Protection for the Central Nervous System

Meninges:
• Three connective tissues covering and
protecting the CNS structures.
• Dura Mater- outermost layer, means
“tough or hard mother” Double layered
membrane that surrounds the brain:
a. Periosteal layer- attached to the inner
surface of the skull, forming
periosteum.
b. Meningeal layer-outermost covering
of the brain and continues as the dura
mater of the spinal cord.
• Dural Membrane extends inwards to form
a fold that attaches the brain to the Cranial
activity:
o falx (falks) cerebri and the
tentorium cerebelli- separate
cerebellum from the cerebrum
• Arachnoid mater the middle meningeal
layer, weblike. Its threadlike extensions
span the subarachnoid space to attach it
to the innermost membrane.
• Pia mater (“gentle mother”)- innermost,
delicate membrane.
• Arachnoid granulations specialized Hydrocephalus- “water on the brain.” causes the
projections of the arachnoid membrane head to enlarge as the brain increases in size.
Blood Brain Barrier- composed of the least
• Meningitis- an inflammation of the permeable capillaries in the whole body. These
meninges, is a serious threat to the brain capillaries are almost seamlessly bound together
because bacterial or viral meningitis may by tight junctions all around. Of water-soluble
spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS substances, only water, glucose, and essential
o Encephalitis- condition of brain amino acids pass easily through the walls of these
inflammation capillaries.
o Meningitis is usually diagnosed by
taking a sample of cerebrospinal
fluid from the subarachnoid space Brain Dysfunctions
surrounding the spinal cord.
Traumatic Brain Injuries
• Cerebrospinal Fluid- a watery “broth”
with components similar to blood plasma, • Concussion- brain injury is slight;
from which it forms. victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose
consciousness briefly, but typically
little permanent brain damage occurs.
• Contusion- results from marked tissue
destruction; cerebral cortex is injured,
the individual may remain conscious,
but severe brain stem contusions
always result in a coma lasting from
hours to a lifetime.
• Intracranial hemorrhage- bleeding
from ruptured vessels.
• Cerebral edema- swelling of the brain
due to inflammatory response to
injury.

Cerebrovascular Accidents
 • Commonly called strokes, occur when • Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal
blood circulation to a brain area is Roots- looks like a butterfly or the letter H in
blocked, as by a blood clot or a cross section.
ruptured blood vessel, and vital brain o Posterior Projections- dorsal horns,
tissue dies. or posterior horns
• Hemiplegia- one-sided paralysis o Anterior projections- are the ventral
• Aphasias- common result of damage horns, or anterior horns.
to the left cerebral hemisphere, where o Central canal- gray matter surrounds
the language areas are located. the central canal of the cord, which
o Motor aphasia- involves contains CSF.
damage to Broca’s area and a • The cell bodies of the sensory neurons, whose
loss of ability to speak fibers enter the cord by the dorsal root, are
o Sensory aphasia- person loses found in an enlarged area called the dorsal
the ability to understand root ganglion
written or spoken language. • The ventral horns of the gray matter contain
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA)- cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic
Temporary brain ischemia, or (voluntary) nervous system, which send their
restricted blood flow; symptoms such axons out the ventral root of the cord.
as numbness, temporary paralysis, and • The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the
impaired speech. spinal nerves
Flaccid paralysis- Damage to the ventral root;
nerve impulses do not reach the muscles affected;
Spinal Cord
thus, no voluntary movement of those muscles is
possible.
White matter of the spinal cord- composed of
myelinated fiber tracts—some running to higher
centers, some traveling from the brain to the cord,
and some conducting impulses from one side of
the spinal cord to the other.
• Three regions— dorsal column, lateral
column, and ventral column.

Tracts conducting sensory impulses

• sensory, or afferent, tracts
Carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal
muscles
• motor, or efferent, tracts.

Spastic paralysis- spinal cord is transected (cut

crosswise) or crushed. Movements are
involuntary and not controllable

• approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long, is a

glistening white continuation of the brain
stem.
• humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from
the cord and exit from the vertebral column to
serve the body area close by.
• Cauda equina- collection of spinal nerves at
the inferior end of the vertebral canal.
If the spinal cord injury occurs high in the cord, so
that all four limbs are affected, the individual is a
quadriplegic. If only the legs are paralyzed, the
individual is a paraplegic.
Peripheral Nervous System
• consists of nerves and scattered ganglia---
the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord.
Structure of the Nerve
Nerve- a bundle of neuron fibers found outside
the CNS
Endoneurium- Each fiber is surrounded by a
delicate connective tissue sheath called
endoneurium.
Perineurium- Groups of fibers are bound by a
coarser connective tissue wrapping, to form fiber
bundles, or fascicles.
Epineurium- all the fascicles are bound together
by a tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to form
the cordlike nerve

Sensory (afferent) nerves- nerves that carry

impulses only toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerve- nerves that carry only
motor fibers.
Mixed nerves- Nerves carrying both sensory and
motor fibers; all spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses
• Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves; • The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves
however, three pairs—the optic, olfactory, are formed by the combination of the
and vestibulocochlear nerves—are ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal
purely sensory in function. cord.
• Acoustic nerve- The older name for the • after being formed, each spinal nerve
vestibulocochlear nerve. , a name that divides into the dorsal ramus and
reveals its role in hearing but not in ventral ramus (plural rami [ra′mi]),
equilibrium. making each spinal nerve only about ½
• The first letter of each word in the saying is inch long
the first letter of the cranial nerve to be • smaller dorsal rami- serve the skin
remembered: and muscles of the posterior body
“Oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very trunk.
good velvet at home.”- • ventral rami of spinal nerves- T1
through T12 form the intercostal
nerves, which supply the muscles
between the ribs and the skin and
muscles of the anterior and lateral
trunk.
o Plexuses- serve the motor and
sensory needs of the limbs.
 • Part of the PNS, composed of neurons that
regulate the activity of smooth and cardiac
muscle and glands. This system differs from
the somatic nervous system in that there is
a chain of two motor neurons from the CNS
to the effector. Two subdivisions serve the
same organs with different effects

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Compared

• Parasympathetic division-
o “housekeeping” system and is in
control most of the time.
o maintains homeostasis by seeing
that normal digestion and
elimination occur and that energy
is conserved (“rest and digest”).
o first motor neurons are in the brain
or the sacral region of the cord.
o second motor neurons are in the
terminal ganglia close to the organ
served.
• Sympathetic division-
o the “fight-or-flight” subdivision,
which prepares the body to cope
with some threat.
o Its activation increases heart rate
and blood pressure.
o Preganglionic neurons are in the
gray matter of the cord.
o Ganglionic sympathetic neurons
are in the sympathetic trunk or in
collateral ganglia.
o Postganglionic axons secrete
norepinephrine.

Autonomic Nervous System

Anatomy of Parasympathetic Division
• The parasympathetic division, also known
as the craniosacral division.
• Originates from specific brain nuclei (III,
VII, IX, X) and S2 to S4 levels of the spinal
cord.
• Cranial region: Preganglionic axons extend
through cranial nerves to head and neck
organs, synapsing in terminal ganglia.
• Sacral region: Preganglionic axons form
pelvic splanchnic nerves to reach the
pelvic cavity, synapsing in terminal ganglia
near target organs.
• Emphasizes "rest and digest" functions,
regulating activities in a state of relaxation.

Anatomy of Sympathetic Division

• The sympathetic division, or
thoracolumbar division.
• - Preganglionic neurons in spinal cord (T1
to L2).
• - Axons leave through ventral root, pass
through ramus communicans to reach
sympathetic trunk ganglion.
• Synaptic options: may synapse in the
sympathetic trunk or pass through and
contribute to splanchnic nerves.
• Splanchnic nerves travel to collateral
ganglia (celiac, superior, inferior
mesenteric).
• Ganglionic neurons in collateral ganglia
synapse with preganglionic axons and
innervate nearby visceral organs.
• Emphasizes "fight or flight" responses,
regulating activities for increased physical
exertion.
Developmental Aspect of the Nervous System
Maternal and environmental factors may impair
embryonic brain development. Oxygen deprivation
destroys brain cells. Severe congenital brain diseases
include:
• Cerebral palsy
o neuromuscular disability in which the
voluntary muscles are poorly
controlled and spastic because of brain
damage. About half of its victims have
seizures, are intellectually disabled,
and/or have impaired hearing or
vision
• Anencephaly
o a birth defect in which the cerebrum
fails to develop. Children with
anencephaly cannot see, hear, or
process sensory information; these
babies typically die soon after birth.
• Spina bifida
o results when the vertebrae form
incompletely (typically in the
lumbosacral region).
o The child is unable to control the
bowels or bladder, and the lower limbs
are paralyzed.
• Orthostatic hypotension
o a type of low blood pressure resulting
from changes in body position as
described.
• Arteriosclerosis
o decreased elasticity of the arteries)
and high blood pressure reduces the
supply of oxygen to brain neurons. A
gradual decline of oxygen due to the
aging process can lead to senility---
characterized by forgetfulness,
irritability, difficulty in concentrating
and thinking clearly, and confusion.