sebagai golongan yang mudah dieksplotasi
seperti ini, mereka tidak mempunyai pilihan lain.
Pendidikan merupakan jalan keluar utama kepada masalah ekonomi dan sosial yang semakin
berleluasa di negara ini dan di Sabah khususnya. Masalah jenayah dan sosial di Sabah
seringkali dikaitkan dengan pendatang dan orang tanpa warganegara yang tinggal di negeri ini(
Hidayat et al, 2016, Azmi, 1999). Tanpa pendidikan, kanak-kanak ini terdedah kepada
ancaman dieksploitasikan untuk bekerja sebagai peminta sedekah, penjual tiket loteri dan lebih
teruk lagi, dijadikan pelacur oleh pihak-pihak yang tidak bertanggungjawab (Hidayat, 2017).
Tanpa pendidikan, kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara menganggap mereka tiada pilihan dan juga
tiada hak terutama dalam membuat keputusan. Kanak-kanak ini juga mudah digunakan oleh
pihak berkuasa bagi mendapatkan rasuah kerana masalah dokumen mereka. Kes ini telah
dibuktikan dalam satu kajian yang dijalankan oleh Srinuan pada tahun 2014. Walaupun kajian
merupakan kajian di luar Malaysia, namun tidak mustahil perkara seperti ini boleh terjadi di
negara ini memandangkan ramai kewujudan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara di negara ini
terutama di Sabah.
Cabaran pendidikan untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara

Sehingga hari ini, terdapat beberapa badan bukan kerajaan (NGO) yang menyediakan pusat
pembelajaran untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara di semenanjung Malaysia dan juga di
Sabah. Namun, pembelajaran di pusat-pusat ini jauh ketinggalan dan berbeza seperti
pendidikan yang disediakan di sekolah-sekolah kerajaan. Ini termasuklah dari segi kurikulum,
kemudahan pendidikan dan juga latihan guru yang mengajar di pusat-pusat pembelajaran ini.
Akses kepada pendidikan dan memperkasakan kanak-kanak dengan pendidikan yang berkualiti
merupakan dua elemen yang penting untuk pembangunan setiap kanak-kanak (Mazura &Nor
Hafizah, 2018). Tanpa kedua elemen ini, kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara ini dinafikan dari hak
ketiga yang terdapat dalam Konvensyen Hak Kanak-kanak (CRC) 1989 iaitu hak untuk
membangunkan diri.
Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Marta & Amy pada tahun 2017 ada mencadangkan penyediaan
dan pembinaan satu sistem pendidikan yang bersesuaian dan relevan serta satu proses yang adil
kepada kanak-kanak pelarian dan pendatang dapat menjamin kesaksamaan pendidikan
terutama untuk kanak-kanak pelarian dan pendatang. Ini termasuklah menyediakan akses ke
sekolah, menyediakan sekolah sementara dan juga latihan guru.
Perancangan untuk pendidikan kanak-kanak pelarian dan pendatang merupakan satu cabaran
yang besar buat guru-guru yang mengajar golongan ini. Antara cabaran utama adalah
perbezaan bahasa yang digunakan antara guru dalam kelas dan juga bahasa utama yang
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digunakan oleh murid-murid (Jennifer et al, 2014). Latihan bahasa untuk guru yang mengajar
kanak-kanak ini perlulah dimasukkan bersama dalam perancangan pendidikan untuk mereka.
Menurut (Nongoyao, 2012) menghantar kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara ke sekolah kerajaan

dilihat bukan satu keputusan yang baik. Ini kerana, terdapat pelbagai masalah yang akan
dihadapi samada dari kanak-kanak itu sendiri mahupun pihak sekolah. Ini termasuklah dari segi
diskriminasi di antara kanak-kanak warganegara dengan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara.
Sebaliknya, menyediakan lebih banyak pusat pembelajaran khas untuk kanak-kanak tanpa
warganegara dengan kurikulum yang selari dengan kurikulum di sekolah kerajaan mampu
membantu kehadiran lebih ramai kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara untuk mendapatkan
pendidikan..
Pendidikan merupakan satu keperluan hidup bagi setiap manusia. Melalui pendidikan,
seseorang itu dapat mempelajari peradaban hidup, ilmu untuk kegunaan harian dan juga dapat
mengubah ekonomi diri sendiri dan juga keluarga. Namun begitu, masih terdapat golongan
minoriti di negara ini yang tidak berpeluang mendapatkan pendidikan. Walaupun ia dianggap
golongan minority, namun janganlah dipandang enteng kerana boleh jadi, golongan minoriti ini
nanti mampu memberi impak dan kesan yang tinggi dari segi sosial mahupun ekonomi negara.
Perubahan Dasar Pendidikan untuk Kanak-kanak Tanpa Warganegara

Pihak Kemeterian Pelajaran Malaysia dilihat sering kali mengubah samada dasar mahupun
pelan pendidikan di negara ini. Perubahan ini termasuklah mengenai kebenaran dan larangan
untuk kanak-kanak bukan warganegara bersekolah di sekolah kerajaan.
Perubahan yang dilakukan ini menyukarkan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara untuk bersekolah
di sekolah kerajaan. Ini kerana mereka tidak dan pasti dan samar dengan penguatkuasaan
kebenaran dan larangan yang sering kali berubah-ubah. Peraturan yang tidak jelas dan samar
ini juga menyulitkan keadaan kepada murid, ibubapa dan juga pihak sekolah.
Kesan daripada perubahan dan kesamaran undang-undang dari kementerian ini menyebabkan
ramai kanak-kanak tanpa warganegra tidak dapat bersekolah di sekolah kerajaan. Bagi murid
yang pernah bersekolah di sekolah kerajaan dan diminta supaya berhenti, dan kemudiannya
dibenarkan memohon semula untuk kemasukan ke sekolah kerajaan selepas bertahun diarahkan
berhenti menyebabkan pelajar tidak mempunyai minat dan merendah diri. Hal ini disebabkan
pelajar merasa beliau sudah ketinggalan pelajaran berbanding rakan sebaya yang lain. Ini
kerana sistem pendidikan di negara ini berkonsepkan kenaikan tahun mengikut umur. Bagi
pelajar yang sudah ketinggalan pelajar di umur diberhentikan, adalah menjadi satu cabaran
untuk beliau mengejar rakan sebaya dalam pelajaran yang ditinggalkan beberapa tahun dahulu.
Kelemahan dalam urus tadbir diperingkat Pejabat Pendidikan Daerah juga menjadi faktor
kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara sukar mendapatkan tempat untuk bersekolah di sekolah
kerajaan. Mengikut data temubual yang diperoleh pengkaji dalam kajian ini, penyerahan
borang permohonan murid tanpa warganegara untuk kemasukan kesekolah kerajaan seringkali
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dipandang sepi dan tidak dipedulikan. Ini dibuktikan apabila terdapat borang permohonan yang
sudah diserahkan selama lebih daripada dua tahun dan masih belum menerima jawapan
mahupun maklum balas dari pihak pejabat pendidikan.
Kemudahan dan Kelengkapan Sekolah
Keselesaan semasa sesi pengajaran mempengaruhi kualiti pendidikan yang disampaikan oleh
guru dan diterima oleh murid. Namun, kemudahan dan kelengkapan di sekolah-sekolah
alternatif yang disediakan untuk pendidikan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara dilihat jauh
berbeza dengan keadaan di sekolah kerajaan. Keadaan ini menjadi salah satu faktor cabaran
dan limitasi kepada kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara dalam mendapatkan pendidikan.
Sekolah-sekolah alternatif yang disediakan untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara dilihat

mempunyai kekurangan dari segi bangunan atau tempat sekolah itu sendiri. Alatan yang
digunakan untuk sekolah dilihat tidak bersesuaian dengan tujuan sekolah. Sekolah bertujuan
untuk menyampaikan pembelajaran kepada murid dalam keadaan yang selesa dan
bersistematik. Namun berbeza dengan keadaan sekolah yang disediakan untuk kanak-kanak
tanpa warganegara. Hal ini menyebakan kesukaran untuk guru menyampaikan pembelajaran
dan murid menerima apa yang diajar oleh guru.
Kemudahan sekolah yang tidak lengkap dan tidak selesa juga menjadi faktor kepada kesukaran
sesi pembelajaran dilakukan. Sekolah yang disediakan tiada kipas dan panas serta keadaan
lampu yang tidak terang boleh mengganggu focus pembelajaran murid dan peyampaian guru
itu sendiri. Apabila fokus samada pemberian dan penerimaan ilmu itu terjadi, tujuan utama
pembelajaran gagal dicapai. Keadaan kelas yang sempit dan bersesak juga menyebakan pelajar
tidak selesa dan terganggu.Ini turut mengundang gangguan dari rakan sekelas dan juga
gangguan luar.
Kualiti pendidikan juga haruslah dipandang berat dan diambil perhatian. Dalam pelan
pendidikan negara ada menyatakan mahu menyediakan satu pendidikan yang berkualiti di
negara ini. Pendidikan dan sekolah untuk kanak-kanak bukan warganegara juga memerlukan
satu pendiidkan yang berkualiti. Latihan guru mahir diperlukan bagi menyalurkan pendidikan
yang berkualiti kepada kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara. Sistem kurikulum yang bersesusian
juga diperlukan untuk sekolah dan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara bagi menjamin kualiti
pendidikan itu sendiri.
Penerimaan Sosial
Dalam konteks hidup masyarakat yang berbilang bangsa dan budaya, penerimaan sosial oleh
masyarakat terhadap seseorang individu mahupun kelompok masyarakat dilihat amat penting
dalam membina hubungan yang baik dan jati diri yang tinggi. Disamping itu juga, penerimaan
oleh masyarakat sekeliling juga dilihat penting bagi membina keyakinan diri individu.
Namun, berdasarkan dapatan kajian yang diperoleh, kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara dilihat
sering dipandang rendah dan dipulaukan oleh masyarakat. Hal ini menyebabkan minat untuk
mendapatkan pendidikan di sekolah dalam kalangan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara semakin
nipis dan hilang. Kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara merasa tersisih untuk ke sekolah kerajaan
kerana dianggap sebagai pendatang yang negatif dan tidak baik kepada masyarakat dan rakan
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sebaya. Kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara ini juga dilihat trauma disebabkan pengalaman lalu
yang meraka lalui semasa bersekolah di sekolah kerajaan dan seterusnya dijadikan panduan
untuk kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara yang lain untuk tidak memohon kemasukan ke sekolah
kerajaan.
Masalah Sosial dan Jenayah

Masalah sosial dalam kalangan remaja sudah menjadi satu kebiasaan dan masalah yang besar
kepada negara. Masalah sosial dalam kalangan kanak-kanak dan orang tanpa warganegara juga
dilihat semakin meningkat. Kesan dari mempunyai masa yang banyak tanpa melakukan apa-
apa aktiviti yang sihat mahupun bersekolah menyebabkan kanak-kanak dan remaja tanpa
warganegara ini terlibat dalam masalah-masalah sosial dan jenyah seperti melepak, perjudian,
menghisap dadah dan menghidu gam, merokok dan juga mencuri.
Aktiviti perjudian dalam kalangan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara di lokasi kajian ini seperti
sudah menjadi satu aktiviti harian.Mereka berjudi menggunakan sejumlah wang yang dilihat
tidak besar. Kebiasaannya mereka akan berjudi di belakang dan bawah-bawah rumah sahaja.
Perjudian ini tidak mengira usia dan peringkat umur. Apa yang lebih menyedihkan lagi,
ibubapa kanak-kanak ini turut berjudi sekali bersama anak kecil mereka.
Terdapat sebilangan kecil kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara yang tidak bersekolah terlibat
dengan jenyah kecil seperti mencuri. Mereka mensasarkan kedai-kedai runcit kecil dan rumah-
rumah pelancongan untuk mencuri samada duit hasil jualan mahupun perniagaan. Jika
dibiarkan boleh memandu mereka kearah jenayah yang lebih berat lagi seperti merompak.
Kanak-kanak yang masih mentah, dalam sekitar usia tujuh ke lima belas tahun sudah pandai
menghisap rokok dan gam. Apa yang lebih memeranjatkan lagi, mereka seperti terbuka dan
tidak malu untuk melakukan ini di kawasan terbuka dan khalayak ramai. Bagi remaja yang
menginjak dewasa, ada yang sudah terjebak dengan najis dadah seperti menghisap syabu.
Diskriminasi Sosial
Tanpa peniddikan, kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara sering kali dipandang rendah dan
direndahkan oleh sesetengah pihak. Ini kerana pihak-pihak tidak bertanggungjawab ini
merasakan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara ini mudah ditipu kerana tidak berpendidikan.
Pulau Mabul, Semporna Sabah merupakan salah satu pulau pelancongan yang sering menjadi
tumpuan dan kunjungan pelancong dari luar dan dalam negara. Di pulau ini, terdapat banyak
rumah tumpangan dan pusat peranginan yang disediakan untuk memudahkan pelancong
berkunjung dan melancong di sini. Ini menjadi faktor ramai pelancong yang akan berkunjung
ke pulau ini saban hari. Dengan jumlah pelancong yang ramai di pulau ini, menyebabkan
permintaan pekerjaan di rumah peranginan dan pusat penginapan meningkat. Terdapat ramai
orang tanpa warganegara yang bekerja di sini termasuk kanak-kanak.Apa yang menjadi
pemerhatian adalah kadar upah yang diterima oleh orang dan kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara
di sini tidak setimpal dengan pekerjaan yang mereka lakukan. Ini kerana, pihak-pihak yang
memberikan pekerjaan kepada mereka menyatakan bahawa mereka tidak mempunyai dokumen
pengenalan dan pekerjaan yang sah.
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Selain itu juga, kanak-kanak di pulau ini dijadiakn sebagai peminta sedekah. Kebiasaannya
kanak-kanak ini akan meminta wang mahupun makanan daripada pelancong yang datang
berkunjung dan menginap di pulau ini. Hal ini menyebabkan ketidak selesaan dalam kalangan
pengunjung dan pelancong kerana kanak-kanak ini akan terus mengekori mereka sehingga
diberikan wang atau makanan.
Cabaran-cabaran yang dihadapi oleh kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara ini adalah bukan sesuatu
yang boleh dipandang sepi oleh pihak berkaitan kerana ia memberi kesan yang buruk kepada
kanak-kanak itu sendiri dan juga negara samada dari segi sosial, ekonomi mahupun agama.
Kesimpulan
Secara keseluruhannya, pendidikan merupakan hak semua kanak-kanak tanpa mengira latar
belakang dan warganegara.melalui pendidikan, kanak-kanak ini dapat meningkatkan keyakinan
diri dan ekonomi diri dan keluarga, menjauhkan diri dari terjebak dengan masalah-masalah
sosial yang mengundang kepada berlakunya jenyah, membuka peluang untuk equaliti dalam
masyarakat sekeliling dan juga memberikan sumbangan yang baik kepada negara.
Justeru itu, cabaran dan limitasi yang dihadapi oleh kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara mampu
diselesaikan oleh pihak berkaitan dan bertanggungjawab. Dengan penyelesaian kepada
permasalahan itu, kanak-kanak tanpa warganegara tidak akan teribat dengan keadaan yang
menyebab berlakunya perkara negatif kepada mereka dan negara.
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ISU-ISU SEMASA DALAM PENTADBIRAN TANAH DI

MALAYSIA DAN PENYELESAIANNYA
Norazmawati Md.Sani
____________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Pentadbiran tanah yang baik mencerminkan carakerja dan kesepakatan banyak pihak
dalam mengendalikan aspek pentadbiran tanah yang bermula dari sekecil-kecil peranan
sehingga kepada peranan pihak berkuasa tertinggi dalam sesebuah organisasi pentadbiran.
Keselarasan ini tentunya melibatkan banyak isu yang timbul dalam proses pengurusan
pentadbiran tanah khususnya di Malaysia. Antaranya ialah isu mengenai pengambilan tanah,
isu pembangunan tanah wakaf, isu fraud dan pemalsuan dalam urusniaga tanah, isu mengenai
sebidang tanah yang dimiliki oleh ramai pemilik dan pelbagai lagi isu yang timbul dalam
pentadbiran tanah di Malaysia. Penulisan ini akan menjurus kepada isu-isu semasa dalam
pentadbiran tanah di Malaysia dan cara penyelesaiannya akan diterangkan bersama.
Kata kunci: Isu-isu semasa, Pentadbiran tanah, Pembangunan tanah

____________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Terdapat banyak isu semasa yang ada dalam pentadbiran sesebuah tanah di Malaysia.
Antaranya ialah isu mengenai pengambilan tanah, isu pembangunan tanah wakaf, isu fraud dan
pemalsuan dalam urusniaga tanah, isu mengenai sebidang tanah yang dimiliki oleh ramai
pemilik, isu hakmilik tanah yang tidak boleh disangkal, isu pembahagian tanah pusaka orang
islam, isu tanah adat untuk orang asli, isu pencerobohan tanah kerajaan, isu penipuan dalam
urusniaga tanah, isu pertindihan dua sempadan lot tanah, isu tanah terbiar yang tidak
dibangunkan, isu tukar syarat tanah, isu pecah bahagian dan pecah sempadan tanah, isu
penyatuan tanah, isu tanah rezab melayu, isu undang-undang tanah yang sukar difahami orang
awam, isu pengiktirafan hak ke atas tanah, isu sistem pewarisan tanah felda, isu pendudukan
haram atas tanah kerajaan dan tanah persendirian, isu pindahmilik lessen pendudukan
sementara, isu pemilikan tanah kosong dan pelbagai lagi isu yang timbul dalam pentadbiran
tanah di Malaysia. Penulisan ini akan membincangkan hanya tiga (3) isu-isu semasa dalam
pentadbiran tanah di Malaysia iaitu isu fraud dan pemalsuan dalam urusniaga tanah, isu tanah
adat untuk orang asli dan isu tanah berkongsi geran.
Isu Fraud dan Pemalsuan Dalam Urusniaga Tanah

Seksyen 340(2)(a) Kanun Tanah Negara (1965) memperuntukkan bahawa sekiranya hakmilik
atau kepentingan diperoleh secara fraud dan penipuan atau secara salah nyata, hal ini
membolehkan hakmilik atau kepentingan ini disangkal. Maksudnya ialah mana-mana orang
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atau badan yang telah mendaftarkan hak milik atau kepentingan ini, yang memperolehnya
melalui cara fraud dan penipuan, maka pemilik asal harta ini berhak mengenepikan hak milik
atau kepentingan tersebut. Pemilik asal perlu membuktikan bahawa fraud dan penipuan itu
telah dilakukan oleh pihak yang namanya telah didaftarkan sebagai pemilik baru. Oleh hal
demikian, hak milik bagi pemilik baru ini boleh disangkal oleh pemilik asal harta tanah
berkenaan (Salleh, 1993).
Antara kes yang berkaitan dengan fraud dan penipuan ialah Kes Haji Aishah v Yah Binti Taib
(1949) 15 MLJ 128. Dalam kes ini, seorang wanita buta huruf telah diberitahu bahawa
dokumen hakmilik yang ditandatanganinya itu ialah borang gadaian. Sebenarnya dokumen
berkenaan ialah dokumen suratcara pindahmilik tanahnya. Suratcara ini digunakan untuk
memindahmilik tanah wanita buta huruf itu kepada Haji Musa. Haji Musa pula kemudiannya
telah memindahmilik tanah berkenaan kepada defendan. Defendan menyedari akan penipuan
yang telah dilakukan oleh Haji Musa terhadap pemilik asal tanah ini iaitu wanita buta huruf.
Mahkamah dengan ini memutuskan bahawa hakmilik defendan hendaklah diketepikan dan
disangkal kerana telah dibuktikan wujudnya fraud dan penipuan terhadap transaksi pindahmilik
berkenaan.
Dalam kes lain yang telah diputuskan oleh Mahkamah Persekutuan dalam Kes Tai Lee Finance
Co Sdn Bhd v Official Assignee & Ors [1983] 1 MLJ 81, iaitu sebuah syarikat pemaju
perumahan telah menjual beberapa lot tanah dalam projeknya kepada beberapa orang pembeli.
Keseluruhan tanah itu kemudiannya telah digadaikan oleh pemaju berkenaan kepada sebuah
syarikat kewangan yang merupakan pemegang gadaian sebagai sekuriti pinjaman yang
diperoleh daripada syarikat kewangan berkenaan. Masa berlalu, namun pemaju perumahan ini
gagal untuk membayar balik pinjamannya kepada pemegang gadaian iaitu syarikat kewangan
ini. Pemegang gadaian kemudiannya telah mengambil tindakan untuk melelong tanah yang
digadai untuk mendapatkan balik wang pinjaman yang telah diberikan kepada pemaju
perumahan. Pada masa ini, beberapa orang pembeli lot tanah berkenaan muncul. Isu dalam kes
ini ialah sama ada pemegang gadaian ini dianggap terlibat dalam perbuatan fraud terhadap
pembeli-pembeli lot tanah ini kerana apabila gadaian didaftarkan, pemegang gadaian
mengetahui bahawa lot-lot tanah berkenaan telah pun dijual kepada pembeli-pembeli lot tanah
berkenaan. Mahkamah dengan ini menolak hujah ini dan menegaskan bahawa fraud bermaksud
kelakuan atau perbuatan yang tidak jujur dan bukan hanya sekadar fraud konstruktif atau fraud
ekuiti.
Selaras dengan Seksyen 340(2)(b) Kanun Tanah Negara (1965) memperuntukkan bahawa
hakmilik atau kepentingan mana-mana orang atau badan sedemikian janganlah menjadi tidak
boleh disangkal jika pendaftaran berkenaan diperoleh secara pemalsuan. Maksudnya, jika
terdapat pemalsuan dokumen dalam proses pindahmilik, maka hakmilik berdaftar yang
diperoleh ini boleh disangkal dan dipertikaikan.
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Fraud dan penipuan dalam urusniaga tanah boleh berlaku dalam keadaan seseorang
menyalahgunakan nama pemilik berdaftar dan menyalahgunakan tandatangan pemilik berdaftar
untuk melaksanakan sesebuah pendaftaran hakmilik yang baru. Dalam Kes Ong Lock Choo v
Quek Shin & Sons Ltd (1941) MLJ 88, ialah seorang pemilik tanah telah memberikan
dokumen hakmiliknya kepada seorang peguam untuk urusan pendaftaran gadaian. Kerani
peguam itu kemudiannya telah memalsukan suratcara berkenaan dan menggadaikan tanah itu
kepada orang lain. Mahkamah memutuskan bahawa gadaian yang didaftarkan itu sebagai tidak
sah. Yang perlu dibuktikan dalam seksyen ini ialah tindakan pemalsuan itu sendiri dan tidak
perlu membuktikan bahawa pemilik berdaftar yang baru telah menjadi ahli ataupun privy
kepada fraud atau penipuan (Joshua, 2006).
Dalam Kes Quah Hong Lian Neo v Seow Teong Teck (1936) MLJ 203, seseorang telah
mendapat pindahmilik sebidang tanah daripada pemiliknya menerusi tipu helah dan pemalsuan.
Sebagai seorang pemilik berdaftar, beliau telah menggadaikan tanah itu kepadapihak ketiga.
Mahkamah dalam kes ini telah menjadikan Kes Gibbs v Messer (1891) AC 248, sebagai
rujukan dan memutuskan bahawa pindahmilik itu tidak sah. Oleh itu, beliau tidak memperoleh
hak yang sah menerusi pindahmilik berkenaan dan beliau tidak mempunyai apa-apa hak untuk
mewujudkan satu gadaian berasaskan maksim undang-undang ‘nemo dat quod non habet’. Kes
ini telah disokong dalam Kes OCBC Bank (M) Bhd v Pendaftar Hakmilik Negeri Johor Darul
Takzim (1999) 2 MLJ 511, iaitu mahkamah telah menyatakan bahawa untuk menyangkal
hakmilik atas alasan pemalsuan, pemalsuan itu tidak perlu dikaitkan dengan pihak yang
hakmiliknya ingin disangkal. Hanya perlu dibuktikan bahawa terdapatnya pemalsuan dalam
pemindahan hakmilik berkenaan.
Dalam Kes Adorna Properties Sdn. Bhd. V Boonsom Boonyanit (2001) 2 CJL 133, seseorang
telah memalsukan tandatangan Boonsom dan telah memindahmilik sebidang tanah yang
asalnya hakmilik Boonsom kepada Adorna. Adorna tidak mengetahui langsung tentang
pemalsuan berkenaan. Hujahan menunjukkan bahawa urusan penjualan dan pendaftaran tanah
telah dilakukan mengikut prosedur yang telah ditetapkan oleh undang-undang. Mahkamah
Tinggi telah memutuskan bahawa kes ini berpihak kepada Adorna berdasarkan proviso
Seksyen 340(3) Kanun Tanah Negara (1965). Namun begitu, Mahkamah Rayuan telah
membuat keputusan sebaliknya dengan memutuskan bahawa hak yang didaftarkan atas nama
Adorna adalah boleh disangkal berdasarkan peruntukkan Seksyen 340(2) Kanun Tanah Negara
(1965) dan proviso Seksyen 340(3) Kanun Tanah Negara (1965) dengan ini adalah tidak
terpakai. Walaubagaimanapun, apabila rayuan dibuat ke Mahkamah Persekutuan, mahkamah
memutuskan bahawa proviso Seksyen 340(3) Kanun Tanah Negara (1965) adalah terpakai dan
memberikan hakmilik yang tidak boleh disangkal kepada Adorna. Dalam kes ini, mahkamah
menganggap Adorna sebagai pembeli yang membeli tanah ini secara suci hati (Bonafide)
sebagai mana yang diperuntukkan di dalam proviso Seksyen 340(3) Kanun Tanah Negara
(1965).
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Kaedah Penyelesaian Isu Fraud dan Pemalsuan Dalam Urusniaga Tanah

Sistem Torrens memberikan hakmilik dan kepentingan yang tidak boleh disangkal kepada
pemilik berdaftar. Namun demikian, sekiranya pendaftaran hakmilik dan kepentingan itu
diperoleh dengan cara fraud atau penipuan, peruntukkan Seksyen 340(2) Kanun Tanah Negara
(1965) secara jelas menyatakan bahawa sekiranya terdapat fraud atau penipuan dalam sebarang
urusniaga, maka pendaftaran berkenaan tidak akan memberikan hakmilik dan kepentingan
yang tidak boleh disangkal kepada pemilik yang namanya tercatat di dalam daftar hakmilik
tanah. Hak dan kepentingan yang didaftarkan itu boleh diketepikan. Maksudnya, kesan
terhadap kewujudan urusniada tanah secara fraud dan penipuan masih boleh disangkal dan
dipersoalkan.
Isu Tanah Adat Untuk Orang Asli

Pembangunan di atas tanah adat yang dilakukan oleh pihak kerajaan telah menimbulkan
konflik di antara pemaju dengan masyarakat setempat. Akibat daripada pembangunan ini telah
menyebabkan orang asli berkenaan kehilangan tempat tinggal dan sumber pendapatan mereka
daripada sumber hutan yang merupakan kawasan yang telah dibangunkan oleh pihak kerajaan.
Sorotan daripada isu ini, antara masalah yang dikenalpasti ialah undang-undang yang berkaitan
sukar untuk difahami, hak milik yang tidak boleh disangkal, permohonan tanah yang
tertunggak dan pengiktirafan hak ke atas tanah. Menurut sistem torrens, tanah orang asli yang
diwarisi dari satu generasi ke generasi yang lain adalah tidak termasuk di dalam sistem
pendaftaran mengikut undang-undang tanah di Malaysia. Hal ini kerana sistem torrenshanya
mengiktiraf dan memberi kepentingan terhadap tanah yang didaftarkan di Pejabat Pendaftaran
Tanah yang berkaitan (Kanun Tanah Negara, 1965) yang selaras dengan Akta Pengambilan
Balik Tanah (1960) dengan peruntukkan bahawa kerajaan negeri mempunyai kuasa untuk
mengambil sebarang tanah termasuklah tanah yang didiami oleh orang asli (Noor 'Ashikin et
al., 2011).
Kaedah Penyelesaian Isu Tanah Adat Untuk Orang Asli

Bagi menyelesaikan isu ini, perbincangan dan perundingan hendaklah dilakukan oleh pihak
kerajaan bersama orang asli, dengan menekankan polisi dan dasar berkaitan pengambilan tanah
orang asli dan peruntukkan pampasan yang sewajarnya untuk mereka. Konsep ini turut
digunapakai dalam Deklarasi Hak Orang Asli Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (PBB)
tentang keperluan mengadakan perbincangan dan perundingan yang melibatkan isu hak orang
asli yang diambil tanahnya. Selain itu akta sedia ada dicadangkan untuk dibuat pindaan kerana
Akta Orang Asli (1954) tidak memberikan perlindungan sepenuhnya terhadap hak pampasan
atas kehilangan tanah tradisi mereka. Hal ini kerana menurut Seksyen 11 dan Seksyen 12 Akta
Orang Asli (1954) menyatakan bahawa pampasan hanya diberikan berdasarkan kepada nilai
yang telah dinikmati yang terdapat di permukaan tanah tersebut. Oleh hal yang demikian, akta
ini dicadangkan untuk dipinda bagi menjamin hak orang asli berkenaan.
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Isu Tanah Berkongsi Geran

Untuk membincangkan isu ini dengan merujuk pada kes Goh Giok Bee lawan Goh Kian Seng
(Dalam Mahkamah Tinggi Malaya Melaka. Guaman Sivil No 22 NCVC-1309 Tahun 2012).
Kes ini merupakan perbalahan antara dua orang adik-beradik mengenai penggunaan tanah yang
mereka berdua miliki secara bersama dengan pegangan ½ bahagian setiap orang yang tidak
dipecahbahagi. Si abang mendakwa adiknya telah menggunakan tanah tersebut tanpa
kebenaran dan keizinannya. Dengan menggunakan tanah tersebut, si adik menjadi kaya raya. Si
abang tidak mendapat apa-apa hasil dari tanah tersebut. Oleh itu, si abang mengambil tindakan
guaman terhadap adiknya untuk mendapatkan sejumlah wang tidak kurang daripada
RM783,794.34 yang dikatakan telah terhutang berdasarkan penggunaan tanah yang dimiliki
bersama tanpa kebenaran.
Perbalahan dua beradik ini bukan sahaja melibatkan mereka berdua tetapi melibatkan pihak
lain kerana masing-masing membawa empat orang saksi. Fakta kes adalah seperti berikut: Pada
28 Ogos 2003, Goh Giok Bee (abang-plantif) dan Goh Kian Seng (adik-defendan) telah
membeli satu hartanah seluas 4.150 ekar di Lot 93, Geran Mukim 11, Mukim Ramuan Kechil,
Daerah Alor Gajah, Negeri Melaka. Goh Giok Bee dan Goh Kian Seng masing-masing menjadi
pemilik bersama dengan pegangan ½ bahagian yang tidak dipecahkan. Hartanah tersebut telah
digunakan oleh Goh Kian Seng sejak tahun 2006 untuk menjalankan perniagaan atas nama GK
Enterprise, yang menjalankan perniagaan antara lain, kontraktor binaan, kejuruteraan elektrik,
mekanikal dan awam, membekal bahan binaan dan kerja-kerja tanah. Selain itu, Goh Kian
Seng juga menggunakan hartanah itu untuk perkara lain seperti membela rusa sebagai hobi dan
membuat kolam untuk merendam kayu bakau. Bagaimanapun terdapat beberapa buah
bangunan lama atas hartanah itu yang telah sedia ada semasa hartanah itu dibeli. Tetapi masih
terdapat kawasan seluas 1.292 ekar yang masih tidak digunakan dan dipenuhi dengan belukar
dan semak samun. Goh Giok Bee dalam keterangannya menyatakan bahawa dia tidak tahu dan
tidak membenarkan Goh Kian Seng untuk menggunakan hartanah tersebut sepertimana yang
telah digunakan.
Goh Giok Bee menegaskan bahawa beliau tidak pernah memberi apa-apa kebenaran secara
lisan mahupun bertulis kepada Goh Kian Seng. Jika surat kebenaran itu wujud, tandatangan
dalam surat tersebut bukan tandatangannya, malah tandatangan tersebut telah dipalsukan oleh
Goh Kian Seng. Goh Kian Seng secara berterusan menggunakan hartanah tersebut tanpa
keizinannya. Menurutnya lagi, disebabkan perniagaan GK Enterprise diteruskan juga, dia tidak
mendapat sebarang keuntungan daripada adiknya Goh Kian Seng bagi kegunaan hartanah
tersebut. Goh Giok Bee menyatakan bahawa beliau telah kehilangan kegunaan hartanahnya itu
dalam erti kata tidak boleh membuat apa-apa perniagaan atas hartanah tersebut. Bagi Goh Giok
Bee, itu tidak adil dan Goh Kian Seng pula telah memperkayakan dirinya. Ini adalah suatu
pengkayaan yang tidak adil (unjust enrichment). Goh Giok Bee menegaskan bahawa beliau
telah mengalami kerugian dan menuntut gantirugi kerana;
(i) adiknya, Goh Kian Seng telah menjalankan perniagaan tersebut di atas hartanahnya
yang mana beliau tidak mendapat sebarang keuntungan:
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(ii) adiknya, Goh Kian Seng hendaklah membayar sewa kepada beliau;
(iii) adiknya, Goh Kian Seng hendaklah membayar gantirugi untuk kegunaan hartanahnya;
dan (iv)adiknya, Goh Kian Seng hendaklah membayar gantirugi teladan (exemplary).
Manakala adiknya pula, Goh Kian Seng menyatakan sebaliknya. Goh Kian Seng menyatakan
bahawa beliau mempunyai hak untuk menjalankan aktiviti perniagaan yang didaftarkan atas
nama GK Enterprise di atas hartanah tersebut memandangkan beliau merupakan pemilik
berdaftar setengah (1/2) bahagian yang tidak dipecahbahagikan. Goh Kian Seng menegaskan
bahawa surat perakuan bertarikh 20 Disember 2003 merupakan surat persetujuan/ perjanjian
antara beliau dengan abangnya Goh Giok Bee untuk membenarkan beliau menjalankan
perniagaan/ kediaman atas hartanah tersebut, dengan syarat beliau membayar cukai tanah yang
dikenakan setiap tahun. Goh Kian Seng telah membayar cukai tanah tersebut. Abang beliau
Goh Giok Bee sebenarnya bekerja dan bermastautin di Brunei. Beliau mempunyai kepentingan
dalam Syarikat Tai Wen Agriculture Co. yang ditubuhkan di Brunei. Goh Kian Seng
menafikan bahawa abangnya Goh Giok Bee telah mengalami kerugian. Goh Kian Seng juga
menafikan hak abangnya Goh Giok Bee untuk mendapatkan sewa mahupun apa-apa gantirugi
ke atas kegunaan hartanah tersebut. Seterusnya Goh Kian Seng mengatakan bahawa (i)
abangnya, Goh Giok Bee tiada locus standi dan tidak berhak untuk menuntut sebarang
keuntungan dalam bentuk apa jua daripada peniagaannya dari segi undang-undang: (ii)
abangnya, Goh Giok Bee tidak berhak untuk menuntut sewa ke atas seluruh hartanah tersebut
kerana beliau juga mempunyai hak milik setengah bahagian yang tidak dipecahbahagikan
disamping adanya persetujuan bertulis bertarikh 20 Disember 2003; (iii) abangnya, Goh Giok
Bee tidak berhak untuk menuntut gantirugi ke atas kegunaan hartanah tersebut kerana beliau
juga mempunyai hak milik setengah bahagian yang tidak dipecahbahagikan; dan (iv) abangnya,
Goh Giok Bee juga tidak berhak untuk menuntut gantirugi teladan (exemplary damage).
Mahkamah Tinggi Melaka melalui Pesuruhjaya Kehakiman YA Datuk Abdul Karim bin Abdul
Jalil pada 6 Julai 2014 telah menolak tuntutan tersebut. Ini bermakna Goh Giok Bee gagal
untuk mendapat perintah mahkamah supaya adik lelakinya Goh Kian Seng membayar sejumlah
wang tidak kurang daripada RM783,798.34 tidak temasuk faedah dan lain-lain gantirugi, yang
dikatakan terhutang berdasarkan penggunaan hartanah yang dimiliki bersama tanpa kebenaran
dan keizinan. Mahkamah Tinggi Melaka memutuskan bahawa Goh Giok Bee sebagai pemilik
bersama dengan adik lelakinya Goh Kian Seng tidak mempunyai hak untukmenuntut sebarang
sewa dan gantirugi atas hartanah yang dimilik secara bersama atas bahagian yang tidak
dipecahbahagikan. Ini kerana seksyen 343(1)(b) KTN 1965 membenarkan setiap tuan tanah
kepunyaan bersama untuk memiliki dan menikmati keseluruhan tanah itu selagi tanah itu
belum dipecahbahagikan.
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Kaedah Penyelesaian Isu Tanah Berkongsi Geran

Kaedah penyelesaian untuk isu ini ialah pihak kerajaan boleh memperkenalkan konsep syuf’ah
dalam Kanun Tanah Negara sebagai salah satu kaedah penyelesaian untuk jangka masa
panjang. Selain itu, kaedah pecah sempadan atau pecah bahagian boleh digunapakai untuk
menyelesaikan isu tanah berkongsi geran ini dan tentunya kaedah ini melibatkan kos dan
persetujuan semua tuan tanah yang terlibat. Surat perjanjian persefahaman di antara tuan tanah
dengan pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan atas tanah ini boleh dibuat yang antara lain intipati
perjanjian tersebut haruslah mengandungi;
(i) Menentukan pihak yang akan menyimpan geran.
(ii) Menentukan kuantum cukai yang perlu dijelaskan bagi setiap tuan punya tanah bersama
dan melantik salah seorang daripada mereka untuk memudah cara kutipan dan menjelaskan
cukai tersebut kepada Pejabat Tanah / Pejabat Pengarah Tanah dan Galian.
(iii)Menentukan plot atau petak masing-masing mengikut keluasan dalam hak milik. Katakan
sekeping tanah luasnya 4 hektar, dimiliki oleh tiga orang dengan syer 1/2 (2 hektar) oleh A,
¼ (satu hektar) oleh B dan ¼ (satu hektar) bahagian oleh C. Ditentukan plot dan petak,
batas dan sempadan dan dipersetujui oleh mereka bertiga seperti dalam pelan berkenaan.
Kesimpulan
Semua pihak haruslah berganding bahu dalam menangani isu yang timbul dalam proses
pengurusan pentadbiran tanah khususnya di Malaysia. Hal ini kerana pada setiap peringkat
melibatkan banyak pihak seperti pengguna, pemilik tanah, orang awam, pentadbir tanah,
pegawai-pegawai di Jabatan Hartanah, pegawai-pegawai Kementerian, pemaju perumahan,
syarikat swasta, Pihak Berkuasa Negeri, Pihak kerajaan persekutuan dan ramai lagi pihak-pihak
berkepentingan dalam harta tanah. Justeru itu, isu dan masalah dalam pentadbiran tanah akan
tetap ada dan perlu dihadapi untuk menyelesaikannya. Segala isu yang timbul akan
mematangkan lagi sesebuah organisasi dalam melaksanakan dasar dan polisi yang telah
dirangka oleh pihak pengurusan tertinggi. Hal ini bagi menjamin kecekapan dalam pengurusan
tanah dan bagi memastikan pengurusan tanah diurus mengikut undang-undang dan peraturan
yang telah ditetapkan.
Rujukan
Akta Orang Asli (1954). (Akta 134) Undang-Undang Malaysia.
Akta Pengambilan Balik Tanah (1960). (Akta 486) Kaedah-kaedah dan Perintah-perintah &
Ordinan Pengambilan Tanah (Pampasan) (Peruntukan Khas) 1948 (P.T.M. Ord. 21/1948).
Hingga 5th Mei 2016. International Law Book Services.
Che Zuina Ismail, Nor Hidayah Harun dan Hapiza Omar (2006). Isu Perundangan Wakaf:
Kajian Penambahbaikan dalam Pengurusan.
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Joshua Kevin Sathiaseelan (2006). Prinsip-prinsip Penting Perundangan Tanah Di Malaysia.

Lexis Nexis Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
Kanun Tanah Negara 1965 (Akta 56/1965) & Peraturan-Peraturan. International Law Book
Services. Pindaan 1st November 2017.
Land Acquisition Act (1960) (Act 486) Rules and Order. As at 1st November 2016.
International Law Book Services.
Noor 'Ashikin H., Noraida H., dan Nazli I.@N. (2011). Pengambilan Tanah Bagi
Pembangunan Ekonomi: Isu dan Penyelesaian. Jurnal Undang-Undang dan Masyarakat, 15. pp.
135-148. ISSN 1394-7729.
Perlembagaan Persekutuan (2017). International Law Book Services. Hingga 1 March 2017.
Salleh Buang (1993). Undang-undang Tanah di Malaysia. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala
Lumpur.
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KEBERKESANAN PENGGUNAAN BUKU KECIL FRASA

MENARIK DAN PENILAIAN FORMATIF DALAM
PENULISAN KARANGAN
(Effectiveness of Interesting Phrases Booklet and

Formative Assessment in Composition Writing)
Muhammad Luqman Bin Mohd Shapie1

1
Sekolah Rendah Gongshang, Singapura dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Singapura
[email protected]
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Penulisan karangan merupakan salah satu komponen penting dalam menilai
kemahiran menulis setiap murid. Berdasarkan kajian terhadap 40 orang murid Darjah 6, murid-
murid dalam tahap praaras kebolehan (L.P) khususnya, didapati mempunyai kesukaran dan
kekurangan idea untuk memulakan dan mengakhiri penulisan karangan mereka. Selain itu,
sebahagian besar murid-murid tersebut didapati masih kurang menggunakan frasa-frasa
menarik dengan berkesan. Oleh sebab itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti
keberkesanan penggunaan buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan
Karangan’ yang menerapkan strategi penulisan permulaan dan penutup karangan. Kajian ini
turut dijalankan bagi menganalisis keberkesanan penilaian formatif yang menggunakan strategi
‘Cari dan Betulkan’ dalam penulisan karangan murid. Dapatan kajian berdasarkan
perbandingan penulisan karangan bagi peperiksaan pertengahan tahun dan peringkat akhir
tahun memperlihatkan peningkatan dari segi mutu penulisan serta markah yang diperoleh
murid. Melalui penggunaan buku kecil serta strategi penilaian formatif, murid-murid
berpeluang untuk mengembangkan potensi mereka dalam penulisan karangan.
Kata kunci: buku kecil, frasa-frasa menarik, strategi, penilaian formatif

Abstract: Composition writing is one of the important components to evaluate student's
writing skills. Based on a research study carried out on 40 Primary 6 students, the low progress
(L.P) students in particular, had experienced difficulties and lack of ideas to begin and end their
composition writing. Furthermore, these students were observed to be less effective in using
interesting phrases in their composition writing. Therefore, this research study was conducted
to identify the effective use of booklets such as 'Interesting Phrases Booklet' and 'Guidelines on
General Writing booklet' that applies strategies to begin and end a composition writing. This
research study was also conducted to analyze the effectiveness of formative assessment in
student’s composition writing using the 'Find It and Fix It' strategy. Improvement in the quality
of writing and better results obtained by students at the end of the year were shown in the
findings of this research study. Using booklets and formative assessment strategies, students
are given the opportunity to further develop their composition writing skills.
Keywords: booklet, interesting phrases, strategies, formative assessment

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1. Pengenalan
Kemahiran menulis melibatkan keupayaan murid untuk membina ayat dan menjana idea
melalui pelbagai jenis penulisan. Hal ini termasuk aspek penulisan yang berkaitan dengan
pengalaman peribadi dan juga pengetahuan yang memerlukan murid menggunakan ayat yang
gramatis, tanda baca serta ejaan yang betul. Sehubungan itu, kreativiti murid untuk
menghasilkan penulisan yang imaginatif dan kreatif amat digalakkan dalam kelas bagi
memastikan keupayaan dan kemahiran menulis murid dapat terus dikembangkan.
Kemahiran menulis merupakan satu kemahiran produktif aras tinggi dalam kemahiran bahasa
selepas kemahiran mendengar, bertutur dan membaca. Dalam konteks pendidikan di Singapura
pula, kemahiran menulis turut menjadi sebahagian daripada enam kemahiran bahasa dalam
Model Kurikulum Bahasa Melayu, iaitu mendengar, bertutur, membaca, menulis, interaksi
lisan dan interaksi penulisan. Manakala salah satu objektif pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu di
peringkat sekolah rendah ialah murid dapat menulis pelbagai jenis teks berdasarkan pelbagai
tajuk yang sesuai berdasarkan tujuan, khalayak dan situasi (Sukatan Pelajaran Bahasa Melayu
Sekolah Rendah Singapura, 2015).
Dalam proses pembelajaran, termasuk pembelajaran kemahiran menulis, penilaian perlu

dijalankan bagi memantau dan mengenal pasti tahap pencapaian atau kemajuan murid serta
keberkesanan sesuatu strategi atau kaedah pengajaran. Berdasarkan sesuatu penilaian,
keperluan murid dalam pembelajaran akan dapat dikenal pasti sekali gus langkah-langkah atau
tindakan sewajarnya dapat dijalankan bagi memastikan keperluan murid tersebut dapat
dipenuhi dengan berkesan. Hal ini bersesuaian dengan saranan Dylan William (2009) yang
menggalakkan Teacher Learning Communities focusing on Formative Assessment (TLC-FA),
iaitu satu model pembangunan profesional yang bertujuan untuk membantu guru-guru
meningkatkan mutu pengajaran mereka.
Oleh yang demikian, setiap guru memainkan peranan yang besar dan penting dalam
memastikan proses pembelajaran murid sentiasa aktif, produktif dan berkesan. Pada masa yang
sama, guru turut berperanan dalam meningkatkan mutu pengajaran murid mereka, contohnya
dalam aspek penulisan (Lewis, 2002). Berikutan daripada itu, kajian yang menjurus ke arah
mengenal pasti keberkesanan buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan
Karangan’ serta strategi permulaan dan penutup dalam penulisan karangan ini diharap dapat
menambahkan lagi kajian dalam bidang pengajaran bahasa Melayu di Singapura. Selain itu,
dapatan analisis keberkesanan penilaian formatif yang menggunakan strategi ‘Cari dan
Betulkan’ turut diharapkan dapat menambahkan lagi kajian-kajian baharu yang berkaitan
dengan penilaian formatif dari aspek penulisan.
Penulisan karangan yang dihasilkan oleh murid-murid akan memperlihatkan kemahiran

menulis yang dimiliki oleh murid tersebut. Mutu penulisan murid akan terjejas sekiranya
mereka mempunyai kesukaran untuk memulakan dan mengakhiri karangan mereka.
Oleh yang demikian, murid-murid Darjah 6 khususnya murid dalam tahap praaras kebolehan,
didapati kekurangan idea untuk memulakan dan mengakhiri penulisan karangan sehingga
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menjejas mutu penulisan mereka. Sebahagian besar murid-murid Darjah 6 ini juga didapati
masih kurang menggunakan frasa-frasa menarik dalam penulisan karangan mereka.
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk:

a. meneliti keberkesanan buku kecil ‘Frasa-Frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan
Karangan’ dalam penulisan karangan;
b. menganalisis keberkesanan strategi penulisan permulaan dan penutup karangan dengan
menggunakan buku kecil ‘Frasa-Frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan Karangan’
berdasarkan penulisan karangan murid dalam kelas dan juga dalam peperiksaan; dan
c. menganalisis keberkesanan penilaian formatif yang menggunakan strategi ‘Cari dan
Betulkan’ dalam penulisan karangan murid.
2. Kajian Lepas
Penggunaan buku kecil dalam penulisan karangan dapat membantu murid dalam aspek
kemahiran berbahasa dalam kemahiran menulis. Buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan
‘Panduan Umum Penulisan Karangan’ merujuk pada bahan tambahan yang dapat membantu
dalam pengajaran penulisan seseorang murid. Buku kecil yang mudah dibawa ke mana-mana,
berbanding kertas nota biasa yang berbentuk A4, mampu memberikan panduan atau nota
tambahan kepada murid untuk menulis dengan lebih kreatif selain daripada memperbaik mutu
penulisan mereka. Hal ini bersesuaian dengan pandangan Howard Gardner (1999) yang
menyatakan bahawa setiap individu mempunyai kebolehan membangunkan kesemua
kecerdasannya dengan adanya galakan, pengayaan dan pengajaran yang sesuai.
Penilaian formatif dalam penulisan karangan pula merujuk pada usaha guru atau murid yang
memberikan penilaian atau maklum balas yang positif dan konstruktif kepada murid atau rakan
mereka bagi tujuan mempertingkat kemahiran dan pengetahuan mereka dalam aspek penulisan
(Black and Williams, 2009). Hal yang sama turut dipersetujui oleh Trammel, Schloss dan Alper
(1994) yang menyatakan bahawa pembelajaran yang berkesan ialah hasil daripada pelajar yang
memberikan maklum balas secara kendiri dan memantau hasil kerja mereka berdasarkan
kriteria dan rubrik yang ditetapkan.
Wilburn dan Felps (1983) dan Crooks (1998) pula menjelaskan bahawa rubrik yang dibina oleh
guru dapat mempersiapkan dan menyediakan murid dengan kriteria yang membantu mereka
untuk mencapai kejayaan sekali gus menjadikan hasil pembelajaran yang diingini lebih jelas
kepada murid dan turut mampu meningkatkan pemahaman murid. Penilaian seseorang murid
terhadap rakan sekelas mereka juga bukan sahaja dapat membantu kedua-dua murid
meningkatkan kemahiran penulisan mereka, malah memperlihatkan satu kolaborasi yang
berkesan antara murid untuk mencapai matlamat pembelajaran. Hal ini bersesuaian dengan
pandangan Barkley (2002) yang menjelaskan bahawa pembelajaran secara kolaborasi ialah
aktiviti yang melibatkan murid bekerjasama secara berpasangan atau berkumpulan bagi
menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah atau mencapai matlamat pembelajaran yang sama.
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Beberapa kaedah kajian telah dijalankan bagi memastikan kesahan, kerelevanan dan kelancaran
dalam kajian ini. Kaedah kajian yang pertama ialah pemerhatian guru terhadap kesukaran
murid dalam memulakan penulisan karangan dan kepayahan murid untuk menghasilkan
penulisan karangan yang baik dan bermutu. Hasil pemerhatian tersebut telah mencetuskan idea
untuk menghasilkan buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan juga buku kecil ‘Panduan Umum
Penulisan Karangan’.
Kajian ini juga menggunakan kaedah soal selidik menerusi beberapa borang tinjauan, iaitu
‘Prapenulisan Karangan’, ‘Penulisan, Penyuntingan dan Penilaian Karangan’ serta
‘Pascapenulisan Karangan’. Kaedah tinjauan ini bertujuan untuk mengumpulkan data penting
serta maklum balas murid bagi tujuan dapatan kajian serta perbincangan. Selain itu, kajian ini
turut menggunakan strategi pembelajaran koperatif, iaitu murid-murid akan mempelajari cara
meningkatkan mutu penulisan karangan mereka secara berpasangan atau berkumpulan dengan
menggunakan strategi penilaian formatif ‘Cari dan Betulkan’, iaitu murid-murid akan menilai,
menyunting dan membetulkan penulisan karangan mereka.
Subjek kajian terdiri daripada 40 orang murid Darjah 6. Jumlah ini melibatkan kesemua murid
yang akan menduduki Peperiksaan Tamat Sekolah Rendah ( PSLE). Murid-murid ini
merupakan mereka yang tergolong dalam kumpulan melebihi aras kebolehan, pada tahap aras
kebolehan dan di bawah aras kebolehan.
Pemilihan subjek dalam kajian ini dilakukan bukan sekadar bagi mempersiapkan murid-murid
untuk menduduki peperiksaan PSLE, malah untuk memastikan murid-murid mampu untuk
mengembangkan potensi mereka dalam penulisan karangan.
Murid-murid akan dinilai dari segi hasil penulisan karangan mereka berdasarkan latihan dalam
kelas dan juga hasil penulisan karangan mereka dalam peperiksaan pertengahan tahun serta
akhir tahun.
Borang tinjauan berkaitan penulisan karangan yang mengandungi tiga bahagian: Tinjauan
Prapenulisan Karangan, Tinjauan Penulisan, Penyuntingan dan Penilaian Karangan serta
Tinjauan Pascapenulisan Karangan turut diberikan kepada murid bagi meninjau keperluan dan
tahap pemahaman murid dalam proses penulisan karangan.
Selain itu, secara berpasangan, murid-murid juga ditugaskan untuk menilai hasil penulisan
karangan pasangan masing-masing melalui penilaian formatif dan strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’,
iaitu dengan menggunakan lembaran kerja ‘Penilaian Rakan’. Murid-murid turut diberikan
rubrik untuk menilai mutu penulisan karangan rakan mereka.
Kajian ini telah dijalankan bersama murid-murid di dalam kelas sejak bulan Januari hingga
akhir bulan Ogos 2016 semasa kelas Bahasa Melayu. Masa yang dikhaskan untuk menjalankan
kajian ini adalah sekurang-kurangnya satu jam pada setiap minggu.
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Pada penggal pertama, penghasilan dan penggunaan buku kecil ‘Frasa-Frasa Menarik’ dan
‘Panduan Umum Penulisan Karangan’ telah dijalankan bagi memudahkan proses pengajaran
karangan bersama murid. Murid-murid digalakkan untuk menambah jumlah frasa-frasa
menarik dalam buku kecil mereka. Pada penggal pertama dan kedua juga, murid-murid telah
didedahkan kepada teknik penulisan permulaan karangan, iaitu ‘Teknik Imbas Kembali’ dan
‘Teknik Penggunaan Dialog’. Selain itu, bagi menilai pemahaman dan keberkesanan buku kecil
tersebut, setiap murid turut diberikan peluang untuk menilai hasil kerja rakan mereka secara
formatif melalui strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’. Kerja secara berpasangan dan berkumpulan ini
telah memberikan peluang kepada murid-murid untuk berinteraksi selain daripada bekerjasama
dan belajar daripada kesilapan penulisan rakan mereka.
Pada akhir penggal kedua dan penggal ketiga pula, murid-murid telah didedahkan kepada
teknik penulisan penutup karangan, iaitu ‘Teknik Kembali ke Realiti’, ‘Teknik Kesan Peristiwa
Terhadap Watak’ dan juga ‘Teknik Pengajaran dan Harapan’. Penilaian secara formatif, iaitu
dengan menggunakan strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’ masih dijalankan dalam kelas bagi menilai
keberkesanan penilaian formatif dalam pendidikan.
Prosedur selanjutnya mengukur keberkesanan buku kecil ‘Frasa-Frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan
Umum Penulisan Karangan’ serta keberkesanan strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’ dalam penilaian
formatif menerusi hasil penulisan karangan murid dalam kelas dan juga berdasarkan mutu
penulisan karangan murid dalam peperiksaan pertengahan tahun dan juga pada peringkat akhir
tahun. Analisis dapatan merupakan langkah seterusnya yang dilakukan dalam kajian ini.
Berdasarkan pemantauan guru serta maklum balas yang diterima daripada murid menerusi
borang tinjauan berkenaan dengan penulisan karangan, sebahagian besar murid didapati
memerlukan bahan tambahan seperti frasa-frasa menarik atau bahasa berbunga dan juga
strategi-strategi penulisan permulaan dan penutup karangan bagi membantu mereka menulis
karangan dengan lebih yakin bagi menghasilkan karangan yang lebih bermutu. Rajah 1
menunjukkan dapatan tinjauan bahawa 100% murid (40 murid) memerlukan bahan dan
pengetahuan tambahan seperti frasa-frasa menarik dan panduan umum tentang cara
mengembangkan idea dalam penulisan karangan manakala 95% (38 murid) memerlukan
strategi penulisan permulaan dan penutup karangan.
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Saya memerlukan senarai frasa-frasa menarik

untuk membantu saya menulis dengan lebih…
Saya memerlukan panduan umum tentang

strategi permulaan karangan

strategi penutup karangan

cara mengembangkan idea dalam penulisan…
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Setuju Tidak Setuju
Rajah 1: Dapatan Tinjauan Prapenulisan Karangan
Penghasilan dan penggunaan buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan
Karangan’ dalam pembelajaran penulisan karangan telah memperlihatkan keberkesanannya
menerusi latihan penulisan karangan murid-murid didalam kelas. Rajah 2 jelas menunjukkan
dapatan tinjauan bahawa 100% murid (40 murid) berjaya menggunakan buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa
Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum Penulisan Karangan’ dengan berkesan dalam penulisan mereka.
97.5 % (39 murid) pula lebih yakin untuk memulakan karangan mereka dengan menggunakan
strategi permulaan karangan teknik ‘Imbas Kembali’ dan juga teknik ‘Dialog’. Namun, 95 %
(38 murid) didapati masih kurang mampu untuk menggunakan strategi penulisan penutup
karangan dengan berkesan.
Saya mampu menggunakan Senarai Frasa-

Frasa Menarik dengan berkesan dalam…
Saya mampu menggunakan panduan umum

tentang strategi permulaan karangan
Saya mampu menggunakan panduan umum

tentang strategi penutup karangan
Saya mampu menggunakan buku kecil

panduan umum tentang cara…
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Setuju Tidak Setuju
Rajah 2: Dapatan Tinjauan Penulisan Karangan
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Keberkesanan penggunaan frasa-frasa menarik atau bahasa berbunga dalam penulisan karangan
murid-murid juga bukan sahaja mampu memperlihatkan satu penulisan karangan yang lebih
kreatif dan menarik, malah menunjukkan kebijaksanaan murid untuk mengaitkan dan
menggambarkan sesuatu situasi atau keadaan melalui penggunaan frasa atau perkataan yang
lebih tepat. Selain itu, keyakinan murid-murid khususnya yang berada pada tahap praaras
kebolehan untuk memulakan dan menutup penulisan karangan mereka jelas dapat dilihat bukan
sahaja menerusi latihan karangan dalam kelas, malah berdasarkan penulisan karangan mereka
dalam peperiksaan pertengahan tahun dan juga pada peringkat Prelim.
Hal ini jelas dapat dilihat menerusi dapatan kajian dalam Rajah 3 yang menunjukkan kekerapan
penggunaan frasa-frasa menarik dan penggunaan strategi penulisan permulaan karangan
(Teknik Imbas Kembali dan Dialog) dan strategi penulisan penutup karangan (Teknik Kembali
ke Realiti) dalam penulisan karangan murid pada peringkat peperiksaan pertengahan tahun
(SA1) dan juga pada peringkat Prelim. Dapatan kajian ini mendapati bahawa terdapat
peningkatan dalam jumlah kekerapan penggunaan frasa-frasa menarik serta teknik permulaan
dan penutup karangan dalam peperiksaan karangan peringkat Prelim berbanding peperiksaan
karangan peringkat SA1. Sehubungan itu, dapatan kajian turut memperlihatkan peningkatan
dalam jumlah markah karangan Prelim yang diperoleh oleh murid-murid pada tahap praaras
kebolehan (L.P) berbanding jumlah markah karangan peringkat SA1.
Menggunakan sekurang-kurangnya lima (5) frasa-

frasa menarik dalam peperiksaan Kertas 1…
Menggunakan sekurang-kurangnya lima (5) frasa-
frasa menarik dalam peperiksaan Kertas 1…
Menggunakan Teknik Imbas Kembali/Dialog dalam
peperiksaan Kertas 1 karangan (SA1)
Menggunakan Teknik Imbas Kembali/Dialog dalam
peperiksaan Kertas 1 karangan (Prelim)
Menggunakan sekurang-kurangnya satu (1) teknik
penutup karangan dalam peperiksaan Kertas 1…
Menggunakan sekurang-kurangnya satu (1) teknik
penutup karangan dalam peperiksaan Kertas 1…
0 5 10 15 20
Jumlah Kekerapan Murid yang Menggunakan Jumlah Kekerapan Murid Tidak Menggunakan
Rajah 3: Kekerapan Penggunaan Frasa-frasa Menarik dan Teknik Permulaan dan Penutup
dalam Peperiksaan SA1 dan Prelim
Pelaksanaan penilaian formatif yang menggunakan strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’ turut
memperlihatkan keberkesanannya dalam proses menghasilkan penulisan karangan yang lebih
baik dan bermutu. Hal ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan Rajah 4 yang menunjukkan dapatan
tinjauan daripada murid-murid tahap praaras kebolehan tentang aspek penyuntingan dan
penilaian karangan rakan mereka. Kesemua 16 murid (100%) ini berpendapat bahawa menerusi
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strategi penilaian formatif ‘Cari dan Betulkan’, mereka bukan sahaja dapat menilai hasil
penulisan karangan rakan mereka, malah mereka yakin bahawa rakan mereka turut
mempelajari daripada kesilapan dan menimba pengetahuan serta kebaikan setelah menilai hasil
karangan mereka sendiri.
Penulisan karangan saya telah dinilai oleh rakan

saya dan saya yakin mereka telah mempelajari
kebaikan serta kesilapan penulisan saya
Saya telah mempelajari daripada kesilapan serta

kebaikan dalam penulisan karangan rakan saya
Saya mampu menilai penulisan karangan saya

dengan menggunakan rubrik dan menggunakan
strategi penilaian formatif 'Cari dan Betulkan'
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Setuju Tidak Setuju
Rajah 4: Dapatan Tinjauan Penyuntingan dan Penilaian Penulisan Karangan Rakan
Mutu dan tahap pencapaian murid yang dipantau dapat dilihat daripada hasil penulisan mereka
yang menggunakan frasa-frasa menarik yang mampu menyerlahkan mutu penulisan mereka.
Berikut merupakan contoh-contoh ayat yang dihasilkan responden:
Jadual 1: Contohan Frasa Menarik Hasil Murid dalam Peperiksaan SA1 & SA2
No Item
1 Memori silam yang berlaku setahun lalu itu telah muncul
dalam benak fikiranku.
2 Kenangan terindah itu masih lagi bermain dalam fikiranku.
3 Senyuman manis terukir di bibirnya.
4 Tersenyum kegembiraan sambil menampakkan barisan gigiku
yang putih bak mutiara itu.
5 Sinaran sang suria semakin terik seakan-akan menggigit kulit.
Secara kesimpulan, penggunaan buku-buku kecil ‘Frasa-frasa Menarik’ dan ‘Panduan Umum
Penulisan Karangan’ didapati berkesan dalam membantu murid-murid menghasilkan penulisan
karangan yang lebih bermutu. Hal ini sekali gus membuktikan bahawa bahan tambahan
pengajaran penulisan karangan dalam bentuk buku kecil mampu untuk dijadikan panduan
tambahan bagi murid-murid yang mempunyai kesukaran untuk menulis dengan lebih yakin dan
bermutu. Murid-murid juga didapati lebih kerap menggunakan frasa-frasa menarik dalam
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penulisan karangan mereka serta berhasil untuk memulakan dan menutup penulisan karangan
mereka dengan berkesan.
Dapatan kajian ini turut membuktikan bahawa proses menjalankan kaedah atau strategi yang
baharu seperti penilaian formatif yang menggunakan strategi ‘Cari dan Betulkan’ dalam
pengajaran penulisan memang mudah tetapi mencabar. Proses tersebut agak rumit dan
memakan masa, iaitu bergantung pada tahap kebolehan dan kemampuan murid untuk menilai
hasil karangan rakan mereka. Namun, hasilnya adalah amat menggalakkan apabila murid-
murid khususnya murid tahap praaras kebolehan bukan sahaja berjaya untuk mencari kesilapan
rakan mereka daripada aspek tatabahasa dan sintaksis, malah membetulkan kesalahan rakan
mereka tersebut.
Peningkatan yang amat menggalakkan dalam jumlah markah peperiksaan peringkat Prelim
berbanding peperiksaan pertengahan tahun (SA1) turut membuktikan bahawa murid-murid
juga didapati lebih yakin untuk menulis dengan lebih baik. Namun demikian, secara umumnya,
pengkaji mendapati bahawa tidak semua murid yang mahir menulis bahagian penutup
karangan. Pendedahan dan pengukuhan yang lebih lanjut dalam aspek ini boleh dipertingkatkan
bagi memastikan keberkesanan penulisan karangan yang lebih holistik dapat dicapai sebelum
murid-murid melangkah masuk ke peringkat sekolah menengah.
Rujukan
Awang Sariyan. (1991). Binaan Karangan Sebagai Wacana Yang Utuh, Kertas Kerja Taklimat
Sukatan Pelajaran Bahasa Melayu STPM, Hotel Merlin, Penang.
Bahagian Perancangan dan Pembangunan Kurikulum. (2015). Sukatan Pelajaran Bahasa
Melayu Sekolah Rendah. Kementerian Pendidikan. Singapura
Black, P., & William, D. (2009). Developing the Theory of Formative Assessment. Educational
Assessment, Evaluation, and Accountability, 21, 5-31.
Gardner, Howard. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century,
Basic Books.
Lewis, C. C. (2002). Lesson Study: A Handbook of Teacher-Led Instructional Change.:
Research for Better Schools, Inc. Philadelphia
Trammel D. L., Schloss, P. T., & Alper, S. (1994). Using self-recording, Evaluation, and
Graphing to Increase Completion of Homework Assignments. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 27(2), 75-81.
William, Dylan. (2009). Assessment for Learning: Why, What and How?. Institute of
Education. London
(2012). Stopping People Doing Good Things: The Essence of Effective Leadership at the PERI
HA Professional Learning Series, Singapore.
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PENCAPAIAN AKADEMIK MURID TERHADAP

PENGGUNAAN VLE FROG
Md Nazri bin Md Mukear1, Md Mukiar

Mohd Jasmy bin Abd Rahman1
1
Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
[email protected]
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Kajian ini dilakukan di sebuah sekolah rendah di daerah Johor Bahru kerana
kelemahan pencapaian akademik murid-murid Tahun Enam yang tidak mencapai sasaran Gred
Purata Pelajar (GPP) pada tahun 2017 di sekolah. Kaedah persampelan yang digunakan
membabitkan seramai 40 orang daripada sejumlah 153 murid Tahun Enam di Sekolah
Kebangsaan Taman Permas Jaya. Pemilihan sampel ini berlandaskan kepada maklum balas
borang kaji selidik awal yang berdasarkan pengetahuan sedia ada, keupayaan, kemampuan,
kemahiran dan skil maya murid serta kemudahan prasarana ICT mereka di rumah masing-
masing. Objektif utama kajian ini adalah untuk meningkatkan pencapaian akademik murid-
murid melalui penggunaan Frog VLE dengan mengukur hasil pencapaian akademik murid-
murid melalui penggunaan Frog VLE dengan mengukur hasil pencapaian murid-murid melalui
Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca. Objektif seterusnya adalah untuk mengenal pasti kaitan antara
peningkatan markah dengan kekerapan penggunaan Frog VLE. Objektif akhir pula adalah
untuk mengenal pasti kaitan antara peningkatan markah dengan jangkamasa penggunaan Frog
VLE. Pangkalan data Frog VLE di sekolah telah digunakan sebagai salah satu instrumen
kajian. Maklumat data ini akhirnya telah diserapkan ke dalam borang skor mentah murid
sebagai sumber rujukan utama analisa. Kajian kuantitatif diskriptif ini menggunapakai
keputusan analisa min, mod dan median. Sebagai asas dapatan, kaitan ini diukur menggunakan
kalkulator Spearman dan Pearson lalu disandarkan kepada Standard Cohen. Dapatan awal
menyaksikan bahawa terdapat peningkatan markah yang ketara dalam keputusan Ujian Pasca
jika direlatifkan dengan keputusan Ujian Pra. Ini menerangkan bahawa pencapaian akademik
murid boleh dipertingkatkan dengan menggunakan Frog VLE. Walau bagaimanapun, dapatan
analisa kedua dan ketiga tidak dapat menjelaskan kaitan yang ketara antara peningkatan
markah dengan kekerapan penggunaan mahupun dengan jangkamasa penggunaan. Dapatan
kajian hanya berjaya mentakrif objektif umum kajian.
Kata kunci: Pencapaian Akademik, Prasarana ICT, Pangkalan Data.
Abstract: The study was conducted in a primary school in Johor Bahru due to the weakness of
pupils academic achievemen test result which did not achieve the school targeted GPP (2017).
Convenience method was used which involved about 40 pupils from a total of 153 standard 6
pupils at the school. The selection sample was based on initial survey feed back form which
was attributed to pupils virtual knowledge, abilities, potential and skills as well as their ICT
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infrastructure facilities at homes. The general objective of the study was to improve pupils
academic achievement through the use of Frog VLE which was done by measuring the pupils
attainment through pre test and post test result. The second objective was to identify the
relationship between scores increment and frequency of usage. The final objective was to
identify the relationship between the scores increment and duration of usage. The school’s Frog
VLE database was used as study instrument. Finally, informative data had been tabulated into
the pupils raw scores forms a primary source for analysis. The descriptive quantitative study
used the analysis result of mean, mode and median. In order to amplify results, this relationship
was measured using Spearman and Pearson calculator then pegged to the Cohen’s Standard.
The first finding showed that there was a significant increase in scores in post test results
compared to pre test results. It means that the academic achievement of pupils can be enchange
by using Frog VLE. However, neither the second and the third finding of the analysis showed a
significant relationship between scores increment, frequency and duration of usage. The
findings only managed to achieve the general objective of the study.
Keywords: Academic Achievemen, ICT Infrastructure, Database.

___________________________________________________________________________
Pengenalan
Selari dengan perkembangan teknologi terkini yang begitu pesat, transformasi sistem
pendidikan negara amat perlu dijayakan bagi menghasilkan impak positif kepada pembelajaran
murid-murid. Penggunaan teknologi secara dinamik dalam dunia pendidikan telah memberi
kesan langsung kepada perkembangan kurikulum dan pedagogi pendidikan itu sendiri (Savin-
Baden et al., 2010; Simelane & Mji, 2014). Sebagai mengambil langkah proaktif, Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) telah merangka perubahan baru dalam sistem pendidikan selari
dengan perkembangan teknologi semasa.
Antara perubahan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah penarafan sekolah bestari kepada sekolah-
sekolah terpilih (Projek Sekolah Bestari), di bawah Pelan Pembestarian Sekolah, di mana
pelan strategik ini telah dimulakan pada tahun 1999. Infrastruktur asas teknologi maklumat dan
komunikasi (information and communications technology-ICT) telah disediakan kepada
sekolah-sekolah tersebut bagi menjayakan proses pengintegrasian teknologi dalam proses
pembelajaran. Kini, dalam fasa seterusnya usaha Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM),
melalui Projek 1BestariNet, hampir kesemua sekolah di Malaysia telah dibekalkan dengan
kemudahan ICT bagi merealisasikan konsep pembestarian pendidikan ini (Kementerian
Kewangan Malaysia, 2013).
Pernyataan Masalah
Kelemahahan pencapaian akademik bagi murid-murid tahun 5 (2017) dalam peperiksaan akhir
tahun menunjukkan penguasaan dalam mata pelajaran
teras mereka belum mencapai tahap yang memuaskan. Dengan mengambil contoh
keputusan pada tahun 2017, murid-murid Tahun 5 Pintar dan 5 Bijak di Sekolah Kebangsaan
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Taman Permas Jaya, purata pencapaian keseluruhan mata pelajaran teras bagi murid-
murid Tahun 5 (2017) ialah 2.50 dan 2.55. Keputusan ini jelas menunjukkan ianya tidak
mencapai sasaran sekolah iaitu pada skala 2.02.
Di peringkat sekolah rendah, murid-murid masih lagi serasi dengan menggunakan kaedah
pdpc berpusatkan guru, samada secara tradisional (kapur dan papan hitam) ataupun
konvensional (buku teks, white board dan marker ). Berkemungkinan juga kaedah ini
menyebabkan penguasaan mata pelajaran murid-murid menjadi agak statik. Kelemahan
pencapaian akademik murid ini dapat dilihat melalui keputusan semasa peperiksaan akhir
tahun dengan peperiksaan sebelumnya.
Kerangka Konseptual Kajian
Aplikasi Sokongan Peranan

Frog VLE Infrastrukur Komuniti
 Mudah  Jaringan  Murid

 Lengkap  Kualiti  Guru
 Senang  Peralatan  Ibu Bapa
 Teknikal
.
Tahap Pencapaian Akademik Murid
Rajah 1 - Kerangka Konseptual Kajian
Tujuan Kajian
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk meningkatkan pencapaian akademik murid-murid dalam
peperiksaan pertengahan tahun dan akhir tahun yang meliputi semua mata pelajaran teras
dengan menggunakan aplikasi Frog VLE.
Objektif Kajian
a) Mengenalpasti tahap pengetahuan sedia ada murid-murid terhadap pembelajaran maya
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dengan mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE dalam semua mata pelajaran teras yang dipelajari.
b) Mengkaji keberkesanan aktiviti mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE bagi meningkatkan prestasi
dan pencapaian akademik murid-murid dalam semua mata pelajaran teras yang dipelajari.
c) Mengkaji keberkesanan aktiviti mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE yang sangat kerap dan
sering boleh memberi impak positif dari segi peningkatan markah ujian dan peperiksaan.
Persoalan Kajian
a) Apakah tahap pengetahuan sedia ada murid-murid terhadap pembelajaran maya dengan
mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE dalam semua mata pelajaran teras yang dipelajari?
b) Adakah aktiviti mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE dapat meningkatkan prestasi dan pencapaian
akademik murid-murid dalam semua mata pelajaran teras yang dipelajari?
c) Adakah aktiviti mengakses aplikasi Frog VLE yang sangat kerap dan sering dapat memberi
impak positif dari segi peningkatan markah ujian dan peperiksaan?
Kepentingan Kajian
Kajian yang dijalankan ini banyak memberi manfaat bagi menghadapi masalah yang
membelenggu pencapaian akademik murid-murid dalam pembelajaran mereka. Kajian ini juga
dapat mengetahui sejauh mana perkembangan percapaian akademik di kalangan murid-murid
terhadap pembelajaran mereka pada peringkat sekolah rendah khususnya. Kajian ini juga
banyak memberi panduan dan bimbingan kepada pihak-pihak yang tertentu dan
berkepentingan dalam meneliti kelemahan serta cadangan memperbaikinya.
Memberikan panduan yang berguna kepada Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) dalam
menyusun semula kurikulum dan perancangan pendidikan agar dapat mewujudkan sekolah
yang cemerlang dan efesien dalam bidang akademik.
Memberi panduan kepada pihak sekolah untuk memperbaiki atau mengatur semula program
kurikulum di sekolah dan pemantapan murid bagi mengatasi permasalahan pencapaian
akademik dalam meningkatkan kecemerlangan pendidikan murid-murid secara total.
Membantu pentadbiran sekolah dengan memberi tumpuan khusus terhadap peningkatan

prestasi akademik di kalangan murid-murid supaya mereka dapat menerima satu keputusan
peperiksaan yang lebih baik dan bertambah baik dari semasa ke semasa khususnya dalam
mencapai Gred Purata Sekolah (GPS).
Batasan Kajian
Skop kajian adalah terbatas dan terhad kepada murid-murid tahun 6 yang berumur 12 tahun
dari Sekolah Kebangsaan Taman Permas Jaya, Johor Bahru. Seramai 40 orang murid telah
dipilih dari satu kelas 6 Pintar yang meliputi aspek jantina lelaki dan juga perempuan.
Kesemua murid ini telah menggunakan Frog VLE semenjak permulaan penggal sekolah tahun
2017 lagi. Tiada perbandingan diakseskan terhadap murid-murid dari sekolah lain yang
berhampiran lokasi. Oleh itu, ianya menjadikan teras kajian ini jenis sehala kerana
tiada perbandingan khusus yang dilakukan.
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Sampel kajian seramai 40 orang murid dari sebuah kelas sudah mencukupi kerana hanya ada
tiga buah kelas sahaja yang menduduki Tahun Enam di Sekolah Kebangsaan Taman Permas
Jaya. Jumlah persampelan ini adalah 26% daripada jumlah populasi murid Tahun Enam di
Sekolah Kebangsaan Taman Permas Jaya iaitu seramai 153 orang pada tahun 2018 ini.
Takrifan Operasi Kajian

Konsep kajian ini adalah sangat selari dengan skop dan batasan kajian utama yang
memfokuskan kepada “pencapaian akademik” murid-murid Tahun Enam. Takrifan tajuk kajian
ini dapat dirumuskan kepada 4 kata kunci utama yang berikut;
a) Pencapaian Peperiksaan
b) Murid Tahun Enam
c) Mata Pelajaran Teras
d) Penggunaan Frog VLE
Kajian Literatur 1
Secara dasarnya pengkaji telah memilih 3 artikel kajian dari tahun 2010 sehingga 2015 yang
meliputi terbitan jurnal, artikel persidangan dan penulisan tesis sebagai bahan sorotan lampau.
Sumber daripada pengkaji domestik dan penulis tempatan telah dititikberatkan dalam
pemilihan sorotan lepas ini. Barker, Jenny and Gossman, Peter. 2013. The learning impact of a
virtuallearning environment: students’ views. Tean Journal, Vol 5.(2), pp.19-38.
Kajian ini dilaksanakan secara bersama oleh 2 orang pengkaji dari Universiti Cumbria di
London. Kajian menyelidik akan kesan penggunaan persekitaran pembelajaran maya (VLE)
yang dipanggil Moodle dalam kolej berkenaan. Moodle mula diperkenalkan pada 2001 dan
berkembang di 212 buah negara pada tahun 2011.
Moodle merupakan salah satu perisian yang banyak digunakan oleh institusi-institusi
pendidikan untuk membuat Learning Management System (LMS). Moodle ini merupakan
perisian yang digunapakai secara berstruktur dalam menjana aktiviti pembelajaran yang
memerlukan pendekatan jalur lebar, Internet dan laman web. Moodle merupakan singkatan
dari Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment yang ditakrifkan sebagi tempat
belajar dinamik yang menggunakan model pembelajaran yang berorientasi pada objek murid-
murid.
Kajian Literatur 2
Soon Seng Thah. 2014. Leveraging virtual learning environment to scale upquality teaching
and learning in Malaysia : Asia-Pacific Collaborative Education Journal, Vol.10, No. 1, pp. 1-
17.
Kajian ini telah dilakukan oleh seorang pengkaji lulusan Ijazah Kedoktoran daripada unit
pembelajaran teknologi di Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM). Kajian ini merangka
dan menggunakan asas untuk melestarikan Frog VLE ke dalam pengajaran dan
pemudahcara dengan menggunakan pengkalan data utama 1BestariNet. Permasalahan kajian
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menjelaskan akan keperluan sebuah program pemantauan, pentaksiran dan penilaian semula
aplikasi Frog VLE untuk meningkatkan perlaksanaannya dalam kalangan murid-murid dan
guru-guru. Objektif utama kajian adalah untuk menemukan faktor penyumbang akan kejayaan
dan kecemerlangan Frog VLE.
Sampel kajian ini terdiri daripada 426 guru dan membabitkan 223 pelajar dari sekolah rendah
dan menengah di seluruh Malaysia. Pekali Cronbach Alpha menunjukkan angka > 0.90 dalam
konstruk data soalan penyelidikan. Dapatan kajian ini menggunakan Levene Test yang
mendapati akan kelainan dan perbezaan yang signifikan di antara murid sekolah rendah dan
murid menengah (p < 0.05) dalam penggunaan Frog VLE dari segi kebolehmudahgunaan
(easeof use) hingga kepada penggunaan Frog VLE sebagai alat kolaborasi untuk berinteraksi
dan berkomunikasi di dalam kelas dan di luar bilik darjah.
Metodologi
Metodologi dan reka bentuk kajian ini merupakan jenis kuantitatif secara tinjauan yang
menggunakan satu set borang soal selidik. Satu set soal selidik ini digunapakai untuk tujuan
pengumpulan data. Menurut Elangkumaran (2009), set soal selidik mempunyai ciri-ciri
saintifik, khusus dan dapat merangkumi jumlah populasi yang luas melalui sampel-sampel
yang kecil, wajar dan logik. Data primer digunakan untuk mengkaji tahap pengetahuan, sikap
dan kesediaan murid-murid terhadap penggunaan persekitaran pembelajaran maya Frog VLE
dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran (PdP) adalah menerusi borang soal selidik. Manakala
sumber-sumber daripada buku-buku rujukan dan bacaan akademik adalah sumber daripada
capaian akses dan jaringan Internet digunakan untuk memperoleh data sekunder ini.
Kajian berkaitan platform Frog VLE ini dijanakan adalah untuk melihat sejauh mana
pengetahuan dan pemahaman murid-murid terhadap penggunaan aplikasi VLE Frog sebagai
satu bentuk persekitaran pembelajaran maya dalam pembelajaran semua mata pelajaran teras
seperti Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Inggeris, Matematik dan Sains. Selain daripada itu, kajian ini
turut mengupas secara details akan sikap dan kesediaan murid-murid terhadap sistem yang
diperkenalkan oleh pihak Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) ini. Hasil daripada
dapatan kajian ini adalah sangat penting untuk menentukan dan melihat sejauh manakah
aplikasi Frog VLE ini telah mencapai matlamat dan objektif secara keseluruhannya.
Dapatan Kajian
ANALISA MARKAH PRESTASI AKADEMIK BAGI MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA
MELAYU
A. Pre Test : Sebelum Mengakses Frog VLE
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JADUAL 1.1 Taburan Markah Ujian Pra Bahasa Melayu
Markah 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Kekerapan 1 1 4 6 8 3 5 8 2 2
JADUAL 1.2 Pemerhatian Ujian Pra Bahasa Melayu
Julat Skor 78 - 96
Markah Minimum 78
Markah Maksimum 96
Bilangan Markah Maksimum 2
Nilai Mod 86 dan 92
Nilai Min 88
Nilai Median 87
Analisa 1 : Ujian Pra

9 8 8
8
7 6
6 5
Kekerapan
5 4
4 3
3 2 2
2 1 1
1
0
78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Markah 1 1 4 6 8 3 5 8 2 2
Graf 1 - Taburan Kekerapan Markah Ujian Pra Bahasa Melayu
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B. Post Test : Setelah Mengakses Frog VLE
JADUAL 2.1 Taburan Markah Ujian Pasca Bahasa Melayu
Markah 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100
Kekerapan 1 2 1 2 3 3 6 9 5 8
JADUAL 2.2 Pemerhatian Ujian Pasca Bahasa Melayu

Julat Skor 82 - 100
Markah Minimum 82
Markah Maksimum 100
Bilangan Markah Maksimum 8
Nilai Mod 96
Nilai Min 91
Nilai Median 94
Analisa 1 : Ujian Pasca

10 9
9 8
8
7 6
Kekerapan
6 5
5
4 3 3
3 2 2
2 1 1
1
0
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100
Markah 1 2 1 2 3 3 6 9 5 8
Graf 2 - Taburan Kekerapan Markah Ujian Pasca Bahasa Melayu
Perbincangan
Persekitaran Pembelajaran Maya (Virtual Learning Environment - VLE) adalah merupakan
satu platform berasaskan web yang direka khas untuk menyokong guru-guru dalam
mengurus proses pembelajaran secara maya (dalam talian). Frog VLE adalah terdiri
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daripada "peralatan komunikasi" seperti e-mel, ruang forum, sudut perbincangan, dan alat
untuk menyusun pentadbiran proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Selain itu, ia juga
boleh digunakan sebagai alat penilaian murid-murid sama ada dalam bentuk ujian dan kuiz
secara dalam talian, serta sebagai medium penyebaran maklumat kepada pelajar (Termit &
Noorma, 2015; The JISC infoNet Service, 2006.
Persekitaran Pembelajaran Maya (VLE) juga adakalanya dirujuk sebagai Sistem

Pengurusan Pembelajaran (Learning Management System-LMS), e-learning, Massive Open
Online Course (MOOC) atau Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment
(MOODLE). Oleh itu penggunaan VLE telah meluas melalui proses pembelajaran di pusat-
pusat pengajian tinggi, namun begitu persekitaran pembelajaran maya Frog VLE adalah
platform yang masih baharu dan penerimaan serta pelaksanaannya di sekolah-sekolah
Malaysia masih menjadi persoalan utama kepada kejayaan perlaksanaan Projek 1BestariNet;
Laporan Ketua Audit Negera Siri 3 (Kementerian Kewangan Malaysia, 2013).
Berlandaskan pada projek kajian yang telah dilaksanakan didapati berlaku peningkatan dari
segi markah pencapaian akademik murid-murid Tahun Enam Pintar dalam semua mata
pelajaran teras seperti Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Inggeris, Matematik dan Sains setelah
menggunakan aplikasi Frog VLE.
Implikasi daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pelaksanaan Frog VLE perlu ditambahbaik
dan dipertingkatkan dari segi pengurusan dan perjalanan aplikasi itu sendiri. Pemantauan yang
berterusan dan konsisten daripada pihak pentadbir adalah sangat wajar. Pelan pelaksanaan yang
sistematik dan jelas perlu disediakan dan diberikan kepada semua warga sekolah. Tanpa
sokongan daripada pentadbir, berkemungkinan besar sesuatu program atau projek itu tidak
akan berjaya dilaksanakan dengan efisyen. Tambahan pula, projek maya seperti Frog VLE ini
yang memerlukan persiapan dan kesiapsiagaan dari segi infrastruktur yang lengkap untuk
mengendalikan dan menguruskannya.
Frog VLE adalah satu sistem maya yang bersifat ringkas, mudah diakses dan diaplikasi serta
direka khas untuk mengangkat sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran ke satu tahap baru
sepenuhnya bertepatan dengan Pendidikan Abad ke-21. Para guru boleh menyedia dan
memberi tugasan serta mengetahui tentang kerja dan markah murid-murid, menghasilkan
sumber pengajaran dan dapat berinteraksi dengan rakan-rakan pendidik yang lain dari sekolah
yang berbeza. Guru-guru boleh merancang masa dengan lebih baik bersandarkan pada kalendar
atau takwim tahunan bagi mengupayakan guru-guru melihat, membuat, menyertai atau
memasukkan acara-acara teknologi. Guru-guru juga perlu bersifat positif dan proaktif,
membina perancangan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang lebih awal dan tersusun serta
bersedia mengikuti kursus atau bengkel yang dianjurkan oleh pihak PPD, JPN atau KPM yang
berkaitan dengan penggunaan aplikasi Frog VLE ini.
Selain daripada guru, kajian tentang pelaksanaan Frog VLE ini juga akan memberi kesan
kepada murid-murid. Pada tahun 2015, kumpulan sasaran bagi pelaksanaan Frog VLE adalah
murid-murid. Melalui Frog VLE, murid-murid boleh merujuk pada paparan maya pada bila-
bila masa dan di mana-mana sahaja berbanding dengan kaedah tradisional dan konvensional di
mana guru-guru dan murid-murid terikat pada had waktu dalam jadual pembelajaran harian.
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Perkongsian ilmu dalam bentuk komunikasi dua hala dengan rakan yang lain juga dapat
mengasah minat serta meningkatkan keyakinan murid-murid terhadap pembelajaran berasaskan
platform maya iaitu Frof VLE. Setiap murid perlu mempunyai akses kepada pendidikan
berkualiti dan integrasi dunia teknologi masa kini (KPM, 2012).
Ibu bapa boleh mengetahui tentang acara-acara atau program-program sepanjang tahun yang
akan dijalankan di sekolah. Selain itu, kalangan ibu bapa boleh memperolehi laporan Persatuan
Ibu Bapa dan Guru (PIBG) dan sarana Penglibatan Ibu Bapa dan Komuniti (PIBK) serta notis
sekolah menerusi takwim tahunan atau kalendar dan papan notis sekolah. Para ibu bapa juga
boleh mencari semua info atau maklumat perhubungan yang diperlukan di halaman Hubungi
Sekolah. Adakalanya, mereka berupaya untuk memuat turun borang keizinan dan dokumen-
dokumen penting yang lain mengikut keperluan masing-masing.
Cabaran dari segi kemudahan infrastruktur yang tidak mencukupi ini turut disokong oleh
Bayrei (2008) dan Dnyaneshwar (2011). Menurut mereka, proses pengintegrasian teknologi
maklumat dalam PdP memerlukan prasarana yang mencukupi seperti kemudahan makmal
komputer, peralatan berkaitan dengan penggunaan teknologi maklumat, serta penyediaan dan
penyelenggaraan komputer yang mencukupi dan lancar. Dari dapatan temu bual, responden
berpendapat sistem penyelenggaraan bahan teknologi maklumat di sekolah yang tidak cekap
menjadi salah satu punca permasalahan pengintegrasian ini tidak dapat dilaksanakan dengan
baik. Bantuan teknikal untuk mengekal, mengurus tadbir dan menggunakan sumber teknologi
sangat penting dalam memaksimumkan penggunaan teknologi dalam pembelajaran.
Rumusan
Dalam transformasi sistem pendidikan negara yang menuju ke arah pendidikan yang
berteknologi dan berdaya saing, pihak sekolah seharusnya merancang dan menstruktur untuk
menyediakan dan meningkatkan kelengkapan ICT dan prasarana teknologi komputer yang
lebih baik serta berkualiti dalam usaha membantu guru-guru sekolah sama ada di bandar
mahupun di luar bandar. Kegigihan dan komitmen dalam melaksanakan Frog VLE Frog
dengan lebih efektif dan berkesan perlu dipuji. Bagi memastikan keperluan kelengkapan ini,
dana dan peruntukan yang secukupnya perlu dikhaskan daripada pihak Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM).
Semua pihak yang berkepentingan seharusnya perlu menyahut cabaran perubahan dalam dunia
pendidikan yang semakin mencabar pada masa kini supaya berupaya melahirkan guru-guru
yang lebih berdaya saing dan sentiasa melaksanakan perubahan dalam teknik pengajaran
mereka selaras dengan penggunaan Frog VLE ini. Semua pihak wajar memainkan tugas dan
peranan masing-masing dalam menjayakan penggunaan Frog VLE ini di setiap sekolah.
Masalah yang dihadapi seharusnya diselesaikan dengan cara yang terbaik dan berhemah untuk
menanganinya. Hasil daripada penggunaan Frog VLE melalui pendekatan pengajaran dan
pemudahcara yang berasakan ICT secara tidak langsung dapat melahirkan murid dan pelajar
yang lebih kreatif, kritis dan berinovasi bagi menuju kepada matlamat dan sasaran negara untuk
menuju ke arah negara maju.
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Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pelaksanaan Frog VLE masih perlu diperbaiki dan
dipertingkatkan. Cadangan seperti adanya pemantauan berterusan daripada pihak pentadbir dan
pelan pelaksanaan Frog VLE yang jelas perlu diberikan kepada semua warga sekolah, termasuk
ibu bapa. Pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam pembangunan kurikulum pendidikan juga perlu
mengurangkan silibus pembelajaran agar guru dapat melaksanakan Frog VLE di dalam bilik
darjah secara optimum dan efisyen.
Rujukan
Abdul Rasid Jamian, Norhashimah Hashim, dan Shamsudin Othman. 2012. Multimedia
Interaktif Mempertingkatkan Pembelajaran Kemahiran Membaca Murid-Murid.
Abdul Razak Habib & Jamaluddin Badusah (1998). Penggunaan komputer untuk pengajaran
dan pembelajaran di sekolah menengah. Dicapai pada 10 November, 2015.
Aman Shah (2013). Persepsi guru terhadap pengintegrasian frog vle dalam proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran. SK Bandar Utama Damansara (4), Petaling Jaya, Selangor.
Balakrishnan, M. (2002). Penggunaan komputer oleh guru pelatih: Dahulu, sekarang dan
harapan masa depan. Seminar teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi dalam pendidikan,
MPBL.
Elangkumaran Davarajoo. 2009. Hubungan antara kepimpinan pengajaran guru besar dengan
komitmen kerja dan kepuasan kerja guru sekolah rendah di zon Tanjung Karang.
Kertas Projek Sarjana Pendidikan. Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.
Hasliza Hashim, Siti Munira Mohd Nasri dan Zarina Mustafa. 2016. Cabaran yang
Dihadapi Oleh Guru Dalam Pelaksanaan Persekitaran Pembelajaran Maya Frog VLE di
Bilik Darjah.
Husin, M.S. 2000. Kajian terhadap kepentingan penggunaan alat bantu mengajar di sekolah
menengah teknik. Latihan Ilmiah Sarjana Muda. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Ida Norini (2013). Kajian tinjauan mengenai keberkesanan penggunaan konsep persekitaran
pengajaran maya frog(frog vle) di kalangan murid SK Haji Mahmud Chemor, Perak.
Dicapai pada 30 November, 2015.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2011). Pelan strategik interim Kementerian Pelajaran
Malaysia 2011-2020. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Berhad.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2013). Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-
2025. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Berhad.
KPM. 2015. Portal Rasmi Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia : Pemberitahuan : Majlis
Pelancaran Program GM1M Dalam Virtual Learning Environment Frog VLE Sebagai
Platform Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran.
Mahizer Hamzah dan Mohd Azli Yeop. 2016. Frog VLE, Persekitaran Pembelajaran Maya
Dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran : Penerimaan dan Kaedah Pelaksanaannya.
Mahmud, R., Ismail, M.A & Ibrahim, J. 2011. Tahap Kemahiran dan Pengintegrasian ICT di
Kalangan Guru Sekolah Bestari. Jurnal Teknologi Pendidikan Malaysia.
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Mohamed Noor, H. (2001). Cabaran pembelajaran melalui IT: e-learning dalam Ahmad
Zaharudin Idrus. Kecemerlangan Menerusi Kreativiti: Transformasi dan Cabaran UTM,
Skudai, Johor. Penerbitan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor.
Mohammad Yazdi. 2012. E-Learning Sebagai Media Pembelajaran Interaktif Berasaskan
Teknologi Informasi.
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PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN IMBUHAN MELALUI

PENDEKATAN PEMBELAJARAN AKTIF
(Teaching & Learning of Affixes through Active Learning)
Maisarah Binte Haron1, Nurul Ariqafitri Binte Jumari2

1
Sekolah Menengah Bartley dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Singapura
2
Sekolah Menengah Bartley dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Singapura
Pengarang Koresponden: [email protected]

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Abstrak: Berdasarkan ujian diagnostik pelajar Menengah 3 Ekspres yang dijalankan,
penggunaan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…-an merupakan kelemahan ketara pelajar dalam
penggunaan imbuhan. Hanya 38% pelajar yang berjaya menjawab soalan awalan ber- dan
apitan ber-…-an. Oleh sebab itu, kertas kajian ini akan berkongsi tentang Pendekatan
Pembelajaran Aktif untuk membantu pelajar mengatasi kelemahan dalam penggunaan awalan
ber- dan apitan ber-…-an melalui aplikasi Nearpod dan Google Docs. Melalui Pendekatan
Pembelajaran Aktif ini, pelajar didapati terlibat aktif dalam membina dan menambah
pengetahuan mereka berkaitan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…-an. Guru mendapati pelajar
berupaya untuk menjelaskan makna imbuhan dalam konteks ayat yang diberikan. Tinjauan
yang dijalankan pada akhir kelas mengesahkan hal ini. Kesemua pelajar menyatakan bahawa
mereka kini yakin dengan penggunaan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…-an.
Kata kunci: Proses Pembelajaran Aktif, imbuhan, Nearpod, Google Docs
Abstract: Based on a diagnostic test undertaken by Secondary 3 Express students, the use of
ber- and ber-…an is a weakness among students when faced with the use of suffixes. Only 38%
of students are able to answer questions based on the two suffixes. For such a reason, this
research will share the applied use of Acting Learning as an approach to help students
overcome their weaknesses through Nearpod and Google Docs. Through the use of Active
Learning, students are actively involved in building and enhancing their understanding of the
ber- and ber-…-an. The findings of this study indicate that students are able to articulate the
meaning of these suffixes according to the context of a given sentence. A survey done at the
end of the class further confirms the above. All the students indicate their confidence in the use
of ber- and ber-…-an.
Keywords: Active Learning, suffix, Nearpod, Google Docs

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1. Pengenalan
Kebanyakan pelajar Bahasa Melayu telah menggunakan imbuhan dalam konteks perbualan
mereka di rumah. Namun begitu, lazimnya, pelajar menggunakan imbuhan tanpa menyedari
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akan fungsinya yang sebenar. Oleh yang demikian, guru perlu mengajar pelajar tentang
pengetahuan imbuhan secara eksplisit dan menitikberatkan hal ini dalam proses pembelajaran
pelajar. Hal ini dilakukan agar pelajar dapat memahami fungsi imbuhan mengaplikasikannya di
dalam pertuturan dan juga penulisan secara berkesan. Menurut Abdullah Hassan (2004),
pengimbuhan merupakan proses menggandingkan imbuhan pada kata dasar untuk membentuk
kata terbitan. Terdapat empat jenis imbuhan iaitu awalan, akhiran, apitan dan sisipan yang
digunakan untuk membentuk kata nama, kata kerja, kata adjektif dan kata tugas.
Penggunaan Teknologi Komunikasi dan Maklumat (ICT) kini begitu pesat dalam kalangan
pelajar masa. Oleh sebab itu pengajaran imbuhan yang berintegrasikan ICT mampu memancing
minat pelajar untuk mempelajari fungsi imbuhan secara mendalam. Justeru, penggunaan ICT
dapat mendorong pelajar untuk belajar secara aktif dan membolehkan mereka berkolaborasi
dengan rakan mereka.
Penerangan Ulasan Kajian Lepas

Sejauh ini, tidak ada definisi yang bersifat universal mengenai pembelajaran aktif. Menurut
Michael Prince (2004), Pembelajaran Aktif atau Active learning umumnya didefinisikan
sebagai kaedah pengajaran yang melibatkan pelajar secara aktif dalam proses pembelajaran.
Pembelajaran aktif memerlukan pelajar melakukan aktiviti yang bermakna dan mencapai
matlamat pembelajaran mereka.
Bonwell dan Eison (1991) mendapati bahawa pembelajaran aktif membantu dalam
pembentukan sahsiah dan sikap yang positif dalam kalangan pelajar. Pembelajaran aktif juga
meningkatkan kemahiran berfikir dan menulis pelajar. Felder (2000) pula menyarankan
pembelajaran aktif sebagai satu kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan dan boleh
dilaksanakan.
Oleh yang demikian, Pengajaran Aktif boleh dianggap sebagai pendekatan pedagogi yang
membolehkan pelajar mendalami bahan yang dipelajari melalui bacaan, penulisan, pertuturan,
pendengaran dan juga dengan melakukan renungan. Selaras dengan tujuan ICT MP4, Quality
Learning in the Hands of Every Learner – Empowered with technology, pembelajaran aktif
sememangnya pendekatan yang sesuai demi mencapai tujuan tersebut.
Apakah pula manfaat pembelajaran aktif ini? Pertama, pembelajaran aktif berpusatkan pelajar
dan setiap pelajar terlibat dalam proses pembelajaran. Penggunaan teknologi membolehkan hal
ini berlaku. Contohnya, penggunaan perisian Nearpod dan Google Docs yang telah digunakan
untuk mencapai matlamat pembelajaran di dalam kelas.
Kedua, pembelajaran aktif memastikan guru merancang pelajaran dengan teliti. Pembelajaran
aktif bermula dengan guru menggunakan teknik yang mengaktifkan pembelajaran. Kemudian,
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guru memikirkan bagaimana pelajaran pada hari tersebut dapat menggalakkan pelajar berfikir
dan juga berbincang tentang pengajaran yang ingin disampaikan. Guru boleh menggunakan
kaedah penyoalan, sumbang saran dan sebagainya supaya proses pembelajaran menjadi suatu
pengalaman yang melibatkan pelajar secara keseluruhan. Pelajar diberikan tanggungjawab
dalam proses pembelajaran tersebut. Pada akhir perbincangan, pelajar diberikan tugasan yang
dapat menunjukkan pembelajaran yang berlaku. Proses ini juga bertindak sebagai penilaian
memantau sejauh mana pelajar telah memahami pelajaran dan kemudian, guru perlu
memberikan maklum balas untuk melengkapkan proses pembelajaran tersebut. Menurut John
Hattie (2012), pembelajaran pelajar perlu didemonstrasikan supaya guru dapat memantau
pembelajaran mereka dan sekaligus mengukur sejauh mana impak terhadap pengajaran mereka.
Dengan melakukan hal ini, pastinya prestasi pelajar akan meningkat. Jelaslah di sini manfaat
pembelajaran aktif yang memastikan pelajar dan proses pembelajaran menjadi fokus dalam
kelas.
Ketiga, pembelajaran aktif yang berteraskan teknologi memastikan setiap pelajar diberikan
peluang ‘bersuara’ di dalam kelas. Dalam kelas yang yang berteraskan penggunaan bahan
elektronik, setiap pelajar dipertanggungjawabkan untuk memberikan sumbangan. Lantas, tiada
seorang pelajar pun yang ketinggalan. Pelibatan semua pelajar menjadi suatu kemestian.
Nearpod dan Google Docs merupakan antara aplikasi yang dapat merealisasikan matlamat ICT
MP4. Teknologi ini mampu mengumpul jawapan dan dapatan pelajar dalam masa yang singkat
dan teratur. Mudah bagi guru memantau pembelajaran yang tertera di skrin. Guru boleh
memberikan maklum balas secara langsung di dalam kelas.
Menurut kertas kerja PNAS (2013), pembelajaran aktif telah meningkatkan prestasi pelajar
dalam peperiksaan. Kadar kegagalan dalam kalangan pelajar yang melalui proses pembelajaran
secara tradisional pula telah meningkat sebanyak 55% berbanding dengan para pelajar yang
melalui proses pembelajaran aktif. Analisis yang dibuat telah menyokong teori yang
menggalakkan penambahan proses pembelajaran aktif bagi para mahasiswa sarjana STEM.
Kertas kerja ini merangkumi lebih daripada 200 kajian berkenaan dengan pembelajaran aktif.
Ternyata, keberkesanan pembelajaran aktif tidak dapat dinafikan lagi.
Menurut Pisapa (1994), integrasi ICT dalam proses pengajaran merujuk kepada penggunaan
teknologi dalam pembelajaran untuk menggalakkan, mengukuhkan dan meningkatkan
kemahiran. Oleh yang demikian, penggunaan ICT bersertakan pedagogi yang berkesan
memainkan peranan untuk membantu pelajar menjadi lebih kritis dalam membina pengetahuan
mereka berdasarkan pengetahuan sedia ada. Tambahan pula, pendekatan pembelajaran aktif
membantu membina daya pemikiran yang kritis dalam kalangan pelajar. Berlandaskan teori
konstruktivisme sosial yang diperkenalkan oleh Vygotsky, Dewey dan Bruner (1958)
kebolehan pelajar menggarap konsep dan belajar secara berkesan berlaku apabila pelajar
membina sendiri pengetahuan atau konsep secara aktif berdasarkan pengetahuan dan
pengalaman sedia ada.
Berhubung dengan hal ini, Sanisah Rahim dan Nuraishah Mahmood (2017) telah menjalankan
kajian pengajaran imbuhan melalui penggunaan aplikasi Nearpod. Kaedah yang diterapkan
ialah pengajaran ekplisit untuk menilai keberkesanan Nearpod dalam meningkatkan tahap
pemahaman dan penguasaan murid terhadap pelajaran imbuhan. Dalam kajian ini, Nearpod
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juga bertindak sebagai alat penilaian formatif. Asiyah Sheik Mohamed Ismail dan Khaziah
Yem (2017) juga telah menggunakan perisian Nearpod untuk merealisasikan penilaian
formatif. Antara objektif yang ingin dicapai ialah pelajar perlu tahu akan fungsi-fungsi
imbuhan dan menggunakannya. Hasilnya, pelajar yakin menggunakan imbuhan awalan ber-
dan dapat mengenal pasti fungsinya.
Kaedah Kajian
Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kajian pengajaran atau lesson study. Sekumpulan guru bahasa
Melayu yang terdiri daripada 5 guru telah dibentuk untuk meneliti aspek pengajaran yang
berkesan di bilik darjah. Kumpulan guru ini telah menetapkan aspek pengajaran imbuhan
merupakan perkara yang perlu diberikan perhatian bagi meningkatkan aspek pembelajaran
pelajar.
Subjek
Pelajar yang terlibat dalam kajian terdiri daripada 15 (jumlah pelajar) pelajar Menengah 3
aliran Ekspres. Profil pelajar-pelajar ini agak rencam. Terdapat segelintir yang mahir dalam
penggunaan bahasa dan ada juga yang kurang fasih berbahasa. Perkara yang menjadi
persamaan antara para pelajar ini adalah sikap mereka terhadap imbuhan. Mereka
menggunakan imbuhan dalam pertuturan tanpa pemahaman yang mendalam tentang fungsinya.
Instrumen Kajian
Langkah pertama yang diambil adalah mengadakan ujian diagnostik sebelum memulakan
kajian. Ujian ini diadakan untuk mengenal pasti imbuhan mana yang perlu diberikan fokus.
Setelah mengenal pasti imbuhan ber.. dan ber..an sebagai fokus, barulah proses merancang
pengajaran dimulakan.
Bagi tujuan mengukur keberkesanan kajian secara seekplisit mungkin, borang pemantauan
dalam talian telah disediakan. Soalan-soalan yang ditanyakan di dalam borang ini telah
dimuatkan sebagai lampiran dalam kertas kajian ini. Borang ini telah dibina dengan tujuan
bukan sahaja mengesan kemahiran pelajar dan perkembangan pembelajaran tetapi pada masa
yang sama, dibina bagi memahami sikap, pemikiran dan perasaan pelajar terhadap bahan
pelajaran supaya guru lebih sensitif terhadap keperluan pelajar. Data daripada borang ini amat
penting dalam perancangan pengajaran.
Borang ini digunakan sebelum pengajaran dan kemudian sesudah pengajaran untuk mengesan
pengalaman pelajar setelah menjalani pengajaran. Respons pelajar dapat memberikan guru
gambaran keseluruhan tentang pembelajaran pelajar sepanjang kelas dan apakah impak kelas
tersebut terhadap pelajar.
Selain borang dan ujian diagnostik, para anggota kumpulan juga telah merakamkan respons
pelajar sepanjang pengajaran. Setiap kumpulan pelajar disertai seorang guru pemerhati bagi
tujuan mendokumenkan setiap perkara yang dikatakan oleh pelajar. Data ini amat penting bagi
memantau penerimaan pelajar terhadap proses pembelajaran yang dilaluinya.
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Bagi pakej pengajaran pula, instrumen yang digunakan ialah Kahoot!, Nearpod, Google Docs,
artikel-artikel terpilih daripada majalah Dewan Siswa serta nota imbuhan. Penerangan lanjut
tentang proses pembelajaran akan dihuraikan dalam bahagian yang selanjutnya.
Prosedur Kajian
Kaedah menggunakan kajian pengajaran ini melibatkan empat langkah utama iaitu merancang,
melakukan, menyemak dan bertindak. Langkah-langkah ini perlu dijalankan secara berterusan
dan boleh terdiri daripada beberapa kitaran pembelajaran hinggalah rancangan pengajaran yang
padat dapat dihasilkan.
Langkah 1 – Merancang
Pada peringkat awalnya, aplikasi Nearpod telah menjadi pilihan utama bagi mengajarkan
tentang penggunaan serta fungsi imbuhan seperti kajian-kajian yang lepas. Nota imbuhan dan
aktiviti-aktiviti yang boleh dijalankan melalui Nearpod telah dihasilkan. Proses pengajaran
dibahagiakan kepada tiga bahagian, penggunaan imbuhan dengan tepat, mengenal pasti fungsi
imbuhan dan yang terakhir, mengesan penggunaan imbuhan yang kurang tepat.
Langkah 2 – Melakukan / Melaksanakan

Setelah proses perancangan selesai, pengajaran pun dijalankan. Secara keseluruhan, kelas
berjalan dengan lancar dan para pelajar berminat dengan pendekatan pengajaran yang
memerlukan respons pelajar dalam setiap peringkat. Pelajar berpeluang mengukur kemahiran
masing-masing kerana maklum balas diberikan secara langsung di dalam kelas. Hal ini
membolehkan pelajar menanyakan soalan dan bertindak atas proses pembelajaran masing-
masing. Guru-guru juga berasa puas hati kerana dapat menilai dengan mudah melalui Nearpod.
Langkah 3 – Menyemak
Apabila pengajaran tersebut direnung kembali, terdapat beberapa persoalan yang timbul.
Dalam proses pembelajaran aktif, pelajar diperlukan berbincang dan bertutur. Didapati bahawa
dalam aktiviti pengajaran yang berteraskan Nearpod, peluang bagi pelajar berbincang dan
bertutur agak terhad. Selain itu, proses ketiga dalam pembelajaran aktif, menunjukkan
pembelajaran juga didapati agak terhad. Yang jelas, pelajar telah memilih jawapan yang tepat
tanpa menggambarkan pemikiran di sebalik jawapan-jawapan yang dipilih itu. Proses
pembelajaran itu sendiri tidak dapat dikesan. Hal ini agak membimbangkan kerana tidak
memberikan gambaran yang nyata tentang proses pembelajaran itu sendiri.
Oleh itu, para pengkaji perlu balik ke pangkal dan berfikir kembali tentang proses
pembelajaran aktif itu dan mengaitkannya kembali dengan pakej yang telah disediakan, kali ini
dari sudut pelajar berdasarkan pemerhatian yang telah dibuat. Walaupun pelajar telah
menunjukkan yang mereka dapat memilih jawapan yang tepat, guru masih belum boleh menilai
sama ada mereka benar-benar memahami fungsinya atau sekadar memberikan jawapan secara
rambang.
Satu lagi perkara yang timbul adalah, dalam keghairahan menggunakan Nearpod, aspek
mencungkil dan mengenal pasti pembelajaran pelajar itu mungkin telah dipinggirkan secara
tidak sengaja. Perkara ini sememangnya perlu dititikberatkan kerana teknologi itu berperanan
membantu merealisasikan pembelajaran aktif. Pendekatan dan teknik pengajaran perlu
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dibincangkan terlebih dahulu sebelum memilih jenis teknologi yang ingin digunakan untuk
mencapai matlamat pengajaran.
Hasil proses menyemak ini telah mengembangkan lagi teknik-teknik yang digunakan bagi
mengajar imbuhan. Dalam perancangan pengajaran yang selanjutnya, aspek membolehkan
pemikiran dikesan diberikan kepentingan supaya proses pemantauan keberkesanan pengajaran
dapat dikaji secara terperinci.
Proses berfikir ini penting dalam pembelajaran aktif dan ia perlu dijalankan secara eksplisit
bukan sahaja bagi guru menyemak ketepatan jawapan tetapi juga menilaikan proses pemikiran
pelajar sepanjang kelas. Proses berfikir juga mempromosikan Deep Learning, seperti yang
diterangkan Ron Ritchhart, Mark Church dan Karin Morrison (2011) dalam tukilan berikut,
“Surface learning focuses on memorization of knowledge and facts, often

through rote practices, whereas deep learning has a focus on developing
understanding through more active and constructive processes.”
Ternyata di sini yang pakej pelajaran yang tercipta masih belum dapat membolehkan pelajar
mendalami pemahaman mereka kerana penilaian yang dijalankan tidak dapat menggambarkan
proses pemikiran dan pemahaman pelajar terhadap imbuhan yang dipelajari.
Langkah 4 – Bertindak
Setelah berbincang secara tuntas, beberapa perubahan telah dilakukan atas pakej pengajaran
yang asal. Kali ini strategi-strategi berfikir yang tertentu telah digunakan supaya pembelajaran
lebih mendalam.
Penggunakan strategi berfikir yang diusulkan Ron Ritchart, Mark Church dan Karin Morrison
(2011), Connect-Extend-Challenge didapati sesuai bagi mencapai matlamat pengajaran.
Strategi ini telah diterapkan di dalam pengajaran kerana mampu mencungkil dan membongkar
pemikiran serta pemahaman pelajar ketika menjalani proses pembelajaran. Dalam proses ini,
para pelajar diberikan artikel. Penggunaan bahan autentik di sini membantu membina
pemahaman yang lebih mendalam15.
 Set-up – Sebelum membaca, guru menerangkan tujuan membaca. Pelajar perlu

membaca dan menyenaraikan perkataan-perkataan yang berimbuhan ber.. dan ber..an.
 Connect – Selepas membaca dan menyenaraikan perkataan, guru akan menanyakan

beberapa soalan seperti berikut:
 Apakah perkara yang sudah awak tahu tentang perkataan-perkataan ini serta
penggunaan imbuhan ber.. dan ber..an?
 Bolehkah awak menyatakan fungsi-fungsi imbuhan tersebut berdasarkan
penggunaannya?
15
Hal ini seiring dengan usulan Naim Daipi (1991) dalam pendekatan komunikatif
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Penyoalan ini dapat membantu pelajar membuat kaitan antara pengetahuan sedia ada
dan juga mengenal pasti perkara-perkara yang mereka belum tahu.
 Extend – Kini, pelajar perlu memilih satu perkataan daripada senarai mereka dan
kemudian mencari makna perkataan tersebut. Dengan menggunakan nota dan definisi
perkataan tersebut, pelajar perlu mengenal pasti fungsi imbuhan ini. Di sini, pelajar
mengukuhkan pemahaman mereka dan kemudian membina perkataan yang baharu.
Guru akan memandu pelajar dalam proses pemikiran dan pemahaman mereka dengan
menanyakan soalan-soalan yang terancang.
 Challenge – Dalam peringkat ini, pelajar dianggap sudah mendalami pemahaman

mereka. Untuk menguji sama ada pemahaman mereka itu tepat dan jelas, guru
kemudian memberikan pelajar perenggan yang mengandungi penggunaan imbuhan ber..
dan ber..an yang salah. Pelajar perlu membetulkan kesalahan tersebut. Aktiviti ini telah
dilaksanakan dalam pusingan pertama tetapi pelajar sekadar mengenal pasti
penggunaan yang kurang tepat melalui Nearpod16. Kali ini, mereka perlu merangkan
mengapa penggunaan itu tidak tepat secara terperinci berdasarkan pembelajaran yang
diraih. Aktiviti ini dijalankan dengan menggunakan Google Docs. Setiap kumpulan
kemudian diberikan peluang membentangkan dapatan mereka masing-masing.
Jadual dan Rajah
Mengaktifkan
Pembelajaran
Pemantauan Menggalakkan
dan Maklum Pemikiran dan
Balas Perbincangan
Menunjukkan
Pembelajaran
Rajah 1: Proses pembelajaran aktif
16
Perbezaan kedua-kedua aktiviti ini terdapat dalam Lampiran B
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Rajah 2: Tahap keyakinan pelajar sebelum pengajaran disampaikan
Rajah 3: Tahap Keyakinan Pelajar Selepas pengajaran disampaikan
Markah Ujian Sebelum dan

Sesudah
100
50
0
% yang dapat markah 80 ke atas
Pra Pos
Rajah 4: Markah Pelajar Dalam Ujian Sebelum Dan Sesudah Pengajaran
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Jadual 1: Renungan Pelajar Sebelum dan Sesudah Pengajaran

Berdasarkan pemerhatian guru dan respons pelajar, didapati bahawa penggunaan ICT secara
terancang dan sesuai berjaya meningkatkan pemahaman dan penguasaan pelajar terhadap
penggunaan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…-an. Penggunaan aplikasi Nearpod (pada pengajaran
yang pertama) dan Kahoot dan padlet (pada pengajaran yang kedua) telah berjaya menarik
minat pelajar. Pelajar juga didapati telah menunjukkan reaksi yang positif terhadap pakej
pengajaran Active Learning mengenai awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…an.
Semasa aktiviti berkumpulan dijalankan, pelajar dilihat lebih vokal dan terlibat secara aktif
dalam perbincangan untuk menyelesaikan tugasan yang diberi. Pelajar seringkali didapati
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merujuk kamus dalam talian dan nota yang diberi untuk mengenal pasti fungsi awalan ber- dan
apitan ber-…an. Proses ini dilihat sebagai satu proses yang penting kerana secara tidak
langsung ia juga dapat meningkatkan motivasi pelajar dan menggalakkan pembelajaran secara
kendiri.
Selanjutnya, dalam sesi aktiviti pembentangan, penggunaan ICT dilihat telah dapat membantu
pelajar dalam mengembangkan dan menjelaskan pemikiran mereka serta mengukuhkan
pemahaman mereka tentang topik pengajaran guru. Dalam masa yang sama, guru
berkesempatan dalam menggunakan peluang yang ada untuk meninjau sejauh manakah
kemampuan kumpulan pelajar yang lemah dalam menguasai kemahiran dan pengetahuan
tentang topik pengajaran. Yang menarik perhatian pemerhati ialah guru berjaya menggunakan
kesempatan tersebut untuk memberikan penjelasan kepada para pelajar tersebut dengan lebih
lanjut.
Seterusnya, menerusi latihan menulis, iaitu aktiviti menganalisis kesilapan, pelajar kelihatan
berhasil menunjukkan peningkatan pemahaman yang memberangsangkan. Berdasarkan teks
yang diberikan, kebanyakan mereka mampu mengenal pasti penggunaan imbuhan yang tepat di
samping mengaitkan fungsinya secara kontekstual dalam ayat.
Dapatan kajian yang menunjukkan bahawa prestasi dan keyakinan pelajar menunjukkan
kemajuan yang memberangsangkan adalah seperti yang berikut. Daripada hanya 27 % pelajar
yang pada awalnya menunjukkan rasa kurang yakin terhadap penggunaan awalan ber- dan
apitan ber-…an, kini 100 % pelajar yakin dengan penggunaan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-...-
an. Malah, mereka mampu untuk membina ayat yang menunjukkan maksud yang tepat untuk
awalan ber-... dan apitan ber-...-an. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa melalui pembelajaran aktif,
mereka mampu menerangkan maksud dan fungsi awalan ber- dan apitan ber-…an mengikut
penggunaannya dalam konteks ayat dengan lebih yakin.
Bertitik tolak daripada penggunaan ICT dalam pengajaran awalan ber- dan apitan ber-...-an ini,
pemerhati mendapati bahawa guru mengalami sedikit cabaran semasa melaksanakan pakej
pengajaran. Disebabkan masalah teknikal, sedikit kegenjutan telah berlaku semasa
berlangsungnya pengajaran yang menggunakan peranti ICT ini. Sungguhpun demikian, guru
berjaya mengatasi masalah dan kegenjutan tersebut dengan segera tanpa menjejas pengajaran
secara total.
Pada keseluruhannya, berdasarkan maklum balas dan penelitian, didapati terdapat beberapa
perkara yang boleh diperbaik oleh guru. Pertama ialah cara pemilihan artikel atau teks. Pada
pandangan pemerhati, pemilihan artikel seharusnya seimbang dan tujuan memberikan artikel
yang berbeza kepada kumpulan pelajar yang berbeza perlu dijelaskan kepada para pelajar.
Kedua, pemilihan teks yang mengandungi beberapa patah perkataan yang boleh menimbulkan
kekeliruan seharusnya dielakkan. Contohnya penggunaan perkataan ‘bertumit’ yang
mengelirukan pemahaman pelajar.
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Bagi membantu proses pengajaran yang berkesan, aktiviti perbincangan dilakukan secara
‘modelling’. Guru boleh memberikan pelajar satu petikan yang sama untuk menjelaskan
tugasan yang perlu mereka lakukan. Setelah jelas apa dan bagaimana melakukan aktiviti yang
diperlukan, guru boleh memberikan setiap kumpulan teks yang berbeza dan kemudian meminta
setiap kumpulan menyelesaikan tugasan yang sama. Dengan cara ini, pelajar akan lebih mahir
untuk melakukan tugasan yang diberi dengan lebih baik lagi.
Kesimpulannya, pakej pengajaran Pembelajaran Aktif dalam pengajaran imbuhan telah

disediakan secara terancang. Pada keseluruhannya, penggunaannya dalam pengajaran bilik
darjah adalah jelas dan menyeronokkan. Secara tidak langsung, pakej ini telah membantu
pelajar mempertingkat pemahaman dan keupayaan mereka dalam memahami fungsi dan
penggunaan awalan ber- dan apitan ber-..an secara kontekstual. Dengan pendedahan yang
lebih luas dan berterusan menggunakan aplikasi ICT dalam pengajaran bahasa, tentunya ia
akan menjadi pemangkin kepada guru dalam usaha mempersiap para pelajar untuk lebih yakin
dalam menjawab soalan A1 kertas peperiksaan peringkat nasional ataupun dalam penulisan
karangan dan e-mel. Di samping itu, penggunaan aplikasi ICT seperti sebagai alat bantu
pengajaran dan pembelajaran juga akan terus membantu guru dalam menjadikan pengajaran
bahasa Melayu secara keseluruhannya menjadi lebih bermakna.
Rujukan
Abdullah Hassan (2004). Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu (morfologi dan sintaksis). Kuala
Lumpur: PTS Publications & Distributions Sdn Bhd.
Bonwell, C.C., dan J. A. Eison. (1991). “Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Classroom,” ASHEERIC Higher Education Report No. 1, George Washington
University, Washington, DC.
Dewey, J. (1958). Experience and nature. New York: Dover Publications.
Felder, R., D. Woods, J. Stice, dan A. Rugarcia. (2000). “The Future of Engineering
Education: II. Teaching Methods that Work,” Chemical Engineering Education, Vol. 34,
No. 1, 2000, pp. 26–39.
Pisapa, L. (1994). Integrating technology into teaching and learning. Singapore:
Prentice Hall.
Ron Rithchart, Mark Church dan Karin Morrison. (2011). Making thinking visible: How
to promote engagement, understanding and independence for all learners”
Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Seminar Bahasa Melayu (2017). Menyempurnakan kata menyampaikan makna. Pusat Bahasa
Melayu Singapura, Akademi Guru Singapura, Kementerian Pendidikan Singapura:
Oxford Graphic.
431
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Seminar Bahasa Melayu (2012). Kecekapan Berbahasa Dan Penghayatan Nilai Dalam
Pendidikan Abad ke-21. Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Akademi Guru Singapura,
Kementerian Pendidikan Singapura: Oxford Graphic.
John Hattie (2012). “Visible Learning For Teachers: Maximising Impact on Learning”
Routledge
Michael Prince. (2004) Does Active Learning Work? A review of the research.
Journal of Engeneering Education, 93 (3). Ditukil pada 17 Jan 2018 daripada:
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/Prince_AL.pdf
Naim Daipi. (1991) Pendekatan Komunikatif Dalam Pengajaran Imbuhan. Sekata, 9(2), 35-38.
The Malay Language Council daripada
https://repository.nie.edu.sg/bitstream/10497/18304/1/Sekata-9-2-35.pdf
Scott Freeman. (2003) Active Learning Increases Student Performance in Science, Engineering
and Mathematics. Vol 111 No 23 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
The United States of America daripada:
http://www.pnas.org/content/111/23/8410.full#ref-list-1
432
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PENGGUNAAN RUTIN BERFIKIR DALAM PENULISAN

KARANGAN YANG BERKUALITI
(The Use of Thinking Routines in Writing Quality Compositions)
Norlizanah Mohamed Nor1, Kasidah Khatoon Kasim Khan Surattee2
1
Sekolah Rendah Choa Chu Kang dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Singapura
2
Sekolah Rendah Choa Chu Kang dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura, Singapura
[email protected]
[email protected]
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Making Thinking Visible yang diketengahkan oleh Ritchhart R., Church M. dan
Morrson K. (2011) mengutarakan rutin berfikir sebagai alat membina kemahiran berfikir secara
sistematik dan berstruktur. Sebuah kajian pengajaran berdasarkan keberkesanan penggunaan
rutin berfikir telah dijalankan untuk membina kemahiran berfikir dan sekaligus, meningkatkan
tahap penulisan karangan murid. Ini bertujuan menjana idea yang menarik dan berkualiti untuk
menghasilkan karangan yang menunjukkan kematangan ketika mengembangkan jalan cerita.
Tiga rutin berfikir iaitu Lihat-Fikir-Tanya (LFT), Lampu Merah Lampu Kuning (LMLK) dan
Apa yang Menyebabkan Awak Berkata Begitu? (AMAB-B) telah digunakan untuk membantu
murid mengembangkan idea semasa mengarang. Hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan secara
keseluruhan, 81.5% murid berjaya mendapatkan peningkatan markah untuk bahagian isi setelah
menggunakan rutin berfikir. Secara keseluruhan, guru-guru yang menggunakan Rutin Berfikir
dapat membantu murid menyusun, berfikir dengan kreatis dan juga, mengembangkan idea-idea
dalam penulisan karangan.
Kata kunci: rutin berfikir, karangan, LFT, LMK, AMAB-B
Abstract: Making Thinking Visible by Ritchhart R., Church M. and Morrson K. (2011)
showcases Thinking Routines as a tool for building a systematic yet structured method to
encourage critical thinking. An action research study based on the effectiveness of thinking
routines was carried out to develop students’ thinking dispositions and simultaneously, enhance
the level of students’ writing. The use of these routines will help to generate in-depth quality
ideas to produce essays that show maturity while developing a strong storyline. The focus is on
the three Thinking Routines; See-Think-Wonder, Red Light-Yellow Light and What Makes
You Says That? to help students in the ideas-developing stage during writing. The findings
show that 81.5% of students have been able to gain better scores for content after using the
thinking routines. Thus, teachers involved in the action research conclude that Thinking
Routines enrich classroom learning in content areas and unlock the creative minds of students.
Keywords: thinking routines, composition, See-Think-Wonder, Red-Light-Yellow-Light, What

Makes You Say That
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___________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Aspek pengembangan idea dalam karangan sering kali menjadi perbincangan hangat dalam
kalangan guru-guru Bahasa Melayu. Murid-murid tidak menggunakan sepenuhnya deria
penglihatan untuk meneliti gambar-gambar yang tertera.
Rutin berfikir LFT mendidik murid-murid meneliti setiap gambar, menggunakan masa sejenak
untuk berfikir serta mengajukan pertanyaan-pertanyaan untuk meningkatkan pemahaman.
Rutin berfikir LMLK pula menggalakkan murid-murid untuk berfikir secara mendalam supaya
dapat mengelakkan ketidakseimbangan idea.
Rutin berfikir AMAB-B merangsang kemahiran berfikir yang mana murid-murid dapat
mengembangkan idea berpandukan bukti atau pengetahuan sedia ada yang logikal.
Berikutan daripada itu, pengkaji menggunakan ketiga-tiga rutin berfikir untuk membantu
murid-murid berfikir secara kritis dan berstruktur semasa mengembangkan isi karangan.
Apa yang Menyebabkan Awak

Berkata Begitu?
Menurut Shari Tishman dan Patricia Palmer (2007) yang merupakan penyelidik bersekutu
Project Zero, Visible Thinking atau kaedah berfikir secara jelas, guru boleh membimbing
murid untuk untuk melakukan proses pemikiran dengan cara yang sistematik dan jelas. Kaedah
ini telah terbukti mampu memandu proses pemikiran murid dan juga menggalakkan mereka
untuk memproses informasi secara aktif dan tersusun. Untuk menyokong pemikiran yang baik
dan peluasan idea dengan jelas, Ron Ritchhart dan David Perkins (2005), telah menunjukkan
keberkesanan penggunaan ‘rutin berfikir’ dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Rutin berfikir
dapat membimbing murid dalam proses berfikir dengan lebih berstruktur. Guru bersama murid
digalakkan menerokai apa yang difikirkan melalui penggunaan rutin berfikir. Guru juga dapat
melihat dan menilai hasil pemikiran murid untuk menyasar pada tujuan yang diingini atau
membiarkan murid meneroka hasil pemikiran mereka yang berbeza.
Oleh itu, berdasarkan rutin berfikir yang mampu menggalakkan murid meningkatkan
pembelajaran secara kognitif dan visual serta pembelajaran secara kendiri, usaha kajian ini
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akan dapat membantu murid menjana idea bagi menghasilkan karangan yang menunjukkan
kematangan di mana murid berfikir dengan lebih mendalam. Hal ini boleh membantu murid
untuk menghasilkan penulisan yang lebih menarik dan berkualiti.
Jadual dan Rajah
Bahagian ini akan menganalisis dapatan kajian secara kualitatif berdasarkan kelakonan bagi 27
orang murid. Analisis ini berasaskan data praujian dan pascaujian serta skala ukuran.
Secara keseluruhan, terdapat lonjakan markah yang ketara dalam pascaujian. Dapatan
menunjukkan 81.5% murid menunjukkan kenaikan markah antara satu hingga empat markah.
Jadual di bawah menunjukkan markah purata praujian ialah 11.6, manakala markah purata
pascaujian ialah 14 markah. Dapatan tersebut menunjukkan anjakan peningkatan markah
purata sebanyak 2.4. Berikut ialah taburan markah murid praujian dan pascaujian serta carta
menunjukkan perbezaan markah.
Jadual 1: Taburan Markah Murid dalam Praujian dan Pascaujian
PRAUJIAN (Isi) PASCAUJIAN (Isi)

Subjek Kajian
(20 markah penuh) (20 markah penuh)
M1 12 14
M2 13 13
M3 14 16
M4 12 14
M5 11 15
M6 10 14
M7 13 13
M8 12 15
M9 11 14
M10 12 12
M11 13 15
M12 11 14
M13 10 13
M14 10 14
M15 12 15
M16 11 15
M17 10 13
M18 11 13
M19 12 11
M20 12 15
M21 12 15
M22 12 15
M23 13 16
M24 11 14
M25 10 13
M26 12 12
M27 11 14
Min 11.6 14
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18
16 Pra Pasca
14
12
Markah
10
8
6
4
2
0
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15 M16 M17 M18 M19 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24 M25 M26 M27
Murid
Rajah 1: Taburan Markah Markah Praujian dan Pascaujian Murid
Oleh itu, dapatan kajian menunjukkan kemampuan strategi rutin berfikir untuk meningkatkan
tahap berfikir dan peluasan idea murid-murid. Rutin-rutin yang dipilih bersesuaian dengan
tahap kebolehan murid dan telah membuahkan hasil yang positif dari segi pencapaian murid.
Ternyata, murid meraih manfaat dari segi kemahiran mengembangkan idea dalam karangan.
Rutin-rutin yang digunakan dan aktiviti-aktiviti berpandu yang dijalankan telah berjaya
menggalakkan murid berfikir dengan secara kreatif dan kritis bagi menjana idea. Pengkaji
berpendapat jika strategi ini digunakan di dalam setiap kelas, lebih ramai murid akan dapat
meluaskan idea-idea semasa penulisan karangan.
Selain itu, penelitian telah dilakukan untuk menunjukkan keyakinan murid. Ini merupakan
penilaian individu mengenai keyakinan mereka menggunakan rutin berfikir dalam penulisan
mereka. Kebanyakan murid yakin dengan penggunaan LFT, LMLK serta AMAB-B dalam
proses merancang serta menolong mereka untuk menjana idea sebelum menulis karangan.
Penggunaan LFT dalam Karangan
Sangat
Yakin
Boleh 7%
41%
Yakin
52%
Rajah 2: Maklum Balas Murid
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Masih ada
keraguan Sangat Yakin
7% 19%
Boleh
33%
Yakin
41%
Rajah 3: Penggunaan LMLK dalam Karangan
Boleh Sangat
15% Yakin
22%
Yakin
63%
Rajah 4: Penggunaan AMAB-B dalam Karangan

Kajian ini mengukuhkan keberkesanan rutin berfikir yang dijalankan untuk membantu murid-
murid berfikir dengan lebih aktif dan tersusun semasa penulisan karangan. Strategi ini ternyata
cara yang baik untuk mempertajam kemahiran menulis murid dan mempertingkatkan rasa
yakin diri untuk mengetengahkan pendapat dan sekali gus, menyokongnya dengan bukti-bukti.
Dapatan ini bertepatan dengan objektif asal iaitu menggalakkan murid-murid berfikir dengan
kritis dan kreatif. Rutin berfikir dapat diaplikasikan dalam pengajaran karangan untuk
membimbing murid dalam proses berfikir dan pembelajaran kendiri. Peningkatan markah yang
signifikan setelah rutin berfikir diterapkan menunjukkan keberkesanan strategi dalam
pengajaran, lantas berjaya menjana murid yang aktif dan cerdas. Dengan penggunaan
pengajaran eksplisit, projek ini dapat dilaksanakan dengan perancangan yang teliti lagi mudah
diikuti.
Justeru itu, guru bercadang untuk menerapkan strategi ini untuk membantu murid-murid lain
berfikir dengan lebih berstruktur and kritis. Diharapkan dengan pengenalan dan penerapan rutin
berfikir, murid akan dapat manfaatkan pengajaran yang lebih berpandu untuk berfikir.
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Rujukan
Ritchart, R. C. (2011). Making Thinking Visible: How to promote engagement, understanding,

and independence for all learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ron Ritchhart “Thinking Routines: Establishing patterns of thinking in the classroom” (paper
presented at the AERA Conference, San Francisco, 2006).
Visible Thinking. Dirujuk pada November 15, 2017, daripada
http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/visible-thinking
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PENGGUNAAN TEKNIK DRAMA DALAM PENULISAN

KARANGAN BERGAMBAR
Najiyyah Binte Mohamed Said1*, Nurhidayah Binte Ashari2, Siti Fadiah Binte
Ramdan3
1
Sekolah Rendah Greenwood dan Pusat Bahasa Melayu, Singapura
2
Sekolah Rendah Greenwood Pusat Bahasa Melayu, Singapura
3
Sekolah Rendah Greenwood Pusat Bahasa Melayu, Singapura

_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Murid-murid darjah 5 menghadapi masalah untuk menulis karangan dengan kreatif.
Mereka mengalami kesukaran untuk menjana idea dan meluaskan isi karangan bergambar.
Karangan bergambar yang terdiri daripada 5 gambar yang berurutan dan gambar ke-6
merupakan gambar bebas. Murid-murid perlu menulis kesudahan yang menarik bagi gambar
terakhir. Maka itu, isi karangan murid-murid bergantung sepenuhnya pada perkara-perkara
yang dilihat melalui gambar-gambar berurutan yang diberi. Disebabkan hal ini, tidak terserlah
ciri-ciri kreatif dalam karangan murid-murid sebagai seorang penulis yang berdaya kreatif.
Oleh demikian, isi karangan murid-murid tidak menarik dan kurang daya estetikanya. Kajian
ini bertujuan untuk menilai keberkesanan teknik drama dalam mempertingkat kebolehan
berfikir secara kreatif dan mengukur sama ada teknik drama membantu murid darjah 5
memperoleh markah satu skala lebih tinggi bagi Isi karangan. Seramai 37 orang murid darjah 5
bertahap sederhana tinggi telah dikenal pasti sebagai responden kumpulan kajian. Kaedah yang
digunakan dalam kajian ialah teknik drama Roller-coaster Emosi, Tanpa Kata dan Cerita
Gambar. Rubrik penilaian karangan yang direka khusus juga telah digunakan dalam kajian ini.
Rubrik tersebut telah digunakan dalam praujian dan pascaujian untuk mengukur pencapaian
kumpulan kajian. Analisis data yang dikumpulkan secara kuantitatif menunjukkan bahawa
peningkatan yang diraih oleh kumpulan kajian sangat ketara. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan
keberkesanan teknik drama kerana terdapat kemajuan dalam pencapaian kumpulan kajian.
Kata kunci: teknik drama, roller-coaster emosi, cerita gambar, tanpa kata, karangan bergambar,
rubrik penilaian karangan (Isi)
Abstract: Primary 5 students often face problems in writing creative compositions. They face
difficulties in developing ideas and content for their picture-based compositions. Picture-based
compositions are composed of 5 pictures before ending with an empty square as a the sixth
picture. Students are to develop an interesting end to the story. As such, the content of the
composition is entirely dependent on what is seen in the pictures. For such a reason, creativity
is rarely seen. The compositions written by students often end up being lackluster, lacking in
aesthetics. This research seeks to evaluate the use of drama in improving creative thinking and
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assessing if drama techniques may be used in improving the grade scale of Primary 5 students.
37 Primary 5 students with average abilities were highlighted as research samples. The
approach employed in this study are Emotional Roller-Coster, Without Words and Pictorial
Stories. Rubrik penilaian karangan yang direka khusus juga telah digunakan dalam kajian ini.
Rubrik tersebut telah digunakan dalam praujian dan pascaujian untuk mengukur pencapaian
kumpulan kajian. Analisis data yang dikumpulkan secara kuantitatif menunjukkan bahawa
peningkatan yang diraih oleh kumpulan kajian sangat ketara. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan
keberkesanan teknik drama kerana terdapat kemajuan dalam pencapaian kumpulan kajian.
Keywords: teknik drama, roller-coaster emosi, cerita gambar, tanpa kata, karangan bergambar,
rubrik penilaian karangan (Isi)
___________________________________________________________________________
1. Pengenalan
Kemahiran menulis karangan merupakan salah satu kemahiran yang amat penting bagi murid-
murid. Murid-murid yang dapat mengolah karangan dengan baik dapat mengembangkan isi
karangan dengan menarik dan kreatif.
Menurut Boden (2001), kreativiti merupakan kebolehan untuk menjana idea baharu yang bijak
dan bermakna. Kebanyakan murid tidak berupaya menghasilkan penulisan yang kreatif. Ada
juga yang tidak mampu mengembangkan isi yang sesuai ataupun dengan lebih padat. Lantas,
mereka tidak mendapat markah yang tinggi bagi bahagian isi karangan lalu menghambat
peluang murid untuk mendapat markah yang cemerlang dalam komponen karangan.
Menurut Mana Sikana (2005), drama yang dikatakan hasil kreatif dapat melahirkan murid-
murid yang kreatif. Oleh itu, penggunaan teknik drama dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran
Bahasa Melayu dilihat mampu memperkembangkan potensi murid-murid.
Teknik ‘Roller-coaster Emosi’ merupakan teknik drama yang dikembangkan oleh pengarah
Johnstone (2018) sebagai salah satu konsep dalam ‘Theatresports’ iaitu satu bentuk teater
improvisasi. Teknik drama ini sesuai digunakan bagi kajian ini kerana ia mampu mewujudkan
perasaan dari pelbagai sudut dan spektrum semasa sesebuah watak dilakonkan.
Teknik drama ‘Tanpa Kata’ memerlukan murid-murid menggayakan gambar atau senario yang
diberikan guru secara fizikal tanpa penggunaan suara selama seminit. Teknik drama ini
merupakan satu bentuk teater improvisasi yang disenaraikan oleh Spolin (2017). Teknik drama
ini membolehkan murid-murid memahami situasi watak dalam setiap gambar karangan dengan
lebih teliti untuk mempertingkat daya penghayatan dan pemahaman mereka terhadap watak
dan jenis perwatakan watak tersebut.
Farmer (2012) menerangkan bahawa teknik drama ‘Cerita Gambar’ merupakan satu bentuk
teater improvisasi. Murid-murid dikehendaki melakonkan gambar untuk menceritakan
sesebuah gambar yang diberi. Teknik drama ini dipilih untuk menekankan penyusunan jalan
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cerita kepada murid-murid dan bagi memperlihatkan kepentingan pemilihan dialog atau
monolog yang kritikal dalam sesuatu cerita.
Kaedah pengajaran menggunakan teknik-teknik drama ‘Roller-coaster Emosi’, ‘Tanpa Kata’
dan ‘Cerita Gambar’ telah dipilih untuk kajian ini kerana dapat membantu murid-murid
menulis serta meningkatkan kebolehan mereka berfikir secara kreatif.
1.1 Pernyataan Masalah
Karangan bergambar bagi murid-murid darjah 5 terdiri daripada 5 gambar yang berurutan dan
gambar ke-6 merupakan gambar bebas. Kata bantuan sebanyak 4 perkataan dan 4 frasa diberi
sebagai panduan untuk murid-murid mengolah isi karangan mereka. Walaupun murid-murid
darjah 5 boleh menulis karangan bergambar, mereka mengalami kesukaran untuk menjana idea
bagi mengembangkan isi karangan bergambar dengan kreatif. Murid-murid juga tidak dapat
menggambarkan watak–watak cerita dengan baik kerana mereka tidak dapat menghayati
watak-watak tersebut. Mereka terlalu bergantung kepada aspek dasar gambar sehinggakan idea
mereka menjadi terhad. Akibatnya, karangan yang dihasilkan murid-murid ini sering kali
berdasarkan perkara-perkara yang dilihat dalam gambar sahaja.
Oleh yang demikian, guru telah memperkenalkan ketiga-tiga teknik drama bagi membantu
murid untuk menjana idea agar penulisan karangan mereka membuahkan satu hasil yang lebih
kreatif dan mempunyai daya estetika yang lebih tinggi.
1.2 Tujuan Kajian
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji keberkesanan teknik drama dalam mempertingkat
kebolehan murid-murid darjah 5 bertahap sederhana tinggi untuk berfikir secara kreatif dan
mengukur sama ada teknik drama boleh membantu mereka memperoleh markah satu skala
lebih tinggi bagi isi karangan.
Menurut Bason (2005), murid-murid yang menjalani pendekatan drama menerusi pengajaran
dan pembelajaran di sekolah mencapai peningkatan dalam pembelajaran mereka serta
membangkitkan keyakinan mereka berinteraksi dan cara mereka berfikir. Kajian ini jelas
memaparkan kesan yang positif terhadap pertumbuhan murid-murid yang menyentuh aspek
fizikal, emosional, sosial dan juga kognitif. Ini bermakna, pendekatan drama bukan sahaja
dapat membina kekuatan mental murid-murid tetapi dapat membina seorang murid yang serba
boleh yang sesuai dengan tuntutan sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang bersifat global.
Menurut Peregoy dan Boyle (2008) hasil cerita yang dilakonkan secara kolaboratif bersama
rakan sekumpulan atau sekelas dapat membantu murid-murid menggunakan pengalaman
mereka bagi memindahkan idea yang dicetus ke atas kertas bersesuaian dengan tahap
perkembangan literasi setiap murid.
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McCaslin (2009) pula menerangkan bahawa semasa mengajar, guru perlu ingat bahawa
menggunakan teknik drama yang pelbagai turut merangsang murid untuk menggunakan deria
yang pelbagai. Hal ini akan membuat pembelajaran lebih efektif.

3.1 Subjek Kajian
Seramai 37 orang murid darjah 5 tahap sederhana tinggi dari kelas yang sama telah dipilih
sebagai subjek kajian.
3.2 Instrumen Kajian
Beberapa instrumen telah digunakan dalam kajian ini:

1. Pemantauan praujian dan pascaujian
Dapatan praujian dan pascaujian digunakan untuk melihat sejauh mana pengajaran berasaskan
teknik drama dapat mempertingkat pencapaian murid-murid dalam penulisan karangan. Data
daripada praujian dan pascaujian dikumpulkan secara kuantitatif. Kemudian, analisis statistik
dilakukan untuk meninjau keberkesanan pengajaran secara eksplisit. Rajah 1 menggariskan
reka bentuk kajian, G1 merupakan kumpulan kajian manakala Simbol ‘X’ pula menandakan
intervensi yang dijalankan bagi kumpulan kajian.
Reka bentuk praujian dan pascaujian kumpulan

Praujian Aksi Pascaujian
G1 O1 X O2
Rajah 1: Reka Bentuk Kajian
Rubrik penilaian
Kebolehan murid-murid mengembangkan isi dalam penulisan karangan bergambar semasa
praujian dan pascaujian dinilai berdasarkan rubrik penilaian (Rajah 2) yang telah direka khas
untuk kajian tindakan ini. Rubrik penilaian yang mempunyai 20 markah maksima dibina
berdasarkan skema pemarkahan karangan darjah 5 dan Peperiksaan Tamat Sekolah Rendah
(PSLE). Rubrik itu bertumpu kepada empat bahagian iaitu Ketepatan, Kepadatan, Olahan
Cerita dan Jalan Cerita. Rubrik penilaian murid menjadi data yang dikumpul secara kuantitatif
untuk dianalisis dan diteliti sama ada wujud perbezaan yang signifikan secara statistik.
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Jadual 1: Rubrik Pemarkahan

Jalur 1 2 3 4 5
Julat Markah 17-20 13-16 9-12 5-8 1-4
Ketepatan  menepati  menepati  setakat yang  kurang  kurang

kehendak kehendak dikehendaki daripada menepati
cerita cerita soalan biasa kehendak
cerita
Kepadatan  isi lebih  isi agak  isi mencukupi  isi tidak  isi sangat
daripada banyak  isi pada mencukupi tidak
mencukupi  isi umumnya  sedikit mencukupi
 isi kebanyakanny relevan sahaja isi  isi
sepenuhnya a relevan relevan kebanyakanny
relevan a tidak
relevan
Olahan  isi  isi tidak  isi  isi  isi tidak jelas
dikembangkan dikembangkan dikembangkan kebanyaka dan
 cerita dengan dengan pada nnya tidak mengelirukan
 watak dan sepenuhnya sepenuhnya umumnya dikembang  perkembangan
emosi  perkembangan  perkembangan  perkembangan kan cerita kurang
 intepretasi cerita amat cerita menarik cerita agak  bergantung jelas
yang menarik  memasukkan jelas tetapi sepenuhny
kreatif  memasukkan sedikit hal kurang a pada
banyak hal lain yang menarik soalan
lain yang berkaitan bagi panduan
berkaitan bagi sebahagian
melengkapkan karangan
karangan
secara
menyeluruh
Jalan Cerita  jalan cerita  jalan cerita  jalan cerita  jalan cerita  jalan cerita
lengkap dan lengkap dan masih lengkap kurang kurang
sangat licin licin licin sempurna
3.3 Prosedur Kajian
Kajian ini dijalankan selama 5 minggu semasa penggal tiga dari bulan Ogos hingga penggal
empat, bulan September pada tahun 2017. Subjek kajian melalui 3 sesi intervensi dalam satu
minggu yang dijalankan oleh guru Bahasa Melayu kumpulan itu. Setiap sesi mengambil masa 3
waktu (1 setengah jam). Berikut merupakan penerangan terperinci bagi sesi intervensi yang
dijalankan di dalam kelas kumpulan kajian.
Minggu Praujian
Sebelum sesi intervensi, murid-murid telah menjalani praujian. Mereka dikehendaki untuk
menulis karangan bergambar (gambar 1 hingga 5 sahaja) yang telah diberi oleh guru.
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Penulisan murid adalah berdasarkan kemampuan dan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka. Setiap
murid telah didedahkan dengan Pakej Penulisan yang telah diberikan pada awal tahun.
Minggu 1 dan 2
Guru memperkenalkan teknik drama ‘Roller-coaster Emosi’. Guru menerangkan tentang
kepentingan watak yang realistik, iaitu watak yang mengalami perasaan yang sering bertukar-
tukar; seorang manusia tidak mungkin statik dari segi perasaan dan pemikiran. Kemudian,
murid-murid menjalankan aktiviti teknik drama ini secara berkumpulan. Setiap kumpulan
memilih empat perasaan yang berlainan daripada kumpulan-kumpulan lain. Mereka berlatih
untuk melakonkan mimik muka bagi perasaan-perasaan yang dipilih. Kesemua anggota
kumpulan harus melakonkan mimik muka yang sama. Setelah itu, setiap kumpulan dijemput
untuk membuat penyampaian. Setiap kali guru menyebut sesuatu perasaan, (contohnya:
marah), kumpulan tersebut perlu melakonkan mimik muka yang bersesuaian dengan perasaan
itu. Aktiviti ini diulang sehingga keempat-empat mimik muka bagi keempat-empat
perasaan selesai dilakonkan. Sementara itu, kumpulan-kumpulan lain menganalisa mimik muka
tersebut. Kemudian, mereka memberikan maklum balas tentang kesesuaian dan ketepatan
mimik muka dengan segala perasaan yang dipilih kumpulan berkenaan. Hal yang sama akan
berlaku bagi kumpulan-kumpulan lain.
Sebagai aktiviti lanjutan, setiap kumpulan menulis satu perenggan mengenai seorang watak
yang melalui keempat-empat perasaan yang telah dilakonkan itu.
Minggu 3
Sepanjang minggu ini pula, guru memperkenalkan teknik drama Tanpa Kata. Guru
menayangkan sekeping gambar di layar lalu menjemput sebuah kumpulan meniru perbuatan
watak-watak yang mereka lihat. Lakonan ini adalah statik dan harus dilakonkan selama lima
saat sahaja. Kumpulan-kumpulan yang lain membandingkan lakonan rakan-rakan mereka
dengan gambar yang ditayangkan itu. Kemudian, mereka cuba meneliti sama ada inti pati
gambar itu berjaya dilakonkan oleh rakan-rakan mereka. Murid-murid yang menyaksikan
lakonan sesebuah kumpulan itu juga berpeluang untuk menanya tentang perbuatan yang
dilakonkan tadi dan sebab-akibat ekoran daripada lakonan tersebut. Kemudian, guru
mengulangi aktiviti ini bagi kumpulan-kumpulan yang seterusnya. Kini, murid-murid dapat
menerangkan perbuatan watak-watak dengan lebih terperinci. Murid-murid juga lebih peka
tentang perspektif watak-watak yang berbeza-beza. Mereka memahami kaitan antara satu
watak dengan watak yang lain daripada segi hubungan atau perbuatan watak tersebut.
Minggu 4
Pada minggu ini, guru memperkenalkan teknik drama ‘Cerita Gambar’ kepada
murid-murid. Guru menunjukkan gambar yang digunakan semasa pembelajaran teknik drama
‘Tanpa Kata’ bagi setiap kumpulan. Kumpulan-kumpulan perlu menggayakan perbuatan setiap
watak seperti yang telah mereka lakukan semasa aktiviti yang dijalankan dalam pembelajaran
teknik drama ‘Tanpa Kata’. Setiap kumpulan harus menyelitkan dialog atau monolog bagi
setiap watak semasa aktiviti itu dijalankan. Mereka juga dibenarkan untuk menggerakkan
mana-mana anggota tubuh mereka bagi menghasilkan sesuatu dialog atau monolog.
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Kemudian, guru menerangkan bahawa pasti ada isu kritikal yang ingin dijelaskan oleh watak-
watak dalam gambar tersebut. Beberapa orang murid dijemput untuk berkongsi tentang satu isu
yang sesuai setelah perbincangan secara berkumpulan. Mereka membincangkan isu yang
dihadapi oleh watak-watak yang dilakonkan setiap kumpulan tadi. Aktiviti ini membantu
murid-murid untuk mendalami sebab sesuatu perbuatan itu dilakukan. Dengan ini,
murid-murid digalakkan untuk berfikir secara kreatif dan kritis semasa penganalisaan
pemikiran sesebuah watak.
Minggu 5 – Pemerhatian oleh Guru Pakar dari Pusat Bahasa Melayu Singapura (MLCS)
Guru telah membahagikan murid-murid kepada Kumpulan A dan B – Kumpulan A1-A5,
Kumpulan B1-B5. Kumpulan A mendapat gambar karangan bersiri A (gambar 1-5 sahaja)
manakala Kumpulan B mendapat gambar karangan bersiri B (gambar 1-5 sahaja). Contohnya,
Kumpulan A1 mendapat gambar A1.
Kumpulan A1-A5 diberikan masa untuk meneliti gambar yang mereka dapati lalu mereka perlu
melakonkan senario dalam gambar tersebut. Namun, lakonan itu perlu ada ketiga-tiga teknik
drama yang telah mereka pelajari. Setelah kumpulan A1-A5 selesai membentangkan lakonan
mereka, guru menerangkan bahawa setiap kumpulan telah melakonkan satu gambar yang
terdapat dalam gambar bersiri A secara bergilir-gilir. Oleh itu, apabila digabungkan lakonan
kelima-lima kumpulan tersebut, mereka telah melakonkan satu cerita yang hampir lengkap
(tidak disertakan dengan kesudahan cerita iaitu gambar 6). Kemudian, kumpulan-kumpulan
B1-B5 turut melalui aktiviti yang serupa. Sekali lagi, guru menunjukkan bahawa mereka telah
melakonkan gambar bersiri B.
Setelah itu, setiap kumpulan berbincang sambil menulis karangan bagi gambar bersiri A atau B
(gambar 1-5 sahaja) berdasarkan pengalaman mereka berlakon dan melihat lakonan kumpulan
A atau B tadi. Mereka perlu memasukkan hal-hal berkenaan dengan pembelajaran tiga teknik
drama yang telah mereka lalui. Kemudian, guru mengarahkan mereka agar menyerlahkan
bahagian-bahagian dalam karangan mereka yang mencerminkan hasil daripada pembelajaran
ketiga-tiga teknik drama itu.
Minggu Pascaujian
Bagi pascaujian, setiap murid dikehendaki menulis kembali karangan gambar bersiri yang telah
mereka tuliskan semasa praujian. Setelah itu, guru membandingkan perbezaan dari segi
kandungan isi bagi setiap gambar yang ditulis semasa pascaujian dan praujian.
3.4 Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan
Analisis data dalam kajian ini dijalankan berdasarkan rubrik penilaian bagi mengukur
pencapaian murid-murid. Rubrik tersebut menjadi data yang dikumpul secara kuantitatif untuk
dianalisis dan diteliti sama ada wujud perbezaan yang signifikan secara statistik.
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Dalam kajian ini, teknik pengumpulan statistik yang dipanggil ‘paired t-test’ telah digunakan
untuk mendapatkan data tentang keberkesanan pengajaran teknik drama dalam penulisan
karangan bergambar. Teknik ‘paired t-test’ dipilih kerana sesuai digunakan dalam kajian yang
melibatkan perbandingan antara dua sampel markah, iaitu markah praujian dan pascaujian.
Sebuah perisian statistik yang menggunakan teknik ‘paired t-test’ telah digunakan. Dalam
teknik ‘paired t-test’ ini, sampel yang memperoleh nilai yang sama atau kurang daripada 0.05
telah meraih peningkatan yang ketara manakala sampel yang memperoleh nilai yang lebih
daripada 0.05 tidak menunjukkan sebarang peningkatan yang ketara. Kajian ini mendapati
bahawa nilai yang diperoleh setelah markah keseluruhan praujian dan pascaujian disertakan
dalam formula ‘paired t-test’ ialah <0.0001.
Dapatan ini (Rajah 3) menunjukkan bahawa kumpulan kajian telah menunjukkan peningkatan
markah yang sangat ketara setelah melalui pengajaran teknik drama. Dapatan juga
menunjukkan bahawa murid-murid tersebut telah mencapai peningkatan markah yang tinggi.
Jadual 2: Julat Perbezaan Markah bagi Isi Karangan dalam Praujian dan Pascaujian Murid
Murid Markah Isi Markah Isi Murid Markah Isi Markah Isi Murid Markah Isi Markah Isi
(Praujian) (Pascaujian) (Praujian) (Pascaujian) (Praujian) (Pascaujian)
1 10 13 14 11 13 27 11 13
2 11 13 15 10 13 28 10 11
3 10 12 16 11 13 29 11 13
4 10 12 17 11 14 30 11 13
5 10 13 18 11 13 31 11 13
6 11 13 19 11 13 32 11 13
7 12 13 20 11 13 33 11 13
8 11 13 21 11 13 34 11 13
9 11 13 22 11 12 35 11 12
10 12 13 23 11 12 36 12 14
11 10 12 24 11 13 37 12 13
12 12 13 25 11 13
13 11 13 26 11 13
40
35 Praujian: Jalur 3
30
25 Praujian: Jalur 2
20
Pascaujian: Jalur 3
15
10 Pascaujian: Jalur 2
5
0
Praujian Pascaujian
Rajah 2: Perbandingan skala praujian dan pascaujian subjek kajian
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Seperti yang digambarkan dalam Rajah 2, kesemua 37 orang murid telah memperoleh
peningkatan markah antara 1 hingga 3 markah selepas pascaujian. Berdasarkan Jadual 1
(Rubrik Pemarkahan), dapat dilihat bahawa jalur yang terbaik merupakan jalur 1. Berkaitan
dengan jadual tersebut, Rajah 4 menunjukkan jumlah murid yang telah beralih daripada jalur 3
ke jalur 2. Daripada Rajah 2, juga dapat dilihat bahawa seramai 30 orang murid telah berjaya
memperoleh markah satu skala lebih tinggi bagi isi karangan.
3.5 Kesimpulan
Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa intervensi yang dijalankan berjaya menghasilkan peningkatan
markah yang sangat ketara dan memberangsangkan. Hal ini jelas dilihat melalui analisis data
yang dikumpulkan secara kuantitatif.
Pengajaran teknik drama dalam penulisan karangan bergambar berjaya membantu murid-murid
menjana idea sekaligus daya kreativiti murid-murid turut meningkat. Murid-murid
juga dapat membina dialog dan monolog secara kritikal berdasarkan penelitian mereka
terhadap pemikiran watak dalam sesuatu situasi. Kini, mereka lebih berminat terhadap
pembelajaran dan penguasaan kosa kata. Lantas, mereka lebih berkeyakinan dan mampu untuk
berinteraksi serta bertukar-tukar pendapat.
Secara keseluruhannya, teknik drama dan penulisan karangan amat sesuai untuk digandingkan
disebabkan pemberatan kepada aspek penilaian watak yang amat penting dalam penulisan
kreatif. Ilmu yang diraih oleh murid-murid memberi mereka ruang untuk berfikir secara kritis
dan inventif, sejajar dengan nilai-nilai teras Kementerian Pendidikan Singapura bagi
Kecekapan Abad-21.
Rujukan
Craft,A., Jeffrey, B., & Leibling, M. (2001). Creativity in education. London: Continuum.
J Bason (2005), The Benefits of Drama Education, Drama Education Network.
Johnstone, K. E. (2018). IMPRO: Improvisation and the theatre. S.l.: BLOOMSBURY
ACADEMIC.
Mana Sikana. (2005). Pengajaran dan pembinaan bahasa dalam konteks pendidikan drama.
Aktivis, 2005(5), 116-130.
McCaslin, N. (1977). Creative dramatics in the classroom. New York: Longman.
Peregoy & Boyle (2008). Drama, language and learning literacy. Retrieved from
http://dramalanguagelearningandliteracy.weebly.com/literature-review.html on 27
August 2018
Spolin, V. (2017). Improvisation for the theater: A handbook of teaching and directing
techniques. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books.
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PERANAN GURU BESAR DALAM PENGURUSAN

KOKURIKULUM DARIPADA PERSPEKTIF GURU
PENASIHAT KOKURIKULUM SEKOLAH RENDAH DI ZON
CHERAS, DAERAH HULU LANGAT, SELANGOR.
Azmi Bin Zakaria1, Ahmad Zamri Bin Mansor1

Fakulti Pendidikan, UKM, Bangi Malaysia.
[email protected]
[email protected]
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji perspektif guru-guru penasihat unit kokurikulum
terhadap peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum di sekolah-sekolah kebangsaan di
Zon Cheras, Daerah Hulu Langat, Selangor. Peranan guru besar dikaji berdasarkan aspek
sebagai perancang, pengelola, pemimpin dan penyelia kokurikulum. Kajian berbentuk
kuantitatif yang menggunakan kaedah tinjauan ini juga cuba melihat perbezaan peranan guru
besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum dengan faktor demografi seperti jantina, lokasi sekolah,
pengalaman bertugas serta hubungan dengan pencapaian kokurikulum sekolah. Sampel kajian
terdiri daripada 338 orang guru yang sedang berkhidmat dan memegang tugas sebagai
penasihat kokurikulum di 13 buah sekolah kebangsaan di Zon Cheras, Hulu Langat, Selangor.
Pemilihan sampel dibuat secara rawak mudah. Pengumpulan data dikumpulkan dengan
menggunakan soal selidik yang telah mendapatkan kesahan serta kebolehpercayaan mengikut
konteks tempatan. Data-data yang diperolehi telah dianalisis menggunakan kaedah diskriptif
bagi menerangkan dapatan skor min dan sisihan piawai untuk menerangkan setiap dimensi
yang dikaji dengan menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) versi
22. Kesimpulannya, dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan guru besar di sekolah-sekolah kajian telah
berjaya mempraktikkan peranan pengurusan yang berkesan iaitu dari sudut kepimpinan,
pengurusan, pengelolaan dan penyeliaan dalam memastikan kejayaan pelaksanaan aktiviti
kokurikulum di sekolah.
Kata kunci: Peranan, Pengurusan Kokurikulum, Perspektif guru.
Abstract: This study aims to examine the perspective of cocurricular advisory teacher towards
the role of principal in managing the cocurricular at national schools in the Zone Cheras, Hulu
Langat. The role of principal is examined based on the aspects as a leader, planner, coordinator,
and supervisor of cocurricular. This quantitative study using survey technic also attempts to see
the difference in the role of principal in the management of cocurricular against the
demographic factors such as gender, school grades and working experience as well as the
relationship with the school’s achievement in cocurricular. The sample studies consists of 338
teachers who are currently serving and hold the task as an advisor of cocurricular in 13 national
schools in the Zone of Cheras, Hulu Langat, Selangor. The sample selection is based on simple
random. The collection of data uses the questionnaire that has been attested and accredited as
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following the local context. The data obtained were analyzed using descriptive method to
explain the mean score and the standard deviation to describe each dimension studied using
Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) version 22. In conclusion, the findings show that
the headmasters in the study schools have successfully implemented the effective management
role of leadership, planning, coordinator and supervision in ensuring the successful
implementation of co-curricular activities in schools.
Keywords: Role, Curriculum management, Teacher’s perspective.

___________________________________________________________________________
Pengenalan
Kebanyakan pelajar Bahasa Melayu telah menggunakan imbuhan dalam konteks perbualan
mereka di rumah. Namun begitu, lazimnya, pelajar menggunakan imbuhan tanpa menyedari
akan fungsinya yang sebenar. Oleh yang demikian, guru perlu mengajar pelajar tentang
Dalam usaha mencapai hasrat sebagai sebuah negara maju, maka pelaksanaan aktiviti
kokurikulum di peringkat sekolah kini menjadi agenda penting. Kepentingannya terbukti
apabila Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) memperakukan bahawa semua kegiatan
kelab, persatuan, pasukan beruniform, sukan dan aktiviti sosial yang dilaksanakan di luar bilik
darjah dianggap sebagai kegiatan kokurikulum dan perlu diceburi oleh setiap murid sekolah
(Jawatankuasa Kabinet, 1979; Surat Pekeliling Ikhtisas (SPI) Bil. 1/1985; SPI Bil. 2/1986; SPI
Bil. 1/1989). Pengetua atau guru besar mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting dalam
menyumbang kepada kecemerlangan kokurikulum di sekolah (Bahagian Naziran Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia, 2010). Menurutnya, peranan pengetua dalam pengurusan kokurikulum
perlu melalui empat proses iaitu merancang, mengelola, memimpin dan mengawal. Amalan-
amalan pengetua ini adalah selari dengan Buku Panduan Pengurusan Kokurikulum Sekolah
Menengah dan Rendah (2009) iaitu pengurusan kokurikulum di sekolah mesti melalui empat
proses tersebut. Berdasarkan kajian-kajian terdahulu membuktikan peranan pengurusan sekolah
terutamanya guru besar memberi kesan langsung terhadap pelaksanaan dan kemenjadian
bidang kokurikulum di sesebuah sekolah.
Pernyataan Masalah
Bahagian Naziran KPM (2010) yang mengkaji pelaksanaan kokurikulum mendapati kegiatan
kokurikulum di sekolah-sekolah kurang mendapat minat daripada murid dan guru berpunca
daripada kelemahan pengetua dan guru besar dalam mengurus sumber manusia di sekolah.
Dapatan ini telah disokong oleh hasil tinjauan Bahagian Kokurikulum dan Kesenian (BKK),
KPM (2011) yang mendapati kegiatan ini tidak dilaksanakan sepenuhnya oleh pengetua dan
guru besar, maka implikasinya murid juga tidak berminat untuk menyertai aktiviti yang
dijalankan. Pelajar yang terlibat dengan aktiviti kokurikulum membolehkan mereka
menggunakan segala kemahiran yang ada bagi menjalankan sesuatu aktiviti dan ini
secara tidak langsung akan membolehkan mereka mengetengahkan bakat dan potensi diri
untuk digilap supaya menjadi lebih baik pada masa akan datang dan mampu bersaing dengan
rakan sebaya yang mempunyai pengalaman serta pengetahuan yang berbeza di antara satu
sama lain (Wardatul 2014). Penyertaan pelajar dalam sebarang aktiviti kokurikulum
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memberikan pelajar peluang untuk membangunkan bakat dan minat mereka di luar
persekitaran bilik darjah yang formal. Pelbagai sumber dan contoh telah dikemukakan
untuk membuktikan bahawa kepentingan kokurikulum sebagai wadah paling sesuai dan
realistik untuk membangunkan pelajar yang holistik serta berfikir diluar kotak pemikiran
(Ahmad Esa, Mohd Khir Mohd Nor, Nawawi Jusoh, Norashidah Abd Rahman, & Zalinah
Salehon, 2015). Kajian oleh Mohd Nor (2013) jelas menunjukkan bahawa wujud korelasi yang
tinggi antara peranan pengetua sebagai pengurus kokurikulum dengan tahap penglibatan murid
dalam aktiviti yang dijalankan. Menurut beliau, sekiranya peranan pengetua sebagai pengurus
kokurikulum pada tahap yang tinggi, maka penglibatan murid dalam kegiatan ini juga akan
meningkat.
Kerangka Konseptual Kajian

Kerangka konseptual kajian peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum sekolah-
sekolah kebangsaan di zon Cheras, Selangor ini berasaskan garis panduan daripada Buku
Panduan Pengurusan Sekolah-Sekolah Menengah dan Rendah (1993) yang antaranya terdapat
komponen-komponen yang diadaptasi daripada Model Pengurusan Stoner, Freeman dan
Gilbert (1995) serta Model Rangka Kepimpinan oleh Bolman dan Deal (1991). Teori
Pengurusan oleh Stoner, Freeman dan Gilbert (1995) telah mendefinisikan bahawa pengurusan
adalah merupakan proses merancang, mengelola, memimpin dan mengawal kerja-kerja ahli
organisasi yang ada untuk mencapai matlamat organisasi yang telah ditetapkan. Rasional
pemilihan teori ini dalam kajian adalah berdasarkan kepada peranan guru besar sebagai
pengurus di sekolah juga mempunyai persamaan dengan organisasi luar.
PERANAN GURU
BESAR DALAM
FAKTOR
PENGURUSAN
DEMOGRAFI
KOKURIKULM
TAHAP
1..JANTINA GURU 1. PEMIMPIN
PENCAPAIAN
2.GRED SEKOLAH 2. PENGELOLA KOKURIKULUM
3.PENGALAMAN 3. PERANCANG SEKOALAH
BERTUGAS
4. PENYELIA
Rajah 1. Kerangka Konsep Kajian
KAJIAN LITERATUR
Terdapat banyak kajian lepas yang menunjukkan pengurusan yang baik oleh pentadbir sekolah
mempengaruhi keberkesanan gerak kerja kokurikulum di sesebuah sekolah. Kajian Nor Suhara
(2011) menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor kepimpinan dan peranan
yang dimainkan oleh pengetua dengan kecemerlangan kokurikulum sekolah. Kajian ini
disokong oleh Norziana (2013), yang mendapati pengetua mempunyai tugas dan
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tanggungjawab menguruskan pelaksanaan aktiviti kokurikulum di sekolah secara

keseluruhannya iaitu dengan mengagih tugas kepada guru-guru, menyelia program, mengawal
tingkah laku pelajar, memilih jurulatih dan menguatkuasakan dasar terhadap penggunaan
kemudahan dan peralatan
Jaggil, Baharom, Shukri dan Mohd Yusof (2011) dalam kajian mereka tentang sikap guru
terhadap aktiviti kokurikulum dan hubungannya dengan amalan pengurusan kokurikulum
dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah mendapati pengetua harus memantau ketua-ketua guru
penasihat kokurikulum agar sentiasa mengamalkan pengurusan persatuan masing-masing pada
tahap yang tinggi. Perbincangan harus dilakukan dan pandangan mereka diambil kira dalam
perancangan tahunan sekolah. Lebih dari itu, penghargaan dan pengiktirafan terhadap
pencapaian kokurikulum perlu diberikan setiap tahun dan aktiviti kokurikulum pula diberikan
penekanan sewajarnya di sekolah.
Kajian Burnham (2010) pula mendapati setiap aktiviti, kegiatan atau pengurusan perlu
disasarkan untuk mencapai objektif peningkatan kepengetahuan dan kemenjadian manusia
secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu bermula dengan persediaan mentadbir, mengelola,
komunikasi dan membuat keputusan yang dilakukan secara efektif dan strategik. Ini kerana
keseluruhan objektif pengurusan kokurikulum yang baik adalahbertujuan untuk melihat
keberkesanan pelaksanaan, memudahkan pemantauan, keperluan membuat penilaian,
mempertingkat dan memperbaiki pencapaian, mencemerlangkan dan melaksanakan aktiviti
yang diwajibkan sebagaimana yang telah ditetapkan oleh organisasi masing-masing.
PERBINCANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN

S1.Tahap peranan guru besar dari segi perspektif guru penasihat dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sebagai pemimpin
Secara keseluruhannya peranan guru besar dari segi perspektif guru penasihat dalam
pengurusan kokurikulum sebagai pemimpin berada pada tahap sangat tinggi (min = 4.4172 dan
sp = 0.20543). Bagi setiap item dalam peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum
sebagai pemimpin menunjukkan item yang mempunyai min yang paling tinggi ialah guru besar
mempunyai pengetahuan yang mencukupi untuk mengurus kokurikulum (min = 4.5385 dan sp
= 0.51678 ). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan menunjukkan seramai 335 (99.1%) guru
penasihat menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju dan seramai 3 orang (0.88%) guru penasihat
yang menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju. Seterusnya min yang paling rendah pula
ialah bagi item guru besar sentiasa berbincang dengan guru-guru penasihat kokurikulum untuk
tujuan penambahbaikan (min = 4.1805 dan sp =0.46857). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan
menunjukkan seramai 328 orang (97.04%) guru penasihat menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju
dan seramai 10 orang (2.96%) guru penasihat menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju.
Dapatan untuk aspek guru besar sebagai pemimpin kokurikulum dalam kajian di atas
menunjukkan persepsi guru penasihat terhadap peranan kepimpinan guru besar di sekolah
kebangsaan zon Cheras adalah sangat tinggi. Kepimpinan sekolah iatu guru besar dilihat
mampu menjadikan pelaksanaan aktiviti kokurikulum mencapai tahap terbaik dengan sokongan
guru penolong kanan kokurikulum dan semua guru penasihat.
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kokurikulum sebagai pengelola.
Secara keseluruhannya peranan guru besar dari segi perspektif guru dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sebagai pengelola berada pada tahap sangat tinggi (min = 4.3605 dan sp =
0.226093). Bagi setiap item dalam peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum sebagai
pengelola menunjukkan item yang mempunyai min yang paling tinggi ialah guru besar
menentukan komponen dan menubuhkan unit-unit kokurikulum yang sesuai dengan minat
pelajar (min = 3.90 dan sp = 0.870). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan menunjukkan seramai
335 orang (99.1%) guru penasihat menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju dan seramai 3 orang
(0.89%) guru penasihat yang menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju. Seterusnya bagi
item yang mempunyai min yang paling rendah ialah guru besar menyediakan buku panduan
aktiviti kokurikulum (min 4.0444= dan sp = 0.46966). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan
dan seramai 30 orang (8.875 %) guru menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju. Guru
besar sekolah yang terlibat dalam kajian ini didipati telah melaksanakan peranannya dengan
baik dan jawatankuasa kokurikulum sekolah berfungsi dengan sepatutnya. Selain itu, guru
besar juga menyediakan panduan bagi mengelolakan aktiviti yang berkaitan kokurikulum di
samping menyediakan dengan secukupnya input dan kemudahan yang terdapat di sekolah
untuk dijadikan panduan oleh guru-guru dalam menjalankan kokurikulum dan telah
menentukan bidang tugas bersesuaian dengan minat dan bakat yang ada pada mereka.
kokurikulum sebagai perancang
Secara keseluruhannya peranan guru besar dari segi perspektif guru dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sebagai perancang berada pada tahap sangat tinggi (min = 4.4700 dan sp=
0.20872). Bagi setiap item dalam peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum sebagai
perancang menunjukkan item yang mempunyai min yang paling tinggi ialah guru besar
memastikan tugas-tugas khusus guru yang terlibat dan tanggungjawab guru ditentukan dengan
jelas (min = 4.5769 dan sp = 0.50074). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan menunjukkan
bahawa seramai 337 orang (99.7%) guru penasihat menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju dan
seramai 1 orang (0.33%) guru penasihat menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju.
Seterusnya item yang mempunyai min yang paling rendah ialah guru besar memastikan dasar-
dasar utama yang digubal oleh ketua kokurikulum selaras dengan misi dan visi sekolah (min =
4.4083 dan sp = 0.51001). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan menunjukkan seramai 335 orang
(99.11%) guru penasihat menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju dan seramai 3 orang (0.80%)
guru penasihat menyatakan tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju.
kokurikulum sebagai penyelia.
Secara keseluruhannya peranan guru besar dari segi perspektif guru penasihat dalam
pengurusan kokurikulum sebagai penyelia berada pada tahap sangat tinggi (min = 4.5013 dan
sp = 0.14322 ). Bagi setiap item dalam peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum
sebagai penyelia menunjukkan item yang mempunyai min yang paling tinggi ialah guru besar
menitikberatkan keselamatan pelajar semasa aktivti kokurikulum dijalankan sama ada dalam
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dan luar sekolah (min = 4.6183dan sp = 0.49257). Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan
dan seramai 1 orang (0.30%) guru penasihat menyatakan tidak setuju. Seterusnya bagi item
yang mempunyai min yang paling rendah ialah guru besar memastikan pencapaian semua
pelajar dalam aktiviti kokurikulum direkodkan dengan sempurna (min = 4.2959 sp = 0.46991).
Dari segi kekerapan dan peratusan menunjukkan seramai 336 orang (99.40%) guru penasihat
menyatakan setuju dan sangat setuju dan seramai 2 orang (0.60 %) guru penasihat menyatakan
tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju.
S5.Perbezaan perpektif guru penasihat terhadap peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sekolah berdasarkan gred sekolah.
Jadual 1. Perbezaan faktor gred sekolah
T DF SIG
PEMIMPIN -.728 336 .467
PENGELOLA 2.006 336 .046
PERANCANG .253 336 .800
PENYELIA 3.006 336 .003

Jadu
al 1, menunjukkan perbezaan bagi faktor gred sekolah. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan tidak
terdapat perbezaan antara sekolah gred A dan B terhadap kepimpinan apabila nilai signifikan
.467. Begitu juga dengan dapatan kajian terhadap aspek perancang dimana nilai signifikan
.800. Namun begitu, bagi aspek pengelola dan penyelia, terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di
mana nilai signifikan adalah .046 dan .003.Keseluruhan dapatan kajian dalam aspek sebagai
pemimpin, pengelola, perancang dan penyelia mendapati menurut perspektif guru-guru
penasihat kokurikulum, guru besar di sekolah gred A dan B dapat menjalankan peranan mereka
sebagai pengurus dan pemimpin kokurikulum sekolah dengan berkesan.
S6.Perbezaan perspektif guru penasihat terhadap peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sekolah berdasarkan jantina.
Jadual 2. Perbezaan faktor jantina
t df Sig
Pemimpin -3.071 336 .002
Pengelola -2.882 336 .004
Perancang -2.980 336 .003
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Penyelia -2.111 336 .035
Jadual 2, menunjukkan perbezaan bagi faktor jantina. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan antara jantina lelaki dan perempuan terhadap kesemua aspek tahap
perspektif guru penasihat terhadap peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan kokurikulum. Aspek
sebagai pemimpin mendapat .002, sebagai pengelola .004, aspek perancang .003 serta penyelia
.035. Keseluruhannya, kajian ini mendapati dalam keempat-empat dimensi pengurusan, guru-
guru penasihat perempuan mempunyai perspektif yang lebih tinggi berbanding perspektif yang
diberikan oleh guru-guru penasihat lelaki.
S7.Perbezaan perspektif guru penasihat terhadap peranan guru besar dalam pengurusan
kokurikulum sekolah berdasarkan pengalaman bertugas.
Dapatan kajian ini keseluruhannya menggambarkan bahawa tempoh berkhidmat seseorang
guru penasihat mempengaruhi perspektif terhadap peranan dan tugas yang dimainkan oleh guru
besar di sekolahnya. Hal ini berkemungkinan semakin panjang tempoh berkhidmat seseorang,
semakin banyak pengharapan yang diberikan kepada guru besar dalam memastikan
kecemerlangan sekolah dapat dicapai. Tempoh mengajar mungkin tidak mempengaruhi
persepsi guru-guru tentang peranan yang perlu dimainkan oleh guru besar dalam pelaksanaan
inovasi kurikulum.Secara keseluruhannya kajian ini mendapati peranan guru besar dalam
pengurusan kokurikulum di sekolah kajian berada pada tahap tinggi. Peranan dalam keempat-
empat aspek pengurusan berjaya dilaksanakan dengan baik dan berkesan. Sebaliknya terdapat
sedikit perbezaan yang signifikan perspektif guru penasihat terhadap peranan guru besar
berdasarkan jantina guru, gred sekolah dan pengalaman bertugas guru.
Kesimpulan
Kajian yang telah dijalankan ini mendapati pemimpin sekolah iaitu guru besar di sekolah-
sekolah kajian dapat memainkan peranan sebagai pengurus sekolah dan pengurus kokurikulum
dengan cemerlang daripada aspek-aspeek yang dikaji. Namun terdapat perbezaan dari sudut
perspektif guru penasihat berdasarkan gred sekolah, jantina dan pengalaman bertugas.
Walaupun kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa guru besar sangat berperanan sebagai pengurus
kokurikulum, faktor-faktor lain juga turut membantu kepada pencapaian cemerlang aktiviti
kokurikulum di sekolah. Bagi menjamin keberkesanan pengurusan dan pelaksanaan
kokurikulum, guru besar, penolong kanan kokurikulum serta guru-guru penasihat harus
bersama menggembleng idea dan tenaga agar matlamat yang ditetapkan dapat dicapai dengan
jayanya. Guru besar perlu mempunyai perancangan yang strategik untuk menentukan hala tuju
yang jelas agar dapat difahami yang diterima oleh seluruh jawatankuasa kokurikulum sekolah.
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Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.KPM.
Mohd Fauzi Hashim. 2011. Peranan dan komitmen pengetua dalam pengurusan kokurikulum
sekolah- sekolah menengah daerah Temerloh di negeri Pahang. Kertas Projek
Sarjana. Universiti Malaya.
Nor Suhara Haji Fadzil dan Jamil Ahmad. 2011. Kepentingan kokurikulum dalam pendidikan
di sekolah menengah. Prosiding Seminar Pendidikan Guru Antarabangsa.
Bandung. 8-10 November 2010. hlm. 59-69
Nor Ziana Ayob.2013.Peranan Pengetua dalam Pengurusan Kokurikulum dari Perspektif Guru
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Zon Keramat.Kertas Projek Sarjana. Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025.Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Rubaiya Abu Nawas. 2006. Peranan pengetua dalam pelaksanaan inovasi kurikulum di
beberapa buah sekolah di negeri Melaka. Kertas Projek Sarjana. Universiti
Malaya.
Stoner, J.A., Freeman, R.E., & Gilbert, D.R. (1995). Management (6th ed.).Englewood
Cliffs,New Jersey Prentice Hall, Inc.
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TAHAP STRES DALAM KALANGAN GURU PRASEKOLAH

DI DAERAH KUALA SELANGOR
Shamsul Rizal Bin Mohd Judi1*, Prof Madya Dr Khalim Bin

1
Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
Pusat Citra, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak: Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tahap stres serta faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhinya di kalangan guru prasekolah. Seramai 52 orang guru di daerah Kuala
Selangor telah dipilih sebagai responden dalam kajian ini. Faktor stres dikaji dari aspek
bebanan kerja, hubungan interpersonal dan hubungan pentadbir. Instrumen kajian yang
digunakan adalah borang soal selidik. Kaedah kajian yang digunakan adalah kaedah tinjauan
dan pensampelan dilakukan secara rawak kelompok. Data-data dianalisis menggunakan
perisian Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) for Windows. Statistik deskriptif iaitu
frekuensi dan min digunakan untuk menganalisis tahap stres manakala statistik inferens
menggunakan analisis ujian ANOVA sehala. Hasil dapatan kajian dinyatakan dalam bentuk
deskriptif (frekuensi dan peratusan). Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa guru prasekolah
mengalami tahap stres yang rendah. Ini menunjukkan bahawa tahap stres tidak dipengaruhi
oleh personaliti responden. Faktor-faktor seperti bebanan kerja, hubungan interpersonal dan
hubungan pentadbir-guru tidak mempengaruhi tahap stres guru prasekolah
Kata kunci: hubungan pentadbir guru, beban tugas, tahap stres, stres guru
Abstract: This study aims at identifying the level of stress as well as factors that influence it
among pre-school teachers. A total of 52 teachers in the district of Kuala Selangor were
selected as respondents in this study. Stress factors were examined in terms of workload,
interpersonal relationships and administrator-teacher relationship. The research instrument used
is a questionnaire. The research method used was survey method and sampling was randomly
selected. Data were analysed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) for
Windows software. Descriptive statistics of frequency and mean were used to analyse the stress
level while inferential statistics used ANOVA one-way analysis. The results of the study were
expressed in descriptive form (frequency and percentage). The findings showed that pre-
primary school teachers experienced low stress levels. This showed that the level of stress was
not influenced by the respondents' personality as well as factors such as workload,
interpersonal relationships and administrator-teacher relationship.
Keywords: administrator-teacher relationship, task load, stress level, teacher stress
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1. Pengenalan
Stres atau tekanan membawa maksud apa sahaja pengaruh yang mengganggu keseimbangan
semula jadi tubuh badan (Stranks, 2005). Stranks menyatakan bahawa stres akan menyebabkan
tindak balas perubahan persekitaran, psikologi, perasaan kelesuan dalam masa yang panjang
kerana kegagalan untuk menanggung masalah, kebolehan dan keupayaan bagi memenuhi
kehendak tertentu. Stres merupakan pengalaman yang dihadapi dalam kehidupan manusia yang
berpunca daripada peristiwa kehidupan sama ada dalam bentuk fizikal, sosial dan psikologi.
Dalam hal ini, guru yang menghadapi stres adalah guru yang tidak dapat mengawal emosi
mereka terhadap perubahan budaya pendidikan yang bukan sahaja untuk memberi ilmu
pengetahuan tetapi perlu mendidik manusia agar menjadi masyarakat yang berguna.
Stres dilihat menyumbang kepada kurangnya kepuasan kerja di kalangan warga pendidik. Stres
yang dialami menjejaskan prestasi kerja guru. Untuk itu pihak-pihak yang berkenaan perlu
mencari jalan penyelesaian agar golongan guru prasekolah ini tidak tertekan dan mereka
mampu memberi sepenuh komitmen terhadap tugas dan tanggungjawab yang diberi dalam
memastikan kualiti pendidikan negara berada pada tahap yang cemerlang
Menurut Sapora Sipon (2007) guru yang gagal mengawal diri akibat stres akan memberi kesan
kepada perhubungan antara guru dengan pelajar dan juga kualiti dalam aspek pengajaran dan
pembelajaran guru itu sendiri. Keadaan ini sekali gus boleh menjejaskan kualiti pendidikan dan
juga profesion perguruan dan ini secara tidak langsung akan membantutkan usaha mewujudkan
sebuah masyarakat yang mampu membawa negara ke tahap yang lebih cemerlang dan
gemilang khususnya mutu pendidikan. Stres kerja yang tinggi akan membawa kepada rasa
tidak puas hati terhadap kerja yang dilakukan dan akhirnya sikap suka mengelak dan
mengabaikan kerja akan terhasil. Ia juga akan menyebabkan suasana kerja yang teruk dan
membawa kepada keinginan untuk meninggalkan profesion keguruan.
Dalam kajian ini, penyelidik ingin mengkaji tahap stres guru-guru prasekolah sekolah rendah di
Kuala Selangor dengan memberi tumpuan kepada bebanan tugas, penghargaan dan sokongan
dari pentadbir dan hubungan sesama rakan sekerja yang menyumbang kepada stres guru. Stres
di tempat kerja memberi pengaruh yang tinggi terhadap mutu perkhidmatan, kepuasan dan
sikap terhadap kerja. Tahap stres yang tinggi akan mengakibatkan kemerosotan mutu kerja
(Ambotang & Hashim, 2002). Justeru itu, tahap stres dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya
sangat penting untuk dikaji bagi mengelakkan lebih banyak perkara buruk yang melanda
institusi pendidikan negara kita.
Stres adalah satu keadaan dinamik di mana individu menghadapi sesuatu peluang atau
permintaan berkaitan dengan apa yang dikehendaki di mana hasil yang diterima itu adalah
tidak pasti dan tidak penting (Robbins dan Stephen, 2000). Menurut Sidi H dan Shaharom
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H.M, (2002), stres merupakan sebahagian daripada kehidupan manusia sejak dahulu lagi tanpa
disedari. Ia berubah wajah mengikut peredaran masa
Stres merupakan satu desakan atau paksaan yang diterima oleh seseorang. Ada yang merujuk
stres kerja dari sudut sosial iaitu tindak balas tingkah laku daripada satu individu kepada
individu yang lain. Kebanyakan literatur menyatakan apabila pekerja tidak berupaya memenuhi
kehendak tugas yang diarahkan maka akan wujud stres terhadapnya.
Stres sering berlaku dalam kehidupan dan sangat berkait rapat dengan amalan gaya hidup,
tingkah laku seseorang, masalah kekeluargaan, pembangunan dalam proses urbanisasi dan
kejutan budaya terhadap pemodenan yang pesat. Stres di tempat kerja terjadi apabila keperluan
kerja tidak bersesuaian dengan kebolehan, sumber dan kehendak pekerja yang mana ia
memberi kesan terhadap psikologi dan fisiologi manusia (Jamaludin et al.,2012). Conley dan
Woosley (2000) menyatakan bahawa kajian mengenai stres adalah sangat penting dan perlu
dilakukan dalam memahami kesan persekitaran kontemporari ke atas individu. Istilah stres
mula digunakan sekitar tahun 50-an apabila beberapa kajian permulaan mula dilakukan oleh
para pengkaji yang berminat dengan stres atau tekanan.
Menurut Reiman dan Edelfelt (2004), seseorang guru perlu memainkan pelbagai peranan,
seperti sebagai seorang individu professional, guru kepada pelajar, ahli dalam hierarki staf,
individu yang berhubung dengan ibu bapa dan masyarakat, rakan sejawat kepada lain-lain
pendidik profesional, ahli dalam sesebuah persatuan profesional dan sebagainya. Esah
Sulaiman (2003), menyatakan tugas guru masa kini tidak setakat mengajar sahaja malah
meliputi aspek pengurusan misalnya mengendalikan rekod pelajar, pengutipan yuran, skim
pinjaman buku teks, kedatangan pelajar dan laporan prestasi pelajar. Di samping itu, guru juga
mempunyai tugas dalam panitia mata pelajaran masing-masing untuk menyebar dan memantau
pelaksanaan kurikulum dan sukatan pelajaran. Selain itu guru juga terlibat dalam melaksanakan
ko-kurikulum sekolah, menghadiri kursus, menjalankan penyelidikan dan lain-lain lagi. Semua
tugas yang banyak ini memaksa guru menumpukan perhatian masa dan tenaga kepada pelbagai
jenis komitmen yang boleh menjejaskan pengajaran serta peningkatan profesionalisme.
Pekerjaan sebagai guru sentiasa berhadapan dengan berbagai cabaran, merasai pelbagai
pengalaman pahit manis, kegembiraan dan juga kekecewaan. Anggapan masyarakat bahawa
tugas guru selama lima hari adalah menyeronokkan dan mendapat cuti yang banyak adalah
tidak tepat. Stres yang berpanjangan atau teruk akan memberi kesan negatif kepada gangguan
mental seseorang dan kesihatan fizikal (Health and Safety Executive, 2001; Cooper et al.,
2001). Menurut Zafir dan Fazilah (2006) stres yang berterusan akan menyebabkan individu
menunjukkan kemurungan yang panjang dan pekerja gagal membuat keputusan dengan baik,
mudah merasa bimbang, takut dan cepat marah dan menggugat prestasi kerja mereka dan
produktiviti organisasi.
Sesetengah guru mengalami perasaan tertekan dan memikirkan atau mengambil keputusan
untuk berhenti atau bersara sebelum sampai umur persaraan disebabkan ketidakpuasan kerja,
peranan yang kabur dan beban kerja yang tinggi (Lim, 2005). Jamaludin et al (2012)
menjelaskan bahawa stres boleh memberi kesan sama ada kesan negatif atau positif pada
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seseorang. Ahghar (2008) mendapati bahawa 40% daripada pensampelan responden guru di
Tehran dilaporkan mengalami tahap stres pada aras sederhana. Phillips et al. (2007) mendapati
bahawa stres yang berkaitan dengan kerja di Great Britain yang dialami oleh 43% daripada
responden adalah guru. Di China, 80.3% daripada guru yang dikaji mempunyai tahap stres
kerja yang sederhana (Pei & Gouli, 2007).
Menurut kenyataan Kesatuan Perkhidmatan Pendidikan Kebangsaan (NUTP), permasalahan

perkhidmatan, tekanan kerja, konflik peranan, kekaburan peranan, ketiadaan satu sistem
sokongan sosial dari pengetua dan rakan sekerja yang kukuh dan rangkaian masalah lain yang
tidak diselesaikan dengan adil dan memuaskan telah mengakibatkan ramai guru meletakkan
jawatan, bertukar ke profesion lain atau memohon bersara awal dari profesion perguruan.
Paling menyedihkan ialah ada antara guru ini menghadapi tekanan psikologi dan mental yang
sengaja membahayakan diri mereka sendiri malahan terhadap pelajar yang diajar di sekolah.
Bagi kehidupan seorang guru, stres yang dihadapi dalam pekerjaannya akan mempengaruhi
prestasi kerja dan pencapaian murid yang rendah. Ini disebabkan guru kurang mengambil berat
tentang pengajarannya menyebabkan terganggunya perkembangan pembelajaran murid.
Faktor-faktor yang dikenal pasti menghasilkan stres guru termasuk pengurusan bilik darjah,
pertambahan beban tugas, tingkah laku pelajar dan kekurangan sokongan pihak pengurusan
(Pervez & Hanif, 2003; Bachkirova et al., 2005).
Metodologi
Kajian ini adalah bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tahap stres guru-guru prasekolah di daerah
Kuala Selangor. Tinjauan dilakukan untuk mengumpulkan maklumat-maklumat berkenaan
tahap stres guru-guru prasekolah. Maklumat-maklumat juga diperoleh berdasarkan kepada
jawapan soal selidik yang dijalankan dengan pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah yang telah
ditentukan, rujukan dokumen, artikel-artikel, jurnal dan projek disertasi terdahulu.
Kajian yang dijalankan adalah berbentuk tinjauan data dan melibatkan kajian untuk mengenal
pasti tahap stres serta hubungannya. Selain itu, penyelidik turut mengkaji faktor demografi
guru seperti jantina, umur, tahap pendidikan dan pengalaman mengajar terhadap tahap stres
guru-guru. Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji ingin mengkaji tahap stres di kalangan guru dari aspek
bebanan kerja, hubungan persekitaran dan pentadbir sekolah.
Kajian yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji adalah bersifat kuantitatif. Pengkajian kuantitatif
melibatkan pengumpulan data berangka, yang dianalisis untuk menjawab secara terperinci
mengkhususkan kepada soalan kajian.
Populasi dan Sampel Kajian

Populasi kajian adalah di kalangan guru-guru prasekolah di daerah Kuala Selangor. Sampel
yang diambil adalah seramai 52 orang guru prasekolah di daerah Kuala Selangor.
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Instrumen Kajian
Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah tinjauan kerana ia boleh memenuhi objektif kajian ini. Ia juga
sesuai digunakan untuk mengumpul maklumat bagi keadaan semasa. Menurut Chua (2013),
kaedah tinjauan bertujuan untuk mendapatkan maklumat yang boleh menjelaskan suatu
fenomena semasa dengan menyoal individu tentang persepsi, sikap, tingkah laku atau penilaian
mereka. Instrumen kajian adalah satu set soal selidik lepas yang telah diubahsuai oleh
penyelidik.
Borang soal selidik yang digunakan berskala Likert ( skala 5) terdiri dari dua bahagian iaitu
bahagian A mewakili data demografi responden (5 item) dan bahagian B mewakili item
pemboleh ubah tahap stres (10 item), beban kerja (10 item) dan pentadbir sekolah ( 10 item).
Tatacara Penganalisisan Data

Program Statistical package of Social Science ( SPSS ) for Window version 20.0 digunakan
untuk mendapatkan kekerapan dan peratusan. Item-item pada bahagian A diuji berdasarkan
ujian statistik frekuensi bagi mendapatkan nilai kekerapan dan peratusan.
Item pada bahagian B pula ia berkaitan dengan tahap stres yang merangkumi faktor-faktor stres
yang telah ditetapkan oleh pengkaji iaitu beban kerja, masalah interpersonal dan masalah
pelajar serta hubungan pentadbir yang menjadi keutamaan diuji berdasarkan statistik frekuensi.
ANALISIS DATA DAN DAPATAN KAJIAN

Latar belakang responden
Taburan Responden Mengikut Jantina
Jadual 4.1 menunjukkan taburan responden mengikut jantina. Dalam kajian terdapat 8 orang
(15.4%) responden lelaki dan seramai 44 orang (84.6%) responden perempuan.
Jadual 4.1 Taburan Responden Mengikut Jantina
Jantina Kekerapan peratus (% )
Lelaki 8 15.4
Perempuan 44 84.6
Jumlah 52 100
Taburan Responden Mengikut Umur

Jadual 4.2 Taburan Responden Mengikut Umur
Umur Kekerapan peratus (% )
21- 30 4 7.7
31 – 40 26 50
41 – 50 20 38.5
51 – 60 2 3.8
Jumlah 52 100
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Jadual 4.2 menunjukkan taburan responden mengikut umur. Terdapat 4 kategori umur iaitu 4
(7.7%) responden berumur kurang 21 - 30 tahun, 26 orang (50%) responden berada dalam
lingkungan umur 31 - 40 tahun, 20 orang (38.5%) responden berada dalam lingkungan umur 41
- 50 tahun, manakala 2 orang ( 3.8 %) responden dari kategori umur 51 - 60 tahun.
Taburan Responden Mengikut Pengalaman Mengajar

Jadual 4.3 Taburan Responden Pengalaman Mengajar
Pengalaman Mengajar kekerapan peratus (% )

1–5 3 5.8
6 – 10 15 28.8
11 – 15 20 38.5
16 – 20 6 11.5
21 – 25 8 15.4
25 – 30 0 0
Jumlah 52 100
Jadual 4.3 menunjukkan taburan responden mengikut pengalaman mengajar. Responden yang
mempunyai pengalaman mengajar kurang daripada 5 tahun merupakan taburan responden yang
tersedikit iaitu 3 orang (5.8 %). Ini diikuti dengan 15 orang (28.8 %) responden yang
mempunyai pengalaman mengajar dalam lingkungan 6 - 10 tahun. Seterusnya seramai 20 orang
( 38.5 %) untuk pengalaman mengajar 11 hingga 15 tahun, 6 orang ( 11.5 % ) untuk 21 hingga
25 tahun. Manakala terdapat 8 orang (15.4%) responden yang mempunyai pengalaman
mengajar dalam lingkungan 21 hingga 25 tahun. Tiada responden yang mempunyai
pengalaman lebih 25 tahun.
Taburan Responden Mengikut Kelulusan Akademik

Jadual 4.4 Taburan Responden Kelulusan Akademik
Kelululusan Akademik kekerapan peratus (% )
Bukan Siswazah
Diploma 2 3.8
Siswazah
Ijazah 47 90.4
Sarjana 3 5.8
PHD 0 0
Jumlah 52 100
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Jadual 4.4 menunjukkan taburan responden mengikut kelulusan akademik. Seramai 2 orang
iaitu (3.8 %) responden berkelulusan Diploma. Terdapat 47 orang (90.4%) responden yang
berkelulusan Ijazah Sarjana Muda, 3 orang ( 5.8 % ) berkelulusan Sarjana dan tiada yang
berkelulusan di peringkat PhD.
Pengujian Hipotesis
Analisis berikut bertujuan untuk meninjau sama ada terdapat perbezaan signifikan kepuasan
kerja berdasarkan pembolehubah-pembolehubah yang dikaji sebagaimana yang dinyatakan di
dalam hipotesis nol (Ho) yang dibentuk sebelum ini. Ujian parametrik yang melibatkan
penggunaan Analisis Varian (ANOVA) Sehala telah digunakan untuk menguji 3 hipotesis nol
dalam kajian ini.
Tahap Stres Dengan Umur

Ho1: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan tahap stres dalam kalangan guru prasekolah
mengikut peringkat umur
Jadual 4.5 : Ujian ANOVA sehala bagi melihat perbezaan tahap stres mengikut umur
Umur N Mean Std. Deviation

21-30 4 4.24 .228
31-40 26 4.01 .456
41-50 20 4.08 .300
51-60 2 3.92 .071
Total 52 4.05 .379
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Between
.240 3 .080 .544 .655
Groups
Within
7.076 48 .147
Groups
Total 7.317 51
Ujian ANOVA sehala digunakan untuk menguji perbezaan nilai dalam kalangan guru
prasekolah yang mempunyai peringkat umur yang berbeza. Nilai keseluruhan ialah F(3,48 )=
0.544, p=0.655 (p>0.05), Secara keseluruhannya, faktor-faktor ini tidak menunjukkan
perbezaan yang signifikan berdasarkan umur. Oleh itu hipotesis Ho2 yang menyatakan tidak
terdapat perbezaan signifikan tahap stres dalam kalangan guru prasekolah mengikut peringkat
umur diterima. Ini bermakna tidak wujud perbezaan yang signifikan kepuasan kerja dalam
kalangan guru prasekolah berdasarkan peringkat umur. Rumusannya tidak terdapat perbezaan
yang signifikan tahap stres guru prasekolah mengikut umur.
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Tahap Stres Dengan Pengalaman Kerja

mengikut pengalaman mengajar
Jadual 4.6 : Ujian ANOVA sehala bagi melihat perbezaan tahap stres mengikut pengalaman mengajar
Pengalaman N Mean Std. Deviation

1-5 3 4.03 .549
6-10 15 3.95 .467
11-15 20 4.15 .335
16-20 6 4.03 .209
21-25 8 4.00 .362
Total 52 4.05 .379
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Between
.396 4 .099 .673 .614
Groups
Within
6.920 47 .147
Groups
Total 7.317 51
prasekolah yang mempunyai tempoh pengalaman mengajar yang berbeza. Nilai keseluruhan
ialah F(4,47)= 0.673, p=0.614 (p>0.05), Secara keseluruhannya, faktor-faktor ini tidak
menunjukkan perbezaan yang signifikan berdasarkan pengalaman mengajar. Oleh itu hipotesis
Ho3 yang menyatakan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan tahap stres dalam kalangan guru
prasekolah mengikut pengalaman mengajar adalah diterima pada aras kebarangkalian 0.05. Ini
bermakna tidak wujud perbezaan yang signifikan kepuasan kerja dalam kalangan guru
prasekolah berdasarkan pengalaman mengajar. Rumusannya tidak terdapat perbezaan yang
signifikan kepuasan kerja guru prasekolah.
Tahap Stres Dengan Tahap Pendidikan

mengikut tahap pendidikan
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Jadual 4.7 : Ujian ANOVA sehala bagi melihat perbezaan tahap stres mengikut tahap pendidikan
pendidikan N Mean Std. Deviation

Diploma 2 3.97 0.000
Ijazah 47 4.06 .398
Sarjana 3 3.97 0.000
Total 52 4.05 .379
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between
.038 2 .019 .127 .881
Groups
Within
7.279 49 .149
Groups
Total 7.317 51
prasekolah yang mempunyai taraf pendidikan yang berbeza. Nilai keseluruhan ialah F(2,49)=
0.127, p=0.881 (p>0.05), Secara keseluruhannya, faktor-faktor ini tidak menunjukkan
perbezaan yang signifikan berdasarkan taraf pendidikan. Oleh itu hipotesis Ho4 yang
menyatakan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan tahap stres dalam kalangan guru prasekolah
mengikut taraf pendidikan adalah diterima pada aras kebarangkalian 0.05. Ini bermakna tidak
wujud perbezaan yang signifikan tahap stres kerja dalam kalangan guru prasekolah berdasarkan
taraf pendidikan. Rumusannya tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan tahap stres kerja guru
prasekolah.
Hasil kajian membuktikan bahawa tekanan kerja yang dikaji adalah positif dan lemah dengan
komitmen organisasi. Namun begitu, ramai penyelidik telah memberi amaran bahawa jika
faktor-faktor yang menyumbang kepada stres guru dan burnout tidak ditangani dengan segera,
kesan negatif yang serius boleh berlaku (Akça & Yaman, 2010; Bolat et al, 2011; Coulter &
Abney, 2009; Davidson, 2009; Klassen, 2010). Dapatan kajian ini juga membuktikan ianya
selari dengan kajian lepas yang mendapati bahawa guru terdedah kepada banyak tekanan yang
berkaitan dengan kerja.
Dalam era pemodenan pada hari ini sering menampakkan perubahan terutamanya dalam bidang
pendidikan di Malaysia. Bidang pendidikan sentiasa mengalami perubahan dalam dasarnya dan
corak pembelajaran dan pengajaran guru dan pelajar (Woo, 2008). Justeru demi meningkatkan
komitmen guru prasekolah terhadap organisasi, seharusnya langkah-langkah awal dan bijak
perlu diberi perhatian serius agar usaha murni ini dapat direalisasikan. Langkah-langkah awal
yang boleh diambil ialah dengan melihat kepada kajian-kajian lepas yang telah dilakukan bagi
464
(ICBEISS 2019)
(eISBN: 978-967-16859-3-8)
meningkatkan komitmen terhadap organisasi di samping mengambil langkah bijak dengan

memilih dan mengaplikasikannya di dalam organisasi.
Rujukan
Abdul Said Ambotang & Muhamad Hisyam Mohd Hashim. (2011). Hubungan Iklim Kerja dan
Stress dalam Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dalam Kalangan Guru Pra-Sekolah. Universiti
Malaysia Sabah & Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Abdul Jawi Abnoh Sawi, Mohd Yusof Abdullah & Usang Ngambrang. (2015). Implikasi
Kepimpinan Pengetua, Kepuasan Kerja Guru dan Pengajaran Berkesan Guru Terhadap
Pembelajaran Pelajar. Institut Aminuddin Baki.
Eldrana Augustin Daniel, Helen Malaka, Noràzian Rohani, Mustafa Kamal Mohamad &
Rojiah Abdullah. (2005). Hubungan Punca Stress dan Tahap Stress di Kalangan Guru-
Guru di Sebuah Sekolah Menengah Agama Johor Bharu. Seminar Pendidikan. Fakulti
Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Fadilah Zaini, Mastura Mahfar & Nor Akmar Nordin. (2007). Analisis Faktor Penyebab Stress
dalam Kalangan Pelajar. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Fazura Mohd Noor, Mohd Burhan Ibrahim & Tajul Ashikin Jumahat. (2013). Faktor-faktor
Penentu Tekanan dalam Kalangan Guru di Sekolah Rendah Mubaligh Kuala Lumpur.
Jurnal Kurikulum & Pengajaran Asia Pasifik,
George, D. & Mallery, M. (2010). Using SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and
Reference. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Hart, P.M. & Cooper, C.L. (2001).
Occuptional Stress: Toward A More Integrated Framework
Irdiana Syaziera Hussien, Janet Ho Siew Ching, Mohd Fadzli Abu bakar & Nazra Jamaluddin.
(2005). Tekanan Guru dalam Pendidikan dan Resolusi Penyelesaian. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia.
Hamdan Hamami. (2013). Beban Tugas Guru di Sekolah Kebangsaan Daerah Kota Tinggi.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Haryati Kamaruddin. (2013). Faktor Tekanan Kerja dalam Kakitangan MAINS Holdings Sdn
Bhd. Universiti Terbuka Malaysia.
Jamaliah Abdul Hamid & Norhannan Ramli. (2006). Gaya Kepimpinan Pengetua Wanita
dengan Hubungan Terhadap Motivasi Guru di Sekolah. Jurnal Pendidikan, 3, 53-69
Johari Hassan & Nornazifah Md Suandi. (2010). Kajian Terhadap Stress di Kalangan Guru
Sekolah di Zon Permas Jaya, Johor Baru Dari Aspek Personaliti. Universtiti Teknologi
Malaysia.
Lim Kong Chiun. (2002). Persekitaran Kerja Dan Burnout Di Kalangan Guru Pendidikan
Jasmani Dan Sukan. National Human Resources Management Coference.
Mohd Fitri Bin Sahhari. (2010). Tahap Beban Tugas Guru Sekolah Menengah Di Daerah
Skudai. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Mohd Najib & Timah Naim. (2007). Penilaian Hubungan Kepimpinan Pengetua dengan Stress
Guru. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Muhammad Shazeli Ishak & Supli Effendi Rahim. (2007). Faktor-Faktor yang Mendorong
Tekanan Kerja dalam Kalangan Guru Pelatih (Pendidikan Kemahiran Hidup).
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
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(eISBN: 978-967-16859-3-8)
Mohd Razali Othman. (2000). Strategi Menangani Tekanan Di Kalangan Guru- Guru Sekolah
Menengah Zon A di Bahagian Kuching / Samarahan Sarawak. Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak.
Noornazifah Md Suandi. (2008). Kajian Terhadap Stress di kalangan Guru Sekolah Rendah di
Permas Jaya Johor Bharu dari Aspek Personaliti. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Safiah Hj Shain. (2006). Tahap Punca Tekanan dan Strategi Menangani Tekanan di Kalangan
Guru-guru Sekolah Rendah di Daerah Kota Samarahan, Sarawak. Institut Penyelidikan
Tun Abdul Razak
Sapora Sipon. (2010). Pengurusan Stres. Kursus Pengurusan Stres di Maktab Sabah. Sekolah
Psikologi dan Kerja Sosial. Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
466
International Conference on Business, Education,
Innovation & Social Sciences (ICBEISS 2019)
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Ts. Dr. Zahari Abu Bakar
Treasurer
Hanisah Taib
Technical Committee
Amirul Luqman
Rohaida Hanum Mohd Hassan
Mohd Khairil Anuar
Muhammad Aminuddin Zahari
Muhamad Firdaus Abdul Razab
Technical Reviewer
Dr. Safaie Mangir
Dr. Lee Khai Loon
Dr. Mohd Yazid Md Taib
Published by:
Asian Scholars Network
(002903215-H)
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ICBEISS 2019 Conference Proceeding (1)

Conference Paper · July 2019

Khin Thandar Aung

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Seri Pacific Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Asian Scholar Network (002903215-H)

International Conference on Business, Education, Innovation & Social

1. A CONCEPT PAPER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE

19. ISLAMIC EDUCATION NOVICE TEACHERS’ JOURNEY IN TRANSLATING

38. THE PRACTICES OF DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY OF ADAT-BASED

A CONCEPT PAPER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE

Background of the study

Statement of the problem

Moreover, there is addressing critical gaps in emergency nursing education requires an

Aim of the study

Objectives of the study

Phase 1: (Need Analysis Phase)

Phase 2: (Design & Development Phase)

Phase 3: (Implementation & Evaluation Phase)

Phase 2: (Design & Development phase)

Phase 3: (Implementation & Evaluation phase)

E- Learning and nursing education

MOOC and Emergency nursing Education

Connectivism Cognitivism Behaviourism

Proposed research design, method and procedure

Data collection procedure in each phase

Validity and reliability

of Lincoln &Guba such as credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability and

Liyanagunawardena, T. R., & Williams, S. A. (2014). Massive Open Online Courses on

7(14).1-6 PMID: 25512833. Retrieved from:

A STUDY ON PROTEAN AND BOUNDARYLESS CAREER

Dr. Meha Joshi1

Keywords: Millennials, Psychological well-being, Protean career

Boundaryless career mindset relates to boundaryless career attitude (mental mobility of

Psychological well being of employees

Objectives of the study

Hypotheses of the study

Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73)

Value Driven 4.25(.61)

Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43)

Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38)

Psychological Well Being of Employees 3.56(.59)

Factors Sub Dimensions Mean F Value P Value

Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73) 5.3 .042

Value Driven 4.25(.61) 6.8 .03

Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43) 5.8 .04

Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38) 12 .03

Psychological Well 3.56(.59) 1.56 .04

*at .05 level of significance

Protean Career Attitude Self Driven 3.56(.73) 6.8 .022*

Value Driven 4.25(.61) 23 .04*

Boundaryless Mindset Boundaryless Career Attitude 4.23(.43) 12 .01**

Physical Mobility Preferences 3.32(.38) 9.6 .02*

Psychological Well Being 3.56(.59) 4.9 .09

*at .05 level of significance

Protean Career Attitude Pearson Correlation 1 .738**

Sig. (2-Tailed) .001

Safety Pearson Correlation .738** 1