Artificial Leaf

Leaf-inspired photosynthetic canopies for synthesis of energy

and architectural space

MADELEINE KÄLLMARKER

Department of Physics
C HALMERS U NIVERSITY OF T ECHNOLOGY
Gothenburg, Sweden 2018
 MASTER’S THESIS 2018

Artificial Leaf

Leaf-inspired photosynthetic canopies for synthesis of energy and

architectural space

MADELEINE KÄLLMARKER

Department of Physics
CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Gothenburg, Sweden 2018
Artificial Leaf
Leaf-inspired photosynthetic canopies for synthesis of energy and architectural space
Department of physics

MADELEINE KÄLLMARKER

© MADELEINE KÄLLMARKER, 2018

Supervisor: Björn Wickman, Department of Physics

Examiner: Björn Wickman, Department of Physics

Master’s Thesis 2018

Department of Physics
Division of Chemical Physics
Chalmers University of Technology
SE-412 96 Gothenburg
Telephone +46 31 772 1000

Cover: Physical model of the architectural space under the transparent and flexible
energy-generating canopy.

Printed by [Chalmers Reproservice]

Gothenburg, Sweden 2018

iv
Artificial Leaf
Leaf-inspired photosynthetic canopies for synthesis of energy and architectural space
MADELEINE KÄLLMARKER
Department of Physics
Chalmers University of Technology

v
Abstract

In nature, there are countless design solutions which have been developed through
evolution. Many of these solutions can be the answer to the challenge of sustainable
living, thus nature has solved many of the challenges humans are facing today. With
the challenge of climate change, there is a need to reduce and replace the use of
fossil fuels with environmentally safe energy with the potential to supply the world’s
high energy demand without being harmful to our planet.
Fortunately, renewable energy sources existing on earth neither run out nor have
any significant harmful effects on our environment. The sun has the potential to
supply all the energy that humanity requires. Solar cells, where solar energy is
converted directly into electricity, has been improved over the last decades.
However, the issue with solar panels is that the electricity is not produced when and
where it is needed the most. Thus, a way to efficiently store the energy is needed.
By converting solar energy into storable chemical energy, the intermittency
problem with solar energy can be solved. Hydrogen gas with its great
characteristics of storing energy could be the answer to this problem.
With inspiration from the leaf of a tree, the aim of this project is to design
energy generating canopies by mimicking the leaf’s photosynthesis as well as
utilizing the structural characteristics of the leaf. Furthermore, the project aims to
inspire cross research as well as innovative sustainable solutions.
As a result of the project, a physical built prototype has been constructed where
hydrogen gas is generated from water through electrolysis. The design of the canopy
is based on the characteristics of the present elements water and hydrogen gas. The
prototype is a 1:1 scale canopy of 4 x 3 meters where hydrogen gas is generated
by solar energy. The hydrogen gas is then stored in an inflatable structure until
it is needed for usage.
The project is a result of interdisciplinary research between the department of
Physics and the department of Architecture and Civil Engineering of Chalmers.
Through inspiration from nature, this thesis shows how the challenge of sustain-
ability can be solved with new technology within the field of renewable energy
sources. With research and new technology of today, we can solve the challenge
of today; to make the world independent of fossil fuels. This project is one exam-
ple of biomimicry, there are countless solutions in nature waiting to be explored by
human research.

Keywords: solar energy, artificial leaf, bionic leaf, hydrogen, renewable energy,
water splitting, electrolysis, electrolyzer, biomimicry.

v
Acknowledgements

There are several people I would like to thank for making this thesis possible. First,
I would like to thank my two supervisors for supporting me throughout the thesis.
Thank you for your commitment to this project! Kengo Skorick, my supervisor at
the Department of Architecture, who was involved when the idea of the project
was born and pushed me to continue to develop it into my master’s thesis. Björn
Wickman, my supervisor and examiner at the department of physics. Thank you
for sharing your knowledge and laboratory with me!

Thanks to:

Federico Dattila, who invited me to the world of physics.

Jan-Åke Wiman, for technical help with construction of parts of the prototype.
The Area of Advance Energy for funding for the electrolyzer.
Lars Hellberg, for technical help with the DC-DC converter.
Karl-Gunnar Olsson, professor in Architecture and Engineering, for the encourage-
ment of interdisciplinary studies.

Göteborg Energi Miljöfonden

Sveriges Ingenjörer Miljöfonden
Helge Ax:son Johnsons Stiftelse
Bertil & Britt Svenssons
Stiftelse Sydsvenska
Handelskammaren

Madeleine Källmarker, Gothenburg, June 2018

vi
x
 Contents

List of Figuresxiii

1 Introduction1
1.1 Background.........................................................................................1
1.1.1 Aim of the project......................................................................2
1.1.2 Thesis implementation...............................................................2

2 The leaf5
2.1 Form and function..................................................................................5
2.1.1 Photosynthesis............................................................................5
2.1.2 Environmental factors...............................................................6
2.1.3 Leaf venation...............................................................................6

3 Theoretical background9
3.1 Biomimicry...............................................................................................9
3.1.1 Artificial photosynthesis............................................................9
3.1.1.1 Bionic leaf......................................................................10
3.2 Solar energy..............................................................................................10
3.2.1 Photovoltaics...............................................................................10
3.2.1.1 Silicon cells...................................................................11
3.2.1.2 Thin-film modules......................................................11
3.3 Electrochemistry.....................................................................................12
3.3.1 Thermodynamics.........................................................................12
3.3.2 Water splitting.............................................................................13
3.4 Hydrogen..................................................................................................15
3.4.1 Hydrogen cycle............................................................................16
3.4.2 PEM electrolysis..........................................................................17

4 Architectural design proposal19

5 The prototype23
5.1 Solar panels..............................................................................................23
5.1.1 Current and voltage..................................................................24
5.2 Electrolyzer...............................................................................................26
5.2.1 Components..................................................................................28
5.2.1.1 End plates...................................................................28

xi
Contents

5.2.1.2 Flow field plates.........................................................29

5.2.1.3 Titanium screen mesh cloth......................................30
5.2.1.4 Silicon gasketing.........................................................30
5.2.1.5 Electrolyzer MEA.......................................................31
5.2.2 Assembling the electrolyzer.....................................................32
5.2.2.1 Amount of hydrogen produced...............................33
5.3 DC-DC converter.....................................................................................34
5.4 Weather balloon........................................................................................34
5.5 Setup...........................................................................................................35

6 Results and discussion41

6.1 Solar energy...............................................................................................41
6.2 Hydrogen generation..............................................................................41
6.2.1 Electrolyzer 1................................................................................41
6.2.2 Electrolyzer 2...............................................................................42
6.2.3 Electrolyzer 3...............................................................................42
6.3 Materials..................................................................................................43

7 Conclusion45

Bibliography47

x
 List of Figures

1.1 Process of work flow.............................................................................3

2.1 Mathematical description of leaf venation...............................................7

2.2 Leaf venation patterns..........................................................................8

3.1 The hydrogen cycle: water is split into hydrogen gas which is stored
and then used..........................................................................................16
3.2 PEM electrolysis....................................................................................17

4.1 Siteplan of the canopy at Vasaplatsen, Gothenburg.........................19

4.2 Plan of the canopy.................................................................................20
4.3 Render of canopy in phase 1. The canopy is empty............................21
4.4 Render of canopy in phase 2. The canopy is collecting rainwater.. .21
4.5 Render of canopy in phase 3. The canopy is inflated with hydrogen
gas.............................................................................................................21

5.1 Organic solar panel from infinityPV.........................................................24

5.2 Maximum current and voltage..................................................................25
5.3 Connection of solar panels.........................................................................25
5.4 Electrolyzer 2..........................................................................................26
5.5 Electrolysis, electrolyzer 1.........................................................................27
5.6 MEA after running electrolysis, electrolyzer 1......................................27
5.7 End plates with connections for water, oxygen and hydrogen gas.....28
5.8 End plates electrolyzer 2.......................................................................28
5.9 CNC-milling of flow field plates...............................................................29
5.10 Flow field plates with channels for the gases, electrolyzer 2...............29
5.11 Titanium screen.......................................................................................30
5.12 Electrolyzer MEA, electrolyzer 2...........................................................31
5.13 Assembling the electrolyzer step by step..............................................32
5.14 DC-DC converter....................................................................................34
5.15 Sketch of prototype.................................................................................35
5.16 Prototype with all its component parts...............................................36
5.17 Connection between solar panel and cable............................................36
5.18 Solar panels at the test site for the prototype......................................37
5.19 Electrolyzer at the test site for the prototype......................................37
5.20 Electrolyzer connected to the solar roof..................................................38
5.21 Tap for hydrogen to exit the weather balloon.....................................39

xi
List of Figures

6.1 Voltage as a function of current.........................................................42

x
 1
Introduction

1.1 Background

Energy is essential for our existence and development. As a result of the increase in
Earth’s population as well as the increased energy consumption per capita [1], the
world’s population consumes more and more energy and the future energy demand
is expected to increase significantly [2]. The sun has the potential to supply all the
energy consumption of our world. The energy from one hour of solar illumination
is more than the total energy consumed in our planet during an entire year [3]. The
net increase of CO2 in the atmosphere due to human activities is approximately
3 ∗ 1012 kg/year, which corresponds to an annual increase of 0.4% of CO2 [1].
Fossil fuels are limited and harmful to our planet. Although fossil fuels are continu-
ously being formed via natural processes they are being depleted much faster than
the new ones are being made, the use of fossil fuels are limited and thus they are
considered to be non-renewable resources. The combustion of fossil fuels leads to
climate change and as a result the global warming continues. It is becoming clear
that other ways to produce energy without the release of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases must happen in the near future. For a sustainable future, there is
a need for environmentally safe energy sources with potential to supply the worlds
high energy demand without being harmful to our planet. Fortunately, renewable
energy sources existing on earth neither run out nor have any significant harmful
effects on our environment.
Solar cells, where solar energy is converted directly into electricity, have been im-
proved over the last decades. However, the issue with solar panels is that the elec-
tricity is not produced when and where it is needed the most. By converting
solar energy into storable chemical energy, the intermittency problem with solar
panels can be solved. Solar energy can be used to generate hydrogen gas, which
can be used as energy storage, an energy carrier or used directly as a fuel. Hydrogen
does not exist freely on earth in its usable form, it must be produced [1]. One
way to produce hydrogen is through electrochemical electrolysis where water
molecules are separated into hydrogen and oxygen gas powered by electrical
current, which can be created by solar energy. The combustion of hydrogen gas
releases only pure water to the atmosphere, which makes the hydrogen cycle closed
[1]. The use of hydrogen as energy storage and energy carrier offers great
possibilities for society to move

1
1. Introduction

towards a carbon-free economy. But, to be able to realize a hydrogen infrastructure,

cheap and efficient hydrogen production is necessary.

1.1.1 Aim of the project

The aim of this project is to design energy generating canopies by mimicking the
leaf’s photosynthesis process as well as utilizing the structural characteristics of the
leaf to create an interesting spatial experience in an urban context.
The project shows how renewable energy can be generated and stored in a sustain-
able way. By a physical built large-scale prototype an investigation of how hydrogen
gas can be generated and stored through electrolysis has been made. Furthermore,
the technique is integrated into a canopy design to show how the technology can be
used in our cities. The result shows a design proposal, a prototype and some mea-
surements of the prototype. The prototype itself is not optimized, rather it shows
a large-scale application of how the technique of water-splitting can be used in our
cities today, to generate and store renewable energy independent of fossil fuels.

1.1.2 Thesis implementation

The project is divided into two parts, the architectural part where a design proposal
of a solar hydrogen canopy is developed and the physics part where a physical
functional prototype is constructed in detail. This report presents the physics part
and the physical prototype. The architectural design proposal is described in an
accompanying report including the design process and the design proposal.
The method of the project is characterized as research by design where research
and design are treated simultaneously. The research which begins in the leaf is
then developed to consider artificial photosynthesis where hydrogen is studied as an
energy carrier with the potential to represent a renewable energy source. The design
program of the architectural part of the thesis is shaped by the research, and the
physical part of the thesis is informed by the design process.
The scale of the project shifts from electron level to a spatial scale which can be
explored by a human. Difficulties with the prototype have been to construct it to
be both fully functional and to have the design from the design proposal. To only
construct a functional electrolyzer required a lot of research and construction time.
Due to the time restrictions, simplifications of the design of the prototype have been
made to prioritize getting the prototype to work.

2
 1. Introduction

Research Design program Research Research Electrolyzer 1

The leaf Project aim Artificial photosynthesis
Electrolysis Construction and measurements

Research Electrolyzer 2 Design proposal Prototype

Improvements of electrolyzer Construction and measurements Architectural design proposal of canopy Construction

Figure 1.1: Process of work flow.

3
1. Introduction

4
 2
The leaf

Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves. A leaf may be
viewed as a solar collector of photosynthetic cells. Water enters the root and is
transported up to the leaves by the veins. In the leaf mass, the water together with
sunlight and carbon dioxide from the surrounding air is converted by the
photosynthetic reaction to chemical energy which is stored and, in the case of a tree,
transported to the tree trunk by the veins [4].
The other function of the leaf is the mechanical stabilization [4]. The high E-
modulus, ratio between stress and strain of the leaf, makes the leaf venation system
suitable as a stabilizing structure, the higher E-modulus, the stiffer the leaf is. It
is to be expected that the architectural structure of leaf venation influences these
main tasks and other functional properties.

2.1 Form and function

Across environments, natural selection has shaped the form and function of the leaf
[5]. Variations observed in leaves are mostly attributed to their genetic control, but
environmental factors also play an important role in the shape of the leaf although
probably act at a later stage of development. In this chapter, the main relation
between form and function will be explained.

2.1.1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light en-
ergy into chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules,
such as sugars. Photosynthesis involves four steps: light harvesting, charge sep-
aration, water splitting and fuel production. The photosynthesis consists of two
half-reactions, where water is split and sugar is produced.

2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e− (2.1)

Equation2.1shows the first step of the photosynthesis reaction where water is split

5
2. The leaf

into oxygen, hydrogen ions and electrons.

CO2 + 4H+ + 4e− → H2CO + H2O (2.2)

Equation2.2shows the second half of the photosynthetic reaction where carbohy-

drates (H2CO) are produced by carbon dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen ions and
electrons released by water splitting.

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (2.3)

Equation2.3shows the overall reaction of the photosynthesis reaction that converts

water, carbohydrates and sunlight to sugar and oxygen.

2.1.2 Environmental factors

The environmental factors such as light and temperature affects the shape of the
leaves. In the case of leaf size, the size decreases with increasing altitude, decreasing
rainfall and soil and nutrient content. Small-sized leaves are better adapted to hot
and dry environments. Differences in light intensity result in leaves with varying
forms. Low intensity induces petiole elongation blade expansion, but inhibits the
elongation of the leaf petiole.

2.1.3 Leaf venation

The venation of leaves has two main purposes: it constitutes the mechanical stabi-
lization of the leaf and the leaf’s energy transportation [5].
Generally, the first-order veins, called primary veins, are the thickest veins of the
leaf with origin at the leaf base. Primary veins support sequences of secondary veins,
which may branch further into higher order veins. Secondary veins are the next
smaller size class of veins which arise from the primaries. Finer veins and veinlets
have progressively higher orders. The secondary veins and their descendants may be
free-ending, which produces an open, tree-like venation pattern, or they may con-
nect, forming loops in a closed pattern. Tertiary and higher-order veins usually link
the secondary veins together, forming a ladder-like (percurrent) or netlike pattern
(reticulate) [4].
The leaf is a lightweight structure with the veins providing the mechanical stability.
Primary and secondary veins act as cantilevered beams for the leaf and its structure
maximizes the surface-to-volume ratio [5]. They support the weight of the leaf
and provide resistance to mechanical loading. This ensures that the leaf presents
a maximal effective surface without deformations. The mechanical considerations
imply scaling relationships between the surface area of the leaf and its leaf mass,
and between venation and non-venation tissue. A high mechanical stability is given

6
 2. The leaf

by a small leaf size, high E-modulus of leaf tissue and additional stabilization of the
leaf margin [5].
Networks that only branch hierarchically and do not reconnect, have the highest
supply rates for a given mass [5]. Closer veins correspond to higher water flux and
higher carbon assimilation rates. A reconnected network is selected when there is a
high risk of damage and ensures that damage of one sector does not affect function
in other parts of the leaf [5]. Long life span is also achieved by increasing the
mechanical strength of leaf tissue, which is increased by thicker leaves with high
mass.
The mathematical relationship between density, distance and loopiness in the vena-
tion pattern is described by figure2.1[5]. where:
d is the mean diameter of the largest circle that can fit within each closed loop
(arole) within a region of interest (ROI),
σ is the density, i.e. the total path length of the veins within an ROI divided by
the area,
ξ is the number of aroles within the ROI (loopiness).

· k∆x, the conclusions are

From [5], assuming rectangular aroles with width ∆x
the following:
d = ∆x
σ = (k + 1)/(k · ∆x) (2.4)
ξ = 1/(k · (∆x)2)

d σ

Figure 2.1: Mathematical description of leaf venation.

7
2. The leaf

A figure of different patterns of leaf venation can be seen in figure2.2.

Figure 2.2: Leaf venation patterns.

8
 3
Theoretical background

3.1 Biomimicry

The best ideas are borrowed. The practice of borrowing ideas to solve technical
challenges is called design by analogy, or biomimicry, and is a technique widely
applied by innovators and designers [6]. Biomimicry takes inspiration from the
amazing biological forms, processes, patterns and systems found in nature [7] and
explores how the ideas of nature can be applied to the real world. Some examples of
areas where biomimicry can be applied are medicine, smart computers, structural
efficiency, materials and energy supply. Natural solutions found in nature have
benefited from years of research and testing through evolution, and each solution
can provide researchers with new solutions to the challenge of sustainable living [8].

3.1.1 Artificial photosynthesis

Nature has invented a way to harvest power from the sun in the leaf. By the
leaf’s photosynthesis, sunlight is converted into chemical energy which is stored as
sugar in its cells. The photosynthesis is an entirely renewable process, the plant
harvests the solar energy, absorbs carbon dioxide and water and releases oxygen.
The only waste is clean oxygen.
Today’s technology makes it possible to convert sunlight into chemical fuel in an
artificial way by using water splitting. This process is called artificial photosynthesis
and mimics the process of the leaf’s photosynthesis. The artificial leaf is made of
silicon and catalysts to speed up the process. When the leaf is in contact with
water an electric charge generated by electrons splits the water molecules into their
component parts hydrogen and oxygen. Sugar is the leaf’s chemical storage of
energy and is easy to release when needed. The artificial leaf mimics the process of
storing energy, but instead of making sugar, it produces an even more efficient fuel,
hydrogen gas. Artificial photosynthesis may become the future of energy. Nature’s
rate of efficiency is 1%. The artificial leaf can be more than ten times more effective,
reaching up to 10% [9].

9
3. Theoretical background

3.1.1.1 Bionic leaf

In photosynthesis, CO2 from the air fixes by using sunlight. The bionic leaf is a
merge of the artificial leaf and genetically engineered bacteria that eats hydrogen to
create liquid fuels such as isobutanol. The bionic leaf uses the catalysts of the
artificial leaf in combination with the bacterium Raistonia eutropha to convert CO 2
into biomass and liquid fuels [10]. With this process, the CO2 reduction efficiency
exceeds the natural photosynthetic systems. The metabolic engineering of the
bacterium enables the renewable production of an array of fuels and chemical
products. Artificial photosynthesis also allows the production of powerful
fertilizers. The method uses the soil bacterium Xanthobacter autrotrophius
consuming hydrogen generated by the water splitting reaction and taking nitrogen
from the atmosphere to produce ammonia and phosphorous [11].

3.2 Solar energy

Sunlight that each day allows our planet to live, is a direct source of energy. The
amount of energy produced by the sun is enough to supply all the energy needs of
everyone in the world [3]. The sunshine we receive every day could provide more
than enough power for our global needs, even with a future bigger population. The
energy supply is enormous, the earth’s surface receives about 1.2· 1017 W [12] of
solar power, which means that in less than one hour, enough energy is supplied
to the earth to satisfy the entire energy demand of the human population for a
whole year. This means that there is far more energy potentially available then we
could ever use. But, solar energy is still a new technology compared to fossil fuels
because the challenge with solar energy lies in harvesting the energy with efficient
and cost-effective devices [3], as well as finding a way to store the energy in an
efficient way.

3.2.1 Photovoltaics

Unfortunately, the sunlight cannot provide electricity directly, it must be captured

and transformed [13]. There are several ways of turning sunshine into electricity.
Photovoltaics, PV, uses the sun’s light [12] to generate electricity. Solar radiation
consisting of electromagnetic waves is converted into useful heat or electricity. These
processes require a material that is able to absorb a photon’s energy by exciting an
electron into a higher energy level. If the atoms containing electrons at this excited
state are somehow separated from the rest of the atoms, an electrical potential
difference is created.

1
 3. Theoretical

3.2.1.1 Silicon cells

A silicon cell is composed of two layers of silicon. When a photon hits the atoms
of the silicon material, its energy is transmitted to an electron, knocking it into a
higher energy level. The amount of energy needed to achieve this is determined by
the band gap of the material, which affects what portion of the solar spectrum a PV
cell can absorb. Ordinarily, the electron would fall back because its negative charge
is attracted to the positive charge of the atom’s nucleus. So, the structure of the
cell is designed to capture the electron with minimum energy loss and make it flow
in a circuit.
To achieve this, the cell is composed of two layers. The upper layer of the silicon
is N-doped and the lower layer is P-doped. N-doped means that the crystal has
an outer electron more acting as a free charge carrier. P-doped means that one
electron is missing, causing a hole in the conduction band. The P-doped and N-
doped layers of the cell gives the layers respectively a negative and positive potential.
The electron emitted from the upper layer is attracted to the lower layer, leaving
behind a hole. If the cells are connected in a circuit, the electrons produce a current.
Voltage is created by a reverse electric field around the junction between the layers,
a p-n junction.
Sunlight is made up of a spectrum of frequencies and the efficiency of a solar cell is
therefore partly dependent on the range of frequencies it can respond to. Photons
with insufficient energy will not excite the electrons to jump the band gap. Higher
frequency equals more energy. Photons with more energy than required will lose
the excess energy as heat, causing the cell to heat up and reducing its efficiency.
A high band gap means that the range of frequencies that can excite electrons is
smaller, and a low band gap means more of the incoming radiation can be absorbed.
However, a lower band gap implies that the voltage of the cell will decrease
(although the current will increase). There exists therefore an optimal band gap that
is wide enough so that the voltage is high, but still low enough so that enough
radiation can be absorbed [14].
The best established photovoltaic technology based on the elemental semiconductor
silicon is either monocrystalline or polycrystalline. Their names refer to the arrange-
ment of the silicon, determined by the process of manufacture. Monocrystalline cells
use high quality pure silicon and have an efficiency up to 24% [12], but are more
expensive than polycrystalline cells. Polycrystalline cells are made out of silicon
that is melted and cast and contains many crystals. This method is slightly less
costly, and the result is slightly less efficient cells. Polycrystalline cells are the most
common type, representing about 85% [12] on the market.

3.2.1.2 Thin-film modules

The thin-film modules of solar cells are a more recent technology, which is very
popular. The types of thin-film cells that are most likely to be of commercial im-

1
3. Theoretical background

portance in the next few years are the amorphous silicon cell, thin polycrystalline
silicon cell grown on a low-cost substrate, the copper indium diselenide cell and the
cadmium telluride cell [15]. The modules work in a similar way to silicon cells, but
are constructed differently. An extremely thin layer of photosensitive materials is
deposed onto a low-cost backing such as glass, stainless steel or plastic. The thin-
film modules are more tolerant of shade and high temperatures. They are cheaper
to manufacture than the silicon cells, but less efficient. The efficiency is 7-13% [12],
but could go much higher in the future. To obtain the same output of power, double
the surface area of thin film modules would be needed compared to silicone
modules.

3.3 Electrochemistry

3.3.1 Thermodynamics

When discussing solar absorption, electrodynamics and thermodynamics are

relevant topics. The first law of thermodynamics may be stated as [16]

∆U = q + w, (3.1)
where ∆U is the change in the internal energy of the system, q is the heat
absorbed by the system and w is the work done on the system.
Gibb’s free energy (∆G) is the change in energy resulting from a reaction at a certain
temperature and pressure. The sign of Gibb’s free energy tells us whether a reaction
is spontaneous in one direction or the other. For a fixed temperature and pressure,
Gibb’s free energy is defined as [17]

∆G = ∆H − T ∆S, (3.2)

where ∆H is the change in enthalpy (P ∆V + ∆U ), T is the temperature and ∆S

is the change in entropy of the process.
A system which undergoes a reversible process at constant temperature and
pressure in which both mechanical work and electrical work are done, the work done
on the system, w, is [16]
w = wmech + welec = −P ∆V + welec (3.3)
For a reversible process at constant temperature, the heat absorbed by the system
is
q = T ∆S. (3.4)
Equations3.3and3.4in combination with equation3.4gives

welec = ∆U + p∆V − T ∆S = ∆G (3.5)

1
 3. Theoretical

When a charge Q is moved through a potential difference E, the electrical work

done by the system on the surroundings is [16]

welec = −EQ, (3.6)

where E is the difference in potential and Q is the charge moved through the po-
tential difference. If the charge carriers are electrons, the charge is given by [16]

Q = nF (3.7)

where n is the number of moles of electrons and F is the Faraday constant, the
charge on one mole of electrons, 96484.6 coulombs (C). The electrical work is
negative if the system transfers energy to the surroundings,

welec = −nFE. (3.8)

Equations3.5and3.8gives the change in Gibbs free energy of the system,

∆G = −nFE (3.9)

where ∆G have the units of joule per mole (J/mol) if E is measured in volts (V),
F in C/mol and n is the number of moles of electrons per mole of reaction. The
result demonstrates a method for determination of the changes in the Gibbs free
energy, without recourse to measuring equilibrium constants or enthalpy and
entropy changes [16].

3.3.2 Water splitting

The electrolysis of liquid water into hydrogen and oxygen gas, called water splitting,
can be written [18]
H2O(l) → 1O2(g) + H2(g) (3.10)
2
Consider the reaction for one mole of water, the reaction generates one mole of
hydrogen gas and half a mole of oxygen gas. In case of water splitting the change
of enthalpy, ∆H, at room temperature and atmospheric pressure is 286 kJ, which
is the amount of energy needed for the reaction to occur. As seen in equation
3.5, the volume of the gas generated have a larger volume than the water. Of the
added energy, 4 kJ goes into pushing the atmosphere away to make room for the
gas produced. The rest of the energy, 282 kJ, remains in the system itself [18].

∆G = ∆U + p∆V − T ∆S (3.11)

By determining the change in the system’s entropy, the amount of electrical work
needed can be calculated. The entropy values for one mole of each molecule is
shown by
SH2O = 70 J/K

1
3. Theoretical background

SH2 = 131 J/K

SO2 = 205 J/K
The change in entropy is given by the equation

∆S = SH2
1
+ SO − SH2O
2
(3.12)
2
and equals ∆S = 163.5 J/K which is the increased entropy of the system [18].
Equation3.5with given ∆S gives the maximum heat absorbed by the system at
room temperature

q = T ∆S = 298 K · 163.5 J/K = 49 kJ. (3.13)

According to equation3.11the change in the Gibbs free energy which is equal to

the electrical work done on the system is 237 kJ.

∆G = ∆U + p∆V − T ∆S = 286 kJ − 298 K · 163 J/K = 237 kJ (3.14)

In order to split one mole of water, the minimum amount of electrical work that
must enter the system is 237 kJ [18]. The remaining 49 kJ to reach the 286 kJ
required for the reaction to occur can be absorbed by ambient heat, it is an
endothermic reaction.
By Avogardo’s constant, the amount of electrical work required to split one single
water molecule can be calculated by the equation

237 · 237 · · 6.242 · 1018 eV = 2.46 eV, (3.15)

3
10
∆ = =3
10
G NA J NA
where
NA = 6.022 · 1023 (3.16)

mol−1 is the Avogardo

constant.
A minimum electrical work of 2.46 eV is required to split one water molecule ac-
cording to the reaction in equation3.10.
Including the photons, the overall reaction of water splitting is

H2O(l) + 2hv → 1O2(g) + H2(g) (3.17)

2

where hv is the energy of a photon. To split one water molecule, there is a need for

1
 3. Theoretical
two photons. As calculated in equation3.15, 2.46 eV is required to split one water
molecule. This means that the photon energy band gap is 1.23 eV.

1
3. Theoretical background

3.4 Hydrogen

Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table with atomic number 1. Hydro-
gen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. Compared to electricity,
hydrogen is easier to store and easier to transport. Hydrogen creates no harmful
emissions when used and the only by-product is clean water. Over the past cen-
tury, humans have switched from wood fuel to coal, to oil and now to natural gas
[1]. This shift reflects a slow reduction in the amount of carbon contained in the
fuel and an increase in its hydrogen content. The next step is to eliminate carbon
and use pure hydrogen. Unlike oil or natural gas, production of hydrogen consumes
energy [19]. Hydrogen does not exist freely in a usable form, it must be produced.
This is because hydrogen atoms are almost always bonded with other elements into
compounds like water, which require energy to break up. Hydrogen can be produced
from any energy source and can be obtained from one of our planet’s most common
substances: water.
The concept of a hydrogen economy envisions a future where all our energy needs
will be met by hydrogen that is produced from renewable energy sources like solar
energy. Rather than being an energy source, hydrogen is considered an energy
carrier, a way to transport and store energy. Compared to electricity, hydrogen is
easier to store.
Hydrogen and electricity are closely related and together can satisfy most of our
energy needs. Electricity can be used to produce hydrogen, and hydrogen can be
used to produce electricity. This means that if hydrogen and electricity were in
wide-spread use, they could easily be substituted for each other. This flexibility
would be valuable in terms of getting the most out of our existing equipment and
infrastructure. Renewable energy sources would generate electricity, and hydrogen
would store and deliver it. Hydrogen could complement electricity as an alternative
energy delivery service. In the challenge of storing energy coming from renewable
and intermittent power sources, hydrogen is often considered the best [1]. The
growing capacity of renewable energy requires a storage system of equal magnitude.

1
 3. Theoretical

3.4.1 Hydrogen cycle

In electrolysis, hydrogen is produced by water and stored as hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen in reaction with oxygen generates energy and water, as shown in
figure3.1.

H2

H 2O

ELECTROLYSIS
H2O H2

O2

COMBUSTION STORAGE

Figure 3.1: The hydrogen cycle: water is split into hydrogen gas which is
stored and then used.

1
3. Theoretical background

3.4.2PEM electrolysis

The principle of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis is to separate

water molecules via water splitting to hydrogen gas, in which the hydrogen gas is
stored in chemical bonds. The cell consists of an anode, cathode and a proton
exchange membrane in between. Figure3.2shows the cell including the chemical
reactions. The catalysts are made of metallic components. On the anode side of the
cell, platinum or platinum alloys are typically used and for the cathode side oxides
as iridium or ruthenium is used.
At the anode, the oxidation takes place [19]. Water molecules are split into oxygen,
protons and electrons by applying a DC voltage higher than a reversible potential.
This reaction is commonly referred to as the oxygen evolution reaction (OER).
Anode reaction: 2H20(l) → O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e−
The reduction takes place at the cathode [19]. The protons from the anode pass
through the membrane and on the cathode combine with electrons to form
hydrogen. Passage of protons through the membrane is accompanied by water
transport.
Cathode reaction: 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2(g)

POWER SUPPLY

e- e-
2H2O
4H+ + 4e-

O2
H2 H+
O2 + 4H

H2
+

O
-

CATHODE ANODE

MEMBRANE

Figure 3.2: PEM electrolysis.

1
3. Theoretical

1
 4
Architectural design proposal

In this chapter, the architectural design proposal is briefly described.

Figure 4.1: Siteplan of the canopy at Vasaplatsen, Gothenburg.

1
4. Architectural design proposal

Bus-stops 7-eleven Vasagrillen Storage Gas station

Energy uses Energy uses Energy uses Storage of Fuel for
for lighting for cooking for cooking hydrogen hydrogen cars
and phone gas
charging

Figure 4.2: Plan of the canopy.

2
 4. Architectural design proposal

The two main purposes of the structure of the canopy are to produce and distribute
energy. As the leaf distributes energy through the veins, the structure of the canopy
distributes energy through its construction through pipes.
The electrolysis is running on rainwater and sunlight collected by the structure.
The produced hydrogen is stored in the inflatable structure of the canopy. The
canopy experiences three phases. In the first phase the canopy is empty and collects
rainwater using its flexible structure. In the second phase the canopy uses rainwater
to produce hydrogen gas through electrolysis. In the third phase the hydrogen
gas inflates the structure. The canopy changes form as the chemical reaction of
electrolysis is happening.

Figure 4.3: Render of canopy in phase 1. The canopy is empty.

Figure 4.4: Render of canopy in phase 2. The canopy is collecting rainwater.

Figure 4.5: Render of canopy in phase 3. The canopy is inflated with hydrogen
gas.

2
4. Architectural design proposal

2
 5
The prototype

The prototype is designed to meet the architectural conditions as well as being fully
functional. The main parts of the prototype consist of solar cells creating the current
needed for the electrolyzer to run the reaction of water splitting and a storage where
the hydrogen gas is stored. The output of the solar cells has a high voltage with
low current, while the electrolyzer needs a high current with low voltage, meaning
a DC-DC converter is required.

5.1 Solar panels

Polymer solar cells have many advantages such as their light weight, flexibility and
low material and manufacturing costs. The photovoltaic solar cells in the prototype
convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is later used by the electrolyzer.
Inorganic solar cells have a record power conversion efficiency of 39%, while com-
mercially available solar panels have an efficiency of 15-20%. Organic solar cells
have certain disadvantages including their low efficiency of only 5% compared to
15% for silicon cells and a short lifetime. With their numerous benefits, the organic
solar cells can justify the current international research in developing new materials
to enhance efficiency and achieve a low-cost and large-scale production within the
next years.
The solar panels for the prototype are infinityPV, which are chosen for their design
freedom suitable for the design of the canopy. The technology of infinityPV is
printed organic solar cells. The modules do not include toxic or scarce elements
and offer a sustainable alternative to traditional solar cells. The solar modules
are entirely prepared on plastic foil using ambient roll-to-roll printing and coating
methods.
2
5. The prototype

Figure 5.1: Organic solar panel from infinityPV.

5.1.1 Current and voltage

The prototype consists of 6 solar panels, with dimension 100 cm x 30.5 cm. By
connecting the solar panels in series the voltage increases, and by connecting them
in parallel the current increases. The chosen DC-DC converter has an input voltage
level of 160-250 V and a limit power of 30 W, and the solar panels are connected to
match this value. Each solar panel generates Voc = 144 V and Isc = 23 mA, which
gives a maximum power Pmax of 2.7 W according to equation

Pmax = Isc · Voc · FF (5.1)

where the fill factor (FF) is 80% [3] of the maximum values of V and I as shown in
5.2. The fill factor is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell and is defined
as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and

2
 5. The
Ics.

2
5. The prototype

I
Is
c
Imax
P

Pm
ax

V
VmaxPVoc

Figure 5.2: Maximum current and voltage.

To match the span of the input value of the DC-DC converter, the panels are
con- nected in series and parallel according to figure5.1. For this, Isc = 69 mA
and Voc = 288 V giving the maximum power Pmax = 16 W when the panels are con-
nected in such a way. Note that VmaxP = 230 V and ImaxP = 55.2 mA.

Figure 5.3: Connection of solar panels.

2
 5. The

5.2Electrolyzer

The system of the electrolyzer consists of three main components: a membrane and
two electrodes. The anode uses energy from the sun to oxidize water molecules to
protons, electrons and oxygen gas. The cathode uses the protons and electrons from
the anode to form hydrogen gas. Hydrogen and oxygen are explosive in contact with
each other, and this means the electrolyzer needs to keep the gases separated at all
times. The membrane splitting the water consists of a nafion plastic, which allows
the hydrogen ions to flow freely to complete the electrical circuit in the cell. Water,
however, cannot pass the membrane. The anode and cathode require catalysts to
drive the water splitting reaction. For the anode side of the nafion membrane,
iridium ruthenium oxide is used for catalysts. Platinum is used on the cathode side.
See figure3.2for a schematic description.
Two electrolyzers have been constructed in the project, called electrolyzer 1 and 2.
The electrolyzer used for the prototype is purchased from Fuelcellstore. In figure
5.4the electrolyzer 2 when put together is shown.

Figure 5.4: Electrolyzer 2.

2
5. The prototype

Figure 5.5: Electrolysis, electrolyzer 1.

Figure 5.6: MEA after running electrolysis, electrolyzer 1.

2
 5. The

5.2.1 Components

5.2.1.1 End plates

The construction of the frames is designed to fulfill the chemical reaction of water
splitting. The large outer brass plate keeps the construction parts together, as in
figure5.4. On the anode, there is one connection for water to enter and one for
oxygen to leave. On the cathode, there is a connection for hydrogen to exit the
electrolyzer. The plates are made of brass and have a thickness of 2 cm.

Figure 5.7: End plates with connections for water, oxygen and hydrogen gas.

Figure 5.8: End plates electrolyzer 2.

2
5. The prototype

5.2.1.2 Flow field plates

The inner plates, i.e. the flow field plates, have holes for water to enter and oxygen
to exit at the anode and hydrogen to exit on the cathode. These plates are separated
from the outer plates by a thin layer of silicon. The plates are connected to the solar
cells to receive current to run the reactions. On the inside of the plates, channels
are made to get a good flow of the gases. The plates are made of brass coated
with a thin layer of gold.

Figure 5.9: CNC-milling of flow field plates.

Figure 5.10: Flow field plates with channels for the gases, electrolyzer 2.

3
 5. The

5.2.1.3 Titanium screen mesh cloth

Titanium Screens are primarily used in electrolyzer stacks as part of the flow field
or diffuser material. The titanium screen is produced from expanded titanium that
has been flattened and annealed, ensuring a smooth, flat surface suitable for use in
electrolyzer or fuel cell stacks. The titanium screens are used on both the cathode
and on the anode side of the electrolyzer and have a thickness of 0.25 mm.

Figure 5.11: Titanium screen.

5.2.1.4 Silicon gasketing

Silicon Rubber Gasketing is used to seal the construction so it is completely

tight. Like other silicon, this rubber stays flexible over a wide temperature range and
its softness gives it good conformability. The silicon used has a thickness of 0.38
mm.

3
5. The prototype

5.2.1.5 Electrolyzer MEA

Electrolyzer membrane electrode assemblies (MEA) are used for high efficiency pro-
duction of hydrogen and oxygen gas. They are designed to provide some of the
highest efficiencies and purest hydrogen via electrolysis. The membrane is con-
structed in 3 layers by a nafion 115 layer coated with iridium and ruthenium
oxide on the anode (loading 3.0 mg/cm2) and platinum black on the cathode
(loading 3.0 mg/cm2) and have a thickness of 127 µm.

Figure 5.12: Electrolyzer MEA, electrolyzer 2.

3
 5. The

5.2.2 Assembling the electrolyzer

Pictures in figure5.13show the assembling of the electrolyzer 2 with all its parts
included.

a b c

d e f

g h i

Figure 5.13: Assembling the electrolyzer step by step.

a) Cathode end plate with bolts and a hole for hydrogen to exit, b) silicon gasket
on cathode end plate, c) cathode flow field plate, d) cathode silicone gasket and
titanium screen, e) electrolyzer MEA, f) anode silicone gasket and titanium screen
g) anode flow field plate h) silicon gasket anode flow field plate, i) anode end plate
with bolts and hole for water to enter and oxygen to exit.

3
5. The prototype

5.2.2.1 Amount of hydrogen produced

The amount of hydrogen generated by the electrolyzer can be calculated by the

equation
PV = n · R · T (5.2)

n·R·T (5.3)
V = P

where
P is the pressure of the gas, P=101325 Pa
V is the volume of the gas
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal gas constant, 8.314 mol−1K−1.

n= Q (5.4)
F
where Q is the charge transported by a constant current of 1A in 1 second, unit C
and F is the Faraday constant, F=96400 C/mol.

3
 5. The

5.3DC-DC converter

A DC-DC converter is an electric power converter that converts a source of direct

current (DC) from one voltage level to another. The converter is needed to match
the output voltage level from the solar panels, to the input level needed by the
electrolyzer. The solar panels generate electricity with high voltage and low current,
and the electrolyzer needs a low voltage level and high current. The input voltage of
the chosen DC-DC converter is 160-250 V and the output level 2 V. The
efficiency of the DC-DC converter is 50%.

Figure 5.14: DC-DC converter.

5.4 Weather balloon

A weather balloon is used for the storage of hydrogen. The balloon has a weight
of 350 g and holds 1600 liters of gas. The flexible material allows the flow of
production of gas to be seen. When the balloon is full or when hydrogen is
needed, there is a tap which empties the gas from the structure. Before the
hydrogen gas enters the balloon, a one-way valve prevents the hydrogen from going
back into the electrolyzer.
3
5. The prototype

5.5 Setup

The solar panels are glued onto a strong, flexible, transparent plastic sheet of 4x3
meters. This provides the shelter for the roof. The solar panels are connected in
series and parallel with 1.5 mm2 cables. To resist rain, the connections are glued.
Roped are attached to the corners of the roof for suspension.
In the middle of the roof is a hole with a pipe connected to the electrolyzer, where
the water is collected from rain and further used in the prototype. From the
electrolyzer, the oxygen produced is released into the air. The hydrogen is stored in
the inflatable weather balloon, from where the energy may be released by a valve. All
𝘫𝘫
connections and tubes is Swagelok 1 .
4

Figure 5.15: Sketch of prototype.

3
 5. The

Figure 5.16: Prototype with all its component parts.

Figure 5.17: Connection between solar panel and cable.

3
5. The prototype

Figure 5.18: Solar panels at the test site for the prototype.

Figure 5.19: Electrolyzer at the test site for the prototype.

3
 5. The

Figure 5.20: Electrolyzer connected to the solar roof.

3
5. The prototype

Figure 5.21: Tap for hydrogen to exit the weather balloon.

4
5. The

4
 6
Results and discussion

Since the solar panels broke, the prototype could not be tested all together. The re-
sults below discuss the separate parts of the prototype and how they would function
together.

6.1 Solar energy

Depending on which converter is used and its limit of input and output, other ways
of connecting the solar panels would be needed. The maximum voltage is received
by connecting all six panels in series which gives Voc = 864 V and VmaxP = 691.2 V.
The maximum current is received by connecting all panels in parallel, which gives
Isc = 138 mA and ImaxP = 110.4 mA. Their values are derived from the individual
values of each panel stated in section5.1.1.

6.2 Hydrogen generation

As shown in figure6.1the reaction of water splitting begins with a potential of 1.4 V,

and then increases as the current is increased. In theory and as calculated in section
3.3.2, the reaction occurs at a potential of 1.23 V. In practice, there are some factors
that need to be taken into account. Among those factors are activation energy,
ion mobility (diffusion) and concentration and resistance of wire. Furthermore
surface hindrance needs to be taken into account, caused by a bubble formation
causing the membrane area to be blocked or other obstacles. Because of this an
increased potential, an overpotential is required. In this case the overpotential
is 0.17 V, resulting from all the factors mentioned and possibly more.

6.2.1 Electrolyzer 1

The electrolyzer 1 is the first constructed electrolyzer of the project. Beacuse of

its aluminium frames the electrolyzer was unusable after some experiments due to
oxidation at the frames.

4
6. Results and discussion

6.2.2Electrolyzer 2

The current connectors of the second electrolyzer were made out of brass covered
with gold instead of aluminium, for better electrical contact and for a longer last-
ing result. Unfortunately, the gold cover was not even enough and therefore this
electrolyzer also stopped working after a while. The result was much better than
measured by the electrolyzer 1, since it reached a higher current.

6.2.3Electrolyzer 3

The purchased electrolyzer (electrolyzer 3), as not to sustain damage to the carbon
internal components, is able to handle a maximum voltage of 3 V. However it works
best up to 2.4 V. The rest of the components in the cell are able to support a current
of 70 A without problem. In figure6.1the current and voltage of the electrolyzer
is shown. In the experiment, the cell operated at room temperature with deionized
water. The maximum current of 28 A was achieved at 3 V. At 2.4 V the
electrolyzer gave a current of 20 A, which corresponds to a power of 48 W.

Figure 6.1: Voltage as a function of current.

When the electrolyzer is operating in the prototype together with the solar panels
and DC-DC converter, it is not able to operate at its maximum since the power
of the solar panels together with the DC-DC converter is limited. Since the
maximum power of the solar panels is 16 W and the DC-DC converter only has
an efficiency of 50%, the limit of the power is 8 W. Since the output of the DC-
DC converter is 2 V, the output of the current is 4 A.
According to equation5.3, the hydrogen generation of the electrolyzer in the proto-

4
 6. Results and discussion

type is VH2 = 4.99 · 10−7 m3/s when used together with the other components.
If the DC-DC converter had a higher efficiency, let’s say 100%, then the hydrogen
generation would be doubled VH2 = 9.97 10·
−7
m3/s. If the converter had been able
to handle a higher voltage, the hydrogen production would be larger. When the
electrolyzer has a voltage of 2.4 V it corresponds to a current of 20 A, which
gives the volume of H2 VH2 = 2.49 · 10−6 m3/s.
To improve the results, heated water should be used. The electrolyzer generally
prefers a water temperature of 60◦C but can be pushed to 80◦C. Since the output
value from the DC-DC converter is around 8 W, the limit was set by this value and a
higher current from the electrolyzer could not be received. However, if another DC-
DC converter with higher efficiency had been used, a higher generation of hydrogen
would have been possible, both with and without heated water. Also, the purpose
of the prototype is to use rain water, which is one of the reasons the water has
not been heated up. Cold water is counterproductive to efficiently operating the
cell. To be able to use rain water, a filter is needed to clean the water before it
enters the electrolyzer.
Another change to improve the results of the electrolyzer is to use other catalysts
of the membrane inside the cell. A lot of research is going on to optimize this.

6.3 Materials

The materials of the prototype are used for a short period of time, only around
a couple of weeks for testing. If the prototype were to stand for a longer time,
materials and the way it is set up would need to improve. The weather balloon
works for a low generation of hydrogen. If the generation were much higher so
that there was a large pressure inside the balloon, this would need to be taken into
account. One way could be to make the output valve automatically switch on when
there is a predetermined pressure inside the balloon. This to prevent the balloon
from exploding. The hydrogen should then be stored in a pressure tank which can
handle a pressure up to 700 bar and is safe for this purpose.

4
6. Results and discussion

4
 7
Conclusion

The main purpose of the prototype is to apply the method of producing

hydrogen gas through electrolysis on architecture, which in this case is a roof. With
this said, the purpose of the prototype has not been to optimize the electrolyzer, nor
the other components of the prototype.
There is a large potential to optimize the overall prototype by optimizing its
com- ponent parts. By choosing solar panels that generate a higher power, a DC-
DC converter with higher efficiency and other catalyst material in the membrane of
the electrolyzer, an overall optimization could be achieved.
To use the prototype for longer usage or in larger scale, other materials would need
to be considered, both for the stabilization of the construction and also for safety
reasons. The materials and the construction need to take the weather and different
seasons into account. The storage of hydrogen would also need to be considered
since the balloon can only handle a low pressure of gas and it can easily break due
to extreme weather.

4
7. Conclusion

4
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