COURSE TITLE: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY

CODE: STS 111

CREDIT HOURS: 2
PART A:
OUTLINE
1. Definition and importance of STS
2. Basic concepts: Definition of Science, Technology; science as a process and
product; technology as a process and product;
3. Key themes in STS: Deliberative Democracy, Technoscience, Social Construction
4. The role of Agricultural Engineering in society

“Science is the interpretation of nature and man is the interpreter.” (G. Gore 1878)

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY (STS)

What is Science, Technology and society, and why should people want to study and learn it?
Why should students, teachers, researchers and other professionals have interest in the
subject?

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning and importance of STS
• Differentiate between science and technology
• Explain science as a process and a product
• Explain technology as a process and a product

WHAT IS STS?

Science, technology and society (STS), also referred to as science and technology studies,
is a branch or offspring of science studies. It considers how social, political, and cultural
values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect
society, politics and culture.

A Society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture. Social
Groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one another
IMPORTANCE OF STS.

Science Technology Society (STS) as an interdisciplinary program, emerged from the

confluence of a variety of discipline and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an
interest during the 1960s and 1970s in viewing science and technology as a socially
embedded enterprise. STS considers the conditions under which the production, distribution
and utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems occur; the consequences of
these activities upon different groups of people. Hence, it explores the effects of science and
technology on society and culture; the politics of socio-technical systems; science policy in
national and international contexts; the social and environmental risks vs benefits of
technological and scientific benefits.
Science and technology play an increasing role in our lives, and progress in modern science
and technology occur very quickly. Science and technology cannot give an answer to
everything, but they lead to civic and economic evolutions improving the quality of our lives.
It is generally agreed that education and awareness in science have to be strengthened.
Scientific outreach, improvements in teaching, proper scientific information are very
important issues. Outreach should also be addressed to politicians and decision makers.
While for many researchers the main motivation for doing basic research remains scientific
curiosity, for most of people the motivations involve also scientific progress, technological
improvements, well being and the quality of everyday life, without spoiling the environment.

2. BASIC CONCEPTS

DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE.

Mani (1985) defined science as a systematized body of knowledge and a process of inquiry
carried out in order to study the world around us. Holkbrook (1992) defined science as an
intellectual activity through which men seeks to understand nature. Gottlieb (2004) viewed
science as an intellectual activity carried out by human that are designed to discover
information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which
this information can be organized into meaningful patterns.
1.SCIENCE IS A PROCESS

a. Concerned with discovering relationships between observable phenomena in terms of

theories.

b. Systematized theoretical inquiries

c. It seeks for truth about nature.

d. It is determined by observation, hypothesis, measurement, analysis and experimentation

e. It is the description and explanation of the development of knowledge

f. It is the study of the beginning and end of everything that exist.

g. Conceptualization of new ideas, from the abstract to the particular.

h. Kind of human cultural activity.

THE PROCESS CONTENT OF SCIENCE

Science is a process and means by which man investigates his world and gains
knowledge about it. The processes of science relate to those activities carried out by scientists
during a scientific investigation include:
Observation
Classification
Measurement
Prediction
Problem identification
Testing hypothesis
Analyzing
Inferring
Experimenting
Collection of data
Interpretation of data
Exptrapolating
Drawing valid conclusion etc.
From the above list, it is evident that scientific processes involve several activities in
an effort to obtain valid generalization and to raise the right kinds of questions about
objects and events around us.
2.SCIENCE IS A PRODUCT

a. Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on facts or truths or observations.

b.A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for thesystematic observation of
empirical phenomena.

c. Source of cognitive authority.

d. Concerned with verifiable concepts

e. A product of the mind

f. It is the variety of knowledge, people, skills, organizations, facilities, techniques, physical

resources, methods and technologies that taken together and in relation with one another

DEFINITION OF TECHNOLOGY

Black and Harrison (1985) defined technology as a disciplined process that uses the resources
of matter, energy and natural phenomena to achieve human purpose. It is the practical
application of scientific results for the development of tools, equipment and techniques.

On the same view, technology is defined as both a PROCESS and a PRODUCT

1.TECHNOLOGY AS A PROCESS

a. It is the application of science.

b. The practice, description, and terminology of applied sciences

.c. The intelligent organization and manipulation of materials for useful purposes.

d. The means employed to provide for human needs and wants

.e. Focused on inventing new or better tools and materials or new and better ways of doing
things.

f. A way of using findings of science to produce new things for a better way of living.

g.Search for concrete solutions that work and give wanted results.

h.It is characteristically calculative and imitative, tends to be dangerously manipulative.

i.Form of human cultural activity
2.TECHNOLOGY AS A PRODUCT

a.A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes.

b.It is like a language, rituals, values, commerce and arts, it is an intrinsic part of a cultural
system and it both shapes and reflects the system values.

c.It is the product of the scientific concept.

d.The complex combination of knowledge, materials and methods

.e.Material products of human making or fabrication

.f.Total societal enterprise.

PURPOSES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1.To improve quality of human condition

.2.To provide solution to our practical problems.

3.To establish relevant institutional linkages and essential mechanisms

4.To develop individual knowledge.

5.To find order in the chaos of nature and deliver personal and social liberation

6.To give an information and explanation of the natural world

7.To develop new areas of knowledge

8.To combat irrationality.

9.To maintain the availability of natural resources

BENEFITS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO SOCIETY

Science is interested in the laws of nature, while Technology applies scientific knowledge to
make new things, new machinery and it may be used to “dominate” nature and to improve
our life. Scientific and technological progress has several effects on the society. Some of the
changes are as follows:
i. Materials prosperity – Since industrial revolution science and technology have shown
acceleraed progress in energy, physical materials, information and communications,
medicine, resulting into improvement in people’s health, economic prosperity and living
conveniences.

ii. Transport mode:- Progress in energy and material technology has given rise to new
tranport modes, such as railways, automobile, airplane and ships.

iii. Communication – Development of telephone, radio and GSM cellular phone broaden the
range of human activities and scope of human exchange.

iv. Machine tools – Large-volume production of goods and prodution of diverse types of
material.

v. Medical technology – resulted in extension of peoples average life span, infant and child
mortality rate reduced leading to rise in world population.

KEY THEMES IN STS

Technoscience

Technoscience is a subset of Science, Technology, and Society studies that focuses on the
inseparable connection between science and technology. It states that fields are linked and
grow together, and scientific knowledge requires an infrastructure of technology in order to
remain stationary or move forward. Both technological development and scientific discovery
drive one another towards more advancement. Technoscience excels at shaping human
thought and behaviour by opening up new possibilities that gradually or quickly come to be
perceived as necessities.

Technological action is a social process." Social factors and technology are intertwined so
that they are dependent upon each other. This includes the aspect that social, political, and
economic factors are inherent in technology and that social structure influences what
technologies are pursued. In other words, "technoscientific phenomena combined inextricably
with social/political/ economic/psychological phenomena, so 'technology' includes a
spectrum of artifacts, techniques, organizations, and systems." Winner expands on this idea
by saying "in the late twentieth century technology and society, technology and culture,
technology and politics are by no means separate."
• Autopilots/computer aided tasks (CATs) – From a security point of view the effects of
making a task more computer driven is in the favor of technological advance because
there is less reaction time required and computational error than a human pilot. Due to
reduced error and reaction times flights on average, using autopilot, have been shown to
be safer. Thus the technology has a direct impact on people by increasing their safety,
and society affects the technology because people want to be safer so they are constantly
trying to improve the autopilot systems.
• Cell phones – Cell phone technology emerged in the early 1920s after advancements
were made in radio technology. Engineers at Bell Laboratories, the research and
development division of AT&T discovered that cell towers can transmit and receive
signals to and from many directions. The discovery by Bell Labs revolutionized the
capabilities and outcomes of cellular technology. Technology only improved once mobile
phone users could communicate outside of a designated area. First generation mobile
phones were first created and sold by Motorola. Their phone was only intended for use in
cars. Second generation mobile phone capabilities continued to improve because of the
switch to digital. Phones were faster which enhanced communication capabilities of
customers. They were also sleeker and weighed less than bulky first generation
technology. Technologically advances boosted customer satisfaction and broadened cell
phone companies customer base. Third generation technology changed the way people
interact with other. Now customers had access to wifi, texting and other applications.
Mobile phones are now entering into the fourth generations. Cellular and mobile phones
revolutionized the way people socialize and communicate in order to establish modern
social structure. People have affected the development of this technology by demanding
features such as larger screens, touch capabilities, and internet accessibility.
• Internet– The internet arose because of extensive research on ARPANET between
various university, corporations, and ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency), an
agency of the Department of Defense. Scientist theorized a network of computers
connected to each other. Computing capabilities contributed to developments and the
creation of the modern day computer or laptop. The internet has become a normal part of
life and business, to such a degree that the United Nations views it as a basic human
right. The internet is becoming larger, one way is that more things are being moved into
the digital world due to demand, for example online banking. It has drastically changed
the way most people go about daily habits.
Deliberative democracy

Deliberative democracy is a reform of representative or direct democracies which mandates

discussion and debate of popular topics which affect society. Deliberative Democracy is a
tool for making decisions.

Deliberative Democracy can lead to more legitimate, credible, and trustworthy outcomes.
Deliberative Democracy allows for "a wider range of public knowledge," and it has been
argued that this can lead to "more socially intelligent and robust" science. One major
shortcoming of deliberative democracy is that many models insufficiently ensure critical
interaction.

According to Ryfe, there are five mechanisms that stand out as critical to the successful
design of deliberative democracy:

• Rules of equality, civility, and inclusivity may prompt deliberation even when our first
impulse is to avoid it.
• Stories anchor reality by organizing experience and instilling a normative commitment to
civic identities and values, and function as a medium for framing discussions.
• Leadership provides important cues to individuals in deliberative settings, and can keep
groups on a deliberative track when their members slip into routine and habit.
• Individuals are more likely to sustain deliberative reasoning when they have a stake in the
outcomes.
• Apprenticeship teaches citizens to deliberate well. We might do well to imagine
education as a form of apprenticeship learning, in which individuals learn to deliberate by
doing it in concert with others more skilled in the activity.

Social construction

Social constructions are human created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices
and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that
different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction
include class, race, money, and citizenship.

In other words, a social construct is something that exists not in objective reality, but as a
result of human interaction. It exists because humans agree that it exists.
Some examples of social constructs are countries and money. It is easier to see how countries
could be social constructs than it is to see how money is a social construct. Countries would
not exist were it not for human interaction. Humans have to agree that there is such a thing as
a country and agree on what a country is. Without that agreement, there could be no
countries.

An example of a social construction within science and technology can be found in the high-
wheel bicycle. A high-wheel bicycle is able to reach higher translational velocities than
smaller bicycles by replacing the front wheel with a larger radius wheel. One notable trade-
off is the decreased stability leading to a greater risk of falling. This trade-off resulted in
many riders getting in accidents by losing balance while riding the bicycle or being thrown
over the handle bars. Thus, a technological innovation or progress caused some unintended
and undesired consequences. The bicycle was altered to fit within society’s standards of
vehicle safety in response to the social constructions that caused the bicycle to be designed in
the first place.

REFERENCES
Gottlieb, S. (2004), Scientific Literacy for Citizenship. International Journal Of Science
Education. 22. 645-664.
Holbrook, J. B. (1992). Teaching Science the STS Way. The international council of
association for science education year book 9-13.
Mani, T.C. (1985). Essays on Laboratory Practices Mimeograph. M.ed. Course Material.
A.B.U. Zaria.

HOME WORK

- Describe the four industrial revolutions, indicating how each has impacted our lives
and contributed to changes in society.
- To what extent has society influenced scientific and technological advancement?
Explain, using suitable cases.
- What role can deliberative democracy play in advancement of science and technology
in Sierra Leone?