MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT 3
FERROUS MATERIALS

Dr. SWATI GANGWAR

Mr. KAPIL KUMAR
Department Of Mechanical Engineering, MMMUT Gorakhpur
 Engineering Materials:
➢ Materials are an important aspect of engineering design and analysis.
➢ The product quality has been found to be influenced by the engineering design, type of
materials selected, and the processing technology employed. Therefore, the importance of
materials and their processing techniques cannot be undervalued in today’s world. Materials
form the stuff of any engineering application or product.
➢ There is a wide variety of materials available which have shown their potential in various
engineering fields ranging from aerospace to household applications. The materials are
usually selected after considering their characteristics, specific application areas, advantages
and limitations.
➢ The challenge for designers is to select an optimal material suitable for the specific design
requirements.
Classification of engineering materials:
Classification of engineering materials:
It is the systematic arrangement or division of materials into groups on the basis of some common characteristic.
1. According to General Properties
2. According to Nature of Materials
3. According to Applications

1. According to General Properties:

(a). Metals (e.g. iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, etc.):

Iron as the base metal, and range from plain carbon (> 98 % Fe) to
(i). Ferrous: high alloy steel (< 50 % alloying elements),
e.g. cast iron, wrought iron, steel, alloys like high-speed steel, spring steel, etc.
(ii). Non-Ferrous: Rest of the all other metals and their alloys, e.g. copper, aluminum, zinc, lead, alloys like brass, bronze,
duralumin, etc.
(b). Non-Metals (e.g. leather, rubber, asbestos, plastics, etc.):
 Classification Continued...
2. According to Nature of Materials:
(a). Metals: e.g. Iron & Steel, Alloys &Superalloys, Intermetallic Compounds, etc.
(b). Ceramics: e.g. Structural Ceramics (high-temperature load bearing), Refractories (corrosion-resistant,
insulating), Whitewares (porcelains), Glass, Electrical Ceramics (capacitors, insulators, transducers), Chemically
Bonded Ceramics (cement & concrete)
(c).Polymers: e.g. Plastics, Liquid Crystals, Adhesives
(d). Electronic Materials: e.g. Silicon, Germanium, Photonic materials (solid-state lasers, LEDs)
(e). Composites: e.g. Particulate composites (small particles embedded in a different material), Laminate
composites (golf club shafts, tennis rackets), Fiber reinforced composites (fiberglass)
(f). Biomaterials: e.g. Man-made proteins (artificial bacterium), Biosensors, etc.
(g). Advanced / Smart Materials: e.g. materials in computers (VCRs, CD Players, etc.), spacecrafts, aircrafts,
rockets, shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics, magneto-strictive materials, optical fibres,
microelectromechanical (MEMs) devices, electrorheological / magnetorheological fluids, Nanomaterials, etc.
 Classification Continued...

3. According to Applications
(a). Electrical Materials: e.g. conductors, insulators, dielectrics, etc.
(b). Electronic Materials: e.g. conductors, semi-conductors, etc.
(c). Magnetic Materials: e.g. ferromagnetic, paramagnetic & diamagnetic materials, etc.
(d). Optical Materials: e.g. glass, quartz, etc.
(e). Bio-Materials: e.g. man-made proteins, artificial bacterium, etc.
 Cast Iron:

➢ It is an alloys of Fe and C (like steel) but contain higher Carbon (typically Carbon is 2.5 to 4%).
➢ Very brittle, not amenable to deform
➢ Easy to cast (due to lower melting point) into complicated shapes and cheap.
➢ With alloying, good foundry practice and heat treatment, properties can be varied over wide range.
Carbon can occur in C.I’s as:
combined carbon (Fe3 C) or free carbon (graphite).
➢ The Shape and distribution of free carbon also important Parameters that influence are:
• Carbon content,
• Alloy and impurity content,
• Cooling rate during and after freezing,
• Heat treatment after casting
Types of Cast Iron:

1. White Cast Iron (combined carbon Fe3 C)

2. Malleable Cast Iron (free carbon as irregular particles)
3. Chilled Cast Iron (white cast iron at the surface and gray cast iron at the interior)
4. Grey Cast Iron (Flake Graphite)
5. Spheroidal Graphite (SG) / Ductile Cast Iron / Nodular Cast Iron (free carbon as spheroids)
6. Alloy Cast Iron
1. White Cast Iron:

• A high cooling rate and a low carbon equivalent

favors the formation of white cast iron.
• Hard and brittle
• Excellent wear resistance
• High compressive stress.
• Shows a white crystalline fractured surface.
• Fe3 C + Pearlite.
 2. Malleable Cast Iron:
• Malleable cast iron is essentially white cast iron which has been modified
by heat treatment. It is formed when white cast iron is heated to around 920
deg C and then left to cool very slowly. Graphite separates out much more
slowly in this case, so that surface tension has time to form it into
spheroidal particles rather than flakes.

• The structure of malleable cast iron consists of ferrite, pearlite and

tempered carbon as compared to the fracture inducing lamellar structure
of gray cast iron.

• Malleable cast iron like ductile iron possesses considerable ductility and
toughness because of its combination of nodular graphite and low carbon
metallic matrix.
• It can be pierced, coined, or cold formed.
• Requiring maximum machinability.
• must retain good impact resistance at low temperatures.
• Wear resistance (martensitic malleable iron only).
3. Gray Cast Iron:
• Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a
graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the
fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite.

• A low cooling rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes grey cast

iron. The general characteristics of Gray cast iron are:
 4. Chilled Cast Iron:

It is obtained by casting against a chiller

• Surface is White C.I. (faster cooling rates)
• Harder / wear resistant surface
• Depth depends on composition (C, Si decrease chill
depth) Carbide forming elements like Cr, Mo increase
chill depth
Applications: Railway car wheels, crushing rolls, heavy
machinery.
 5. Nodular Cast Iron:
• Nodular Cast Iron is an engineering material
displaying high ductility, elastic modulus,
mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.

• It has low cost and is easy to produce and machine

and is thus widely used as a structural material.

• Additions of Ce / Mg poisons the easy growth

direction and results change in graphite morphology
from flakes to spheres which occurs due to isotropic
growth.
6. Alloy Cast Iron:

• Alloy cast irons are considered to be those casting alloys based on the iron-carbon-
silicon system that contain one or more alloying elements intentionally added to
enhance one or more useful properties.
• Alloy cast irons can be classified as:
➢ White cast irons,
➢ Corrosion-resistant cast irons,
➢ Heat-resistant cast irons etc.
 Carbon Steel:
➢ Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, which contains up to 2.1 wt.% carbon. For carbon steels, there is no
minimum specified content of other alloying elements, however, they often contain manganese.
➢ The maximum manganese, silicon and copper content should be less than 1.65 wt.%, 0.6 wt.% and 0.6
wt.%, respectively.
➢ Carbon steel can be classified into three categories according to its carbon content: low-carbon steel (or
mild-carbon steel), medium-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. Their carbon content, microstructure and
properties compare as follows:

Types of carbon Carbon content Microstructure Properties Examples

steel (wt.%)
Low- Low hardness and cost. High
AISI 304, ASTM
carbon steel < 0.25 Ferrite, pearlite ductility, toughness,
A815, AISI 316L
machinability and weldability
Medium- Low hardenability, medium
AISI 409, ASTM
carbon steel 0.25 – 0.60 Martensite strength, ductility and
A29, SCM435
toughness
High- High hardness, strength, low AISI 440C, EN
0.60 – 1.25 Pearlite
carbon steel ductility 10088-3
 Alloy Steel:

• Alloy steel is a class of steel that, in addition to carbon, is alloyed with other elements, ranging from 1 wt.%
to 50 wt.%, which are used to enhance the material’s various properties [1].
• These elements commonly include manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and
boron. Less common elements include aluminum, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin,
zinc, lead, and zirconium.
Types of alloy steel
There are multiple subcategories of alloy steel. These include:
• Low-alloy steel (less than 8 wt.% non-iron elements)
• High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steel
• High-alloy steel (more than 8 wt.% non-iron elements)
• Stainless steel
• Micro-alloyed steel
• Advanced high-strength steel (AHSS)
• Tool steel
Properties of alloy steel:

• Alloy steels can contain a wide variety of elements, each of which can enhance various properties of the
material, such as mechanical thermal and corrosion resistance.
• Elements added in low quantities of less than around 5 wt.% tend to improve mechanical properties, for
example increasing hardenability and strength, whereas larger additions of up to 20 wt.% increase
corrosion resistance and stability at high or low temperatures.
• Overall, in comparison to carbon steels, alloy steels can exhibit increased strength, ductility and
toughness. The disadvantages, however, are that alloy steels usually have lower machinability, weldability
and formability.
• The effects of adding various elements to steel, along with the typical amounts in weight fraction, is
summarized in the upcoming table.
 Difference between Metals & Non-Metals:

S. Property Metals Non- metals

No.
1. Structure Crystalline Amorphic
2. State Generally solids at room temp. Gaseous & solid at ordinary
temp
3. Luster Metallic luster No metallic luster (except
iodine & graphite
4. Conductivity Good conductors of heat & electricity Bad conductors
5. Malleability Malleable Not malleable
6. Ductility Ductile Not ductile
7. Hardness Generally hard Hardness varies
8. Density High Low
9. Excitation of valence Easy Difficult
electron by e.m.f.
Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology,
Gorakhpur(U.P)
INDIA
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT 3
NON FERROUS MATERIALS

Dr. SWATI GANGWAR

Mr. KAPIL KUMAR
Department Of Mechanical Engineering, MMMUT Gorakhpur
Properties and applications of non- ferrous metals
 Non- ferrous metals:
• Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron as main constituent or
base metal.
• Non-ferrous metals have industrial applications because of their case of
fabrication (like rolling, forging, casting, welding, and machining), electrical
and thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion, light-weight, etc.
• However, at high temperatures, their strength is lowered, and shrinkage is more
than ferrous metals. The principal non-ferrous metals used in engineering
applications are Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Cobalt, Nickel,
Chromium, Magnesium, and their alloys.
• Following are the special advantages of non-ferrous metals over ferrous metals
in some selected areas. In Civil Engineering Construction, Aluminum and
some of its alloys offer a very suitable alternative material to steel in some
special engineering construction. Thus, wrought aluminum alloys are:

➢ Economical,
➢ Resistant to Corrosion,
➢ Light in weight,
• Compared to steels, they have been used in, i.e., construction of bridges and
roofs in situations where not much strength is required. In these situations, they
have been found to save 50% of extra weight.
• In Engineering Industries, Copper, zinc, nickel, and chromium in their pure
and alloyed forms have been used as materials in situations where:
➢ High tensile strength is required at elevated temperatures.
➢ High ductility and malleability are required.
➢ High resistance to heat is required.
➢ High electrical conductivity is required
 1. Aluminum:

• Aluminum is mainly obtained from bauxite ore. The most common ore of
aluminum is Bauxite (Al2O3. n H2O). As a metal, aluminum was first discovered
in 1825.
• It is highly resistant to corrosion. When exposed to moist air, aluminum forms a
thin film of oxide at the top, which is impervious to air/moisture, and thus saves
the metal from further corrosion.
Properties of Aluminum.
Following are some important properties of this metal.
1. It is silvery-white metal and shows brilliant luster when fresh.
2. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
3. It is light in weight with a specific gravity of about 2.7.
4. It is a good reflector of light.
5. It is non-magnetic and has high resistance to corrosion.
1. It is soft, tough, malleable, and ductile.
2. It is very ductile and can be transformed into any shape
by rolling, stamping, extruding, forging, drawing,
and spinning.
3. Its melting temperature is about 658°C.
4. It has high tensile strength.
5. It can also be cast into any shape by any method of
casting, i.e., die casting, chill casting, and sand casting.
6. It is resistant to organic acids, salt solutions, etc.
Uses of Aluminum:
1. It is used in the manufacturing of equipment for chemical and food industries,
cooking utensils, cookers, steam-jacketed kettles, etc.
2. Due to its lightweight and high tensile strength, it is used in structural work of
airplanes, ships, trains, buses, trucks, etc. And also used for roofing, sheathing,
window frames, foils, posts, etc.
3. It is used for manufacturing of electric cables.
Used for manufacturing of reflectors and mirrors.
5. Aluminum powder is used for preparing paints.
6. It is used in iron and steel making as a de-oxidizer.
2. Copper:
• Copper is extracted from copper ores such as copper pyrites, etc. Metallic copper
and its various alloys have been used in engineering industries and for many other
activities from 100 of years. This is due to some of the useful properties of copper.
Properties of Copper:
Some of the most important properties of copper are as under:
1. It is soft, strong, tough, malleable, and ductile.
2. It is very malleable and ductile so that it can be converted into any desired shape.
3. It has excellent joining properties, i.e., it can be joined by almost all the common
methods: welding, soldering, brazing, and riveting.
4. It becomes brittle just before melting.
5. It can be forged, soldered, rolled and drawn into wires.
6. It has good resistance to corrosion.
7. It is a good conductor of both heat and electricity next to silver.
8. It forms excellent alloys.
9. It is reddish-brown in color.
10.Its specific gravity is 8.93.
11.It has a melting point of 1083°C.
Uses of Copper.
1. It is used for making cables and wires for electric applications.
2. It is used for electroplating.
3. Used for manufacturing of utensils and making of copper alloys.
4. It is used for making of munitions and tubes in engineering applications.

Copper Alloys:
Following are the alloys of copper:
•Brasses.
•Bronzes.
3. Lead:
• Lead has been used for centuries in buildings and other engineering industries.
Lead is extracted from three chief ore minerals.
➢ Galena
➢ Cerrussite,
➢ Anglesite
Properties of Lead:
The metallic lead has the following properties.
1. It has bluish Grey color.
2. It has typically brilliant luster.
3. It has a high density – 11.35 g/cm3.
4. It has a low melting point of 327 centigrade.
5. It has a high boiling point of 1744 centigrade.
6. It is very good at resisting corrosion.

Lead Alloys:
• In general, lead doesn’t form many alloys. Its alloying capacity is limited
because of its low melting point. Following are the important alloys of lead.
➢ Solder
➢ Bearing metal
4. Zinc:
Zinc is another non-ferrous metal. It is obtained from zinc ores like zinc blends and
calamine. The chief ore mineral of zinc is sulfide called sphalerite. Smithsonite,
Zincite (ZnO) and Calamine (ZnCO3) are other common zinc minerals.

Zinc Properties:
Following are some important properties of Zinc.
1. It is bluish-white in color and has bright luster.
2. It resists corrosion.
3. It is brittle at normal temperature.
4. It becomes malleable and ductile when heated to a temperature of 100 to 150°C.
Hence, at this temperature, it can be rolled into sheets and drawn into wires.
5. It has a melting point of 419 centigrade and boiling point of 907 centigrade.
6. It has a tensile strength of 700-1400 kg/cm2.
7. Commercial zinc (spelter) is easily attacked by acids.
8. Zinc surface is covered by a dull basic zinc carbonate in moist air.
5. Nickel:
Nickel was first discovered in 1750. It is manufactured from its sulfide ore
named pentlandite [NiFe(S)]. The ore is first concentrated by froth floatation
process, and then roasted and smelted like other non-ferrous metals.

Nickel Properties:
Following are some important properties of nickel.
1. It is the strongest metal in all the non-ferrous metals, having tensile strength
ranges from 4200-8400 kg/cm2.
2. It is highly resistant to many types of corrosion. Thus it can withstand in water,
moisture, atmospheric gases, etc.
3. Its modulus of elasticity, thermal and electrical conductivity is the same as steel.
4. It is highly malleable and ductile.
5. Its density is 8.9 g/cm3.
6. It has a melting point of 1455 centigrade.
6. Magnesium:
Magnesium forms the lightest materials used in structural engineering. It
has a set of properties that make it suitable as an engineering material.
Magnesium Properties and uses:
Magnesium is a very useful metal both as a pure metal and in alloys its
main properties are as follows:
1. It is very light with a specific gravity of 1.74.
2. It has a melting point of 650 centigrade, which is similar to that of
aluminum.
3. It has poor corrosion resistance.
4. It has quite a high thermal conductivity and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion.
5. It forms very useful alloys with some metals like aluminum, thorium,
zinc, zirconium, and tin, etc.