Kate Fox Watching The English Translation and Analysis
Kate Fox Watching The English Translation and Analysis
Kate Fox Watching The English Translation and Analysis
Faculty of Education
Diploma thesis
Brno 2012
Souhlasím, aby práce byla uložena na Masarykově univerzitě v Brně v knihovně Pedagogické
fakulty a zpřístupněna ke studijním účelům.
Declaration
I hereby declare that I have worked on my diploma thesis on my own and that I used only the
sources listed in the bibliography.
I agree with my thesis being deposited in the library of the Faculty of Education at Masaryk
University and made accesible for study purposes.
1
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to Martin Němec, the supervisor of my thesis, for his
support, patience and advice thorough the writing process, which I appreciate even more since
we communicated mostly via emails due to my constant absence from the country. Also, I
would like to thank Tamila, who introduced me to this amazing book without anticipating the
impact it will have on me.
2
Annotation
This diploma thesis deals with the translation and analysis of selected parts of Watching the
English written by a social anthropologist Kate Fox. This nonfiction writing, discussing the
stereotypes and typical patterns of English people behaviour, is dense with cultural terms
related to English cultural and historical environment. While English readers have no troubles
decoding the cultural references and allusions in the text, non-English readers may require
additional information in order to overcome the cultural gap occurring between English
culture and their own. Since Watching the English has not been officially translated into
Czech yet, the aim of this thesis is to suggest a translation that would preserve the cultural
specifics of the original and still would be comprehensible and beneficial for the target
readership. The thesis consists of a practical and a theoretical part. Practical part offers an
English-Czech translation of selected parts of the text. Theoretical part focuses on analysis of
the stylistic and lexical level of the text and it also discusses the cultural differences between
the source and target culture, suggesting methods suitable for the translation of the cultural
terms that appear in the text.
Key words
3
Anotace
Tato diplomová práce se zabývá překladem a analýzou vybraných částí knihy Watching the
English (Angličané pod lupou), jejíž autorkou je britská antropoložka Kate Fox. Tato
populárně-naučná publikace zkoumá různé aspekty života Angličanů ve společnosti i v
soukromí. Autorka se zde pokouší definovat jejich stereotypy chování, charakterní vlastnosti,
zvyky a tradice. Text je přirozeně bohatý na kulturně-specifické výrazy a reference, které jsou
sice rodilým mluvčím srozumitelné, ale pro čtenáře neznalé anglické kultury mohou
představovat problém. Oficiální český překlad této knihy zatím neexistuje, a proto se v této
práci snažíme navrhnout postup, jakým by se dalo k překladu textu takového charakteru
přistoupit. Cílem je vytvořit překlad, který by zachovával kulturně-specifické termíny
originálu, a přesto byl srozumitelný pro čtenáře, neobeznámené s anglickým kulturním
pozadím. Práce je složena z praktické a teoretické části. V praktické části je uveden vlastní
překlad vybraných pasáží textu, teoretická část se kromě analýzy lexikální a stylistické roviny
textu soustředí také na pojem kulturního prvku v překladu a zkoumá způsoby, jakými lze
přistoupit k překladu kulturně-specifických pojmů v textu.
Klíčová slova
4
Content
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 About Kate Fox ................................................................................................................ 8
2. PRACTICAL PART .............................................................................................................. 9
3. THEORETICAL PART ....................................................................................................... 50
3.1 THE INITIAL ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT .................................................................. 50
3.1.1 The intention of the SL text and the author ............................................................. 50
3.1.2 The intention of the TL text and the translator ........................................................ 50
3.1.3 The Readership ........................................................................................................ 51
3.2 ANALYSIS OF THE STYLISTIC LEVEL ................................................................... 53
3.2.1 Scale of formality ..................................................................................................... 54
3.2.2 Scale of generality or difficulty ............................................................................... 57
3.2.3 Scale of emotional tone ............................................................................................ 57
3.3 ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL LEVEL............................................................................... 58
3.3.1 Absolute equivalents ................................................................................................ 59
3.3.2 Partial equivalents .................................................................................................... 59
3.3.3 Zero equivalents ....................................................................................................... 65
3.4. TRANSLATION AND CULTURE .................................................................................. 65
3.4.1 Material culture ........................................................................................................ 66
3.4.2 Social culture ........................................................................................................... 67
3.4.3 Social organizations: customs, traditions ................................................................. 68
3.5. TRANSLATION METHODS ....................................................................................... 68
3.6. TRANSLATION PROCEDURES ................................................................................ 69
3.6.1 Transference ............................................................................................................. 70
3.6.2 Naturalization ........................................................................................................... 70
3.6.3 Cultural equivalent ................................................................................................... 71
3.6.4 Functional equivalent ............................................................................................... 71
3.6.5 Through-translation.................................................................................................. 72
3.6.6 Notes, Additions, Glosses ........................................................................................ 72
3.6.7 Componential Analysis ............................................................................................ 75
4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 78
5. Works cited .......................................................................................................................... 80
5
1. INTRODUCTION
The idea of using Watching the English as the resource text for my diploma thesis
translation occurred to me soon after I had read its first few pages. Despite the fact that I have
never intended to work with a nonfiction literature, I could see the potential in this particular
text straight away. The book was given to me during my first visit to the United Kingdom,
designed to serve me as a source of information about the life and habits of English people.
And sure enough, the book has proven to be a useful, entertaining and most importantly, very
truthful guide during my stay in England. It prepared me for various everyday situations;
enabled me to read between the lines, to keep the pace with native speakers and it also saved
me from a lot of embarrassment. Alright, I am exaggerating, but only a little. At that point I
realised that if the book was beneficial for me, it might be beneficial for other people as well.
The first group of people that spring to mind here are definitely tourists; people
travelling to the country who would like to get beyond the usual guide books information and
learn something about the real, everyday life of English people. I can imagine you saying that
there is no need to translate a book of such nature into Czech, because anyone interested in
English culture up to this degree would be probably able to read the original. You might be
right, but you might as well be wrong. Beside tourists, there is another group of readers
potentially interested in such a book. Not everyone interested in English culture necessarily
has to speak English, or want to travel to England. In other words, I am convinced that there
are people who would like to read this book out of sheer interest, just as some people watch
National Geographic documentaries about Africa with no intention of travelling there, or read
books about the Second World War without being affected by it in any way. Moreover, I do
believe that Watching the English is a very challenging text to translate (as will be explained
later) and when to test my translating skills if not now?
I have been living in London for more than a year now, and I dare to say that I am able
to see the reality described in the book from two points of view. Firstly, from the point of
view of a foreign visitor, who is coming to the country with only a vague idea of what to
expect (because I was in the same position once), and secondly, from the point of view of a
native speaker (because I spend 99% of my time in their presence). All in all, I hope that my
experience will prove to be valuable during the translating process and will help me to present
the text in an intelligible way while preserving the cultural specifics and unique style of the
author.
6
As for the structure of my thesis, it traditionally consists of a practical and a theoretical
part. Practical part offers selected passages from the source text, Watching the English,
together with their Czech translation. The theoretical analysis that follows is based mostly on
Peter Newmark´s attitude to translation, described in his major work, A Textbook of
Translation. The cornerstone of the theoretical part is the concept of culture in translation and
the possible issues and problems that are connected to it. There are many authors who deal
with the cultural features in translation, but I have decided to follow mainly Newmark´s ideas,
as I find them accessible and suitable for my translation purposes. After discussing the initial
analysis of the source language text, I will proceed on to discussing the translation methods
and procedures used in the translation with a special focus on the method of componential
analysis. I will also adapt Newmark´s classification of cultural categories and provide
examples from the practical part.
Apart from discussing the culture-bound terms, I would also like to analyze the
stylistic and lexical level of the text, both of which are very diverse and deserve special
attention. For the purposes of analysing stylistic and lexical level of Watching the English I
have decided to turn to the theoretical views of Dagmar Knittlová, presented in her major
writing, K teorii i praxi překladu.
7
1.2 About Kate Fox
Kate Fox is a social anthropologist and author of bestselling popular science books.
After acquiring a degree in anthropology and philosophy at Cambridge University, she
worked in academic publishing and marketing and she is currently a co-director of the Social
Issues research Centre in Oxford. She continues to provide consultations, lectures and
broadcasts on different aspect of human behaviour and social interaction, such as body
language, gender differences, flirting, stress, violence, pub etiquette and social aspects of
drinking, social impact of technology etc. She also organizes training programmes in the field
of marketing, focused on customer´s psychology, complaint-handling, creative thinking,
crime prevention, motivation and team-work etc. Watching the English is one of her latest
books; her previous writings include Pubwatching with Desmond Morris (1993), Passport to
the Pub: The Tourist’s Guide to Pub Etiquette (1996) and The Racing Tribe: Watching the
Horsewatchers (1999).
Let me now briefly comment on Fox´ s specific way of writing, for the way she handles
the social anthropology issues and results of various researches and observations is anything
but boringly scientific. As will be shown in the practical part, her books are written in a clever
and entertaining way; she does not hesitate to use informal of even colloquial language to
achieve desired effect; her statements are dense with humour, hyperbole and irony. Needless
to say, she is very popular with the media and often appears at literary festivals across the
country, as well as on radio and television.
8
2. PRACTICAL PART
Watching the English is a book of more than four hundred pages, divided in two main
parts (Conversation Codes and Behaviour Codes) and approximately fifteen chapters dealing
with different topics (The Weather, Humour Rules, Pub-talk, Home rules, Dress Codes, Food
Rules etc.) Since it is impossible to provide translation of the entire book within the scope of
my thesis, I have decided to include extracts that appear to be the most interesting (and
problematic) from the translator´s perspective. It has already been stated that the main focus
of the theoretical part is the problem of handling cultural terms in translation. Therefore, the
following excerpts are mainly passages dense with cultural words, references and allusions.
Moreover, I have tried to demonstrate the lexical and stylistic diversity of the text, providing
the scientific, highly-informative passages along with authentic colloquial talk the author
recorded in pubs or on the streets. As a result, the chosen extracts may sometimes appear too
random and that is why I have also decided to preserve both the introduction and epilogue of
the book, in order to retain some sense of a structure.
Among other topics included in the book, Kate Fox is dealing with linguistic varieties
based upon social-class differences, i.e. how people from different social classes call the same
objects different names. This chapter, named “The Seven Deadly Sins”, was particularly
difficult to translate. Here the author discusses English expressions from everyday life and
offers their variations that can be found in different social classes (e.g. napkin vs. serviette,
toilet vs. lavatory, settee vs. sofa etc.). According to Fox, this concept of class- consciousness
is very deeply rooted in English culture and it is therefore naturally projected into the
language. Czech social and linguistic environment, however, does not reflect this aspect and it
is practically impossible for a translator to match every single of these class-bound linguistic
varieties with an exact Czech equivalent. For this and other reasons I have decided to transfer
the English word into the Czech translation, providing its approximate Czech equivalent in
brackets. The main aim of this thesis is, after all, to preserve, not to replace the cultural
element of the source text. In other words, our aim is to acquaint Czech readers with the fact
that there are class-bound linguistic differences in English, and replacing these words with an
approximate Czech equivalent would wipe these slight differences out. Moreover, the
decision to preserve the English word in the target text is based on the presumptions we have
made about an average target text reader (as will be shown later in the theoretical part).
9
Kate Fox: Watching the English Kate Fox: Angličané pod lupou
INTRODUCTION
ÚVOD
station, clutching a small brandy. It's only londýnského nádraží Paddington a v ruce
about half past eleven in the morning – a svírám sklenku brandy. Je teprve půl
bit early for drinking, but the alcohol is dvanácté dopoledne, tedy trochu brzy na
part reward, part Dutch courage. Reward takový drink, ale já si alkohol dopřávám
because I have just spent an exhausting zčásti za odměnu, zčásti na kuráž. Za
morning accidentally-on-purpose odměnu proto, že jsem právě strávila
bumping into people and counting the vyčerpávající dopoledne “úmyslně-
number who said 'Sorry'; Dutch courage náhodným” vrážením do lidí a počítáním
because I am now about to return to the těch, kteří řekli “Promiňte”. Na kuráž
train station and spend a few hours proto, že se chystám vrátit na nádraží a po
committing a deadly sin: queue jumping. několik následujících hodin páchat
10
bumping and jumping (not to mention all vedla normální život. Ze všeho nejmíň
the equally daft things I'll be doing toužím po tom celé odpoledne předbíhat
tomorrow)? Good question. Perhaps I'd ve frontách. Proč to tedy dělám? Jaký
better explain. smysl má to absurdní vrážení a předbíhání
(a to ani nemluvím o podobně pitomých
věcech, které mám naplánovány na
zítřek)? Dobrá otázka. Raději bych to
měla vysvětlit.
11
STEREOTYPES AND CULTURAL STEREOTYPY A KULTURNÍ
GENOMICS GENOMIKA
16
this tight little smile and say “Hello” – nepříjemného“. „Přesně tak“, dodal její
kind of pointedly not giving their name, manžel. „A pak se na vás upjatě usmějí a
to let you know you’ve made this big řeknou „Dobrý den“, přičemž se naschvál
social booboo. What the hell is so private nepředstaví, aby vás upozornili na ten váš
about a person’s name, for God’s sake?’ hrozný společenský poklesek. Co je k
čertu tak posvátného na pitomém jméně?“
PRIVACY RULES
It is impossible to overstate the PRAVIDLA SOUKROMÍ
importance of privacy in English culture. Přecenit důležitost soukromí je
Jeremy Paxman points out that: ‘The v anglické kultuře zhola nemožné.
importance of privacy informs the entire Anglický novinář a moderátor Jeremy
organization of the country, from the Paxman tvrdí, že: „význam soukromí
assumptions on which laws are based, to profiluje celou naši společnost, od
the buildings in which the English live.’ předpokladů na nichž staví právní zákony,
I would add that a disproportionate až k architektuře budov, v nichž
number of our most influential social Angličané žijí“. K tomu bych ráda dodala,
rules and maxims are concerned with the že až neúměrné množství našich
maintenance of privacy: we are taught to nejdůležitějších společenských pravidel a
mind our own business, not to pry, to mravních zásad je spojeno právě se
keep ourselves to ourselves, not to make a soukromím. Odmalička je nám vtloukáno
scene or a fuss or draw attention to do hlavy, abychom si hleděli svého,
ourselves, and never to wash our dirty nestrkali nos do cizích věcí, nedělali
linen in public. It is worth noting here that scény, nepřitahovali na sebe pozornost a
‘How are you?’ is only treated as a ‘real’ zejména nikdy neprali špinavé prádlo na
question among very close personal veřejnosti. Za zmínku stojí také to, že
friends or family; everywhere else, the dotaz “How are you?“ („Jak se máš?“) se
automatic, ritual response is ‘Fine, považuje za „skutečný“ pouze mezi
thanks’, ‘OK, thanks’, ‘Oh, mustn’t blízkými přáteli či rodinou. V ostatních
grumble’, ‘Not bad, thanks’ or some případech se očekává automatická,
equivalent, whatever your physical or tradiční odpověď typu „Dobře, díky“,
mental state. If you are terminally ill, it is „OK“, „Ále, nestěžuju si“, „Ujde to“, a
acceptable to say ‘Not bad, considering’. tak podobně, a to bez ohledu na váš
psychický či fyzický stav. Pokud jste snad
17
na smrt nemocní, je přijatelné odpovědět
„Celkem dobře, když se to tak vezme“.
Soap Rules
1
populární britské televizní seriály, okupující televizní obrazovky již řadu let. Coronation Street je vůbec
nejdéle vysílaným britským seriálem, který sleduje osudy obyčejných lidí žijících ve fiktivním městečku poblíž
Manchesteru. Eastenders je seriálem podobného ražení, tentokrát zasazený do (opět) fiktivní čtvrti ve
východním Londýně. Dějové linky obou seriálů jsou plné stereotypních radostí a strastí s nimiž se hlavní
hrdinové musí potýkat: láska a zrada, intriky, nevěra, problémy soukromého i pracovního rázu atd.
18
are all middle class, glamorous, attractive, nižších tříd), což se dá snadno poznat
affluent and youthful. They are all podle typu reklam v komerčních
lawyers and doctors and successful přestávkách. Jejich hrdinové jsou ovšem
entrepreneurs, beautifully groomed and okouzlující, atraktivní a zajištění mladí
coiffed, leading their dysfunctional family lidé z vyšších tříd, typicky právníci, lékaři
lives in immaculate, expensive houses, či úspěšní podnikatelé, perfektně načesaní
and having secret meetings with their a navonění. Vedou si své rozvrácené
lovers in smart restaurants and luxurious rodinné životy za zdmi vypulírovaných,
hotels. přepychových domů a se svými milenci a
Virtually all soaps throughout the milenkami se tajně scházejí v luxusních
rest of the world are based on this restauracích a hotelech.
‘aspirational’ American model. Only the Doslova všechny zahraniční seriály
English go in for gritty, kitchen-sink, jsou založeny na tomto „aspiračním“
working-class realism. Even the americkém modelu. Pouze Angličané se
Australian soaps, which come closest, are nebojí ukázat tu drsnou realitu pracujícího
glamorous by comparison with the grim lidu, ten život u kuchyňského dřezu.
and grubby English ones. Why is this? Tomuto stylu se nejvíce přibližují seriály
Why do millions of ordinary English australské, ale i ty jsou na tom
people want to watch soaps about v porovnání s našimi ponurými a
ordinary English people just like ušmudlanými programy mnohem lépe.
themselves, people who might easily be Proč tomu tak je? Proč by milióny
their next-door neighbours? Angličanů chtěly sledovat příběhy lidé
My hunch is that this peculiar taste stejně obyčejných, jako jsou oni sami?
is somehow closely connected to our Příběhy lidí, kteří by klidně mohli být
obsession with privacy, our tendency to sousedé od vedle?
keep ourselves to ourselves. There is a Já mám za to, že náš televizní vkus
forbidden-fruit effect operating here: the je úzce spojen s již zmíněnou posedlostí
English privacy rules mean that we tend soukromím; s naší snahou nestrkat nos do
to know very little about the personal cizích věcí a hledět si svého. Funguje tu
lives and doings of people outside our princip zakázaného ovoce: přísná pravidla
immediate circle of close friends and našeho soukromí zapříčiňují, že o lidech
family. When a murder is committed in mimo kruh rodiny a blízkých přátel
an average English street, the response nevíme téměř nic. Když je na průměrné
19
from neighbours questioned by the police anglické ulici spáchána vražda a policie či
or journalists is always the same: ‘Well, novináři přijdou vyzpovídat sousedy,
we didn’t really know them . . .’, ‘They dočkají se vždy těch samých odpovědí:
kept themselves to themselves . . .’, ‘We „Víte, my jsme je vlastně moc neznali....“,
mind our own business, round here . . .’, „Byli dost uzavření...“, „My si tady
‘A bit odd, but one doesn’t like to pry, hledíme svého...“, „Byli to podivíni, ale
you know . . .’Actually, we would dearly člověk se v tom nechce moc šťourat,
love to pry; we are a nation of insatiably chápete...“ Ve skutečnosti bychom se
curious curtain-twitchers, constantly v tom šťourali moc rádi; jsme národ
frustrated by the draconian nature of our šmíralů a slídilů a všechen ten humbuk
unwritten privacy rules. The clue to the kolem přísných ač nepsaných pravidel
popularity of kitchen-sink soap operas is soukromí nás pěkně vytáčí. Klíčem
in the observation that soap-opera úspěchu těchto ušmudlaných televizních
characters are ‘people who might easily seriálů je proto právě skutečnost, že jejich
be our next-door neighbours’. Watching hrdinové mohou klidně být „sousedé od
soaps such as EastEnders and Coronation vedle“. Sledovat pořady typu EastEnders
Street is like being allowed to peer či Coronation Street je jako špehovat naše
through a spyhole into the hidden, sousedy klíčovou dírkou. Vypěstovali
forbidden, private lives of our neighbours. jsme si na nich závislost proto, že
The addictive appeal of these soaps lies in pomáhají ukájet naší chorobnou
their vicarious satisfaction of this prurient zvědavost; televizní seriály se v britském
curiosity: soaps are a form of voyeurism. podání zkrátka stávají určitou formou
voyerismu.
20
bar staff and each other by name. Indeed, prostředí se jména používají častěji než je
I have noticed that in the pub, names are nezbytně nutné, což má zřejmě posílit
used rather more often than is strictly důvěrnost a vzájemné vztahy mezi členy
necessary, as though to emphasize the tohoto malého “kmene”. Tato skutečnost
familiarity and personal connections je do očí bijící, obzvláště porovnáme-li ji
between members of this small ʻtribeʼ. s tradičními zásadami anglické
This is particularly striking as a contrast konverzace, kde se jména v poměru k
to ʻmainstreamʼ English conversation ostatním kulturám používají poskrovnu a
codes, in which names are used jejich nadměrné užívání se setkává s
significantly less than in other cultures, vlnou nevole a zavání nám
and where over-use of names is frowned amerikanismem.
upon as cloyingly American. Vzájemné vztahy mezi štamgasty
The bonding effect among pub jsou nadále posilovány užíváním
regulars is further reinforced by the use of přezdívek – v každém baru najdete
nicknames - pubs are always full of nějakého toho “Prcka”, “Jorkšíra”,
people called 'Shorty', 'Yorkshire', 'Doc', “Doktora” či “Čahouna”. Užívání těchto
'Lofty', etc. To call someone by a přezdívek naznačuje, že je mezi mluvčími
nickname universally indicates a high opravdu důvěrný vztah. Obvykle se
degree of familiarity. Normally, only přezdívkami navzájem oslovují pouze
family and close friends use nicknames. členové rodiny a blízcí přátelé. Časté
The frequent use of nicknames between používání přezdívek dává štamgastům a
regulars, publican and bar staff gives personálu pocit sounáležitosti a nám
them a sense of belonging - and gives us a poskytuje užitečný náhled na sociální na
helpful insight into the nature of social povahu sociálních vztahů v anglických
relations in English pubs. nálevnách.
Pub-nicknames are often ironic: a Hospodské přezdívky v sobě často
very short regular may be known as nesou nádech ironie: štamgast malého
'Lofty', for example. In my own local pub, vzrůstu může být známý jako “Čahoun”.
although I was normally known as 'Stick' Mně v místní hospůdce mi říkali “Tyčko”
(a reference to my rather scrawny figure), (narážka na mou vyzáblou postavu), i
21
the landlord went through a phase of když majitel mě jeden čas nazýval
calling me 'Pillsbury'. “Dortíčku2”.
The greeting rules require the Vítací pravidla velí štamgastům,
publican, bar staff and regulars to hostinskému a číšníkům přivítat
welcome a regular with a chorus of příchozího štamgastu sborovým: “Brej
'Evening, Bill', 'Wotcha, Bill', 'Alright, večír, Bille”, “Tě pic!”, “Jak je, Bille?”,
Bill?', 'Usual, is it, Bill?', and so on. The “Jako obvykle?” a podobně. Příchozí
regular must respond to each greeting, musí na každé přivítání zareagovat a
normally addressing the greeter by name zpravidla osloví dotyčného jménem či
or nickname: 'Evening, Doc', 'Wotcha, přezdívkou: “Brej večír, Doktore”, “Tě
Joe', 'Alright there, Lofty', 'Usual, thanks, pic, Joe”, “Ujde to, Čahoune”, “Jasně,
Mandy'. The rules do not prescribe the jako obvykle, díky Mandy”. Pravidla
exact words to be used in these neurčují, jak přesně má taková slovní
exchanges, and one often hears inventive, výměna vypadat a tak si někdy můžeme
idiosyncratic, humorous or even mock- vyslechnout neobvyklé, tvůrčí obměny,
insulting variations, such as 'Ah, just in jako například: “Á, Bille, akorát včas na
time to buy your round, Bill!' or 'Back svojí rundu!” nebo: “Doktore, ty už jsi tu
again, Doc? Haven't you got a home to go zas? Vědí doma ještě, jak vlastně
to?' vypadáš?”
2
Pillsbury je název americké společnosti s významným postavením v potravinářském průmyslu. Specializuje se
především na výrobu směsí pro domácí pečení (dezerty v prášku, polevy a přísady do pečení), a na svých
webových stránkách poskytuje kulinářské rady a recepty pro každou příležitost.
22
choreographed pub-talk may not be instinktivně. Člověk neznalý zdejších
immediately obvious to outsiders, the zvyklostí ale většinou takové konverzaci
conversations can be followed and stejně porozumí a dokáže se zapojit.
understood. One type of regular-speak, Existuje ovšem jeden typ rozhovoru,
however, is utterly incomprehensible to v němž se nezasvěcenci naprosto
outsiders, and can be understood only by nechytají, a to rozhovor štamgastů daného
the regular customers of a particular pub. podniku. Stálí zákazníci náleven totiž
This is because the regulars are používají efektivní systém kódů a vlastní
effectively speaking in code, using a jazyk. Následuje můj oblíbený příklad
private language. Here is my favourite takového zašifrovaného rozhovoru,
typical example of coded pub-talk, from zachycený v rámci průzkumu etikety:
the etiquette research: Nacházíme se v místní hospůdce, v
The scene is a busy Sunday neděli kolem poledního. Hostinský
lunchtime in a local pub. A few regulars obsluhuje několik štamgastů,
are standing at the bar, where the publican postávajících u baru. Právě vstoupil další
is serving. A male regular enters, and by štamgast – ještě ani nedošel k baru a
the time he reaches the bar, the publican hostinský už točí jeho obvyklou pintu.
has already started pouring his usual pint. Poté postaví sklenici na bar, zatímco
The publican places the pint on the štamgast loví po kapsách drobné.
counter in front of the regular, who fishes
in his pocket for money. Štamgasta 1: “Kde vězí Maso a
zelenina?”
Regular 1: 'Where's meat and two veg,
Hostinský: “Nemám páru čéče, už by tu
then?'
měl být“.
Publican: 'Dunno, mate - should be here
Štamgast 2: “Nejspíš si hraje na
by now.'
Harryho!” (všichni se zasmějí)
Regular 2: 'Must be doing a Harry!'
Štamgast 1: “Jedno mu roztoč – a pro
( - All laugh - )
tebe?“
Regular 1: 'Put one in the wood for him,
Publican: „Ne díky, já si počkám na
then - and yourself?'
Toma“.
Publican: 'I'll have one for Ron, thanks.' Pro úspěšné rozluštění této
konverzace je třeba vědět, že prvotní
To decode this conversation, you
otázka o “masu a zelenině” neměla nic
23
would need to know that the initial společného s jídlem. Je to přezdívka
question about 'meat and two veg' was not jednoho ze štamgastů, odkazující na jeho
a request for a meal, but an enquiry as to nemastnou neslanou, konzervativní
the whereabouts of another regular, povahu (maso se dvěma druhy zeleniny je
nicknamed 'Meat-and-two-veg' because of totiž v anglické kuchyni ztělesněním
his rather stolid, conservative nature všeho tradičního a fádního). Dále bychom
(meat with two vegetables being the most museli vědět, že „hrát si na Harryho“
traditional, unadventurous English meal). v místním podniku znamená „ztratit se“.
One would also have to know that 'doing Harry je další, tak trochu roztržitý
a Harry', in this pub, is code for 'getting štamgast, který se jednou před třemi lety
lost', Harry being another regular, a nějakým záhadným způsobem po cestě do
somewhat absent-minded man, who once, hospody ztratil a od té doby si ho kvůli
three years ago, managed to get lost on tomu všichni dobírají. „Roztoč mu jedno“
his way to the pub, and is still teased je zdejší obměna obecně známějšího
about the incident. 'Put one in the wood výrazu, jež znamená: „objednávám mu
for him' is a local version of a more drink; zaplatím ti teď a až přijde, tak mu
common pub-talk expression, meaning načepuj“. Fráze „a pro tebe?“ je zkratka
'reserve a pint of beer to give him when od „a jeden drink pro tebe?“, což je
he arrives, which I will pay for now'. The ustálený výraz pro nabídnutí drinku tomu,
phrase 'and yourself?' is shorthand for kdo nás obsluhuje. Onen „Tom“, o němž
'and one for yourself?', the approved mluví hostinský, není člověk, nýbrž
formula for offering a drink. The 'Ron' variace na slovo „potom“.
referred to by the publican, however, is Takže: Štamgast objednává drink,
not a person, but a contraction of 'later který má být později naservírován
on'. usedlému Masu a zelenině (za
So: Regular i is buying a drink now, předpokladu že dotyčný nezopakuje
to be served to the traditionalist Meat- Harryho pochybení a neztratí se) a
and-two-veg when he arrives (assuming zároveň nabízí hostinskému, aby se s ním
the latter has not repeated Harry's mistake také napil. Ten přijímá, nicméně
and got lost) and offering the publican a naznačuje, že si drink vypije později, až
drink, which he accepts, but will not nebude mít tolik práce. Pokud jste tedy
consume until later on, when he is less členem tohoto konkrétního „kmene“ a
busy. Simple, really - if you happen to be vyznáte se ve všech těch historkách,
24
a member of this particular pub-tribe, and přezdívkách, vtípcích, šifrách a zkratkách,
familiar with all its legends, nicknames, je pro vás předešlá konverzace jasná jako
quirks, codes, abbreviations and in-jokes. facka.
In our national scientific pub- V rámci našeho vědeckého tažení
crawls, we found that every pub has its po hospodách jsme tedy zjistili, že
own private code of in-jokes, nicknames v každém podniku se to jen hemží
and phrases. Like the ‘private languages’ přezdívkami, hláskami a vtípky pro
of other social units such as families, zasvěcené. Tento zašifrovaný jazyk,
couples, school-friends and work-mates, běžný i v dalších sociálních skupinách (v
this coded pub-talk emphasizes and rodinách, mezi partnery, v kruhu přátel či
reinforces the social bonds between pub kolegů v práci), má za úkol zdůraznit a
regulars. It also emphasizes and posílit sociální vazby mezi štamgasty. A
reinforces the sense of equality among co víc, zdůrazňuje především vědomí, že
them. In the pub, your position in the jsou si všichni rovni. Nezáleží na tom,
‘mainstream’ social hierarchy is jakou pozici zastáváte na společenském
irrelevant: acceptance and popularity in žebříčku „tam venku“. Tady se vaše
this liminal world are based on quite popularita zakládá na osobních
different criteria, to do with personal vlastnostech a zvycích. „Maso a zelenina“
qualities, quirks and habits. ‘Meat-and- může být ředitel banky, stejně tak jako
two-veg’ could be a bank manager or an nezaměstnaný zedník. Tuto škádlivou
unemployed bricklayer. His affectionately přezdívku si vysloužil pouze díky svému
teasing nickname is a reference to his konzervativnímu pohledu a svět a
middle-of-the-road tastes, his rather tendenci „jít s davem“. „Harry“ by zase
conservative outlook on life. ‘Harry’ mohl být zapomnětlivý profesor či
might be an absent-minded professor, or instalatér. Pokud by skutečně byl
an absent-minded plumber. If he were a profesorem, mohl by klidně vyfasovat
professor, he might be nicknamed ‘Doc’, přezdívku „Doktor“. Když už jsme u
and I heard of a plumber whose instalatérů, vzpomínám si na jednoho
unfortunate pubnickname was ‘Leaky’, chudáka, kterému kamarádi přezdívali
but Harry’s absent-mindedness, not his „Krapec“. Harryho přezdívka nicméně
professional rank, is the quality for which nemá s jeho profesí nic společného;
he is known, liked and teased at the Rose zakládá se jen a pouze na jeho
zapomnětlivosti a právě pro ni si ho
25
and Crown. ostatní v hospodě U růže a koruny
dobírají.
The ‘Props and Facilitators’ Method
Metoda rekvizit a pomůcek
It was during my study on pub
etiquette that I began to understand the Někdy v průběhu zkoumání
dozen or so typical pub games, and had hospodských her. Asi by koukal, kdyby se
not heard of all the more obscure regional dozvěděl o dalších regionálních
4
eccentricities such as Aunt Sally, wellie- podivnůstkách typu „Teta Sally“ , hod
throwing, shove ha’penny, marrow- holínkou, strkání do mince5, lidské
3
„Bar-billiards“ je hra kulečníkového typu, hraná s 8 koulemi (1 červená, 7 bílých). Na hrací ploše se nachází
celkem devět děr, kterým přísluší bodová hodnota 10-200. Před vybranými otvory jsou navíc umístěny
miniaturní kuželky (typicky 2 bílé a 1 černá). Hráči získávají body za umístění bílých koulí do otvorů, přičemž
kuželky musí zůstat nedotčené. Je-li převrhnuta bílá kuželka, hráč ztrácí body získané v daném kole. Je-li
převrhnuta kuželka černá, hráč přichází kompletně o všechny body. Pravidla hry i rozměry hracích stolů se
mohou v různých částech Anglie lišit.
4
„Aunt Sally“ je tradičně slaměná či dřevěná panna/figurína, umístěná na dřevěném sloupku. Hra spočívá ve
snaze srazit figurínu k zemi pomocí dřevěných kolíků. Hra je rozšířená především v hrabství Oxfordshire.
5
Hra „shove ha’penny“zahrnuje dřevěnou hrací desku o rozměrech cca 50x30cm, protkanou deseti vertikálními
čarami. Hráč má k dispozici 5 mincí. Mince se položí na okraj hrací desky a palcem či dlaní je postrčena do
hracího pole. Pravidla hry jsou poměrně složitá; hodnocení je bodové a odvíjí se od polohy mince v hracím poli.
26
dangling and Wetton Toe Wrestling. kuželky v různých regionálních
Another equally puzzled but obměnách (v té bezpečnější, zvané
marginally more polite visitor asked: „marrow-dangling“, si účastníci chrání
‘What is it with you English? Why do you hlavu plastovým kyblíkem) či
have to play all these silly games? Why přetlačovaná palci u nohou nazývaná
can’t you just go to a bar and drink and “Wetton Toe Wrestling“.
talk like the rest of the world?’ Další, stejně zmatený, avšak daleko
zdvořilejší návštěvník, se mě zeptal: „Co
je to s vámi Anglány? Proč musíte ztrácet
čas hraním všech těch hloupých her? Proč
prostě nepřijdete do hospody na pivko a
na kus řeči jako normální lidi?“
do třídy pracujících.
Pardon
This word is the most notorious pet „Pardon“
hate of the upper and upper-middle Slovo, z něhož příslušníkům vrchní
classes. Jilly Cooper recalls overhearing a vyšší střední třídy naskakuje vyrážka.
her son telling a friend ‘Mummy says that Jistá Jilly Cooper vzpomíná, jak zaslechla
“pardon” is a much worse word than svého syna vykládat kamarádovi:
27
“fuck”‘. He was quite right: to the uppers „Maminka povídá, že „pardon“ je ještě
and upper-middles, using such an horší výraz než „do prdele“. A měl
unmistakably lower-class term is worse úplnou pravdu: pro lidi z vrchních a
than swearing. Some even refer to lower- vyšších středních kruhů je použití výrazu,
middle-class suburbs as ‘Pardonia’. Here neomylně patřícího do slovníku nižších
is a good class-test you can try: when tříd, horší než jakákoliv nadávka. Někteří
talking to an English person, deliberately dokonce mluví o předměstích plných
say something too quietly for them to hear obyvatel z nižší střední třídy jako o
you properly. A lower-middle or middle- „Pardonii“. Chcete-li zjistit třídní
middle person will say ‘Pardon?’; an příslušnost dané osoby, vyzkoušejte
upper-middle will say ‘Sorry?’ (or následující test: při rozhovoru s touto
perhaps ‘What – sorry?’); but an upper- osobou záměrně zamumlejte něco tak tiše,
class and a working-class person will both aby vám druhá strana neporozuměla.
just say ‘What?’ Some upper-working- Příslušník nižší střední či střední třídy
class people with middle-class aspirations opáčí: „Pardon?“, člověk z vyšší střední
might say ‘pardon’, in a misguided třídy se zeptá: „Sorry?” (“Prosím?”), nebo
attempt to sound ‘posh’. možná „What – sorry?” (“Co prosím?”);
ale lidé z vrchní a pracující třídy řeknou
prostě jen „What?” (“Co?“) Někteří
příslušníci vyšší pracující třídy
s ambicemi propracovat se do třídy
střední možná také pronesou „pardon“,
v mylném domnění, že to zní nóbl.
Toilet
‘Toilet’ is another word that makes „Toilet“
the higher classes flinch or exchange „Toilet“ (toaleta) je dalším ze slov,
knowing looks. The correct upper- nad kterým se vyšší třídy ošívají a
middle/upper term is ‘loo’ or ‘lavatory’, vyměňují si znalecké pohledy. Správným
pronounced lavuthry, with the accent on termínem by pro ně bylo „loo“ nebo
the first syllable. ‘Bog’ is occasionally „lavatory“ (záchod), vyslovené jako
acceptable, but only if it is said in an lavuthry s přízvukem na první slabice.
obviously ironic-jocular manner, as Výraz „bog“ (hajzlík) je eventuálně také
though in quotes. The working classes all přijatelný, pokud je použit v dostatečně
28
say ‘toilet’, as do most lower-middles and zřejmém ironicky-žertovném kontextu;
middle-middles, the only difference being v pomyslných uvozovkách. Třída
the working-class omission of the final pracujících řekne bez výjimky „toilet“,
‘t’. Those lower- and middle-middles stejně tak jako většina střední a nižší
with pretensions or aspirations, however, střední třídy. Jediným rozdílem bude
may eschew ‘toilet’ in favour of vypuštění koncového „t“ u pracující třídy.
suburban-genteel euphemisms such as Příslušníci nižších a středních tříd mohou
‘gents’, ‘ladies’, ‘bathroom’, ‘powder také někdy v rámci přetvářky či snahy
room’, ‘facilities’ and ‘convenience’. vypadat nóbl nahradit výraz „toilet“
některým z maloměšťácky snobských
výrazů typu „gents“ (páni), „ladies“
(dámy), „bathroom“ (koupelna), „powder
room“ (úpravna), „facilities“ (zařízení) či
„convenience“ (potřeba).
Serviette
A ‘serviette’ is what the inhabitants
„Serviette“
of Pardonia call a napkin. This is another
Pro obyvatele Pardonie je „napkin“
example of a ‘genteelism’, in this case a
(ubrousek) znám pod názvem „serviette“
misguided attempt to enhance one’s status
(servítek). Je to další příklad snahy o to
by using a fancy French word rather than
vypadat nóbl; v tomto případě se jedná o
a plain old English one. It has been
mylný předpoklad toho, že použijete-li
suggested that ‘serviette’ was taken up by
namísto fádního anglického slova
squeamish lower-middles who found
zdánlivě líbivé slovo francouzské,
‘napkin’ a bit too close to ‘nappy’, and
vylepšíte si tím svůj společenský obraz.
wanted something that sounded a bit more
Tvrdí se, že s výrazem „serviette“ přišli
refined. Whatever its origins, ‘serviette’ is
přecitlivělí jedinci z nižších tříd, jimž se
now regarded as irredeemably lower
slovo „napkin“ zdálo příliš podobné
class.
výrazu „nappy“ (plenka) a toužili po
něčem důstojnějším. Ať se vzalo kde se
vzalo, slovo „serviette“ nyní neomylně
asociuje nižší společenskou třídu.
29
Dinner „Dinner“
There is nothing wrong with the Na samotném slově „dinner“
word ‘dinner’ in itself: it is only a (večeře)6 není nic špatného – podle
working-class hallmark if you use it to kontextu použití se ale může proměnit
refer to the midday meal, which should be v třídní nálepku. Pokud někdo používá
called ‘lunch’. Calling your evening meal pojem „dinner“ k označení poledního
‘tea’ is also a working-class indicator: the jídla, nazývaného jinak „lunch“ (oběd),
higher echelons call this meal ‘dinner’ or patří neomylně do třídy pracujících. Lidé
‘supper’. (Technically, a dinner is a z této společenské vrstvy budou dále
somewhat grander meal than a supper: if nazývat večerní jídlo „tea“ (čaj), zatímco
you are invited to ‘supper’, this is likely pro vrstvy vyšší to bude „dinner“ nebo
to be an informal family meal, eaten in „supper“ (lehká večeře). Teoreticky
the kitchen – sometimes this is made vzato, „dinner“ je větší než „supper“:
explicit, as in ‘family supper’ or ‘kitchen pokud jste pozváni na „supper“,
supper’. ‘Tea’, for the higher classes, is pravděpodobně půjde o neformální,
taken at around four o’clock, and consists rodinné jídlo v kuchyni, což může někdy
of tea and cakes or scones (which they hostitel upřesnit jako „family supper“
pronounce with a short ‘o’), and perhaps (rodinná večeře) či „kitchen-supper“
little sandwiches. The lower classes call (večeře v kuchyni). Čaj se ve vyšších
this ‘afternoon tea’. All this can pose a třídách podává okolo čtvrté a kromě čaje
few problems for foreign visitors: if you zahrnuje také kousek dortu či malé
are invited to ‘dinner’, should you turn up koláčky s rozinkami nebo jiným sušeným
at midday or in the evening? Does ‘come ovocem, zvané „scones“ (vysloveno
for tea’ mean four o’clock or seven s krátkým „o“), někdy doplněné o lehký
o’clock? To be safe, you will have to ask sendvič. Nižší třídy nazývají tento set
what time you are expected. The answer „afternoon tea“ (odpolední čaj). Tohle
will help you to place your hosts on the všechno může cizincům řádně zamotat
social scale. hlavu. Pokud jste pozváni na „večeři“,
máte se dostavit v poledne či navečer?
Máte-li „přijít na čaj“, znamená to
dostavit se ve čtyři nebo v sedm? Abyste
6
v českém prostředí známo jako večeře, v tomto kontextu spíše „hlavní jídlo dne“
30
nešlápli vedle, vždy se raději ujistěte o
tom, v kolik hodin jste očekáváni.
Odpověď vám pak poodhalí, jakou příčku
na společenském žebříčku váš hostitel
okupuje.
Settee „Settee“
Or you could ask your hosts what Anebo se svých hostitelů zeptejte,
they call their furniture. If an upholstered jak doma označují nábytek. Pokud
seat for two or more people is called a nazývají čalouněnou sedačku pro dva či
settee or a couch, they are no higher than více lidí „settee“ či „couch“ (gauč), patří
middle-middle. If it is a sofa, they are nanejvýš do střední třídy. Pokud používají
upper-middle or above. There are výraz „sofa“ (pohovka), řadí se do tříd
occasional exceptions to this rule, which vyšších. Toto slovo ovšem není tak
is not quite as accurate a class indicator as spolehlivým třídním indikátorem jako
‘pardon’. Some younger upper-middles, „pardon“ , neboť se můžeme se setkat
influenced by American films and s výjimkami z výše uvedeného pravidla.
television programmes, might say ‘couch’ Omladina z vyšších tříd, ovlivněna
– although they are unlikely to say americkými filmy a seriály, může použít
‘settee’, except as a joke or to annoy their slovo „couch“; je ovšem velmi
class-anxious parents. nepravděpodobné, že by zvolili slovo
„settee“, leda by to bylo v rámci
vtipkování čí pokusu namíchnout rodiče,
Lounge
jež jsou hákliví na třídní diferenciaci.
And what do they call the room in
which the settee/sofa is to be found?
„Lounge“
Settees are found in ‘lounges’ or ‘living
A jak říkají vaši hostitelé
rooms’, sofas in ‘sitting rooms’ or
místnosti, v níž je „seetee“ či „sofa“
‘drawing rooms’. ‘Drawing room’ used to
k nalezení? „Setee“ bude situováno
be the only ‘correct’ term, but many
v takzvaném „lounge“ či „living room“
upper-middles and uppers feel it is bit
(obývací pokoj či obývák), „sofa“
silly and pretentious to call, say, a small
najdeme v místnostech zvaných „sitting
room in an ordinary terraced house the
room“ (salonek) či „drawing room“
31
‘drawing room’, so ‘sitting room’ has (přijímací pokoj). Právě „drawing room“
become acceptable. You may bývalo kdysi jediné správné pojmenování,
occasionally hear an upper-middle-class ale mnohým lidem z vyšších středních a
person say ‘living room’, although this is vyšších tříd připadalo hloupé označovat
frowned upon, but only middle-middles jejich stísněný obývák v běžné řadovce
and below say ‘lounge’. This is a jako „drawing room“7, a proto se začaly
particularly useful word for spotting tolerovat i ostatní výrazy. Člověk
middle-middle social climbers trying to z vyšších tříd může sem tam použít
pass as upper-middle: they may have „living room“, ale výrazem „lounge“ se
learnt not to say ‘pardon’ and ‘toilet’, but budou ohánět jen a pouze lidé z třídy
they are often not aware that ‘lounge’ is pracujících. Zejména na tomto slově
also a deadly sin. můžete nachytat lidi, kteří se snaží “udělat
dojem” a vyšplhat po společenském
žebříčku výš, než je jim souzeno. Tito lidé
sice už ví, že nesmí používat výrazy
„pardon“ a „toilet“, ale netuší, že
Sweet „lounge“ je také smrtelný hřích.
Like ‘dinner’, this word is not in
„Sweet“
itself a class indicator, but it becomes one
Stejně jako výraz „dinner“, ani
when misapplied. The upper-middle and
„sweet“ (sladkost) není samo o sobě
upper classes insist that the sweet course
třídním ukazatelem; může se jím ale stát,
at the end of a meal is called the
pokud se s jeho používáním špatně
‘pudding’ – never the ‘sweet’, or ‘afters’,
nakládá. Vyšší a vyšší střední třídy trvají
or ‘dessert’, all of which are déclassé,
na tom, že sladký chod na závěr jídla se
unacceptable words. ‘Sweet’ can be used
jmenuje „pudding“, a výrazy typu
freely as an adjective, but as a noun it is
„sweet“, „afters“ nebo „dessert“ (vše ve
piece of confectionary – what the
významu „sladkost, dezert, sladká tečka”)
Americans call ‘candy’ – and nothing
jsou podřadné a nepřípustné. Se slovem
else. The course at the end of the meal is
„sweet“ lze libovolně nakládat coby
always ‘pudding’, whatever it consists of:
s přídavným jménem, ale ve funkci
a slice of cake is ‘pudding’, so is a lemon
7
termín „drawing room“ totiž tradičně označoval rozlehlou, přepychově zařízenou místnost, určenou k pobavení
hostů a byl uplatňován zejména v 18. a 19. století mezi anglickou šlechtou a příslušníky královské rodiny.
32
sorbet. Asking: ‘Does anyone want a podstatného jména označuje výhradně
sweet?’ at the end of a meal will get you sladkost – tedy to, co Američané nazývají
immediately classified as middle-middle „candy“ (cukrovinka). Sladký chod na
or below. ‘Afters’ will also activate the konci jídla je vždy „pudding“, ať už je tím
class-radar and get you demoted. Some myšlen kousek dortu či citrónový sorbet.
American-influenced young uppermiddles Zeptáte-li se: „Dáte si někdo něco
are starting to say ‘dessert’, and this is sladkého?“, budete okamžitě zařazeni do
therefore the least offensive of the three – střední či nižší třídy. Výraz „afters“ bude
and the least reliable as a class indicator. mít stejný efekt. Mládež z řad vyšších
středních tříd začíná pod americkým
vlivem slovo „dessert“ používat, čímž jej
činí přijatelnějším než výše zmíněné
ekvivalenty, ale také nejméně
spolehlivým třídním ukazatelem.
FOOD RULES
35
foreigners. This feast may often be eaten naší kuchyně je často nadšeně opěvována
in a ‘caff’ rather than at home, and is cizinci. Tomuto hodování se oddáváme
washed down with industrial quantities of spíš v bistrech než doma a splachujeme
strong, brick-coloured, sweet, milky tea. jej hektolitry silného, cihlově
Lower-middles and middle-middles drink zabarveného čaje s mlékem a cukrem.
a paler, ‘posher’ version, Twining’s Nižší a střední třídy preferují značku
English Breakfast, say, rather than PG Twining´s English Breakfast před,
Tips. The upper-middle and upper classes řekněme, značkou PG Tips, jelikož je
drink weak, dishwatercoloured, světlejší a údajně více nóbl. Vyšší střední
unsweetened Earl Grey. Taking sugar in a vyšší třídy popíjejí neslazený čaj značky
your tea is regarded by many as an Earl Grey; tak slaboučký, že byste si ho
infallible lower-class indicator: even one snadno spletli s vodou od špinavého
spoonful is a bit suspect (unless you were nádobí. Mnozí považují slazení čaje za
born before about 1955); more than one spolehlivý ukazatel nižší třídní
and you are lower-middle at best; more příslušnosti – dokonce i jedna lžička
than two and you are definitely working vzbuzuje podezření (pokud jste se ovšem
class. Putting the milk into the cup first is nenarodili před rokem 1955). Dopřejte si
also a lower-class habit, as is over- lžičky dvě a budete patřit přinejmenším
vigorous, noisy stirring. Some pretentious do nižší střední třídy; dvě lžičky a více
middles and upper-middles make an vás pak degradují do třídy pracujících.
ostentatious point of drinking Lapsang Mezi další znaky nižších tříd patří zuřivé
Souchong, without milk or sugar, as this a hlasité míchání a cinkání lžičkou a zvyk
is about as far removed from working- nalévat si mléko do šálku jako první.
class tea as they can get. More honest (or Někteří namyšlenci ze středních a vyšších
less class-anxious) upper-middles and tříd se snaží distancovat od této verze čaje
uppers often admit to a secret liking for pracujících natolik, že okázale popíjejí
the strong, rust-coloured ‘builders’ tea’. jeho pravý opak: černý, neslazený čínský
How snooty you are about ‘builders’ tea’, čaj Lapsang Souchong. Uvolněnější lidé
and how careful you are to avoid it, is z vyšších tříd (nebo ti, jimž na třídní
quite a good class-anxiety test. diferenciaci tolik nesejde), někdy netají
svou zálibu v silném, „dělnickém“ čaji
rezavé barvy. Vaši háklivost na třídní
diferenciaci tedy rozhodně prověří otázka,
36
Tea is still believed, by English jak o tomto čaji smýšlíte a nakolik se mu
people of all classes, to have miraculous snažíte vyhýbat.
properties. A cup of tea can cure, or at Všichni Angličané bez ohledu na
least significantly alleviate, almost all třídní rozdíly ovšem stále přisuzují čaji
minor physical ailments and zázračné vlastnosti. Šálek čaje prý dokáže
indispositions, from a headache to a vyléčit, či alespoň výrazně zmírnit, téměř
scraped knee. Tea is also an essential všechny menší tělesné bolístky, od hlavy
remedy for all social and psychological jako střep po odřené koleno. Čaj také
ills, from a bruised ego to the trauma of a slouží jako první pomoc při veškerých
divorce or bereavement. This magical sociálních a duševních těžkostech, od
drink can be used equally effectively as a pochroumaného ega až po rozvodové
sedative or stimulant, to calm and soothe trauma či bolestné ztráty blízké osoby.
or to revive and invigorate. Whatever Tento zázračný lektvar může být podáván
your mental or physical state, what you jak pro utišení, tak pro povzbuzení;
need is ‘a nice cup of tea’. dokáže uklidnit a ukonejšit stejně tak
Perhaps most importantly, tea- dobře jako oživit a nabudit. Ať už je váš
making is the perfect displacement psychický či fyzický stav jakýkoliv, vše
activity: whenever the English feel co potřebujete je „šálek dobrého čaje“.
awkward or uncomfortable in a social Asi nejdůležitější funkcí čaje je
situation (that is, almost all of the time), jeho umění rozptýlit. Kdykoliv jsou
they make tea. It’s a universal rule: when Angličané na pochybách, cítí se nesví,
in doubt, put the kettle on. Visitors arrive; nebo se octnou v nepříjemné sociální
we have our usual difficulties over situaci (což je na denním pořádku), vaří
greeting protocol. We say, ‘I’ll just put čaj. Je to jako univerzální pravidlo: jste-li
the kettle on’. There is one of those na pochybách, postavte na čaj. Přijela
uneasy lulls in the conversation, and návštěva a my se jako obvykle potýkáme
we’ve run out of weather-speak. We say, s jejich uvítáním – raději proto řekneme:
‘Now, who’d like more tea? I’ll just go „Postavím na čaj“. Během konverzace
and put the kettle on’. A business meeting nastane najednou trapné ticho, téma
might involve having to talk about počasí je už zcela vyčerpáno. Tehdy
money. We postpone the uncomfortable nadneseme: „Dal by si někdo ještě čaj?
bit by making sure everyone has tea. A Dám vařit vodu“. V rámci obchodního
bad accident – people are injured and in jednání může dojít i na řeč o penězích –
37
shock: tea is needed. ‘I’ll put the kettle snažíme se proto tento nepříjemný
on.’ World War Three breaks out – a okamžik co nejvíce oddálit a postaráme se
nuclear attack is imminent. ‘I’ll put the nejprve o to, aby měli všichni přítomní
kettle on.’ dostatek čaje. Stane se tragická nehoda,
You get the idea. We are rather fond lidé jsou zraněni a v šoku – je nutno
of tea. obstarat čaj. Vypukne třetí světová a hrozí
nám bezprostřední jaderný útok – stavíme
na čaj.
Chápete, co tím chtěl básník říci.
Čaj máme vážně v oblibě.
CALENDRICAL RITES
KALENDÁŘNÍ SVÁTKY
Calendrical rites include big
Kalendářní události zahrnují
celebrations such as Christmas and New
důležité i méně důležité svátky a oslavy,
Year’s Eve, and others that occur at the
které se každoročně opakují (Vánoce,
same time every year, such as Easter,
Silvestr, Velikonoce, První máj, dožínky,
May Day, Harvest Festivals, Hallowe’en
Halloween, Noc Guye Fawkese, Den
and Guy Fawkes’ Night, as well as
matek, Valentýn). Patří sem také státní
Mothers’ Day, Valentine’s Day and Bank
svátky.
Holidays.
Vánoční a silvestrovské zvyky
Christmas and New Year’s Eve Rules
Anglický kalendářní rok je protkán
The English year is punctuated by
státními svátky: některé se svou
national calendrical holidays: some are
důležitostí vyrovnají sotva čárce ve větě,
mere commas, others are more important
jiné jsou jak středník, zato svátky vánoční
semi-colons; the Christmas holiday and
a Silvestr jsou jednoznačná tečka za
New Year’s Eve are the final full stop.
větou. Většina kalendářních svátků má
Most calendrical rites were originally
náboženský původ – často se jedná o
religious events, often ancient pagan
pohanské rituály, jež si křesťanství
festivals appropriated by Christianity, but
přizpůsobilo k obrazu svému. Na
the Christian significance of many of
duchovní podstatu většiny svátků se ale
these rites is largely ignored. Ironically,
dnes už zapomíná a se špetkou ironie
38
they might be said to have reverted to můžeme poznamenat, že se jejich oslavy
something more like their original pagan vrátily zpět k pohanským kořenům. To se
roots, which serves the Christians right mi zdá jediné fér vzhledem k tomu, že
for hijacking them in the first place, I křesťané si je v podstatě násilně
suppose. přivlastnili.
Christmas and New Year’s Eve are Vánoce a Silvestr jsou ze všech
by far the most important. Christmas Day svátků těmi nejdůležitějšími. Boží hod
(25th of December) is firmly established vánoční je tradičně „rodinná záležitost“,
as a ‘family’ ritual, while New Year’s zatímco Silvestr se nese ve znamení
Eve is a much more raucous celebration daleko bouřlivějších oslav s přáteli. Ale
with friends. But when English people když Angličané mluví o „Vánocích“ (jako
talk about ‘Christmas’ (as in ‘What are třeba „Co děláš o Vánocích?“, nebo
you doing for Christmas?’ or ‘I hate „Nesnáším Vánoce!“), většinou mají na
Christmas!’), they often mean the entire mysli celé období svátků, od 23./24.
holiday period, from the 23rd/24th of prosince až po Nový rok, jež tradičně
December right through to New Year’s zahrnuje alespoň některé z následujících
Day, including, typically and událostí:
traditionally, at least some of the Štědrý večer: rodinný kruh, nákupy
following: na poslední chvíli, panika a hašteření,
Christmas Eve (family; last minute pověsit světýlka na stromeček, popíjení,
shopping; panics and squabbles; tree přecpat se oříšky a čokoládou, popřípadě
lights; drinking; too many nuts and se vypravit do kostela, ať už na odpolední
chocolates; possibly church – early zpěvy či půlnoční;
evening carols or midnight service);
Boží hod vánoční: opět v kruhu
Christmas Day (family;
tree; rodinném, stromeček, tradiční rozdávání
present-giving rituals; marathon cooking dárků, nekonečný proces kuchtění a
and eating of huge Christmas lunch; the posléze konzumace monstrózního
Queen’s broadcast on television/radio – or vánočního oběda, na rádiu či televizi
pointedly not watching/listening to the naladit projev královny (nebo královnu
Queen; fall asleep – perhaps while demonstrativně ignorovat), vytuhnout u
watching The Sound of Music, The televize (pravděpodobně při sledování
Wizard of Oz or similar; more food and filmů „Za zvuků hudby“, „Čaroděj ze
39
drink; uncomfortable night); země Oz“, nebo něčeho podobného),
spořádat další tuny jídla a pití a mít
Boxing Day (hangover; family
‘outing’ of some sort, if only to local těžkou
noc;
park; long country walk; visiting the other Svátek svatého Štěpána: kocovina,
set of relatives; escape from family to nějaký ten rodinný výlet (i kdyby jen do
pub); místního parku), dlouhá procházka,
27th–30th December (slightly návštěvy příbuzných, útěk z kruhu
strange ‘limbo’ period; some back at rodinného do hospody;
work, but often achieving very little;
Období od 27. do 30. prosince: poněkud
others shopping, going for walks, trying
„chcíplé“ období; někteří se vrací zpět do
to keep children amused; more overeating
práce, kde se často marně snaží o nějaký
and drinking; visiting friends/relatives;
produktivní výkon, jiní nakupují, chodí na
television; videos; pub);
procházky, snaží se zabavit potomky,
pokračují v přejídání a pití, probíhají další
New Year’s Eve (friends; big boozy návštěvy mezi rodinami a příbuznými,
parties or pub-crawls; dressing up/fancy- sledování televize a videa či posedávání
dress; loud music; dancing; champagne, v hospodách;
banging pans etc. at midnight; fireworks;
Silvestr: strávený v kruhu přátel na
‘Auld Lang Syne’; New
Year’s bujarých večírcích kde alkohol teče
resolutions; taxihunt/ long cold walk proudem, pečlivě vybrané oblečení,
home);
hlasitá hudba, tanec, šampaňské, půlnoční
New Year’s Day (sleep late; mlácení do hrnců8, ohňostroje, zpívání
hangover) tradiční písně Auld Lang Syne,
stanovování novoročních předsevzetí,
hořečné shánění taxíka, popřípadě dlouhá
mrazivá procházka domů;
8
Půlnoční vyrábění hluku všeho druhu zahrnuje nejen bušení do hrnců, pánví a bubnů, ale i houkání sirén,
troubení aut či vyzvánění kostelních zvonů. Je to jedna z anglických novoročních tradic, jejímž smyslem je
zastrašit a vyhnat zlé duchy.
40
Often, the term ‘Christmas’ Často se pod pojmem „Vánoce“
comprises much more than this. When ale skrývá daleko víc. Když někdo
people say ‘I hate Christmas’ or moan prohlásí, že „nesnáší Vánoce“, nebo když
about how ‘Christmas’ is becoming more si lidé stěžují na to, že Vánoce ani
and more of a nightmare or an ordeal, v nejmenším nejsou svátky „klidu a
they are generally including all the míru“, nýbrž noční můrou, mají většinou
‘preparations’ for and ‘run-up’ to na mysli celý ten vánoční „kolotoč“, jež
Christmas, which may start at least a se roztáčí alespoň měsíc předem –
month ahead, and which involve přípravy, nakupování, vánoční večírky
office/workplace Christmas parties, v práci, tradiční návštěva vánoční
9
‘Christmas shopping’, a ‘Christmas pantomimy a pro děti školou povinné
Panto’ and quite possibly, for those with také nejspíš inscenace hry O narození
school-age children, a school ‘Nativity Ježíška nebo vánoční koncert, nemluvě o
Play’ or Christmas concert – not to každoročním obvyklém rozesílání tuny
mention the annual ritual of writing and vánočních přání.
dispatching large quantities of Christmas Pro mnohé z nás je školní inscenace
cards. hry O narození Ježíška jedinou událostí
The school Nativity Play is, for s náboženským nádechem, se kterou se
many, the only event of any religious v rámci Vánoc setkáme. Její duchovní
content that they will encounter during význam ovšem často zaniká ve
the Christmas period, although its společenském mumraji a řešení tradičních
religious significance tends to get lost in sporů o tom, čí děti mají to štěstí, že
the social drama and ritual of the occasion dostaly hlavní role Marie a Josefa, čí děti
– particularly the issue of whose children hrají další důležité postavy, jako jsou Tři
have been fortunate enough to secure the králové, hostinský, hlavní pastýř či Anděl
leading roles (Mary, Joseph) and the zvěstovatel, a čí děti vyfasovaly pouhé
principal supporting ones (Three Kings, „křoví“ v podobě ostatních pastýřů,
Innkeeper, Head Shepherd, Angel-of-the- andělů, oveček, krav, oslíků a podobně.
Lord), and whose must suffer the Škola se někdy v záchvatu politické
indignity of playing mere background korektnosti může rozhodnout nahradit hru
9
Vánoční pantomima je hudebně-komediální představení pro celou rodinu, zpracovávající tradiční lidové
pohádky, jako je Popelka, Sněhurka a sedm trpaslíků atp. Herci se v průběhu představení často obrací na dětské
publikum a vyžadují jistou formu podpory či spolupráce.
41
shepherds, angels, sheep, cows, donkeys O narození něčím více „multikulturním“
and so on. Or the school may have been (jak mi sdělil jeden mladý asijský
gripped by a sudden fit of political brigádník z hrabství Yorkshire, z
correctness and attempted to replace the multikulturalismu jsou tu lidé přímo
traditional Nativity with something more „hotoví“). Ale jako to tak v Anglii chodí,
‘multicultural’ (‘we’re all very multiculti veškeré půtky a šarvátky o obsazení rolí a
round here’ an Asian youth-worker from dalších problémech neprobíhají otevřeně,
Yorkshire told me). This being England, nýbrž mívají podobu skrytého
the squabbles and skirmishes over casting strategizování, machiavelistických
and other issues are rarely conducted manipulací a brblání si pod vousy. Na
openly but are more a matter of indirect samotné představení dorazí otcové
scheming, Machiavellian manipulation většinou se zpožděním, aby pak jeho
and indignant muttering. On the night, druhou polovinu nahráli jako roztřesené
Fathers tend to show up late and record domácí video, navíc po celou dobu
the second half of the Nativity on shaky, zaostřené na špatnou ovci.
cinéma-vérité video, unfortunately Vánoční pantomima je bizarní,
focusing throughout on the wrong sheep. typicky anglickou tradicí. Najdete ji na
The Christmas Panto is a bizarre, vánočním programu téměř všech místních
quintessentially English custom. Almost divadel v zemi. Hrají se notoricky známé
every local theatre in the country puts on pohádky či lidové příběhy, jako například
a pantomime at Christmas, in which a Aladin, Popelka, Kocour v botách, příběh
children’s fairy-tale or folk tale – such as o Dicku Whittingtonovi10, či Pohádky
Aladdin, Cinderella, Puss in Boots, Dick matky husy. V ženských rolích tu
Whittington, Mother Goose, etc. – is vystupují výhradně muži (říká se jim
performed, always with men in drag Paničky pantomimy), zatímco mužské
(known as Pantomime Dames) playing role jsou naopak ztělesňovány ženami
the main female parts and a woman in (známí jako Principálovi chlapci). Tato
men’s clothes as Principal Boy. Tradition představení tradičně vyžadují notně
10
Anglická lidová pohádka, vyprávějící příběh chudého sirotka Dicka Whittingtona, který se vydává do Londýna
za lepším životem. Jeho jediným majetkem je kočka, kterou si pořídil proto, aby od něj odháněla krysy a on
mohl v noci klidně spát. Právě ona mu nakonec dopomůže k velikému bohatství, neboť je pro své lovecké
schopnosti odkoupena králem, jehož palác sužují myši. Dick se tak konečně stává bohatým mužem a nakonec i
starostou Londýna. Jméno hlavního hrdiny je založeno na skutečné historické postavě, Richardu Whittingtonovi,
který byl starostou Londýna ve 14. století a zasloužil se o mnoho veřejně prospěšných projektů včetně
vybudování kanalizačního systému v chudinských čtvrtích.
42
requires much noisy audience- hlučnou spoluúčast dětského obecenstva
participation for the children, with cries of s výkřiky typu: „JE ZA TEBOU!“ „NE
‘HE’S BEHIND YOU!’ ‘OH NO HE NENÍ!“ „ALE ANO, JE!“ (tradice, v níž
ISN’T!’ ‘OH YES HE IS!’ (a ritual into se vyžívají i mnozí rodiče). Scénář her je
which adult members of the audience zpravidla plný chlípných dvojsmyslů
often throw themselves with considerable namířenými na dospělou část publika (nad
gusto), and a script full of salacious nimiž se nicnetušící potomci nejprve
double-entendres for the grown-ups (at bezelstně zasmějí a pak je začnou svým
which the children laugh heartily, before rodičům trpělivě osvětlovat).
patiently explaining them to their
parents). Ostatní kalendářní svátky – čárky a
středníky
Minor Calendricals – Commas and Semi-
colons Náš První máj se nese ve znamení
Our May Day, with staid, poklidných oslav. Můžete tu spatřit
respectable, usually middle-aged Morris spořádané, usedlé pány v letech tančit
11
Dancers and the occasional innocent tradiční Morrisův tanec či děti, jak si
children’s maypole, is a revival of the staví májku. Tyto oslavy jsou moderní
ancient pagan rites of Beltane. obdobou starodávného keltského svátku
Hallowe’en – fancy-dress and sweets – is Beltaine, oslav příchodu jara a tepla.
a descendant of All Souls’ Eve, a festival Halloween – dnes spojený se
of communion with the dead, also of strašidelnými kostýmy a cukrátky – je
pagan origin and celebrated in various anglosaskou obdobou Dušiček (Památky
forms in many cultures around the world. všech zesnulých). Tento původně
The practice of lighting bonfires pohanský svátek, oslavující spojení se
and burning effigies in early November is zemřelými, se v různých obměnách
another pagan one – common at ‘fire objevoval v kulturách po celém světě.
festivals’ welcoming the winter (the Tradice zažíhání ohňů a pálení
effigies represented the old year) – slaměných figurín počátkem listopadu má
adapted in the seventeenth century to rovněž pohanské kořeny. Lidé tak vítají
commemorate the defeat of Guy Fawkes’s zimu a dávají sbohem uplynulému roku,
11
Morrisův tanec je tradiční lidový tanec, objevující se v Anglii už v 15. století. Dnes se tradice Morrisova tance
rozšířila do celého světa a existuje v různých obdobách. Jedná se o rytmický tanec zpravidla doprovázený
lidovou hudbou a dalšími rekvizitami (zapojeny mohou být např. kapesníky či dřevěné kolíky). Tanečníci jsou
oděni do tradičních krojů a pro umocnění dynamiky mají často na holeni připevněné rolničky či zvonečky.
43
plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament. který figurína představuje. Tento rituál
It is still also known as Bonfire Night and probíhá v rámci festivalu ohňů, kdy si
Fireworks Night, and is now celebrated celá země připomíná porážku Guye
with firework-parties over a period of at Fawkese – muže, jež se počátkem
least a fortnight, rather than just on the sedmnáctého století neúspěšně pokusil
night of the 5th of November. vyhodit do povětří londýnskou budovu
parlamentu. Ačkoliv oslavy původně
probíhaly pouze v noci z 5. listopadu
(někdy se jí také říká Noc ohňů či Noc
ohňostrojů), v současné době trvá
ohňostrojové veselí alespoň dva týdny.
Valentine’s Day – cards, flowers, Den svatého Valentýna je se svými
chocolate – is a sanitized Christian přáníčky, květinami a čokoládkami
version of the Ancient Roman festival of jakousi očištěnou variantou starověkého
Lupercalia, originally held on the 15th svátku Luperkálie – římského svátku
February, which was a much more lásky. Oslavy původně připadaly na 15.
raunchy celebration of the ‘coming of února a byly daleko bujařejší, než jak je
spring’ (in other words, the start of the známe dnes. Lidé vítali příchod jara coby
mating season) designed to ensure the počátek doby páření a chtěli si tak zajistit
fertility of fields, flocks and people. jak úrodnou půdu, tak plodnost dobytka i
lidí.
Many people think of Easter as one Mnoho lidí považuje Velikonoce
of the few genuinely Christian za jeden z mála ryze křesťanských svátků,
calendricals, but even its name is not ale přitom ani samotný název není
Christian, being a variant of Eostre, the křesťanský, Jedná se o variantu jména
Saxon goddess of spring, and many of our Eostre, saské bohyně jara. Většina
Easter customs – eggs and so on – are velikonočních zvyklostí je navíc založena
based on pagan fertility rites. Some na pohanských rituálech plodnosti (např.
otherwise non-practising Christians may barvení vajíček). Na Boží hod
go to a church service on Easter Sunday, velikonoční se do kostela vydávají i lidé,
and even some totally non-religious kteří na mše běžně nechodí a dokonce i
people ‘give something up’ for the zarputilí ateisté jsou ochotní se po dobu
traditional fasting period of Lent (it’s a tradičního, čtyřicetidenního půstu před
44
popular time to restart one’s New-Year’s- Velikonocemi něčeho vzdát (mnozí z nás
Resolution diet, which somehow lost its se tak opětovně pokouší o splnění
momentum by the third week in January). novoročních předsevzetí, která vzala za
své někdy během ledna).
In addition to these ‘mainstream’
Doposud jsme se zaobírali
national calendricals, every English ethnic
„středoproudými“ národními svátky, ale v
and religious minority has its own annual
Anglii také existuje bezpočet etnických a
punctuation marks: the Hindu Divali and
náboženských menšin a ty mají svá
Janamashtami; Muslim Ramadan and Al-
vlastní interpunkční znaménka: za
Hijra; Jewish Chanukkah, Yom Kippur
všechny můžeme jmenovat třeba
and Rosh Hashana, to name just the first
hinduistické svátky Divali a
few that immediately spring to mind.
Janamashtami, muslimský postní měsíc
And every English sub-culture has Ramadán, či islámský Nový rok Al-Jihra.
its own calendricals – its own annual Z židovských svátků jmenujme například
tribal gatherings and festivals. These Chanuku (Svátek světel), Jom kipur (Den
include the upper-class ‘Season’, of smíření), či Roš ha-šana, židovský Nový
which the Royal Ascot race-meeting, the rok.
Henley Regatta and Wimbledon tennis Také každá anglická subkultura má
championships (always abbreviated to své osobité kalendářní události, jako jsou
just ‘Ascot, Henley and Wimbledon’) are každoroční shromáždění a festivaly. Vyšší
the principal events. The racing fraternity společenské kruhy žijí sportovní sezónou,
have the Grand National and the která zahrnuje královské koňské dostihy
Cheltenham Festival in addition to Ascot; v městečku Ascot, královskou regatu na
Goths have their annual Convention at řece Temži poblíž města Henley a
Whitby in Yorkshire; young music-lovers tenisový turnaj ve Wimbledonu (kterým
have their Festival at Glastonbury; nikdo neřekne jinak než „Ascot, Henley a
Modern Druids have the Summer Solstice Wimbledon“). Pro dostihové nadšence je
at Stonehenge; and so on. tu kromě Ascotu také Velký národní
překážkový dostih v Liverpoolu či
dostihový festival v Cheltenhamu.
Přívrženci gotického hnutí se každoročně
scházejí ve městě Whitby v hrabství
Yorkshire, mladí hudební nadšenci si
45
There are thousands of these sub- mohou přijít na své na vyhlášeném
cultural calendricals, far too many to list, hudebním festivalu v Glastonbury,
but each one, to its adherents, may be vyznavači neodruidismu slaví letní
much more important than Christmas. slunovrat na kamenném komplexu
And I have only mentioned the Stonehenge, a tak dále.
‘Christmases’ – every sub-culture has its Podobných událostí byste
own minor calendricals as well, its own v kalendáři anglických subkultur našli
semi-colons and commas. But even the bezpočet a jen těžko je lze vyjmenovat
minor punctuation marks are necessary: všechny. Každý takový svátek přitom
we need these special days, these little může mít pro zúčastněné daleko větší
mini-festivals, to provide breaks from our váhu než Vánoce. A to jsem zatím
routine and give structure to our year. nezmínila méně důležité svátky
That’s ‘we humans’, of course, not just anglických subkultur, všechny ty
‘we English’, but we English do seem to středníky a čárky. I na těch záleží, protože
have a particular need for regular ‘time my všechny tyto sváteční dny a rituály
out’ from our rigid social controls. potřebujeme; představují pro nás
vybočení z každodenního stereotypu a
strukturují náš kalendářní rok. Tím
slůvkem „my“ se rozumí „my, lidé“, a ne
pouze Angličané, ačkoliv u Angličanů je
potřeba onoho „oddechového času“ a
vybočení z každodenní rutiny obzvláště
silná.
EPILOGUE EPILOG
46
way to mark the completion of my zdrženlivá oslava dokončení mého
Englishness project. anglického projektu.
Even though I am now ‘off duty’ – I když jsem teď „mimo službu“ a
just waiting for the Oxford train, like a jen čekám na vlak do Oxfordu jako
normal person – I realize that I have normální člověk, najednou mi dojde, že
automatically chosen the best jsem si automaticky vybrala tu nejlepší
observation-position in the station café, pozorovací pozici v celé nádražní kavárně
with a particularly good view of the queue s obzvláště dobrým výhledem na frontu u
at the counter. Just habit, I suppose. The pultu. To bude asi ze zvyku. Problémem
thing about participant-observation výzkumu založeného na zúčastněném
research is that it does rather tend to take pozorování je to, že se vám časem
over your whole life. Every routine train dostane pod kůži a začne vám „kecat“ do
journey, every drink in the pub, every života. Každá všední cesta vlakem, drink
walk to the shops, every fleeting v hospodě, nakupování, sebemenší
interaction with everyone you meet is a kontakt s kýmkoliv se promění
data-gathering or hypothesis-testing v příležitost ke sběru dat či otestování
opportunity. You can’t even watch vaší hypotézy. Dokonce nemůžete ani
television or listen to the radio without sledovat televizi či poslouchat rádio, aniž
constantly making notes on bloody byste si neustále nedělali poznámky o tom
Englishness. zatraceném angličanství.
The book is done; I’ve left my Knížka je hotová; svůj notýsek
notebook at home (I’m writing this on a jsem nechala doma (tohle píšu na
napkin). But look: in that taxi earlier I ubrousek). Jenomže před chvílí v taxíku
couldn’t help scribbling on the back of jsem si nemohla pomoct a na ruku si
my hand something the driver said. I peer načmárala něco, co prohodil řidič. Snažím
at the slightly smudged abbreviations. se rozluštit ty lehce rozmazané zkratky.
Something about ‘all this rain and now Bylo to něco jako: „tenhle déšť a do toho
they’ve issued drought warnings for next teď ohlásili varování před letním suchem,
summer and isn’t it just typical’. Oh great, jak typické!“ No výborně, tohle je můj asi
that must be my seven-hundred- sedmistýtisící záznam na téma remcání o
thousandth recorded instance of English počasí. Vážně moc užitečná informace,
weathermoaning. Really useful Kate, ty ubohá datová závislačko.
information, Kate. Pathetic data-junkie. Rozlouskla jsi heslo. Tvá troška do mlýna
47
You’ve cracked the code; you’ve done snad pomůže vyřešit krizi anglické
your little bit towards resolving the národní identity. A teď už dej pokoj.
English identity crisis. Now leave it Přestaň už pozorovat lidi ve frontách,
alone. Stop all this obsessive queue- počítat kuličky hrášku na talíři a
watching and pea-counting and recording zaznamenávat náhodné útržky debat o
random bits of weather-speak. Get a life. počasí. Vzpamatuj se. Ano. Naprosto.
Yes. Right. Absolutely. Enough is Čeho je moc, toho je příliš.
enough. Ale moment, co se to támhle děje?
Ooh, but hang on a sec. What’s U pultu čekají ve frontě tři lidé a z druhé
that? A woman with a baby in a pushchair strany najednou přistoupila nějaká žena
has approached the coffee-shop counter s kočárkem. Předbíhá snad, nebo si jen
from the wrong end, and there’s a queue prohlíží nabídku koblih a sendvičů a
of three people already waiting to be přemýšlí, jestli se zařadit do fronty nebo
served. Is she trying to jump the queue, or ne? Není to jasné. Bylo by ale přece
just having a look at the doughnuts and nestoudné v tomto případě předbíhat! Ti
sandwiches before deciding whether to tři čekající zákazníci rozjeli paranoidní
join the queue? It’s not clear. But a jump- pantomimu – podezíravé pohledy stranou,
attempt here would be too blatant, surely? cílené pokašlávání, šoupání nohama... A
The three queuers are doing the paranoid helemese! Dva z nich si právě vyměnili
pantomime – suspicious sideways looks, pohledy se zdviženým obočím (čekali ve
pointed throatclearing, shuffling forward . frontě spolu, nebo ne? Proč jsem jen
. . Ah! Ttwo of them have just exchanged nedávala pozor?) Jeden si hlasitě
raised eyebrows (but were they in the povzdychne – všimne si toho žena
queue together, or are they strangers? s kočárkem? Ano, došlo jí to a přesunuje
Why wasn’t I paying attention?) – one of se na konec fronty, avšak s nepatrně
them sighs noisily – will the pushchair dotčeným výrazem ve tváři. Vůbec
woman notice? – Yes! She’s got the neměla v úmyslu předbíhat, chtěla se jen
message – she’s moving towards the back podívat na nabídku sendvičů. Lidé ve
of the queue – but looking mildly frontě klopí oči k zemi a vyhýbají se
affronted – she’d never intended to jump jejímu pohledu. Ha! Byla po celou tu
the queue, she was just looking to see dobu nevinná, tušila jsem to! Teď by mě
what sandwiches they had. The queuers zajímalo, jestli jsou ti dva, co si
look down or away, avoiding eye contact. vyměňovali pohledy, přátelé nebo cizinci.
48
Hah! She was innocent all along – I knew To je velmi důležité – vyvolal ten
it! Now, I wonder if those two eyebrow- zdánlivý pokus o předbíhání oční kontakt
raisers are friends or strangers. This is mezi cizími lidmi nebo ne? Uvidíme,
very important – did that apparent queue- jestli si objednají společně... krucifix, můj
jump threat prompt eye contact between vlak je tady! Zrovna dneska musí přijet
strangers or not? Let’s see if they order včas, právě když se tady odehrává takové
together – damn, that’s my train they’ve uchvacující předbíhací drama – jak
just announced! Huh! It would be on time typické! Možná bych mohla jet až tím
for once, just when there’s this fascinating dalším...
queuedrama going on – typical! Maybe I
could get the next one...
49
3. THEORETICAL PART
According to Peter Newmark, every translation should begin with the analysis of a
source text. Among other procedures, the translator should compare the intention of the author
with his own endeavours. (Newmark 1988: 11) Described below are the some main
differences between the source and target text functions, the intention of the author and
translator, and the characterization of a prospective target readership. In order to avoid
repetitive terms source language and target language, we have decided to adapt Newmark´s
abbreviations “SL” and “TL”.
Even though this thesis treats Watching the English as a useful source of information
about English culture, the original intention of the author was slightly different. As well as in
her other books, Kate Fox offers an insight into the lives of English people, aimed primarily at
English readers themselves. Her message is simple: “Dear fellow citizens. Let us now learn
about our strange habits and customs. Let us mock our ordinary lives for a while. Have you
found yourself doing the same thing? See, what did I tell you?”
There are some press reviews of the book that question the target readership. For
example, Joseph Hardwick from the University of York points out that “the book seems to
have been written for foreigners who wish to visit England, but it is likely the majority of
readers will be English”. However, after considering the text as a whole, looking at the style,
the choice of lexis and the absence of notes explaining the majority of cultural terms, we have
enough reasons to believe that the book was originally aimed at native English speakers. In
order to prove this claim, we will be looking at the stylistic and lexical level of the text in
detail in one of the following chapters.
As suggested before, the translator´s intention is significantly different from that of the
author. While the English readership is meant to be entertained in the first place, an average
50
Czech reader requires additional information and explanation in order to understand the text
and decode the cultural terms and references. That brings us to the main translation issue we
will be dealing with in the theoretical part: the significant cultural gap that occurs between
Czech and English.
At first, we have to define an average reader of the source text as well as the target
text, assess their linguistic skills and their knowledge of English cultural environment. Then,
we need to decide on a certain system of footnotes or other form of explaining words that
might cause misunderstanding. Notes represent, after all, a very common way of dealing with
cultural terms in the text: “The traditional information a translator may have to add to his
version is normally cultural (accounting for difference between SL and TL culture)....and is
dependent on the requirement of his, as opposed to the original, readership” (Newmark 1988:
91). The methods used for translating the cultural words in the text shall be further discussed
in one of the following chapters. Generally speaking, we hope that this thesis could outline a
set of guidelines, possibly applicable on the translation of the whole book. Guidelines, that
would lead to a translation comprehensible to Czech readers with only limited knowledge of
English culture, and that would, at the same time, preserve the unique cultural element in the
text.
“You have to make several assumptions about the SL readership. From the
setting of the SL text, as well as text itself, you should assess whether the
readership is likely to be motivated (keen to read the text), familiar with the
topic and the culture, and 'at home' in the variety of language used....You then
have to consider whether you are translating for the same or a different type of
TL readership, perhaps with less knowledge of the topic or the culture, or a
lower standard of linguistic education.... You may try to assess the level of
education, the class, age and sex of the readership” (Newmark 1988: 13-15)
51
cannot be said about an average TL reader, as he or she may struggle with cultural terms and
references that SL readers find perfectly comprehensible.
As for the educational background, I suggest that people who read nonfiction achieved
in general at least secondary, if not tertiary level of education. And since our education
usually goes hand in hand with our position on a social class ladder, I expect the prospective
SL readers to belong to middle or upper-middle class. Assessing their age appears to be more
difficult. It can vary from young and middle-aged adults to the readers of older age.
Furthermore, I suggest that these characteristics apply to both SL and TL readers, as the
social-class system, as well as the system of education in both countries is very similar.
Additionally, we have to consider the TL reader´s knowledge of English language and
his or hers level of interest in English culture. Providing that Watching the English will be
officially translated into Czech and distributed to the market, there are likely to be two major
groups of prospective buyers. Firstly, there will be people with, let´s say, “active interest” in
English culture and way of life, i.e. people who consider travelling to the country / people
who have been to the country or currently live there / people who have English friends etc.
Also, these readers are very likely to speak English on a certain level. Secondly, there might
be people with a “passive interest” in English culture. They might not speak English, or have
any intentions of travelling to the country, or have any English friends and still, they might
just read the book out of pure interest. These people are most likely familiar with the
notorious stereotypes that are spread about the English around the world (hypocrisy, dry
English humour, greed, puritanism etc.), and this book could help to reshape this distorted
cultural image of the English by providing a detailed, well-researched and, most importantly,
honest point of view of the “insider”.
As for the first group of prospective readers, I can imagine that Watching the English
could serve them as an advanced tourist guide; a source of useful information about the
everyday, real English life. A tourist guide that does not just state plain facts, but it is trying to
get under the skin of English character; a guide that offers an interesting insight into the hearts
and minds of English people. That is also one of the reasons why I have decided to transfer
certain English expressions from the SL into the TL and provide the Czech translation in
brackets only – in order to stress the informative, or I daresay “educational” aspect of the text.
Take for example the English words discussed on the chapter “The Seven Deadly Sins”. The
word toilet is given almost ten slightly different variants, which author sorts according to the
use in different social classes. In an average English pub, you can really encounter the “WC”
52
room named differently, from “lavatory” and its shortcut “loo”, to “restrooms”, “facilities”
etc. During my stay in England I have repeatedly found myself slightly confused by this,
thinking: “Is this it? Is this how they call “W.C.” in this place?” By preserving the SL word in
the translation I give the readers the opportunity to see the original English word, remember
it, and compare its variations, which can help them once they find themselves in an actual
English pub, looking for a toilet. If I replaced all the terms with an approximate Czech
equivalents, what would be the point?
And as for the second, “passive” group of prospective readers, they might not
appreciate this “real-life insight” as much as the first group, but they can still enjoy the witty,
entertaining style of Fox´s writing and laugh with her at the quirks and strange habits of the
English. The book was, after all, written in order to entertain as well as inform, so feel free to
take your pick.
Following Newmark´s pattern of a text analysis, let us now try to locate our text on the
scale of formality. We can omit the two most formal distinctions (officialese and official)
straight away and consider basically all the following ones: formal, neutral, informal,
colloquial, slang, and taboo (Newmark 1988: 14). Formal variation appears in the text only
sporadically, while neutral and informal seem to prevail. And although we would normally
not expect a nonfiction text to contain colloquial, slang or taboo expressions, they indeed can
be found in here. In most cases, however, these are not author´s own words; she only quotes
material she gathered during her research (i.e. statements from her informants or
transcriptions of dialogues she overheard on streets or in pubs).
This classification is, of course, only a suggestion; it is not finite. As Newmark
himself emphasizes, these stylistic distinctions are fuzzy and it always depends on the context
of use, as well as on other linguistic and extra-linguistic factors (1988: 14).
Shown below are examples of different stylistic layers quoted from the source text,
accompanied with my own translation:
Formal
Kate Fox My translation
I would add that a disproportionate number K tomu bych ráda dodala, že až neúměrné
of our most influential social rules and množství našich nejdůležitějších
maxims are concerned with the maintenance společenských pravidel a mravních zásad je
of privacy. spojeno právě se soukromím
54
Formal stylistic features are expressed mainly by the choice of abstract, academic vocabulary
(disproportionate, influential, concerned with, maintenance), compiled into a short, yet highly
informative sentence.
Neutral:
Kate Fox My translation
The capricious and erratic nature of our Rozmarná a nevyzpytatelná povaha našeho
weather ensures that there is always počasí zajišťuje, že máme vždy o čem mluvit,
something new to comment on, be surprised spekulovat, nač si stěžovat a zejména, na čem
by, speculate about, moan about, or, perhaps se shodovat
most importantly, agree about.
Most of the vocabulary used in this example can be located on a neutral stylistic scale
(weather, ensure, new, surprised, agree), with a slight overlap into the informal layer (moan).
Unlike the formal example above, this sentence reads with more ease, as the ideas are placed
one after another and the syntactic structure is using commas to segment the information
presented to the reader, allowing him to absorb it step by step.
Informal:
Kate Fox My translation
Really useful information, Kate. Pathetic Vážně moc užitečná informace, Kate, ty
data-junkie. You’ve cracked the code; you’ve ubohá datová závislačko. Rozlouskla jsi
done your little bit towards resolving the heslo. Tvá troška do mlýna snad pomůže
English identity crisis. Now leave it alone. vyřešit krizi anglické národní identity. A teď
Stop all this obsessive queue-watching and už dej pokoj. Přestaň už pozorovat lidi ve
pea-counting and recording random bits of frontách, počítat kuličky hrášku na talíři a
weather-speak. Get a life. zaznamenávat náhodné útržky debat o
počasí. Vzpamatuj se.
The informal vocabulary (junkie, crack the code, random bits) goes hand in hand with
expressivity, (really useful, your little bit) and irony (resolving the English identity crisis) –
features that were missing in the previous two stylistic distinctions. On a syntactic level, we
55
can notice the prevalence of short, simple sentences instead of complex ones, which makes
the utterance more dynamic. Its informativeness is, however, deteriorating.
As we move on the stylistic scale from the neutral centre lower and lower, we arrive at a
colloquial and slang layer. Both terms are, traditionally, very ambiguous and obscure, and
different authors define them in a slightly different way. Peter Newmark treats the colloquial
and slang stylistic levels as equals, while I.R. Galperin, an author of Russian origin who wrote
a book on English stylistics, distinguishes so called “common colloquial” vocabulary
(labelled as a part of the standard English vocabulary) and “special colloquial” vocabulary,
where slang is classified as a sub-category of the latter. The main source of colloquial and
slang speech in Watching the English comes typically from the direct speech of quoted
informants: wotcha: what´s up, veg – vegetable, dunno – don´t know, bi’ o’ this an’ a bi’ o’
that – a bit of this and a bit of that, awright – alright, etc. Kate Fox herself uses colloquial
speech very rarely, usually in order to describe a particular object or situation (scruffy pubs,
pokey houses).
Taboo:
Kate Fox My translation
Mummy says that “pardon” is a much worse Maminka povídá, že „pardon“ je ještě horší
word than “fuck”. výraz než „do prdele“.
What the hell is so private about a person’s Co je k čertu tak posvátného na pitomém
name, for God’s sake? jméně?“
56
The lowest stylistic layer consists of vulgarisms and taboo words that scarcely appear in SL
text. Again, we can find them in the direct quotations only.
Next on the list is a scale of generality or difficulty, which ranges from simple to
popular, neutral, educated, technical and opaquely technical style (Newmark 1988: 14).
Again, it is not easy to decide which of these variations describes our SL text in the most
precise way. Although we can spot the presence of neutral and educated style, the majority of
text is written in a popular manner:
Kate Fox My translation
I would put that stereotype in my Petri-dish, Strčím onen stereotyp do Petriho misky,
stick it under my microscope, dissect it, tease šoupnu pod mikroskop, rozpitvám, podrobím
it apart, subject its component bits to various jeho jednotlivé složky nejrůznějším testům,
tests, unravel its DNA and, er, generally poke rozkóduji jeho DNA a budu nad ním zkrátka
away and puzzle over it until I found those hloubat a dloubat tak dlouho, dokud
grains (or genes) of truth. neodhalím ta zrnka (nebo geny) pravdy.
Hmm, yes, Sequencing the English Cultural Panečku, „Členění anglického kulturního
Genome - that sounds like a big, serious, genomu“ – to zní jako velký, seriózní,
ambitious and impressively scientific project. ambiciózní a ohromující vědecký projekt.
As can be seen from the provided examples, the author is trying to bright up the
scientific topic by using common, colloquial vocabulary, which make the text more attractive
and approachable (moreover, the entire “scientific talk” about microscopes and genetics only
serves as a metaphor here)
To make the stylistic analysis complete, we should also mention the scale of emotional
tone. Here Peter Newmark distinguishes intense, warm, factual and understatement tone
57
(1988: 14). As can be deducted from the previous comments on the style of Kate Fox´s
writing, the factual tone of SL text is often disrupted with metaphors, idioms and other
expressive means of language. Therefore, the warm and intense tone is present as well:
We are taught to mind our own business, not Odmalička je nám vtloukáno do hlavy,
to pry, to keep ourselves to ourselves, not to abychom si hleděli svého, nestrkali nos do
make a scene or a fuss or draw attention to cizích věcí, nedělali scény a nepřitahovali na
ourselves, and never to wash our dirty linen sebe pozornost a zejména, nikdy neprali
in public. špinavé prádlo na veřejnosti.
These emotive expressions are what makes Kate Fox´s writing so attractive and
qualify her text as creative nonfiction. However, there is still a prevalence of academic tone.
Emotive expressions only complement the factual ones, and that is, in my opinion, what
makes them stand out, for even the longest and sentence written in a heavy academic tone
brightens up if we insert a metaphor in it.
58
3.3.1 Absolute equivalents
Absolute counterparts are most likely to be words that form the centre of lexicon, i.e.
anthropocentric nouns with unambiguous denotative meaning (Knittlová 2000: 34),
eventually adjectives or active verbs. Furthermore, these absolute equivalents tend to be also
formally symmetrical, i.e. one-word English expressions have their one-word Czech
equivalents, two-word expressions have their two-word counterparts etc. (Knittlová 2000: 35).
Watching the English, as any other text, naturally contains many of the above mentioned zero
equivalents, and as one could expect, their translation is generally smooth:
weather – počasí
national identity – národní identita
discover - objevit
bump into – vrazit do
As mentioned before, a translator is most likely to deal with partial lexical equivalents.
The differences between Czech and English can be formal, denotative, connotative and
pragmatic, eventually combined (Knittlová 2000: 35).
Formal discrepancies are the result of differences between English and Czech in terms
of linguistic typology. English, being an isolating language, tends to use multi-word
expressions for concepts that flectional and derivative Czech can describe in one word:
59
Similarly, we can observe formal differences in translation of certain verbs, especially
phrasal verbs of or other fixed verb phrases:
Czech language, on the other hand, can be analytic as well, for example when there is
a need to add expressivity or intensity, or when a translator has to deal with a term lacking
corresponding Czech counterpart (Knittlová 2000: 37-38):
When translating from English to Czech, we can observe not only formal differences
between both languages, but also certain semantic shifts, affecting the denotative meaning of
the word. Knittlová classifies these shifts as generalization and specification and she further
points out that they do not affect the basic meaning of the word (2000: 41). She also observes
that specification is the most common semantic shift in terms of English – Czech translation,
especially when it comes to verbs. This is generally caused by the fact that English verbs
60
(especially motion verbs) are far more versatile, and one verb is commonly used for different
contexts (go for jít, jet, chodit, jezdit etc.) (Knittlová 2000: 42). When looking for a Czech
equivalent, translators tend to choose a verb according to the particular context, the degree of
formality or familiarity, and often their choice is subjective, based on individual preferences
and linguistic skills (Knittlová 2000: 45-46):
Generalization, on the other hand, may occur when a SL text contains an expression
unknown to the TL reader (usually a cultural word). Providing that the reality denoted by such
expression is not particularly important for the TL text and does not prevent understanding, it
can be replaced by a hypernym, i.e. superior, generalized expression. This semantic shift
affects mostly nouns (Knittlová 2000: 53).
Even though the SL text chosen for our thesis is very rich in cultural terms, the method
of generalization is rarely used. It has been said that the main purpose of the thesis is to
overcome the cultural gap and provide a translation that would be comprehensible and
accessible for people who are not familiar with English culture. In other words, the TL text is
here to explain, not to generalize. Therefore, Lapsang Souchong will not be transferred as a
černý čaj, but as černý čínský čaj Lapsang Souchong.
In order to preserve the effect of the SL text, a translator must focus not only on the
semantic features of lexis, but also on the additional, connotative meaning of words. Most
61
words are neutral in their basic meaning, but once used in a certain context, they can gain
expressivity, intensity, emotionality and other connotative features.
Dagmar Knittlová generally distinguishes two types of connotative meaning:
expressive and stylistic. As suggested above, expressive connotation goes hand in hand with
emotionality and the use of evaluative expressions (positive or negative). Such expressions
typically inform us about the speaker´s attitude to what is being said, about his feelings, mood
and state of mind. Stylistic connotation, on the other hand, varies from the neutral centre in
two ways: downwards to the colloquial, slang and vulgar expressions, and upwards to the
archaic and poetic stylistic levels. (Knittlová 2000: 55-56). As the stylistic level of the SL text
has been already analysed using Newmark´s system of stylistic scales, we have decided to
focus only on the expressive connotations.
There are many ways of adding expressivity to a word. One of them is the use of
diminutive expressions. While the analytic English tends to express diminutives through
expressions like little, tiny, small, derivative Czech enables the translator to use diminutive
prefixes and suffixes:
However, in some cases can the English word sound perfectly neutral and it is only the
translation that marks it as a diminutive. This is purely translator´s choice, resulting mainly
from his attitude towards the TL text or from the particular context of use:
chocolate – čokoládka
candy – cukrovinka
tree lights – světýlka na stromeček
sheep – ovečky
donkeys – oslíci
Last but not least, sometimes the Czech equivalent of an English word happens to
have a structure of a diminutive, even though its denotative meaning remains neutral. A
translator has to be careful here, since the removal of such an affix could cause a
misinterpretation (Knittlová 2000: 58):
62
pushchair – kočárek (not kočár)
• Interjections
Two types of interjections exist – primary and secondary. Primary interjections lack
any denotative meaning and are purely emotive, as they serve as a written formulation of
people´s feelings:
Secondary interjections, on the other hand, can sometimes retain the original
denotative meaning. These are mainly sacred expressions or words generally related to the
category of “heaven and hell” expressions. As Knittlová suggests, their usage is supposed to
add urgency to the utterance or to intensify it (2000: 64):
What the hell is so private about a person’s name, for God’s sake? – Co je k čertu tak
posvátného na pitomém jméně?“
Considering the way people are addressed in the SL text, we need to realize that
Watching the English is practically one long monologue of the author. Although being
occasionally interrupted by an inserted dialogue or quotations from various informants, Kate
Fox´s first person narration forms 99% of the book. The way she is addressing her readers
varies from a neutral to familiar tone. The personal pronoun you is used, which corresponds
with the Czech expression vy:
If you are invited to ‘dinner’, should you turn Pokud jste pozváni na „večeři“, máte se
63
up at midday or in the evening? Does ‘come dostavit v poledne či navečer? Máte-li „přijít
for tea’ mean four o’clock or seven o’clock? na čaj“, znamená to dostavit se ve čtyři nebo
To be safe, you will have to ask what time v sedm? Abyste nešlápli vedle, vždy se raději
you are expected. ujistěte o tom, v kolik hodin jste očekáváni.
It is only when she quotes other´s people´s utterances that we can notice a change in
addressing, in this case using a colloquial word mate:
“Chuck in a bi’ o’ this an’ a bi’ o’ that and “Hoď tak krapet tohohle a krapet támhletoho
you’ll be awright, mate” a bude to v cajku, kámo“
• Intensifying expressions
This category includes adjectives and adverbs that generally belong to the colloquial
variety of language, in some cases overlapping to vulgarisms. The most frequent expressions
used as an intensifying element include for example pretty, great, gorgeous, big, terrific,
awful, goddam, stupid etc. As for the positive or negative value of such expressions, it is
important to mention that sometimes one expression can be used both positively and
negatively, and it is only the context of use that will help us to identify the correct meaning
(as in: the film was pretty boring vs. the film was pretty good). Similarly, seemingly positive
evaluative expressions sometimes indicate irony:
Scanning the SL text for intensifying expressions, we discover that they are frequently
used:
64
3.3.3 Zero equivalents
“I define culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a
community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.” (Newmark 1988: 94).
The concept of culture in translation has been discussed by many scholars and
linguists who offered different ways of handling it. Eugene Nida, Christiane Nord, Susan
Bassnett – these are just few examples from a long list of theorists who deal with the
occurrence of cultural words in SL text. Christiane Nord, the supporter of an influential
Skopos theory, as well as Peter Newmark, discusses the term cultural gap in translation.
According to Nord, “there always is a cultural distance (or ʻgapʼ) between the source-culture
author and his or her (verbal or nonverbal) forms of expression, on one hand, and any
target-culture audience, on the other”, irrespective of the type of the text. It goes without
saying that the more distant the two cultures are, the wider is the cultural gap between them.
And the wider the gap, the more effort has the translator make to overcome it. Eugene Nida is
famous especially for his translations of Bible into hundreds of languages with various
cultural backgrounds. We can only imagine how wide cultural gap he had to overcome when
he was translating the Bible story setting, full of palm trees and sandy deserts, into the
language of Inuits who live surrounded by snow. The cultural distance between Czech and
English environment is, however, significantly smaller, as both countries could be described
as “Western” or “European” civilizations. Still, Watching the English contains enough
culturally-bound material to make the translator´s head spin. The book describes various
aspects of the everyday life of English people (their habits, customs, traditions, they way they
65
dress, drive their cars or talk on the phone, the type of TV shows they watch, the food they
eat, the houses they live in....), and talking about these topics without including cultural
references is impossible.
Newmark further observes that when a speech community focuses its attention on a
particular topic, it has a tendency to use a specific language or terminology, known as cultural
focus – the English with sport, the French with wines or cheese etc. Consequently, cultural
focus bears first signs of a translation problem in a form of a cultural gap (Newmark 1988:
94). Newmark´s classification of cultural terms is very detailed and it includes the following
five cultural categories, based on the model suggested by Nida (Newmark 1988: 95):
Looking at the excerpts presented in the practical part of our thesis, we can outline following
areas of cultural focus:
The category of material culture includes mostly words connected to food and eating
habits. Even though the SL words like beans, sausage, bacon, mushroom, cake, biscuit etc.
seem easy to translate, the TL equivalents fazole, párek, slanina, houby, dort, sušenka do not
reflect the exact meaning of the original expression. If applied to the model of linguistic sign,
suggested by Ferdinand de Saussure, the mental connection we made between the “signifier”
of the word sausage, i.e. the “shape” of the word, the sequence of letters; and “signified”, i.e.
its image we create in our mind, is not the same as the mental connection a Czech reader
would make between the signifier and signified of the word párek. There might be differences
in the shape, the type of meat used, the taste, etc. Similarly, the other words, representing the
cultural focus around typical English breakfast, do not correspond accurately to their Czech
equivalents. By mushroom the English mean typically button mushroom (žampion), beans
stand for white beans in tomato sauce, etc. The translator´s choice whether or not to specify
66
the SL term depends, of course, on the context, the aim of the translation and other factors,
stated in the initial analysis of the SL text. Therefore, for the purposes of our thesis it is
suitable to provide a detailed description of the TL equivalents:
The traditional English breakfast – tea, toast, Tradiční anglická snídaně – čaj s mlékem,
marmalade, eggs, bacon, sausages, toustový chléb, marmeláda, míchaná či
tomatoes, mushrooms, etc. – is both good smažená vajíčka, slanina, párky, rajčata,
and filling... žampiony, atd. – je jak chutná, tak vydatná...
The words cake, biscuit and doughnut are very broad English terms, as they comprise
wide range of shapes, flavours and colours. However, there is no cultural focus in SL that
would specify the type of cake or biscuit the author had in mind, and therefore we can adhere
to the Czech equivalents dort, sušenka a kobliha:
Other issues from the category of material culture include for example the correct
translation of the English words chips (hranolky) and crisps (brambůrky), as there is a
tendency to confuse the former with Czech expression chipsy. Particularly difficult part of the
translation in terms of material culture is, again, the “Seven Deadly Sins” chapter, where
different “signifiers” refer to the same “signified” (e.g. the words dinner, supper and lunch
refer to the main meal of the day, etc.)
In terms of social culture, the prevailing cultural focus lies on the way English people
spend their free time. A lot of space is devoted to the description of a typical English pub and
its customs and traditions. The word pub (public house) itself is a problematic term to
translate, as if the closest Czech equivalents hostinec or hospoda were still not good enough
to describe the authentic atmosphere of this typically English establishment.
The English expression night-club does not, in contrast to the Czech equivalent,
necessarily raise associations with erotic services, as it is generally just a late-night, stylish
67
venue, often decorated in a particular theme, offering live music production and shows.
However, it seems more proper (or safer) to translate is as klub, alternatively noční klub
(depending on context).
The words pint, the publican, regulars etc. do not represent any major translation
difficulties, as their Czech equivalents are usually straightforward. The names of traditional
pub games, such as bar-billiards, shove ´ha´penny, marrow dangling or conger-cuddling, are
peculiar to English culture and need further explanation.
A significant part of the practical part of our thesis is devoted to the description of
religious and other customs, festivals and holidays. While terms like Christmas, Easter, or
Boxing Day can be easily translated using the recognized, established cultural terms Vánoce,
Velikonoce, or Svátek svatého Štěpána, other cultural holidays or traditions, such as Guy
Fawkes Day, Henley Regatta or Royal Ascot do not take place in TL culture and therefore
appear potentially unknown to the TL readership and require additional information.
The translation methods and procedures, used for translating these and similar cultural
terms, will be introduced in the following section.
The previous section has introduced the variability of culture-bound terms found in the
SL text. But how do we approach these words in the translation process? How do we present
them to the TL readership? Following Newmark´s attitude to translation, let us now turn to a
very important part of the translation theory: the overview of methods and techniques a
translator can apply during the translating process.
In general, Peter Newmark´s classification of methods is based on whether they put an
emphasis on the SL or TL text. Methods that aim at preserving the nature and structure of the
SL text include word-for-word, literal and faithful translation. On the other hand, methods
that focus on the TL text encompass adaptation, free translation and idiomatic translation.
68
Moreover, there are two methods situated in between these two approaches, known as a
semantic and communicative translation (Newmark 1988: 45). In the following section I will
try to identify my method of translating Watching the English with one of the methods
mentioned above.
After considering the characterization of individual methods, it could be said that the
approach suitable for my translation should draw from the communicative, as well as
semantic method. In fact, Newmark dedicates a special attention to these last two methods,
stating that “only semantic and communicative translation fulfil the two main aims of
translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy” (1988: 47). He further outlines
some main differences between both methods, stating that semantic translation is written at
the author´s linguistic level, while communicative at the readership´s level (Newmark 1988:
47). Such a statement classifies our translation as communicative, since our main aim is to
provide the target readership with a comprehensible text. Newmark also observes that
“semantic translation is used for expressive texts, communicative for ‘informative’ and
‘vocative’ texts” (Newmark 1988: 47). This is a debatable point, since Watching the English
is here to inform, but, as has been shown earlier, contains a lot of expressivity as well.
The crucial difference, however, lies in the way both methods deal with cultural terms.
While expressive texts tend to simply transfer the cultural components, informative texts
typically explain and provide additional information (Newmark 1988: 47). Therefore, the
communicative approach seems to suit our translation better.
So far we have discussed methods that characterize the overall approach to the text.
However, during the translating process we often have to deal with various translation issues,
problems and challenges, and that is why Peter Newmark offers a list of translation
procedures, applicable on smaller units of language. In the following section we will be
looking at translation procedures relevant to the SL text, discussing reasons for their usage
and providing examples from the practical part.
69
3.6.1 Transference
First on the list is transference, a process that some scholars do not even consider a
translation procedure, since it only transfers the word from the SL to the TL text, using
transliteration if necessary (i.e. converting letters of different alphabets). Consequently, the
word becomes a loan word (Newmark 1988: 81). Since every translator should be aware of
the cases in which transference can be used, Peter Newmark further lists lexical items that are
normally transferred. This enumeration includes names of all living and most dead people,
geographical and topographical names, names of newspapers, literary works, films, names of
various companies and institutions, etc.:
Paddington Paddington
Oxford Oxford
Coronation Street Coronation street
However, there is one important exception to this rule: we only transfer those above
mentioned names and titles if they have not been officially translated yet. If a recognized
translation exists, we should adhere to it and abandon any individual attempts on translation:
3.6.2 Naturalization
70
3.6.3 Cultural equivalent
This procedure comes to use when the translator deals with a cultural entity that exists
in both the SL and TL environment. This gives the translator the opportunity to replace the
cultural term of the SL with the cultural term of TL. However, as Newmark emphasizes,
cultural equivalents are in most cases approximate, and therefore its usage must be carefully
considered (with regard to the nature of the text, intentions of the author and translator etc.)
(Newmark 1988: 83).
Since the main principle of our translation approach is to explain, not to replace
cultural terms of the SL text, cultural equivalents occur in the TL text only occasionally:
As can be seen from the example, the SL word is both transferred and explained. This
technique is actually used quite frequently in my translation, since it allows me to preserve the
cultural term and yet provide the TL readers with some extra information. It also serves as an
71
alternative to footnotes, applicable on cultural items that can be described in few words, as
opposite to the longer explanations where footnotes are inevitable. Peter Newmark, after all,
observes that combining translation procedures is typically applied on cultural terms, referring
to this combination of procedures as to a ‘couplet’ (1988: 83).
3.6.5 Through-translation
Next, I would like to comment on the use of notes in my translation. Soon after I
started working on the practical part, it became clear that the TL text will require some system
of additional or explanatory notes, and I had to decide on the best way of presenting these to
the TL readers. Newmark generally distinguishes two types of notes: notes within the text and
notes at the bottom of a page / end of chapter / end of book. He further comments on the use
of notes as follows:
“The additional information a translator may have to add to his version is normally
cultural…and is dependent on the requirement of his, as opposed to the original, readership.
In expressive texts, such information can normally be given outside the version…In vocative
texts, TL information tends to replace rather than supplement SL information’ (Newmark
1988: 91).
In other words, expressive texts (i.e. texts with the focus on the author and his style)
should avoid footnotes or additional information, whereas in informative and vocative texts
72
(i.e. texts focused on the message and the reader) is the use of these explanatory means
tolerated.
When discussing the translation methods earlier in the text, we established that the
informative and vocative function of Watching the English is, in the end, more important than
its expressive function, which makes the use of footnotes acceptable. Although I am perfectly
aware of the modern trend in translation theory, discouraging the use of footnotes in the text
(as it may disrupt the fluency of the text and distract the reader’s attention), this thesis deals
with a work of nonfiction, where is the method of footnotes frequently used. On the other
hand, the previous lexical and stylistic analyses of the SL text have shown that Watching the
English is not a typical nonfiction writing; it is highly informative as well as expressive,
which suggests the use of both the footnotes and notes within the text. In the end, I have
indeed decided to combine both types on notes, prioritizing the notes within the text and using
footnotes only when absolutely necessary in order to minimize any text disruptions. Using
Newmark´s classification of notes, I would now like to characterize my overall approach to
these explanatory means and provide examples from the practical part.
Brackets
Watching the English discusses not only English cultural environment; it also
discusses the language itself. Chapters dealing with typical patterns of English conversation,
greetings, and most importantly, the chapter about “The Seven Deadly Sins” require the use
of brackets. The translation process proceeds as follows: the English word is transferred into
the TL text (using inverted commas), followed by the Czech equivalent in a bracket. In case
the same expression occurs further in the text, the translation is not repeated:
There is nothing wrong with the word Na samotném slově „dinner“ (večeře) není
‘dinner’ in itself: it is only a working-class nic špatného – podle kontextu použití se ale
hallmark if you use it to refer to the midday může proměnit v třídní nálepku. Pokud někdo
meal, which should be called ‘lunch’. Calling používá pojem „dinner“ k označení
your evening meal ‘tea’ is also a working- poledního jídla, nazývaného jinak „lunch“
class indicator: the higher echelons call this (oběd), patří neomylně do třídy pracujících.
73
meal ‘dinner’ or ‘supper’. Lidé z této společenské vrstvy budou dále
nazývat večerní jídlo „tea“ (čaj), zatímco
pro vrstvy vyšší to bude „dinner“ nebo
„supper“ (lehká večeře).
I have already mentioned that the translation of the passages about linguistic
differences based on the English social class system was particularly difficult, as there is no
corresponding class differentiation in Czech environment. It has also been explained that the
main point of my translation was not to find corresponding Czech equivalent, but to draw the
TL readers´ attention to the existence of these linguistic differences and the important role
they play in English cultural environment.
As for the titles of books, films, etc., I transfer the English original as long as no
recognized translation exists, adding my suggested translation into brackets in those cases
where the meaning of the title s important for the context, as in:
There has been a spate of books bemoaning Zaplavily nás knihy naříkající nad touto
this alleged identity crisis, with titles ranging údajnou krizí identity nesoucí pochmurné a
from the plaintive Anyone for England? to bezútěšné názvy, jako například Anyone for
the inconsolable England: An Elegy. England? (Anglie – hlásí se někdo?), či
England. An Elegy (Rekviem za Anglii).
Classifier
Adding a classifier to the cultural entities in the SL text is the easiest way of
explaining them to the TL readership and it does not cause any major disruptions in the
translation:
74
3.6.6.2 Notes at the bottom of a page
I have never expected to be able to avoid footnotes completely. However, I have tried to
minimize their occurrence and only used them in case when the explanatory phrase appeared
too long to be inserted in the main body of the text
Christmas Panto Vánoční pantomima1
1
Vánoční pantomima je hudebně-komediální
představení pro celou rodinu, zpracovávající tradiční
lidové pohádky, jako je Popelka, Sněhurka a sedm
trpaslíků atp. Herci se v průběhu představení často
obrací na dětské publikum a vyžadují jistou formu
podpory či spolupráce.
Peter Newmark lists componential analysis (CA) as one of the translation methods;
however, he pays a special attention to it, discussing its principles in a separate chapter.
According to him, the aim of CA is to “compare a SL word with a TL word which has a
similar meaning, but it is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their
common and then their differing sense of components” (1988: 114). By performing CA we
hope to achieve the most accurate translation, even though it means the inevitable expansion
of the text. Performing CA means describing the meaning of the word through structured set
of semantic features, which can be marked as either “present” (+), absent (–), or “indifferent
with reference to feature” (0) (Bussman 219) In other words, we segment the SL word into its
sense components, which can be referential (composition, shape, size, function etc.) and
pragmatic (Newmark 1988: 114).
In theory, CA can be performed for a translation of any word from the SL text, but as
Newmark further states, “normally, the translator carries out CA only on a word of some
significance in the TL text which cannot be adequately translated one to one” (1988: 115).
There are many ways of presenting CA, including the one that is done mentally. We
can use different forms of diagrams and figures, according to the criteria we have chosen.
Typically, the SL word meaning is more specific than the TL word, and therefore we have to
consider several TL components in order to approach the original meaning of the SL word
(Newmark 1988: 114). In general, CA can be used for the analysis of the following two types
of expressions:
75
3.6.7.1 Lexical words
The CA can be performed when dealing with SL lexical words that denote various
combinations of qualities or combination of actions and qualities (typically adjectives)
(Newmark 1988: 117). Since it is impossible to describe such words with a one-word
equivalent in the TL language (there is a pronounced lexical gap), CA can help the translator
to choose the most suitable words for a closer, and more exact, description. Watching the
English offers many examples of such ambiguous lexical words:
scruffy: dirty (+untidy +unkempt + unpleasant + refers to animate and inanimate objects)
grubby: dirty (+ unpleasant + low in morals + refers to animate and inanimate objects +
refers to actions)
scone: cake (+small + made of yeast bread dough + lightly sweetened+ with dry fruit + baked
in the oven)
CA can be performed not only on single words, but also on cultural sets and series of
SL words that appear to have similar names, but can denote different functional or descriptive
components (Newmark 1988: 121). This type of CA is definitely worth performing on the
class-bound linguistic terms, introduced in the “Seven Deadly Sins” chapter:
76
“midday meal”
working class middle class upper/upper-middle class
lunch – + +
dinner + – –
supper – – –
“evening meal”
working class middle class upper/upper-middle class
tea + – –
dinner – + +
supper – 0 +
As can be seen from these examples, the performace of CA can be a very long and
complicated process, depending on the criteria the translator lays out. While this analysis
focuses on the class status only, there are other semantic aspects of the word that the translator
might need to take into the consideration. On the other hand, CA is definitely worth the effort,
as it can provide a structured and detailed insight into the complexity of obscure and
ambiguous SL terms.
77
4. Conclusion
This diploma thesis dealt with a translation and analysis of selected parts of Watching the
English, a nonfiction writing discussing stereotypes and behaviour patterns of English people.
The whole project was quite a challenge for me as a translator, as I have never worked a with
nonfiction literature before. However, it turned out to be a very valuable experience, as I have
learned a lot, especially in the field of translation methods. For example, it was the first
opportunity for me to apply the method of footnotes in the text.
The most problematic part of the translation process was to decide where to draw the
line between what to translate and what to preserve in English. This decision was in the end
based on a thorough analysis of the prospective target readership. This initial analysis of the
source text, which serves as an opening to the theoretical part, was a vital step in the whole
working process, as it helped me to clarify my aims and outlined further structure of the
thesis. The following section of the theoretical part was devoted to the stylistic and lexical
level of the source text, describing the diversity of linguistic means used by the author.
Finally, I discussed the concept of culture in translation, categorized the cultural terms that
occur in the source text and offered methods that can be applied for their translation.
More than a year has passed since the moment I have decided to base my diploma
thesis on Watching the English. My attitude towards the book, as well as to the reality it
describes, has come a long way. At the very beginning of the writing process there was a
sheer enthusiasm, which was partly caused by my immense interest in English culture and
way of life. I literally fell in love with the book and have found myself comparing the reality
described in the text to the reality I saw around me. Since I was working in a London
restaurant, I had a perfect opportunity for various observations. I started noticing which tea
brand the customers prefer, whether they put milk into the cup first or not, whether they ask
for napkin or serviette or whether they call the midday meal dinner or lunch. When spending
time with my friends in a café or a pub, I was almost unconsciously observing people around
me in order to see whether I can identify some of the Kate Fox´ s stereotypes and rituals of the
English. When the idea of translating the book for Czech readers first came to me, I vaguely
anticipated that it will not be an easy task to accomplish, but my enthusiasm and
determination prevailed. Only half way through the translation process I started to realize the
full spectrum of problems and issues that has to be dealt with.
78
I intended to focus primarily on the concept of culture in the text and the cultural
differences between Czech and English, as I considered it the most striking translation
problem. At the same time, I wanted to draw attention to the stylistic and lexical variability of
the text, since the Kate Fox´s style of writing is, in my opinion, truly unique, and far from an
average nonfiction writing. As a result, the range of issues I outlined for myself turned out to
be wider than I expected and I ended up barely touching the surface of problems rather than
exploring them in a greater detail. However, I realized this too late to be able to refocus my
endeavours completely. Nevertheless, I do not regret the decisions I made, as my original goal
was to introduce the text with all its peculiarities and suggest a way of approaching its
translation and this was, in my opinion, achieved.
79
5. Works cited
Primary source
Fox, Kate. Watching the English: The Hidden Rules of English Behaviour. London: Hodder
Secondary sources
Knittlová, Dagmar. K teorii a praxi překladu. 2. vyd. Olomouc: Universita Palackého, 2000.
Print.
Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988. Print.
Partridge, Eric. A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. 8th ed. New York:
Turnbull, Joanna et al. Oxford Advanced Learner´s Dictionary. 8th ed. Oxford: Oxford
Venuti, Lawrence. The Translation Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print
Internet sources
“Aunt Sally”. The Online Guide to Traditional Games. James Masters, 1997. Web. 10 June
2012
80
„Bar Billiards - History and Useful Information“. The Online Guide to Traditional Games.
“Conger Cuddling and Marrow Dangling.“ Everything2. Everything2 Media, LLC. Oct 13
“England's Culture : Morris Dancing”. Anglobilia. N.p. N.d. Web. 8 July 2012
Galperin. I.R. “Stylistics”. Scribd. Alexei Galaktionov. N.d. Web. 11. May 2012
Hardwick, Joseph. “Watching the English: The Hidden Rules of English Behaviour“ The
Nord, Christiane. "Making Otherness Accessible Functionality and Skopos in the Translation
“Origins of Customs and Traditions of Celebrations“. TwilightBridge. N.p. 2011. Web. 8 July
2012
15 June 2012
“Shove Ha'penny - History and Useful Information”. The Online Guide to Traditional
„The Reverend Eugene Nida“. The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited 2012. Web. 7
Oct 2012
„Watching the English“. Social Issues Research Centre. SIRC 1997-2012. N.d. Web. 15 May
2012
81