Module 2 - Physics

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Preface
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The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the
chapters in these course notes and is used as the "Learning Objectives".
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Module 2 Chapters
1. Matter
2. 1. Mechanics - Statics
2.2. Mechanics - Kinetics
2.3. Mechanics - Dynamics
2.4. Mechanics - Fluid Dynamics
3. Thermodynamics
4. Optics (Light)
5. Wave Motion and Sound
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Module 2
Physics
2.1 Matter
Module 2.1 Matter 1-1

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Knowledge Levels - Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, 81 and 82 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category 81 or the category 82
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject
Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject
• An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a genera! description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
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subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
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• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

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Table of Contents
Module 2.1 Matter �

��
5
The Nature of Matter 5
The Components of Atoms 5
Periodic Table of the Elements 7
Chemical Definitions 9
The Electronic Structure of Atoms 13
Chemical Bonding 19
States of Matter 29

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Module 2.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66)
Append'ix I, and t he associate
. d Know Ied ge LeveIs as spec1·r1ed beI ow:
EASA66 Level
Objective
Reference 81 B2
Matter 2.1 1 1
Nature of matter: the chemical elements,
structure of atoms, molecules
Chemical compounds
States: solid, liquid and gaseous
Changes between states
---------
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-
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------
-
-
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Module 2.1 - Matter
The Nature of Matter

Scientists for a long time suspected that all substances were composed of small particles which
they called atoms. However, it wasn't until the beginning of this century that the existence of
atoms was demonstrated to everyone's satisfaction. The size of the atom was found to be so
small that a few hundred million, if placed side by side in a row, would form a line less than an
inch long.
All atoms are, crudely speaking1 the same size and can be thought to consist of two main parts.
The outer part is composed of 1 or more orbits of electrons.
These orbits makes up most of the volume of the atom yet contributes practically nothing to its
substance. The other part, located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom as a
whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom can be attributed to this small speck.
We call this speck the nucleus.
Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually composed of two kinds of particles of
roughly equal size and substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles are the
proton and neutron. When we refer to the amount of material or substance in an object, we are
really talking about the number of protons and neutrons in that object. Also, what we perceive
as the mass of an object is related directly to the number of protons and neutrons contained it.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a nucleus. An atom of lead, on the
other hand, has 82 protons and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207 (125 + 82) times as
much material or substance as an atom of hydrogen.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of particles in its nucleus. A sodium
atom, for example, with 11 protons and 12 neutrons is approximately the same size as an atom
of mercury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons.
In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined by its electron orbits, its
substance is determined by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
The Components of Atoms

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistry. However
th
from experiments done in the late 19 and early 20th century it was deduced that atoms were
made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles (table 1 .1 )

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Particle Relative Electrical Comments

mass charge
Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus
Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus
I Electron 111850 -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels

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UI �I 1�11� di UU1 IU l111;::: I IU!Ult:U:::.
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Table 1.1: The sub-atomic components of atoms
Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom.
Figure 1.1: The structure of an atom

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Periodic Table of the Elements
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H He
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3 4 !$ 6 7 3 9 1G
LI Be B c N 0 F Ne
11 1.2 13 14 1� 16 17 1S
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!M IVA VA VtA VllA r-- VlllA ---, m 118
0 19 20 21·• 2Z 3,3 24 25 26. 21 23. :a 30 31 :u 33 34 35 34
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' K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga G e As Se Br Kr
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37 H 39 40. 41 43 44 4S 4i 47 43 4i ,SO 51 52 53 84
Rb Sr y Zr Nb N.o Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd Jn Sn Sb Te I Xe
SS 56 \ n 7� 1• 15 1� 11 1$ 'rn so !$1 :82 1!3 84 6$ &'!
Cs Ba
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Figure 1.2: The Periodic Table of the Elements
The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group
A Group is a vertical column of like elements e.g. Group TA, The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.),
Group VUB, The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) and Group VllI (or 0), The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar
etc.). The Group number equals the number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's
electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second element down, in Group 7).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties. The Period number equals
the number of shells (1-7).
Module 2. 1 Matter 1-7

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Chemical Definitions
Elements
Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of protons.
Note that an element:
• consists of only one kind of atom,

• cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical
means, and
• can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).
Mixtures
Mixtures are of pure substances. Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that
make it up. Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are easy to separate.
Note that a mixture:
• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

• can be separated into its components by physical means, and
• often retains many of the properties of its components.
Compounds
Pure substances made up more than 1 element which have been joined together by a chemical
reaction therefore the atoms are difficult to separate. The properties of a compound are different
from the atoms that make it up. Splitting of a compound is called chemical analysis.
Note that a compound:
• consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,

• can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not
by physical means),
• has properties that are different from its component elements, and
• always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.
Atomic Number
The atomic number (also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the
nucleus of an atom. It is traditionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely
identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, atomic number is equal to the
number of electrons.
Mass Number
The mass number (A). also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of
protons and neutrons (also defined as a less commonly known term, nucleons) in an atomic
nucleus. The mass number is unique for each isotope of an element and is written either after
the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example,

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carbon-12 (12C) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the
atomic number (Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass
number, thus:
The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons
(N) in a given nucleus: N=A-Z.
For example: Carbon-14 is created from Nitrogen-14 with seven protons (p) and seven neutrons
via a cosmic ray interaction which transmutes 1 proton into 1 neutron. Thus the atomic number
decreases by 1 (Z: 7.-6) and the mass number remains the same (A= 14), however the
number of neutrons increases by 1 (n: 7-8).
Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

After: Carbon-14 (6p, 8n).
Molecules
A pure substance which results when two or more atoms of a single element share electrons,
for example 02. It can also more loosely refer to a compound, which is a combination of two or
more atoms of two or more different elements, for example H20.
Atoms combine to form more complex structures which we call molecules. Like building blocks,
these molecules organize to fOirn all of the materials, solid, liquid and gas, which we encounter
in our daily lives. Solids and liquids are materials in which the molecules attract one another so
strongly that their relative motion is severely restricted. In a gas, the freedom of motion of the
molecules is only slightly influenced by their mutual attraction. This is why gases fill the entire
space to which they are confined, They spread out unconstrained until they encounter the walls
of their container.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. This gives each
isotope of the element a different mass or nucleon number but being the same element they
have the same atomic or proton number. There are small physical differences between the
isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a greater density and boiling point. However, because
they have the same number of protons they have the same electronic structure and are
identical chemically. Examples are illustrated below. Do not assume the word isotope means
it is radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms might be
referred to as radioisotopes.

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iH zH 3H
1 l , and I are the three isotopes of hydrogen. They are called hydrogen,
deuterium, and tritium respectively. How do we distinguish between them? They each have
one single proton (Z = 1), but differ in the number of their neutrons. Hydrogen has no neutron,
deuterium has one, and tritium has two neutrons. The isotopes of hydrogen have, respectively,
mass numbers of one, two, and three. Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a trace of
hydrogen-2 naturally but hydrogen-3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion weapons.
3H 4
H
2. e and 2 e are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2
neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial
nuclear fusion process. Helium-4 is a!so formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive
alpha decay of an unstable nucleus.An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it picks up two
electrons and becomes the atoms of the gas helium.
.
nN
11 a and
MN
11 a are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and 24, with
12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in
common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter
used in medicine as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
Ionization
When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of electron exchange, it is said
to be ionised. For ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a
change in the internal energy of the atom.An atom having more than its normal amount of
electrons acquires a negative charge, and is called a negative ion (or 'anion'). The atom that
gives up some of its normal electrons is left with less negative charges than positive charges
and is called a positive ion (or 'cation'). Thus, ionisation is the process by which an atom loses
or gains electrons.
• Cation -A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

• Anion -An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-metals typically form anions.

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The Electronic Structure of Atoms

The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with increasing
distance from the nucleus. The shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to
Q. There are rules about the maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell.
• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

• The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
• The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
• The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons
Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the mathematical formulations
predicted by Neils Bohr. He suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number of
electrons held in the orbit depends on the number of the orbit. The orbits are counted outwards
from the nucleus. Higher the orbit number, farther are the electrons in that orbit from the
nucleus. If the orbit number is "n", then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as 2n2.
The first orbit has n=1, and will hold maximum of 2 electrons, the second orbit has n=2 and is
capable of holding a total of 8 electrons; similarly the third orbit will be able to contain 18
electrons and so on.
Electrons within an atom have definite energies.

The electrons closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most
tightly bound; the reason is because of stronger
electrostatic attraction with the nucleus. Electrons in
the highest orbit are least tightly bound. Electrons in
the same orbit have same energies. The electron
orbits are also called as electron energy levels or
shells. Electronic shells are known as K shell, L
shell, M shell, N shell corresponding to orbit number �Neon (Z:�1_,0}
n=1,2,3 and 4 respectively. Higher number orbits
are assigned shell names in alphabetical order after Figure 1.3: The atomic structure of
N. Helium and Neon

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Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation
Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of electrons in a

neutral atom), shorthand electron arrangement
On Period 1 �)
(.
hydrogen (l) I
•=electron
(atomic no.)
or
(electrons) helium (2) 2
Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen
and Helium
On Period 2
lithium (3) 2 .1 catbon (6) 2 .4 neon (10) 2 .8

Figure 1 .6: Electron arrangement of Lithium,
Carbon and Neon

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On Period 3
Na(11) 2.8.1 Cl (17) 2.8.7 Ar(18) 2.8.8
Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium,

Chlorine and Argon
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//....... ""-
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,
On Period 4
potassium (19) calcium (20)

2.S.8.1 2.8.S.2
Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium
and Calcium
Valency
Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer shell only holds two electrons.
Let us use Hydrogen as a standard to see how other atoms combine with it. Table 1.2 lists the
simplest compound of selected elements with Hydrogen.
Valency can be simply defined as the number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine
with. In the above table, Helium, Neon and Argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally
form compounds.
Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of 1 because they combine with one Hydrogen
atom. Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two
Hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of all these atoms are equal to the number of outer
electrons that these elements have.
Boron and Aluminium combine with three Hydrogen atoms -their valences are 3 - and they
have three outer electrons.
Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these elements is 4. It
will come as no surprise that they both have four outer electrons. Any element with 4 electrons
in its outer shell is known as a semiconductor

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Outer
Atom Symbol Compound
Shell
Helium He Full None
Lithium Li 1 LiH
Beryllium Be 2 BeH2
Boron B 3 BH3
Carbon c 4 CH4
Nitrogen N 5 NH3
Oxygen 0 6 HiO
Fluorine F 7 HF
Neon Ne Full None
Sodium Na 1 NaH
Magnesium Mg 2 MgH2
Aluminium Al 3 AIH3
Silicon Si 4 SiH4
Phosphorus p 5 PH3
Sulphur s 6 H2S
Chlorine Cl 7 HCI
Argon Ar Full None
Potassium K 1 KH
Calcium Ca 2 CaH2
Table 1.2: Electrons in outer shells of some

common elements
What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus? They have five outer electrons. But they normally only
combine with three Hydrogen atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that 3 is 5 less that 8. These
atoms are three electrons short of a full shell.
Please note that both Nitrogen and Phosphorus can also have a valency of 5. Some atoms are
capable of having more than one valency. That will confuse the issue so we will talk of normal
valency.
Now to Oxygen and Sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Six is two short of a full shell. Their
normal valences are 2 and they combine with two atoms of Hydrogen. Water is H20.
Finally, Fluorine and Chlorine - seven outer electrons. This is one short of a full shell. They both
combine with a single Hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1.

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As a side note, Chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7. The reasons are well beyond the
scope of these notes.
The rules above can be summarised as follows:
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of outer electrons if that number is
four or less. Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of outer electrons.
The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon, Argon) are chemically inert forming few
compounds. The atoms don't even interact with each other very much. These elements are
gases with very low boiling points.
The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing electron are all highly reactive.
Sodium is more reactive than Magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than Oxygen. Generally
speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell, the more reactive it is. Atoms with
one outer electron are more reactive than those with two outer electrons, etc. Atoms that are
one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those that are two short.
Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good electrical conductors. Atoms with 8,
or close to 8 electrons in its outer shell are poor conductors (or good insulators). This is why
atoms with 4 electrons in its outer shell are semi-conductors.
When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom bonds with another similar atom, it
does so covalently. Each atom shares one electron with 4 neighbour atoms. Thus all its
electrons are used up in what becomes a solid lattice of semiconductor atoms. The solid
material has therefore no free electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit into).
The following names are given to ions of the specific number of electron bindings (valence):
• 1 electron binding - monovalent

• 2 electron binding - divalent
• 3 electron binding - trivalent
• 4 electron binding - tetravalent
• 5 electron binding - pentavalent
• 6 electron binding - hexavalent

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Atomic Element Electrons per SheH Atomic Element Electrons per Shell
No. No.
K L M N 0 p Q K L M N 0 p Q
1 Hvdroaen i 53 iodine 2 8 18 8 7
2 Helium 2 54 Xenon 2 8 18 18 8
3 Lithium 2 1 55 Caesium 2 8 18 8 8 1
4 Bervllium 2 2 56 Barium 2 8 18 8 8 2
5 Boron 2 3 57 Lanthanum 2 8 18 8 9 2
6 Carbon 2 4 58 Cerium 2 8 18 19 9 2
7 o n
Nitroe 2 5 59 Praseodymium 2 8 18 20 9 2
8 Oxygen 2 6 60 Neodymium 2 8 18 21 9 2
9 Fluorine 2 7 61 Promethium 2 8 18 22 9 2
10 Neon 2 8 62 Samarium 2 8 18 23 9 2
11 Sodium 2 8 1 63 Europium 2 8 18 24 9 2
12 Magnesium 2 8 2 64 Gadolinium 2 8 18 25 9 2
13 Aluminium 2 8 3 65 Terbium 2 8 18 26 9 2
14 Silicon 2 8 4 66 Dvsorosium 2 8 18 27 9 2
15 Phosphorus 2 8 5 67 Holmium 2 8 18 28 9 2
16 Sulphur 2 8 6 68 Erbium 2 8 18 29 9 2
17 Chlorine 2 8 7 69 Thulium 2 8 18 30 9 2
18 Araon 2 8 8 70 Ytterbium 2 8 18 31 9 2
19 Potassium 2 8 8 1 71 Lutetium 2 8 18 32 g 2
20 Calcium 2 8 8 2 72 Halnium 2 8 18 32 10 2
21 Scandium 2 8 9 2 73 Tantalum 2 8 18 32 11 2
22 Titanium 2 8 10 2 74 Tungsten 2 8 18 32 12 2
23 Vanadium 2 8 11 2 75 Rhenium 2 8 18 32 13 2
24 Chromium 2 8 13 1 76 Osmium 2 8 18 32 14 2
25 Manganese 2 8 13 2 77 iridium 2 8 8 32 15 2
26 iron 2 8 14 2 70 Platinum 2 8 8 32 16 2
27 Cobalt 2 8 15 2 79 Gold 2 8 8 32 18 1
28 Nickel 2 8 16 2 80 Mercury 2 8 8 32 18 2
29 Coooer 2 8 18 1 81 Thallium 2 8 8 32 18 3
30 Zinc 2 8 18 2 82 Lead 2 8 8 32 18 4
31 Gallium 2 8 18 3 83 Bismuth 2 8 8 32 18 5
32 Germanium 2 8 18 4 84 Polonium 2 8 8 32 18 6
33 Arsenic 2 8 18 5 85 Asatine 2 8 8 32 18 7
34 Selenium 2 8 18 6 86 Radon 2 8 8 32 18 8
35 Bromine 2 8 18 7 87 Francium 2 8 8 32 18 8 1
36 Krypton 2 8 18 8 88 Radium 2 8 8 32 18 8 2
37 Rubidium 2 8 18 8 1 89 Actinium 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
38 Strontium 2 8 18 8 2 90 Thorium 2 8 18 32 19 9 2
39 Yttrium 2 8 18 9 2 91 Proactinium 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
40 Zirconium 2 8 18 10 2 92 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
41 Niobium 2 8 18 12 93 Neptunium 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
42 Molybdenum 2 8 18 13 94 Plutonium 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
43 Technetium 2 8 18 14 95 Americium 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
44 Ruthenium 2 8 18 15 96 Curium 2 8 8 32 25 9 2
45 Rhodium 2 8 18 16 97 Berkelium 2 8 8 32 26 9 2
46 Palladium 2 8 18 18 98 Californium 2 8 8 32 27 9 2
47 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 99 Einsteinium 2 8 8 32 28 9 2
48 Cadmium 2 8 18 18 2 100 Fermium 2 8 8 32 29 9 2
49 indium 2 8 18 18 3 101 Mendelevium 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
50 Tin 2 8 18 18 4 10/ Nohe!ium 2 R 18 32 31 9 2
51 Antimony 2 8 18 18 5 103 Lawrencium 2 8 18 32 32 9 2
52 Tellurium 2 8 18 18 6
Table 1.3: Electrons per shell

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Chemical Bonding
Adhesion and Cohesion

'cohesion' is the intermolecular force between liquid particle types (for example, it is what makes
water molecules stick together, or 'cohere', to make a rain drop). 'Adhesion' is the
intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms (for example, it is what makes the rain drops
'adhere' to a washing line). These types of bonding are temporary. Atomic bonding refers to
the permanent bonding between atoms which holds all materials together.
Noble Gases
Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as
single atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g.
2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the diagrams below.
@
.
.
lieliwn (2) 2 neon (10) 2.8 argon (18) 2.8.8

Figure 1.9: (Atomic Number) and electron
arrangement
Covalent and Ionic Bonding

All other atoms therefore, bond to become electronically more stable, that is to become like
Noble Gases in electron arrangement Atoms can do this in two ways ...
COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the
bond is usually formed between two non-metallic elements in a molecule.
or
IONIC BONDING - By one atom transferring electrons to another atom. The atom losing
electrons forms a positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons forms
a negative ion and is usually a non-metallic element.
The types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are described
in detail below. In all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are shown.

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Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond
usually formed between two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element
i.e. one type of atom only OR from different elements chemically combined to form a compound.
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive
nuclei of the two atoms of the bond, and the electrons between them.
One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons
between the same two atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3
pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
The Bonding in Small Covalent Molecules

The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of their formation are shown
below. The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the electrons come
from, though all electrons are the same. The diagrams may only show the outer electron
arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron shells. Examples of simple covalent
molecules are ...
Example 1 - 2 hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2
@ and @ combine to form � where both atoms have a pseudo helium

structure of 2 outer electrons around each atom.
Example 2 - 2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
0 0 and combine to form �

neon or argon structure of 8 outer electrons around each atom.
where both atoms have a pseudo

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Example 3 -1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the
molecule of the compound hydrogen chloride HCI
@ and 0
and chlorine like neon or argon.
combine to form @(V where hydrogen is electronically like helium
Example 4 -2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule
of the compound we call water H20
�
~ (�ii
0
@ and @ and combine to form H so that the hydrogen atoms are

electronically like helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can
H H
"'-./
be shown as
0 with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds.
Example 5 -3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the
compound we call ammonia NH3
molecule of the
three of @ and one 0 combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms

are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule
N
/ \"
H H
can be shown as
H with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds.

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Example 6 - 4 atoms of hydrogen { 1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2 .4) to form the molecule
of the compound we call methane CH4
four of @ and one of 0 combine to form so that the hydrogen

atoms are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The
H
I
c
/ \
"-H
H
molecule can be shown as
H with four carbon ..: hydrogen single covalent bonds.
All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three examples 7-
9, where there is a double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas
outer electron arrangements around each atom.
Example 7 -Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen
02. ~
0=0,
The molecule has one double covalent bond
Example 8 One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to form carbon
dioxide C02.
0= C =
0
The molecule can be shown as with two carbon = oxygen double covalent
bonds.

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Example 9 - Two atoms of carbon (2.4} combine with four atoms of hydrogen (1) to form
H, ,...H
.
C=C,
The molecule can be shown as
H,..... H with one carbon = carbon double bond and
four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds.
The Properties of Small Covalent Molecules

The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule are strong and most molecules
do not change on heating. However the forces between molecules are weak and easily
weakened further on heating. Consequently small covalent molecules have low melting and
boiling points. They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free
electrons or ions in any state to carry electric charge. Most small molecules will dissolve in a
solvent to form a solution.
Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties

It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent
structure. This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent
bond network. This illustrated by carbon in the form of diamond.
Carbon can form four single bonds to four other atoms etc. etc.
This type of structure is thermally very stable and they have
high melting and boiling points. They are usually poor
conductors of electricity because the electrons are not usually
free to move as they can in metallic structures. Also because of
the strength of the bonding in the structure they are often very
hard and will not dissolve in solvents like water.
Figure 1. 10: A plane of Carbon

atoms from a diamond crystal

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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal. The overall
charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in
chemical reactions).
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic
element. The overall charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess,
of negative electrons.
The examples belovv combining a metal fmm Gmups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with a non-metal
from Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens)
Example 1 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium + chlorine� sodium

chloride NaCl or ionic formula Na•er
in terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom
forming a single positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have
become stable ions, because electronically, sodium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.
Na (2.8.1) +Cl (2.8.7) �Na• (2.8) er (2.8.8)
ONE @ combines with ONE 0 to fonn

[Nat [0]

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Example 2 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. magnesium + chlorine =>
magnesium chloride MgCb or ionic formula Mg2+(Cr)2
In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two chlorine
atoms forming a double positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions.The
atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and
chlorine like argon.
Mg (2.8.2) + 2CI (2.8.7) => Mg2+ (2.8) 2cr (2.8.8)
ONE
( *
e combineswithTWO 0 totorJMg]
2
+ [0]
NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number subscript
2
see•
has been used, as in ordinary chemical formula)
Example 3 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. aluminium +fluorine => aluminium
fluoride AIF3 or ionic formula Al3+(F)3
In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three
fluorine atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions.
The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, aluminium becomes like neon and
also fluorine.
3
Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7) => Al + (2.8) 3F (2.8)
ONE @ combines with THREE 0 to form [Al ]3+ [0t

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Example 4 - A Group 1 metal+ a Group 6 non-metal e.g. potassium + oxygen =::} potassium
oxide K 0 or ionic formula (K+)202-
2
In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms donates their outer electrons to one
oxygen atom. This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide
ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
2K (2. 8 8.1 )+ 0 (2.6)

. =::} 2K+ (2.8.8) 02- (2.8)
�
( K)
"'---- ,,
TWO ,. combine with ONE
Example 5 - A Group 2 metal+ a Group 6 non-metal e.g. calcium+ oxygen=::} calcium oxide
CaO or ionic formula ca2+02-
In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one
oxygen atom. This results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion_ All
the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
Ca (2.8.8.2)+ 0 (2.6) =::} Ca2+ (2.8.8) 02- (2.8)
ONE e combines with ONE

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Example 6 -A Group 3 metal+ a Group 6 non-metal e.g. aluminium+ oxygen� aluminium

oxide Al203 or ionic formula (Al3+)2(02 -)3
In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to
three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative
oxide ions. All the ions have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8
2AI (2.8.3)+ 30 (2.6) � 2Al3+ (2.8) 302- (2.8)
TWO @ combines �th THREE 0 to form [Ai]3+ [0I-

The properties of Ionic Compounds
�·- /Na+
CHLOHIDE ION SODIUM JON
• The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an

orderly way in a giant ionic lattice shown in the
diagram on the left. The ionic bond is the
strong electrical attraction between the
positive and negative ions next to each other
in the lattice. Salts and metal oxides are typical
ionic compounds.
• This strong bonding force makes the structure
hard (if brittle) and have high melting and
boiling points. Unlike covalent molecules, ALL
ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water,
Figure 1 .11 : Sodium Chloride
but not all.
lattice structure
• The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move
to carry an electric current. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in
water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free.

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Bonding in Metals
The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions, NOT atoms. The outer electrons(-) from the
original metal atoms are free to move around between the positive metal ions formed(+). These
free or 'delocalised' electrons are the 'electronic glue' holding the particles together. There is a
strong electrical force of attraction between these mobile electrons and the 'immobile'
positive metal ions -this is the metallic bond.
� \
I
\
~ '
\'
I
I
I
J
/"----
I "' /
/
ta
\
Figure 1.12: 'Electron cloud' formation of Ionic (or Metallic) Bonding
• This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting
and boiling points.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the
charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a
piece of metal.
• Metals are also good conductors of heat This is also due to the free moving electrons.
Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms,
knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy
on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy electrons move around
freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.

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• Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished
by corrosive oxidation in air and water.
States of Matter
Solids -A solid object is characterized by its resistance to deformation and changes of volume.
At the microscopic scale, a solid has these properties:

• The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are packed closely together.
• These constituent elements have fixed positions in space relative to each other. This
accounts for the solid's rigidity. In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a
unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a
set of atoms arranged in a particular way; which is periodically repeated in three
dimensions on a lattice. The spacing between unit cells in various directions is called its
lattice parameters.
• If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure can be disrupted, causing
permanent deformation.
Because any solid has some thermal energy, its atoms vibrate. However, this movement is very
small, and cannot be observed or felt under ordinary conditions.
liquids -A liquid's shape is confined to, but not determined by, the container it fills. That is to
say, liquid particles (normally molecules or clusters of molecules) are 'free to move within the
volume, but they form a discrete surface that may not necessarily be the same as the vessel.
The same cannot be said about a gas; it can also be considered a fluid, but it must conform to
the shape of the container entirely.
Gases - Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules without a definite shape and
without a definite volume. Compared to the solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower
density and a lower viscosity. The volume of a gas will change with changes in temperature or
pressure, as described by the ideal gas law. A gas also has the characteristic that it will diffuse
readily, spreading apart in order to uniformly fill the space of any container.
Plasma -A plasma is typically an ionized gas. Plasma is considered to be a distinct state of

matter, apart from gases, because of its unique properties. 'Ionized' refers to presence of one or
more free electrons, which are not bound to an atom or molecule. The free electric charges
make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields.
Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds (e.g. stars) or charged ion beams, but
may also include dust and grains (called dusty plasmas). They are typically formed by heating
and ionizing a gas, stripping electrons away from atoms, thereby enabling the positive and
negative charges to move morefreely.
Changes between States

Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to become gases. Likewise, gases can
condense to become liquids, and liquids can freeze to become solids. Sometimes solids can
become gases without ever becoming liquids. This is called subliming.

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TTS Integrated -
Training System
Module 2
Licence Category B 1 and 82
Physics
2.2 Mechanics
Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-1

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Knowledge Levels - Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and 82 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
examples.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
Objectives:
Tho LAl""'"
�
<>nnlir<>
t"" •'...,...nt
, ,......, .,.. , , <:: h
....,. n1
, .... 1lrl ho
. ..,..,""' <>hlo tn �c•-'""'
......., �-c
..... L"-1"
nillo <> no nor<> I rloc;::
�-••'kl•'-"• ,.,.rintinn
.,..._ "'""'1•,...- ..• - • • nf tho
-• .,,, _ "''
_....,.1hio0t
_J"""...,.. 1 1<:: inn
"""""" <><::
1••�, ..,.. "" <:innrnnri<>t<> ..�,....,.....,._,I
.... t'l"".�t'•'LA"._..T f\lni,.,.<>
examples.
subject.
subject.
LEVEL 3
manner.
Objectives:
instructions.
2-2 Module 2.2 Mechanics

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Table of Contents
Module 2.2 Mechanics ��

7
Statics 7
Mass, Force and Weight 7
Stress, Strain and Hooke's Law 15
Materials Behaviour 21
Nature and Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gas 27
Pressure and Force 33
Barometers 55
Buoyancy 57
Buoyancy 57
Kinetics 67
Linear Motion 67
Rotational Motion 77
Periodic Motion 89
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 90
Simple Machines and the Principle of Work 99
Dynamics 113
Newton's Laws 113
Motion in a Circle 123
Friction 131
Work, Energy and Power 139
Momentum 151
Torque 163
The Gyroscope 171
Fluid Dynamics 175

The Atmosphere 175
Density and Specific Gravity 185
Compressibility in Fluids 193
Viscosity 195
Drag and Streamlining 197
Bernoulli's Principle 201

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Objective
Reference 81 82
Mechanics 2.2
Statics 2.2. 1 2 1
Forces, moments and couples, representation
as vec.aors
I
- - . - - -
Centre of aravity
Elements of theory of stress. strain and
elasticity: tension, compression, shear and I
torsion !
Nature and properties of solid, fluid and oas
Pressure and buoyancy in liquids
(barometers)
Kinetics 2.2.2 2 1
Linear movement: uniform motion in a straight
line.motion under constant acceleration
(motion under gravity);
Rotational movement: uniform circular motion
(centrifugal/centripetal forces);
Periodic motion: pendular movement;
Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and
resonance;
Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and
efficiency ·-
Dynamics 2.2.3
(a) 2 1
Mass
Force, inertia, work, power, energy (potential,
kinetic and total enemv), heat, efficiency
(b) 2 2
Momentum, conservation of momentum
Impulse
Gyroscopic principles
Friction: nature and effects, coefficient of
friction (rollina resistance)
Fluid dynamics 2.2.4
(a) 2 2
�n�r.:ifir. nr�\/itv ::mrt rl�n�ih1
-.---·· ·- �· - • ••J -· ·- --· ·-··,
(b) 2 1
Viscosity, fluid resistance, effects of
streamlinino;

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Effects of compressibility on fluids

Static, dynamic and total pressure:
Bernoulli's Theorem, venturi

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Module 2.2 Mechanics
Statics
Mass, Force and Weight
Mass
In physics. the term for what we have up to now referred to as the amount of substance or
matter is "mass". A natural unit for mass is the mass of a proton or neutron. This unit has a
special name, the "atomic mass unit" (amu). This unit is useful in those sciences which deal with
atomic and nuclear matter.
In measuring the mass of objects which we encounter daily, this unit is much too small and
therefore very inconvenient. For example, the mass of a bowling ball expressed in amu's would
be about 4,390,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
One kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu. Since one amu is the mass
of a proton or neutron we know immediately that a kilogram of anything has this combined
number of protons and neutrons contained in it.
The kilogram is the SI unit of mass. In the English system, the standard unit of mass is the slug.
The conversion is:
1 slug= 14.59 kg= 8,789,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu
We will use the conveniently sized units, the slug in the English system and the kilogram in the
metric system, for all of the problems that we will do in this course. Note that the above
conversion, 1 slug= 14.59 kilogram, is listed with your conversion factors in the table of
conversion factors (Table 1-1).
Force
The physicist uses the word "force" to describe any push or pull. A force is one kind of vector.
A vector is a quantity that has both size and direction.
A force has a certain magnitude or size. Also, a force is always in a certain direction. To
completely describe a force, it is necessary to specify both the size of the push or pull and its
direction.
The units in which force are measured are the pound (lb.) in the English system and the Newton
(N) in the metric system. The Newton is named for Sir Isaac Newton, a famous British physicist
who lived in the 17th century.
The relationship between the metric and English units is given by the conversion factor:
1 lb. = 4.448 N

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Weight
A weight is one kind of force. It is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth on a given body.
The direction of this force is toward the geometrical centre of the earth.
Distinction between Mass and Weight

The physicist very carefully distinguishes between "mass" and "weight". As we have seen,
mass is the quantity of matter, determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the body,
and weight is a measure of the gravitational pull of the earth on this quantity of matter.
It may seem that this is an unimportant distinction. However, there is one important difference.
The mass of an object is the same wherever this object is in the universe. The mass of a stone
is the same if the stone is on the earth, on Mars, in a space ship, or some place in the Milky
Way Galaxy. If the stone is not on the earth but is in a space station orbiting the earth some
distance from the earth's surface. the weight of this stone is different from its weight on the
earth's surface. If the stone is on the planet Mars. we speak of its "weight on Mars", the
gravitational pull of Mars on the stone.
As you have probably figured out, the greater the mass of an object on the surface of the earth,
the greater is the weight of this object. These two quantities are approximately proportional to
each other as long as the body remains on the surface of the earth. The word "approximately" in
the previous sentence refers to the fact that the pull of the earth on a body of a given mass
varies slightly with the position of the body on the earth's surface. For example, a body that
weighs 57.3 lbs. at the North Pole would weigh 57.0 lbs. at a place on the equator. This occurs
because a body at either pole is slightly closer to the centre of the earth than it is at the equator.
Thus, the pull of the earth on the body is greater at the poles and slightly smaller at other places
on the earth. However, we usually neglect this slight difference.
Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs or kilograms and weights in
pounds or Newtons. The equation relating mass and weight is:
w=mg
In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. We will use the following relations:
lbs N
..
_
g- 32 -
or g=9.8
slug kg
There is a great source of confusion in British marketing practices. For example, we often see
on a packet of sugar the information regarding the contents:
1 kg or 2.2 !bs
We note that 2.2 lbs. equals 1 kg. We have just learned that 2.2 lbs. is the weight of the sugar
and that 1 kg is the mass of the sugar. In other words, British packaging practices list the weight
of the product if we deal with the English system and list the mass of the product if we are in the
metric system.

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For example, suppose the weight of a piece of cheese is marked 32 oz. and we wish to know
the number of grams. First we convert the weight in ounces to 2 lbs. Then we convert from
pounds to Newtons.
4 448 N
W=2 lbs x · =8.90 N
11b
Next, we use the relation:
w
w= mg or m=-
g
Therefore, we write:
8.90 N ·
m= - -= 0.908 kg= 908 grams

9.8 N/kg
Note that we can convert from pounds to Newtons since both are units of weight and we can
convert from kilograms to slugs since both are units of mass. However, if we want to find a
mass if we know a weight or a weight if we know a mass we must use the equation:
m=w/g or w=mg
In summary, let us note that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter - ultimately, a measure
of the number cf protons and neutrons in the body and 'vveight is the force \Vith 'tv'hich the earth
pulls on a body. These are related but not identical concepts. The units of mass are slugs and
kilograms. The units of weight are pounds and Newtons. A mass can be changed from slugs to
kilograms and vice versa. A weight can be changed from Newtons to pounds or vice versa.
However, one cannot say that one pound equals 454 grams. The only correct statement is that
a body having a weight of one pound has a mass of 454 grams. The equation relating mass and
weight is:
w
w= mg or m=-
g

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Problems
1. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 45 N?
2. What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23 kg?
3. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 350 lbs.?
4. What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23.6 slugs?
5. What is the weight (in lbs. ) of the com flakes in a box where the mass is listed as
680 g?
6. What is the mass in grams of 2.5 lbs. of bologna?

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Answers
All answers are to 3 significant figures
1. 4.59 kg
2. 225 N
3. 10.9 slugs
4. 755 lbs.
5. 1.45 lbs.
6. 1140g

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Stress, Strain and Hooke's Law
Introduction
Structural integrity is a major factor in aircraft design and construction. No production aeroplane
leaves the ground before undergoing extensive analysis of how it will fly, the stresses it will
tolerate and its maximum safe capability.
Every aircraft is subject to structural stress. Stress acts on an aeroplane whether on the ground
or in flight. Stress is defined as a load applied to a unit area of material. Stress produces a
deflection or deformation in the material called strain. Stress is always accompanied by strain.
Current production general aviation aircraft are constructed of various materials, the primary
being aluminium alloys. Rivets, bolts, screws and special bonding adhesives are used to hold
the sheet metal in place. Regardless of the method of attachment of the material, every part of
the fuselage must carry a load, or resist a stress placed on it. Design of interior supporting and
forming pieces, and the outside metal skin all have a role to play in assuring an overall safe
structure capable of withstanding expected loads and stresses.
The stress a particular part must withstand is carefully calculated by engineers. Also, the
material a part is made from is extremely important and is selected by designers based on its
known properties. Aluminium alloy is the primary material for the exterior skin on modern
aircraft This material possesses a good strength to weight ratio, is easy to form, resists
corrosion, and is relatively inexpensive.
Types of Structural Stress

The five basic structural stresses to which aircraft are subject are:
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Torsion
4. Shear
5. Bending
While there are many other ways to describe the actual stresses which an aircraft undergoes in
normal (or abnormal) operation, they are special arrangements of these basic ones.
Tension - is the stress acting against another force that is trying to pull something apart. For
example, while in straight and level flight the engine power and propeller are pulling the
aeroplane forward. The wings, tail section and fuselage, however, resist that movement
because of the airflow around them. The result is a stretching effect on the airframe. Bracing
wires in an aircraft are usually in tension.
Compression - is a squeezing or crushing force that tries to make parts smaller. Anti
compression design resists an inward or crushing force applied to a piece or assembly. Aircraft
wings are subjected to compression stresses. The ability of a material to meet compression
requirements is measured in pounds per square inch (PSI).

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Torsion - is a twisting force. Because aluminium is used almost exclusively for the outside, and,
to a large extent, inside fabrication of parts and covering, its tensile strength (capability of being
stretched) under torsion is very important. Tensile strength refers to the measure of strength in
pounds per square inch (PSI) of the metal. Torque (also a twisting force) works against torsion.
The torsional strength of a material is its ability to resist torque. While in flight, the engine power
and propeller twist the forward fuselage. The force, however, is resisted by the assemblies of
the fuselage. The airframe is subjected to variable torsional stresses during turns and other
manoeuvres.
Shear- stress tends to slide one piece of material over another. Consider the aircraft fuselage.
The aluminium skin panels are riveted to one another. Shear forces try to make the rivets fail
under flight loads; therefore, selection of rivets with adequate shear resistance is critical. Bolts
and other fasteners are often loaded in shear, an example being bolts that fasten the wing to
the spar or carry-through structure. Although other forces may also be present, shear forces try
to rip the bolt in two. Generally, shear strength is less than tensile or compressive strength in a
particular material.
Bending - is a combination of two forces, compression and tension. During bending stress, the
material on the inside of the bend is compressed and the outside material is stretched in
tension. An example of this is the G-loading an aeroplane structure experiences during
manoeuvring. During an abrupt pull-up, the aeroplane's wing spars, wing skin and fuselage
undergo positive loading and the upper surfaces are subject to compression, while the lower
wing skin experiences tension loads. There are many other areas of the airframe structure that
experience bending forces during normal flight
An aircraft structure in flight is subjected to many and varying stresses due to the varying loads
that may be imposed. The designer's problem is trying to anticipate the possible stresses that
the structure will have to endure, and to build it sufficiently strong to withstand these. The
problem is complicated by the fact that an aeroplane structure must be light as well as strong.
Stress, Strain and Young's Modulus

What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross
sectional area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Or
Stress ::::
Force
Area
{units lb/in2 or N/m2 )
In figure 2-1, a solid rod of length L, is under simple tension due to force F, as shown. If we
divide that axial force, F, by the cross sectional area of the rod (A), this would be the axial stress
in the member. Axial stress is the equivalent of pressure in a gas or liquid. As you remember,
pressure is the force/unit area. So axial stress is really the 'pressure' in a solid member. Now
the question becomes, how much 'pressure' can a material bear before it fails.

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Axial Stress = FIA
( wtits = Iblm2 or N/m2 )

cross section.al area
L
F
/
Force perpendicular to area
Figure 2.1: Tensile Stress
In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension as shown in figure 2.1, we see that there will
be an elongation (or deformation) due to the tension. If we then graph the tension (force) verses
the deformation we obtain a result as shown in figure 2.2.
- Plastic Region
I
--
F
(lb -- (elastic)
Proportional Lim.it
Failure Point
'T : -- - - -- / i- .... : - .... T'i - _: - --

Llll� \ eli::l�l-lt.:) Rt:l;51.UI1
F
_ _
necking down
aL (defbrmati.on) (in)
Figure 2.2: Force-Extension diagram
In figure 2.2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the
deformation increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force.
That is, if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form
of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: Foo k (deformation), where k is a constant
depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring constant). After enough force
has been applied the material enters the plastic region - where the force and the deformation
are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of
deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to 'neck down', that is, the diameter becomes
smaller as the rod is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks_
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit In

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actuality, these two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which
permanent deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample,
it will not return to its original size and shape, permanent deformation has occurred. The
Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the
applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly different, we
will treat them as the same in this course.
Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph
the axial stress verses the axial strain (figure2-2). We have defined the axial stress earlier.
The axial strain is defined as the fractional change in length or
Strain= (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member)
. 11L
Stram=-
Lo
( Lo
0 AL
Figure 2.3: Axial force in a member of length

L0 causing deformation (extension) of ill
------
We may write:
. Deformation
Stram=
Original Length
where L0 is the original length of the member.
Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as
'in/in (or inches per inch)' in some texts.
As we see from figure 2.4, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as
the force verses deformation graph in figure 2.2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is
directly proportional to strain, the ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to
the slope of the linear portion of the graph).

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This constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will

use E for Young's modulus. We may now write
Stress
Young's Modulus (E) =
.
Stram
(This is another form of Hooke's Law.)
=e- __ _ _ _ _ J =--:---_ ��s� Region -I

(dasllC)
u Proponronal Lurut
failw:e P oiJlt
Figure 2.4: Stress-Strain graph
The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a
unit deformation - depends on the material.
Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 106 lb/in 2, for Aluminium E = 10 x

2
106 lb/in , and for Brass
E = 15 x 106 lb/in2.
To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have:
Force
Stress = units lb/in2 or N/m2
( )
Area
. = Deformation
Stram ------
Original Length
Stress
Young's Modulus = ---
Strain

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Related Definitions
Bulk Modulus - The bulk modulus gives the change in volume of a solid substance as the
pressure on it is changed. The formula for bulk modulus is very similar to that for Young's
Modulus:
F/ V
IA
Pressure
Bulk Modulus (B) = = = Pressure x - 0
Volumetric Strain 8)1v0 fJ.V
Some examples of Bulk Modulus for different materials are given on the next page.
Poisson's Ratio - As a member is stressed in tension, its length increases (axial strain) and its
width decreases (transverse strain). Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to the axial
strain in a stressed member.
Cantilever - Figure 2.5 illustrates a cantilever structure. The beam is under bending stress
(which is greatest at the root end) and shear stress (which is constant along the beam).
LOAD
Figure 2.5: A cantilever structure

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Materials Behaviour
Elastic - Material deforms under stress but returns to its original size and shape when the
stress is released. There is no permanent deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber
band, can be large, but in metals it is usually small.
Brittle - Material deforms by fracturing. Glass is typically brittle.
Ductile - Material deforms without breaking. Metals and most plastics are ductile.
Viscous - Materials that deform steadily under stress. Purely viscous materials like liquids
deform under even the smallest stress. Even metals may behave like viscous materials under
high temperature and pressure. This is known as creep and affects plastics far more than
metals.

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BULK
YOUNG MODULUSs E
MODULUS,B
MATERIAL (LBJIN.2) (LB./IN.2)

ULTIMATE
10 to' 10 106 ELASTIC UMIT
Aluminum x x STRESS
Brass 13 x 106 8.5 )( 106 MATERIAL ( LBJIN.2) ( LBJIN.2)

Copper 16 x 106 17 x 108 Alumlnum 1.9 x 1cf 2.1 )( 104
Glass 7.8 )( 106 5.2 x 106 Brass 5.5 x 104 6.6 x 104
Iron 13 )( 106 1.45 x 106 Copper 2.3 )( 10" 4.9 )( 104

Steel 29 x 106 23 x 106 Iron 2.4 x 1cf 4.7 )( 104
J
Ethyl Alcohol 0.16 )( 106 Annealed Steel 3.6 x 104 7.1 x 1:O
Oil 0.25 x 106 Spring Steel 6.0 )( 10� 10 x 10

4
••••-•••··----··•••••••••••·--v·•••_..,,.___
Water 0.31 x 106

Table 2.2: Elastic Limit and Ultimate Stress
Mercury 4.0 x 106 of some common materials
Table 2.1: Young's Modulus and Bulk

Modulus of some common materials
EXAMPLE:
4 2
The elastic limit for copper is 2.3 x 10 lb/in and the ultimate strength is
4 2 2
4.9 x 10 lb/in . Suppose that a copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in . A force
of ii ,500 ibs. appiied iongitudinaiiy to this rod wouid just be within the eiastic iimit. A force
of 12,000 lbs. would deform the rod in such a way that it would not return to it original size
after the force is removed. A force of 24,500 lbs. would cause the rod to rupture.

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Problems
2
1. A steel bolt with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 in and a length of 6.0" is subjected to a
force of 580 lbs. What is the increase in length of the bolt?
(Hint: Find the stress. Then use Young's Modulus of steel to find the strain. From the
strain find the extension)
3 2
2. An iron body of volume 145 in is subjected to a pressure of 500 lb/in . What is the
decrease in volume of this body?
3. A copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 in2 and a length of 24". What longitudinal
force must be applied to cause this rod to stretch by 0.0024 in?
2
4. An aluminium brace inside a wing of a plane has a cross-sectional area of 0.2 in . What
is the greatest longitudinal force that can be applied to the brace without causing the
brace to be permanently deformed?

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Answers
1. 0.0012 in.
2. 0.05 in3
3. 64 lb.
4. 3800 lb.

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Nature and Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gas

All matter exists in one of three states - solid, liquid or gas. The following notes characterize
the three states:
Solid
• The greatest forces of attraction are between the

particles in a solid and they pack together in a neat and
ordered arrangement.
• The particles are too strongly held together to allow
movement from place to place but the particles vibrate
about there position in the structure.
• With increase in temperature, the particles vibrate faster
and more strongly as they gain kinetic energy.
Figure 2.6: Atom

arrangement in a solid
The properties of a Solid
• Solids have the greatest density ('heaviest') because the particles are closest together.
• Solids cannot flow freely like gases or liquids because the particles are strongly held in
fixed positions.
• Solids have a fixed surface and volume (at a particular temperature) because of the
strong particle attraction.
• Solids are extremely difficult to compress because there is no real 'empty' space
between the particles.
• Solids will expand a little on heating but nothing like as much as liquids because of the
greater particle attraction restricting the expansion (contract on cooling). The expansion
is caused by the increased strength of particle vibration.

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Liquid
• Much greater forces of attraction between the particles in a

liquid compared to gases, but not quite as much as in solids.
• Particles quite close together but still arranged at random
throughout the container, there is a little close range order
as you can get clumps of particles clinging together
temporarily.
• Particles moving rapidly in all directions but more frequently
colliding with each other than in gases.
• With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as
they gain kinetic energy.
Figure 2.7: Atom

arrangement in a liquid
Properties of a Liquid
• Liquids have a much greater density than gases ('heavier') because the particles are
much closer together.
• Liquids flow freely despite the forces of attraction between the particles but liquids are
not as 'fluid' as gases.
• Liquids have a surface, and a fixed volume (at a particular temperature) because of the
increased particle attraction, but the shape is not fixed and is merely that of the container
itself.
• Liquids are not readily compressed because of the lack of 'empty' space between the
particles_
• Liquids will expand on heating (contract on cooling) but nothing like as much as gases
because of the greater particle attraction restricting the expansion. When heated, the
liquid particles gain kinetic energy and hit the sides of the container more frequently, and
more significantly, they hit with a greater force, so in a sealed container the pressure
produced can be considerable.

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Gas
• Almost no forces of attraction between the particles which are

completely free of each other.
• Particles widely spaced and scattered at random throughout the
container so there is no order in the system.
;. • Particles moving rapidly in all directions, frequently colliding with
• each other and the side of the container.
• With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as they
·.---,
gain kinetic energy.
Figure 2.8: Atom

arrangement in a gas
Properties of a Gas
• Gases have a low density ('light') because the particles are so spaced out in the
container (density= mass+ volume).
• Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces of attraction between the
particles.
• Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume, and because of lack of particle
attraction, they spread out and fill any container.
• Gases are readily compressed because of the 'empty' space between the particles.
• If the 'container' volume can change, gases readily expand on heating because of the
lack of particle attraction, and readily contract on cooling. On heating, gas particles gain
kinetic energy and hit the sides of the container more frequently, and more significantly,
they hit with a greater force. Depending on the container situation, either or both of the
pressure or volume will increase (reverse on cooling).
• The natural rapid and random movement of the particles means that gases readily
'spread' or diffuse. Diffusion is fastest in gases where there is more space for them to
move and the rate of diffusion increases with increase in temperature.
Module 2,2 Mechanics 2-29

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Changes of State
We can use the diagrams shown below, to explain changes of state and the energy changes
involved.
• . • GASe-·
•
.. ··-a
..
,,. .
'
-
,
. -:·-·
, . / .
I'.•.·' -···/" • ,,. ...

.
Figure 2.9: Gas to liquid transformation
Evaporation and Boiling (liquid to gas)

In evaporation and boiling the highest kinetic energy molecules can 'escape' from the attractive
forces of the other liquid particles. The particles lose any order and become completely free.
Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the liquid and is taken in from the
surroundings. This means heat is taken in (endothermic). Boiling is rapid evaporation at a fixed
temperature called the boiling point and requires continuous addition of heat. Evaporation
takes place more slowly at any temperature between the melting point and boiling point and
results in the liquid becoming cooler.
Condensing (gas to liquid)

On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and eventually become attracted together to form a
liquid. There is an increase in order as the particles are much closer together and can form
clumps of molecules. The process requires heat to be lost to the surroundings Le. heat given
out, so condensation is exothermic.
.••••• ��
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
Figure 2.10: Liquid to solid transformation
Melting (solid to liquid)

When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more strongly and the particle attractive forces are
weakened. Eventually, at the melting point, the attractive forces are too weak to hold the
structure together and the solid melts. The particles become free to move around and lose their
ordered arrangement Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces, so heat is taken in
from the surroundings and melting is an endothermic process.

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Freezing {liquid to solid)

On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy and become more strongly attracted to each
other. Eventually at the freezing point the forces of attraction are sufficient to remove any
remaining freedom and the particles come together to form the ordered solid arrangement.
Since heat must be removed to the surroundings freezing is an exothermic process.
Solid
II I)'(
..
/ /
Melt�
/
..-·
// :fieezing
/ /
/
./ ),.//
I./
.,,, // Condensing
Liquid Gas
�� --)o-
Bo iHng
Figure 2.11: Phase changes
Summary
..
• • • •
• • 1111
•
• !Jlr Ii
• $
• •
•
• • •
• •
11 •
Solid Liquid Gas
Holds Shape Shape of Container Shape of Container

Free Surface
Fixed Volume Fixed Volume Volume of Container
Figure 2.12: Solid, liquid and gas summaries

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Pressure and Force
Introduction
The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of fluids. It is essential that we
distinguish between the terms. Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull exerted
against the total area of a particular surface and is expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure
�
means the amount of push or pull (force) a plied to each unit area of the surface and is
2
expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in ) or Newtons per square meter (N/m ). Pressure
maybe exerted in one direction, in several directions, or in all directions.
Computing Force, Pressure, and Area

A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this formula,
P refers to pressure, F indicates force, andA represents area. Force equals pressure times
area. Thus, the formula is written
F=P xA
Pressure equals force divided by area. By rearranging the formula, this statement may be
condensed into
P:::: £_
A
Since area equals force divided by pressure, the formula is written
• F
A=-
p
Figure 2.13: The Pressure, Force

andArea equation finder
Figure 2.13 illustrates a memory device for recalling the different variations of this formula. Any
letter in the triangle may be expressed as the product or quotient of the other two, depending on
its position within the triangle. For example, to find area, consider the letterA as being set off to
itself, followed by an equal sign. Now look at the other two letters. The letter F is above the
letter P; therefore,

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F
A=
p
NOTE: Sometimes the area may not be expressed in square units. If the surface is rectangular,
you can determine ;ts area by multiplying its length (say, in inches) by its width (also in inches).
The majority of areas you will consider in these calculations are circular in shape. Either the
radius or the diameter may be given, but you must know the radius in inches to find the area.
The radius is one-half the diameter. To determine the area, use the formula for finding the area
of a circle. This is written A:::: nr2, where A is the area, n is 3.1416 (3.14 or 2217 for most
calculations), and r2 indicates the radius squared.
Atmospheric Pressure
Recall that the atmosphere is the entire mass of air that surrounds the earth. While it extends
upward for about 500 miles, the section of primary interest is the portion that rests on the earth's
surface and extends upward for about 7 1/2 miles. This layer is called the troposphere.
If a column of air 1-inch square extending all the way to the "top" of the atmosphere could be
weighed, this column of air would weigh approximately 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus,
atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 14.7 PSL
As one ascends, the atmospheric pressure decreases by approximately 1 .0 PSI for every 2,343
feet However, below sea level, in excavations and depressions, atmospheric pressure
increases. Pressures under water differ from those under air only because the weight of the
water must be added to the pressure of the air.
Atmospheric pressure can be measured by any of several methods. The common laboratory
method uses the mercury column barometer. The height of the mercury column serves as an
indicator of atmospheric pressure. At sea level and at a temperature of 20°Celsius (C), the
height of the mercury column is 29.92 inches, or 760 millimetres. This represents a pressure of
approximately 14.7 PSI. The 30-inch column is used as a reference standard.
Another device used to measure atmospheric pressure is the aneroid barometer. The aneroid
barometer uses the change in shape of an evacuated metal cell to measure variations in
atmospheric pressure (figure 2.14 ). The thin metal of the aneroid cell moves in or out with the
�ouHTtAl!YHH�' variation of pressure on its external surface. This
movement is transmitted through a system of levers to a
pointer, which indicates the pressure.
The atmospheric pressure does not vary uniformly with

altitude. It changes more rapidly at lower altitudes
because of the compressibility of the air, which causes
the air layers close to the earth's surface to be
compressed by the air masses above them. This effect,
however, is partially counteracted by the contraction of
the upper layers due to cooling. The cooling tends to
increase the density of the air.
Figure 2.14: Aneroid barometer

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Atmospheric pressures are quite large, but in most instances practically the same pressure is
present on all sides of obiects so that no single surface is subjected to a great load.
Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of a liquid (figure 2.15, view A) is transmitted
equally throughout the liquid to the walls of the container, but is balanced by the same
atmospheric pressure acting on the outer walls of the container. In view B of figure 2.15,
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of one piston is balanced by the same pressure
acting on the surface of the other piston. The different areas of the two surfaces make no
difference, since for a unit of area, pressures are balanced.
Transmission of Forces Through Liquids

When the end of a solid bar is struck, the main force of the blow is carried straight through the
bar to the other end (figure 2.16, view A). This happens because the bar is rigid. The direction
of the blow almost entirely determines the direction of the transmitted force.
M..t
(6 l
Figure 2.16: Forces acting on solids

and liquids
Figure 2.15: Forces acting on liquids
When a force is applied to the end of a column of confined liquid (figure 2.16, view B), it is
transmitted straight through to the other end and also equally and undiminished in every
direction throughout the column-forward, backward, and sideways-so that the containing
vessel is literally filled with pressure.
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An example of this distribution of force is illustrated in figure 2.17. The outward push of the
water is equal in every direction.
So far we have explained the effects of atmospheric pressure on

liquids and how external forces are distributed through liquids. Let
us now focus our attention on forces generated by the weight of
liquids themselves. To do this, we must first discuss density,
specific gravity, and Pascal's law_
Figure 2.17: Flat and water

filled water hoses
Pascal's Law
The foundation of modern hydraulics was established when

Pascal discovered that pressure in a fluid acts equally in all
directions. This pressure acts at right angles to the
containing surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, with an
exposed face, is placed beneath the surface of a liquid
(figure 2.18) at a specific depth and pointed in different
directions, the pressure will read the same. Thus, we can
-
_,,.._-::r--�'J
say that pressure in a liquid is independent of direction.
> _..
- � �
- ..
,. ...
·-, ·. -
.., . ,.... ,
_ y•
't" _...-....
:.�
Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any level, depends
-·� ..
.
on the depth of the fluid from the surface. If the exposed

face of the pressure gauges, are moved closer to the
. surface of the liquid, the indicated pressure will be Jess.

Figure 2.18: Pascals Law When the depth is doubled, the indicated pressure is
doubled. Thus the pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth.
Consider a container with vertical sides (fig. 2.19) that is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide. Let it be
filled with water 1 foot deep, providing 1 cubic foot of water. We learned earlier in this chapter
that 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. Using this information and the equation, P =FIA,
we can calculate the pressure on the bottom of the container.
P= £.
A
62.4 lb
= ---
1 ft2
2
=62.4 lb/ft

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Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot,
62 4
P= . = 0.433 lb/in2
144
This can be stated as follows: the weight of a column of water 1 foot high, having a cross
sectional area of 1 square inch, is 0.433 pound. If the depth of the column is tripled, the weight
of the column will be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299 pounds, and the pressure at the bottom will be 1.299
lb/in2 (PSI), since pressure equals the force divided by the area. Thus, the pressure at any
depth in a liquid is equal to the weight of the column of liquid at that depth divided by the cross
sectional area of the column at that depth. The volume of a liquid that produces the pressure is
referred to as the fluid head of the liquid. The pressure of a liquid due to its fluid head is also
dependent on the density of the liquid.
If we letA equal any cross-sectional area of a liquid column and h equal the depth of the
column, the volume becomesAh. Using the equation for density, D =Weight 0N) I Volume (V),
the weight of the liquid above areaA is equal toAhD.
W
D= =Y!._
V Ah
W=Ahd
Wah=ir wAinht= 6? 4 lb
- - - - - . . ·- ·..;.1- - ·- .. · · · - - - - .. .
Water pressure = 62.4 lb/ft2
0.433
Figure 2.19: A body of water
Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area, setA equal to 1. Then the formula pressure
becomes
P=hD

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It is essential that h and Dbe expressed in similar units. That is, if Dis expressed in pounds per
cubic foot, the value of h must be expressed in feet If the desired pressure is to be expressed
in pounds per square inch, the pressure formula, becomes
p = hd
144
Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems

Pascal was also the first to prove by experiment that the shape and volume of a container in no
way alters pressure. Thus in figure 2.19, if the pressure due to the weight of the liquid at a point
on horizontal line His 8 PSI, the pressure is 8 PSI everywhere at level Hin the system. The
equation P =F/A also shows that the pressure is independent of the shape and volume of a
container. If there is a resistance on the output piston and the input piston is pushed downward,
a pressure rs created through the fluid, which acts equally at right angles to surfaces in all parts
of the container. If force 1 is 100 pounds and the area of the input piston is 10 square inches,
then the pressure in the fluid is 10 PSI
100 lb
lO gq_ in
Figure 2.20: Hydrostatic pressure in different shaped containers

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Figure 2.21: Forces, pistons and pressure
Recall that, according to Pascal's law, any force applied to a confined fluid is transmitted in all
directions throughout the fluid.
NOTE: Fluid pressure cannot be created without resistance to flow. In this case, resistance is
provided by the equipment to which the output piston is attached. The force of resistance acts
against the top of the output piston. The pressure created in the system by the input piston
pushes on the underside of the output piston with a force of 10 pounds on each square inch.

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INPU QUTPUrf'
11$TOW ft PON
10 6C: IN. L'(I �. ltl
Figure 2.22: Pressure due to forces on pistons
In this case, the fluid column has a uniform cross section, so the area of the output piston is the
same as the area of the input piston, or 10 square inches. Therefore, the upward force on the
output piston is 100 pounds (1O PSI x 1O sq. in.), the same as the force applied to the input
piston. All that was accomplished in this system was to transmit the 100-pound force around the
bend. However, this principle underlies practically all mechanical applications of fluid power.
At this point you should note that since Pascal's law is independent of the shape of the
container, it is not necessary that the tube connecting the two pistons have the same cross
sectional area of the pistons. A connection of any size, shape, or length will do, as long as an
unobstructed passage is provided. Therefore, the system shown in figure 2.22, with a relatively
small, bent pipe connecting two cylinders, will act exactly the same as the system shown in
figure 2.21.

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The Hydraulic Ram Principle

Consider the situation in figure 2.23, where the input piston is much smaller than the output
piston. Assume that the area of the input piston is 2 square inches. With a resistant force on the
output piston a downward force of 20 pounds acting on the input piston creates a pressure 10
PSI in the fluid.
JOIQI �
:3) ....
INPuT
MtON
2 SO. IN,
QC LG vur
Figure 2.23: The hydraulic ram principle
Although this force is much smaller than the force applied in figures 2.21 and 2.22, the pressure
is the same. This is because the force is applied to a smaller area.
This pressure of 1 O PSI acts on all parts of the fluid container, including the bottom of the output
piston. The upward force on the output piston is 200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on each
square inch). In this case, the original force has been multiplied tenfold while using the same
pressure in the fluid as before. In any system with these dimensions, the ratio of output force to
input force is always ten to one, regardless of the applied force. For example, if the applied
force of the input piston is 50 pounds, the pressure in the system will be 25 PSL This will
support a resistant force of 500 pounds on the output piston.
The system works the same in reverse. If we change the applied force and place a 200-pound
force on the output piston (figure 2.23), making it the input piston, the output force on the input
piston will be one-tenth the input force, or 20 pounds. (Sometimes such results are desired.)
Therefore, if two pistons are used in a fluid power system, the force acting on each piston is
directly proportional to its area, and the magnitude of each force is the product of the pressure
and the area of each piston.

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Note the white arrows at the bottom of figure 2.23 that indicate up and down movement. The
movement they represent will be explained later in the discussion of volume and distance
factors.
Differential Areas
M:tA ---=
6 SOIN
1. PISTON 2� ROC
Figure 2.24: Pressures on unequal areas
Consider the special situation shown in figure 2.24. Here, a single piston (1) in a cylinder (2) has
a piston rod (3) attached to one of its sides. The piston rod extends out of one end of the
cylinder. Fluid under pressure is admitted equally to both ends of the cylinder. The opposed
faces of the piston (1) behave like two pistons acting against each other. The area of one face is
the full cross-sectional area of the cylinder, say 6 square inches, while the area of the other face
is the area of the cylinder minus the area of the piston rod, which is 2 square inches. This
leaves an effective area of 4 square inches on the right face of the piston. The pressure on both
faces is the same, in this case, 20 PSI. Applying the rule just stated, the force pushing the
piston to the right is its area times the pressure, or 120 pounds (20 x 6). Likewise, the force
pushing the piston to the left is its area times the pressure, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Therefore,
there is a net unbalanced force of 40 pounds acting to the right, and the piston will move in that
direction. The net effect is the same as if the piston and the cylinder had the same cross
sectional area as the piston rod_

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Volume and Distance Factors

You have learned that if a force is applied to a system and the cross-sectional areas of the input
and output pistons are equal, as in figures 2.21 and 2.22, the force on the input piston will
support an equal resistant force on the output piston. The pressure of the liquid at this point is
equal to the force applied to the input piston divided by the piston's area. Let us now look at
what happens when a force greater than the resistance is applied to the input piston.
In the system illustrated in figure 2.23, assume that the resistance force on the output piston is
100 PSI. If a force slightly greater than 100 pounds is applied to the input piston, the pressure in
the system will be slightly greater than 10 PSI. This increase in pressure will overcome the
resistance force on the output piston. Assume that the input piston is forced downward 1 inch.
The movement displaces 1 O cubic inches of fluid. The fluid must go somewhere. Since the
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the system. Because the output piston also has a cross-sectional area of 1 O square inches, it
will move 1 inch upward to accommodate the 10 cubic inches of fluid. You may generalize this
by saying that if two pistons in a closed system have equal cross-sectional areas and one piston
is pushed and moved, the other piston will move the same distance, though in the opposite
direction. This is because a decrease in volume in one part of the system is balanced by one
equal increase in volume in another part of the system.
Apply this reasoning to the system in figure 2.23. If the input piston is pushed down a distance
of 1 inch, the volume of fluid in the left cylinder will decrease by 2 cubic inches. At the same
time, the volume in the right cylinder will increase by 2 cubic inches. Since the diameter of the
right cylinder cannot change, the piston must move upward to allow the volume to increase. The
piston will move a distance equal to the volume increase divided by the surface area of the
piston (equal to the surface area of the cylinder). In this example, the piston will move one-tenth
of an inch (2 cu. in.+- 20 sq. in_)_ This leads to the second basic rule for a fluid power system
that contains two pistons: The distances the pistons move are inversely proportional to the
areas of the pistons_ Or more simply, if one piston is smaller than the other, the smaller piston
must move a greater distance than the larger piston any time the pistons move.

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Relationship between Force, Pressure, and Head

In dealing with fluids, forces are usually considered in relation to the areas over which they are
applied. As previously discussed, a force acting over a unit area is a pressure, and pressure
can alternately be stated in pounds per square inch or in terms of head, which is the vertical
height of the column of fluid whose weight would produce that pressure.
In most of the applications of fluid power, applied forces greatly outweigh all other forces, and
the fluid is entirely confined. Under these circumstances it is customary to think of the forces
involved in terms of pressures. Since the term head is encountered frequently in the study of
fluid power, it is necessary to understand what it means and how it is related to pressure and
force.
At this point you need to review some terms in general use. "Gravity head", when it is important
enough to be considered, is sometimes referred to as simply "head". The effect of atmospheric
pressure !s referred to as "atmospheric pressure". (Atmospheric pressure is frequently and
improperly referred to as suction.) Inertia effect, because it is always directly related to velocity,
is usually called "velocity head"; and friction, because it represents a loss of pressure or head, is
usually referred to as "friction head".
Static and Dynamic Factors

Gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric pressure are static factors that apply equally to fluids
at rest or in motion, while inertia and friction are dynamic factors that apply only to fluids in
motion. The mathematical sum of gravity, applied force, and atmospheric pressure is the static
pressure obtained at any one point in a fluid at any given time" Static pressure exists in addition
to any dynamic factors that may also be present at the same time.
Remember, Pascal's law states that a pressure set up in a fluid acts equally in all directions and
at right angles to the containing surfaces. This covers the situation only for fluids at rest or
practically at rest. It is true only for the factors making up static head. Obviously, when velocity
becomes a factor it must have a direction, and as previously explained, the force related to the
velocity must also have a direction, so that Pascal's law alone does not apply to the dynamic
factors of fluid power.
The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are related to the static factors. Velocity head and
friction head are obtained at the expense of static head. However, a portion of the velocity head
can always be reconverted to static head. Force, which can be produced by pressure or head
when dealing with fluids, is necessary to start a body moving if it is at rest, and is present in
some form when the motion of the body is arrested; therefore, whenever a fluid is given velocity,
some part of its original static head is used to impart this velocity, which then exists as velocity
head.
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Operation of Hydraulic Components

To transmit and control power through pressurized fluids, an arrangement of inter-connected
components is required. Such an arrangement is commonly referred to as a system. The
number and arrangement of the components vary from system to system, depending on the
particular application. In many applications, one main system supplies power to several
subsystems, which are sometimes referred to as circuits. The complete system may be a small
compact unit; more often, however, the components are located at widely separated points for
convenient control and operation of the system.
The basic components of a fluid power system are essentially the same, regardless of whether
the system uses a hydraulic or a pneumatic medium. There are five basic components used in a
system.
These basic components are as follows:
• Reservoir or receiver
• Pump or compressor
• Lines (pipe, tubing, or flexible hose)
• Directional control valve
• Actuating device
Several applications of fluid power require only a simple system; that is, a system which uses
only a few components in addition to the five basic components. A few of these applications are
presented in the following paragraphs. We will explain the operation of these systems briefly at
this time so you will know the purpose of each component and can better understand how
hydraulics is used in the operation of these systems.
Hydraulic Jack
The hydraulic jack is perhaps one of the simplest forms of a fluid power system. By moving the
handle of a small device, an individual can lift a load weighing several tons. A small initial force
exerted on the handle is transmitted by a fluid to a much larger area. To understand this better,
study figure 2.25. The small input piston has an area of 5 square inches and is directly
connected to a large cylinder with an output piston having an area of 250 square inches. The
top of this piston forms a lift platform. If a force of 25 pounds is applied to the input piston, it
produces a pressure of 5 PSI in the fluid, that is, of course, if a sufficient amount of resistant
force is acting against the top of the output piston. Disregarding friction loss, this pressure
acting on the 250 square inch area of the output piston will support a resistance force of 1,250
pounds. In other words, this pressure could overcome a force of slightly under 1,250 pounds.
An input force of 25 pounds has been transformed into a working force of more than half a ton;
however, for this to be true, the distance travelled by the input piston must be 50 times greater
than the distance travelled by the output piston. Thus, for every inch that the input piston
moves, the output piston will move only one-fiftieth of an inch.

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This would be ideal if the output

piston needed to move only a short
distance. However, in most instances,
.tZSOUIS.. the output piston would have to be
capable of moving a greater distance
to serve a practical application. The
device shown In figure 2.25 is not
29LU. capable of moving the output piston
• farther than that shown; therefore,
some other means must be used to
raise the output piston to a greater
height.
Figure 2.25: A simple hydraulic jack

!l.IS..P£R
SO.•CH----
The output piston can be raised

higher and maintained at this
height if additional components
are installed as shown in figure
2.26. In this illustration the jack is
designed so that it can be raised,
lowered, or held at a constant
height These results are attained
by introducing a number of
valves and also a reserve supply
of fluid to be used in the system.
Notice that this system contains Figure 2.26 (A): A hydraulic jack with valves
the five basic components-the
reservoir: cylinder 1, which
serves as a pump; valve 3, which
serves as a directional control
valve; cylinder 2, which serves as
the actuating device; and lines to
transmit the fluid to and from the
different components. In addition,
this system contains two valves,
1 and 2, whose functions are
explained in the following
discussion.
As the input piston is raised (fig.

2.26, view A), valve 1 is closed
by the back pressure from the Figure 2.26 (B): A hydraulic jack with valves

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weight of the output piston. At the same time, valve 2 is opened by the head of the fluid in the
reservoir. This forces fluid into cylinder 1. When the input piston is lowered (fig. 2.26, view B), a
pressure is developed in cylinder 1. When this pressure exceeds the head in the reservoir, it
closes valve 2. When it exceeds the back pressure from the output piston, it opens valve 1,
forcing fluid into the pipeline. The pressure from cylinder 1 is thus transmitted into cylinder 2,
where it acts to raise the output piston with its attached lift platform. When the input piston is
again raised, the pressure in cylinder 1 drops below that in cylinder 2, causing valve 1 to close.
This prevents the return of fluid and holds the output piston with its attached lift platform at its
new level. During this stroke, valve 2 opens again allowing a new supply of fluid into cylinder 1
for the next power (downward) stroke of the input piston. Thus, by repeated strokes of the input
piston, the lift platform can be progressively raised. To lower the lift platform, valve 3 is opened,
and the fiuld irorn cy l inder 2 Is returned to the reservoir.
Hydraulic Brakes
The hydraulic brake system used in the automobile is a multiple piston system. A multiple piston
system allows forces to be transmitted to two or more pistons in the manner indicated in figure
2.27. Note that the pressure set up by the force applied to the input piston (1) is transmitted
undiminished to both output pistons
(2 and 3), and that the resultant
force on each piston is proportional
to its area. The multiplication of
forces from the input piston to each
output piston is the same as that
explained earlier.
The hydraulic brake system from

the master cylinders to the wheel
cylinders on most automobiles
operates in a way similar to the
system illustrated in figure 2.28.
Figure 2.27: Principle of hydraulic

brake
When the brake pedal is depressed, the pressure on the brake pedal moves the piston within
the master cylinder, forcing the brake fluid from the master cylinder through the tubing and
flexible hose to the wheel cylinders. The wheel cylinders contain two opposed output pistons,
each of which is attached to a brake shoe fitted inside the brake drum.
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Figure 2.28: Hydraulic brake system
Each output piston pushes the attached brake shoe against the wall of the brake drum, thus
retarding the rotation of the wheel. When pressure on the pedal is released, the springs on the
brake shoes return the wheel cylinder pistons to their released positions. This action forces the
displaced brake fluid back through the flexible hose and tubing to the master cylinder.
The force applied to the brake pedal produces a proportional force on each of the output
pistons, which in turn apply the brake shoes frictionally to the turning wheels to retard rotation.
As previously mentioned, the hydraulic brake system on most automobiles operates in a similar
way, as shown in figure 2.28. It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss the various brake
systems.
Accumulators
An accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which hydraulic fluid is stored under pressure
from an external source. The storage of fluid under pressure serves several purposes in
hydraulic systems.
In some aircraft hydraulic systems it is necessary to maintain the system pressure within a
specific pressure range for long periods of time. It is very difficult to maintain a closed system
without some leakage, either external or internal. Even a small leak can cause a decrease in
pressure. By using an accumulator, leakage can be compensated for and the system pressure
can be maintained within an acceptable range for long periods of time.
Accumulators also damp out fluctuations in pressure due to the operation of services such as
control surfaces and landing gear. They can supply extra pressure when all the hydraulic
services are being operated at one time (flaps, control surfaces, landing gear etc.) and when the
hydraulic pump is unable to cope. They can also be used in an emergency when all other
hydraulic power pressure supplies (pumps etc) have failed. Thus a large modern aircraft can be
controlled on accumulator power alone, for up to an hour.
Accumulators also compensate for thermal expansion and contraction of the liquid due to
variations in temperature.

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P1$T� ROD ITAi LROO>

H'\'O�AULJC ()llt.
CONNECnON
TAllAOO �AL
A RAC:ICUP RINGS
PISTON SEA'- 6
l<l\CKL!P RINGS
PISTON
P''STON SI AL &;
�ACKV� l'ttHG&
OUAO-A ING 6 IACKUI'

RINGS HEAD SEAL
Figure 2.29: Hydraulic Accumulator
The accumulator consists of an air chamber, which is charged with air or nitrogen. This is
called the pre-charge pressure and is usually about 1000 PSI. This pressure is measured when
there is no hydraulic pressure. The air chamber is the under side of the piston shown in figure
2.29. With no hydraulic pressure, the air/nitrogen pressure will push the piston to the top of the
accumulator. A pressure gauge may be attached to the accumulator to indicate the air/nitrogen
pressure. When the hydraulic pumps are switched on, the hydraulic pressure (acting on top of
the piston, in opposition to the air/nitrogen pressure) begins to rise. When the hydraulic

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pressure exceeds the air/nitrogen pre-charge pressure (1000 PSI), the piston will begin to move
down and further compress the air/nitrogen pressure.
At all times that the hydraulic pressure is above the air/nitrogen pre-charge pressure of 1000
PSI, the air/nitrogen and the hydraulic pressures are equal. Thus when the hydraulic pressure
has reached its working level of 3000 PSI, the air/nitrogen pressure is also 3000 PSI.
It is the additional pressure supplied to the air/nitrogen by the hydraulic pressure, which can be
used to feed back the pressure to the hydraulic fluid if the hydraulic fluid pressure falls below
that of the air/nitrogen. However, when the air/nitrogen gauge indicates 1000 PSI, the hydraulic
pressure is zero, since the air/nitrogen has expanded back to its original pre-charge pressure.

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Problems
1. Calculate the pressure on a gas when a force of 3100 N is exerted on a piston of

diameter 2 cm
2. Calculate the force exerted when a pressure of 1 bar acts on a piston of diameter
8 cm which has a piston rod of diameter 2 cm taking some of the piston area.
3.
The piston face area in the hydraulic jack shown above is 0.3 sq.in. The rod cross
sectional area is 0.1 sq.in. Calculate the force and direction the ram rod will move if
a pressure of 12 PSI enters equally into both sides of the cylinder chamber.
4. A brake master cylinder has a piston diameter of 0.4 ins. It feeds pressure to 4
identical wheel cylinders, each having just one piston of diameter 2 ins. What is the
force on one wheel brake when the driver applies a force of 80 lbs to the master
cylinder?
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.... � +.t""\, cnn DC-1
. Th,.... h, :rrlr4'"'U t:li,... ....... U"VU'"' i�
v. T""\1 1 11yu1a.u11v ClvvUlllUICHVI I., VllGlbfvU Y..llll lllllV�vll lV vvv I >.JI. l llv 1 1yu1au11v tJUllll-' I.,
then switched on and it feeds 3000 PSI to the other side of the accumulator piston.
What will be the new pressure on the nitrogen side of the accumulator?

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Answers
1. 10 MPa
2. 450 N
3. 1.2 lbs, right
4. 2000 lbs
5. 3000 PSI

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Barometers
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It can measure the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury.
Mercury barometers
A standard mercury barometer has a glass tube of
about 30 inches {about 76 cm) in height, closed at
+..-Vacuum
one end, with an open mercury-filled reservoir at
the base. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the i.---....i +--- 29. 92 in. (76. cm)
weight of the mercury column balances the Height of qot.utr.In
airnospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High
atmospheric pressure places more force on the
t
reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column.
Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a t
lower level in the column by lowering the force
placed on the reservoir.
Since higher temperature at the instrument will

reduce the density of the mercury the scale for
reading the height of the mercury is adjusted to
compensate for this effect.
The standard temperature for reading a mercury

barometer is 0°C (32°F). A correction factor is
read from a graph and applied to the reading Figure 2.30: Mercury Barometer
for temperatures above 0°C. The barometer
over-reads at higher temperatures.
The mercury barometer's design gives rise to the expression of atmospheric pressure in inches
or millimetres: the pressure is quoted as the level of the mercury's height in the vertical column.
1 atmosphere is equivalent to about 29.9 inches, or 760 millimetres, of mercury Barometers of
this type normally measure atmospheric pressures between 28 and 31 inches of mercury.
The reading from a barometer (in mm.hg or in.hg) can be converted into Pascals or PSI by
using the formula
Pressure= pgh {if using Metric units)
Or
Pressure = ph (if using English units}
Where:
Pressure= the converted pressure (Pa or PSI)

3 3
p =density of the mercury (13,600 kg/m or 62.4 lbf. ./ft )
h =height of mercury (m or ft)

2-55
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Aneroid barometers
An aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal

vacuum chamber called an aneroid cell. This aneroid
capsule (cell) Is made from an alloy of beryllium and
copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually more
capsules) is prevented from collapsing by a strong
spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause
the cell to expand or contract This expansion and
contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny
lever movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed
on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models
include a manually set needle which is used to mark
the current measurement so a change can be seen. In
addition, the mechanism is made deliberately 'stiff' so
that tapping the barometer reveals whether the
pressure is rising or falling as the pointer moves. They
Figure 2.31: Aneroid barometer
are used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

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Buoyancy
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who lived about 250BC. There is a
story (maybe even true) about Archimedes that every physics student should hear. It goes as
follows:
The king who ruled Greece at that time asked his royal metalworkers to make him a gold
crown. When the crown was delivered it was indeed beautiful. However, the king suspected
that the crown was not pure gold. He did not want to destroy the crown but he wanted to know
if he had been cheated. What he needed was some type of non-destructive evaluation (NDE
dates back many years!). He asked Archimedes to solve his problem. Archimedes pondered
the question. The density (mass/volume) of gold was well known. He knew of course how to
determine the weight and mass of the crown by simple weighing. However, since the crown
did not have a regular shape it was impossible to determine the volume by a mathematical
calculation. The solution came to Archimedes one day when his servant filled his bathtub too
full. As Archimedes stepped into his bath, he noticed that a volume of water equal to his
volume overflowed! With a flash of insight he ran through Athens, stark naked, shouting
"Eureka, Eureka, I have the solution!" The experiment was performed, the king was notified
that his crown was not pure gold and the royal metal workers lost their lives.
The point of the above story is that a body submerged in a liquid displaces a volume of water
equal to its own volume. A corollary is that a body that floats in a liquid displaces a volume of
liquid less than its volume since some portion of the body is above the water level.
Archimedes' principle, states that a body

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid. The principle
applies to both floating and submerged bodies and
I to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases. It explains not
'
I I I I
0- I only the buoyancy of ships and other vessels in
- ---,-�____,
__. t-j: :��i__�
I
I I I
'f
1 I
water but also the rise of a balloon in the air and the
apparent loss of weight of objects underwater.
• -�
- -
A I/ I
- -,•
In determining whether a given body will float in a
- i I / 1
1--4:---..f-1 given fluid, both weight and volume must be
I 1I I l I
- +-h 1 -1 ,
considered; that is, the relative density, or weight
-!+-r-----r- per unit of volume, of the body compared to the fluid
--'- ----!-1l )----t--
>- :--
/ L_/ -
·
determines the buoyant force. If the body is less
� 1 l.L.. A-I/-
/ it'( ---- �
dense than the fluid, it will float or. in the case of a
balloon. it will rise. If the body is denser than the
fluid, it will sink.
Figure 2.32: Archimedes' principle
Relative density also detennines the proportion of a floating body that will be submerged in a
fluid. If the body is two thirds as dense as the fluid, then two thirds of its volume will be

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submerged, displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the entire
weight of the body.
In the case of a submerged body, the apparent weight of the body is equal to its weight in air
less the weight of an equal volume of fluid. The fluid most often encountered in applications of
Archimedes' principle is water, and the specific gravity of a substance is a convenient
measure of its relative density compared to water.
In calculating the buoyant force on a body, however, one must also take into account the shape
and position of the body. A steel rowboat placed on end into the water will sink because the
density of steel is much greater than that of water. However, in its normal, keel-down position,
the effective volume of the boat includes all the air inside it, so that its average density is then
less than that of water, and as a result it will float.
Archimedes' Principle Applied to Bodies that Float

A body will float in any liquid that has a weight density greater than the weight density of the
3
body. For example a body of weight density 63.4 lbs./ft. would float in ocean water (D = 64 .4
3 3
lbs./ft. ) and sink in lake water (D = 62.4 lbs./ft. ).
When bodies float they can float "high" or float "low''. The ratio of the weight density of the
floating body relative to the weight density of the liquid determines exactly how high or low a
body will float.
In order to understand Archimedes' Principle as applied to floating bodies, let us consider a

3 3
submarine and imagine that a block of wood of weight density 48.3 lbs./ft. and volume 2 ft. is
thrust out of the hatch of a submarine into the ocean water. We know intuitively that this block of
wood will rise to the ocean surface.
3 3
The weight of the block is (48.3 lbs./ft. ) (2 ft. ) = 96.6 lbs. As long as the block is below the
3
water surface (while it is rising to the top), it displaces 2 ft. of ocean water.
We know that:
- - - -i - - :- - - -
· ---.- I -
I
-r --- � BF = weight of displaced ocean water
- - -
I
-· -
I
- ,_ - --
'" -- -- - -----' 3 3
= (64.4 lbs./ft. ) (2 ft. )
BF = 128.8 lbs.
Figure 2.33: Archimedes' principle
We can see why the block rises. How far will the block rise? it will rise until the BF exactly
equals its weight. In our example it will rise until the BF has been reduced to 96.6 lbs. (the
weight of the block). The BF will be reduced as the block emerges from the water. In our
example, it will rise until 25% of the block's volume is above the water surface. It follows that
3 3
75% of 2 ft. (= 1.5 ft. } will be below the water surface. When this occurs. the BF on the block
3
is (64.4 lbs./ft. )(1.5 ft.3} equals 96.6 lbs. Note again that the BF equals the weight of the block
while the block is floating.

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3
In the preceding example, note that the ratio of the weight density of the block (48.3 lbs./ft. ) to
3
the weight density of the ocean water (64.4 lbs./ft. ) was 0. 75. We recall that 75% of the floating
block was under water. This .is generally true and makes a much easier procedure to determine
how low a block will float in a given liquid.
In dealing with bodies that float, it is important to

note that boats, made of materials more dense
than water, are shaped in such a way that the total
weight density is less than water. In order to
understand this, consider the rowing boat with con
tents {people, lunch, fishing gear, etc.) shown in
figure 2.34. Note that some of the boat (shown with
dotted lines) is below the water surface. Suppose
that the row boat floats in such a way that it
displaces 8 cu ft. of lake water. The weight of the
3
displaced water is 8 ft (62.4 lbs./ft. ) or 499 lbs.
Therefore, the BF is 499 lbs_ The boat and
contents must weigh 499 lbs. to float at this level If
the boat weighs 150 lbs. the contents must weigh 349 lbs.
This is realistic (father 200 lbs., son 75 lbs., lunch 25 lbs., fishing gear 49 lbs.).
One final comment should be made regarding submarines. Submarines cruising at a definite
depth in ocean water have a total weight density equal to the weight density of ocean water,
3
64.4 lbs./ft. This means that the total weight of the submarine (metal shell, air, crew, load,
3
ballast, etc.} divided by the total volume is 64.4 lbs./ft. The ballast used in submarines is
ocean water. These vessels can take on water or pump out water. If the submarine wants to
descend, it takes on water. If it wants to rise toward the surface it pumps out water.
EXAMPLE:
3 3
A block of oak (D = 45 lbs./ft. ) is placed in a tank of benzene (D = 54.9 lbs /ft. ). The oak
floats since its weight density is less that the weight density of the benzene. What percentage
of the oak will be below the surface of the benzene?
We find the ratio of the two weight densities.
45 lbs./ft3
= 0_82
54.9 lbs / ft3
We conclude that 82% of the oak block will be below the surface of the benzene.

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Archimedes' Principles as Applied to Airships and Balloons

In all of the above materials, we have talked about Archimedes' principle as if it applied only to
liquids. Since most of our experience with this principle is with liquids, it seemed easier to do
this at first. However, it must now be emphasized that buoyant forces exist also with gases.
The obvious example is that of a hot air balloon or a lighter-than-air aircraft.
EXAMPLE:
The bag of a balloon is a sphere of radius 25 m filled with hydrogen of weight density 0.882
N/rn3. What total weight (in Newtons) of fabric, car, and contents can be lifted by this balloon
in air of weight density 12.6 N/rn3?
We first calculate the volume of the spherical balloon by recalling that the volume of a sphere
is given by:
V = � n R3 = � (3.1416)(25 m)3 = 65,450 m3
The weight of the hydrogen is found from the formula D V = w:
(0.882 N/m3) (65,450 m3) = 57,700 N.
The weight of the displaced air is:
(12.6 N/rn3) (65,450 m3) = 824,700 N.
Since the weight of the displaced air is the BF we can say that
BF= 824,700 N
This BF must hold up the hydrogen, fabric, car, and contents. It follows that fabric, car, and
contents weighing 767,000 N can be lifted by this balloon. Note that this number was obtained
by subtracting 57,700 N from 824,700 N.
Usually balloons are not filled with hydrogen since hydrogen is explosive. Of course, since
hydrogen is the lightest of all gases it is the most efficient. However, the danger of ex losion p
outweighs this advantage. The next lightest gas is helium of weight density 1. 74 N/rn .
Usually, balloons are filled with this gas.

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WEIGHT DENSmES AT 68°F
N/m3 LBS./FT.3
LIQUIOS
wnr 91807 12.4
Ocean Weter 10,100 64.4
Benzene 8,620 54.9
Carbon Tetrachloride 15.630 99.5
Ethyl Alcohol 7.740 49.3
Gaaollne 6,670 42.5
Keronne 1,850 49.9
Lubricating OH B,830 56.2

Methyl Alcohoi '1,no 49.4
Sulfurtc Acid, 100% 17,960 114.3
Turpen11ne 8,560 54.i

I
SOLID METALS
Aluminum 26,500 169
Cast Iron 70,600 449

Copper 87,200 SSS
Gold 189,300 1,205
Lead 111,200 708

Magnesium 17.100 109
Nickel 8UOO 553

Sliver 163,000 656
Steel 76.500 487
Tungaten 186.000 1,190
Zmc 10,000 446
SreN or Bronze 85.300 543

NONMETAL.UC SOLIDS
lctt 9,040 57.5
Concrete 22,600 144

Earth, Packed 14.100 94
Glau 2S.SOO 160

Granite 26,SOO 189
WOODS
Balsa 1�210 8
P!ne 4,700 30
Maple 6.300 40
Oak 7,100 41
Table 2.3: Weight densities for common
Module 2_2 Mechanics 2-61

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Problems
1. A solid aluminium object of volume 250 ft3 is resting on the ocean floor. A salvage crew
plans to raise this object. What force will be needed?
2. A solid steel body of volume 125 ft3 is to be raised by a salvaging crew to the surface of a
lake. What force will be needed?
3. What percentage of an iceberg is below the surface of the ocean?
4. A canoe is floating in such a way that it displaces 6 cu.ft of lake water. If the canoe
weighs 100 lbs., what is the weight of its contents?
5. A balloon is spherical in shape and has a radius of 20 ft. It is filled with helium (weight
density 0.01 lb/ft3) and is floating in air (weight density 0.08 lb/ft3). What is the weight of
the balloon (fabric, crew and contents etc.)?

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Answers
1. 26,200 lbs.
2. 53,100 lbs
3. 89%
4. 2741bs
5. 22401bs

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Kinetics
Linear Motion
When a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed it is not accelerating. We say, in
this case, that it is moving with constant velocity. If a body's velocity is not constant, it is
accelerating. A body accelerates if it is changing its speed and/or its direction.
When we discuss a body's straight-line motion, then we do not have any change in direction. In
this special case, any acceleration is due to a change in speed.
The Equations of Motion

In all of the following discussion, certain symbols will be used. These symbols are summarized
below:
Vav= average velocity

t =time
u = initial velocity
v == final velocity
a = acceleration
*
s = distance covered
*
Note that 's' is the traditional notation for distance in almost all physics textbooks. This
choice reduces confusion with the symbol d for derivative, a concept from calculus.
There is a formula dealing with the motion of a body that you have used for many years. In
school, you probably memorized the formula in these words:
distance= rate (or speed) x time
Using our above symbols, we could write:
(1)
Note that for the rate, we have used the average speed. We all know that even though
sometimes speed changes, we can always talk about the average speed. Thus, if we travel at
an average speed of 50 MPH for 6 hours, we cover 300 miles.
Now we must extend our treatment of motion to include the concept of acceleration.
Acceleration (for straight-line motion) is the rate of change of speed in time. We define
acceleration (for straight-line motion) in the following manner:
v -ii
(2) a= --
In using this formula, a may be either positive or negative. If v is less than u, then our value of a
turns out to be a negative number.

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EXAMPLE:
A truck is initially travelling at a speed of 50 ft./sec. The driver applies his brakes for 15 sec.
The final speed of the car is 20 ft./sec. What is the acceleration?
20 ft/ sec- 50 ft I sec

a=
--
--
15 sec
-30 ft/sec
a= -----
15 sec
-2 ft/sec
a= = -2 ft/sec/sec
sec
2
a = -2 ft/sec
Notice that the unit of acceleration has the square of a time unit in its denominator.
A little thought will convince you that an acceleration is positive if the body is increasing speed
and negative when the body is decreasing its speed. If we cross-multiply in formula (2) we
obtain:
at= v - u
After transposing, we can write:
(3) v = u +at
If an automobile is on an expressway and the driver is increasing speed smoothly and regularly,
we note that his average speed is the average of his initial and final speed.
The equation can be written:
u+v
Vav =
2
If this value of Vav is substituted into equation (1) we have: ,
u+v
(4) S= t
2
In this equation. we can substitute for v (= u + at) using the value in equation (3).
u + (u + at) 2u +at
s= t = t
2 2

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After a bit of algebra, we obtain:
(5) s = ut + 1/z at2
Equation (4) can be written, after cross-multiplication:
2s = (u + v)t
We can now multiply this equation by equation (2). After cancelling time (t) on the right:
2as = (v - u) (v + u)
2 2
or 2as = v - u
The final form of this formula is:
2
(6) v = u2 + 2as
These equations are very important. They enable us to deal with all kinds of motion problems
where the body is in straight line motion and is changing its speed. These formulas will be
summarized below. They will be numbered with Roman numerals and can be referred to by
these numbers when used in the problem exercises.
u
I. S= +vt
2
II.
v = u +at
iii. s = ut+ %at2
2
IV. v = u2 + 2as
When a body in straight line motion is not changing speed, or in cases where we are interested
only in the average speed, the formula is more simple.
S = Vavt
Formulas i through iv are used in many practical physics problems. Note that each one involves
four quantities. When a problem is given to you to solve, be sure to determine which of these
three quantities are given to you, and which quantity is to be found. Choose the formula which
involves these four quantities. If the formula is not solved for the unknown quantity, solve for this
quantity algebraically. Finally substitute the known quantities and solve for the unknown
quantity.
An example should clarify the above procedure.

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-
EXAMPLE:
An automobile has an initial speed of 50 ft./sec. and a final speed of 75 ft/sec. While it is
undergoing this change of speed, it travels a distance of 125 ft. What is its acceleration?
In attacking this problem it is wise to write down exactly what is known and what is unknown.
u = 50 ft./sec. V = 75 ft/sec.
S= 125ft. a= ?
Formula iv involves these four quantities. Note that i, ii, and ill do not involve these exact four
quantities. Formula iv is the one to use. First it should be solved for the unknown, a.
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 - u2 = 2as
v2 -u2
a= ---
2s
(75 ft/ sec)2 -(50 ft/ sec)2

a= ------
2 (125ft)
3125 ft2 I sec2 ft2 1

a= ------ = 12. 5 -- -··
250 ft sec2 ft
a= 12.5 ft/sec2
Accelerated Motion of a "Freely Falling" Body

Common experience indicates that falling bodies accelerate or increase in speed as they fall.
Close to the surface of the earth this "acceleration of a freely falling body" has been measured
to be about 32 ft./sec. 2 in the English system and 9.8 m/sec. 2 in the metric system. The "about"
in the preceding sentence indicates that this quantity varies somewhat over the face of our
earth. The values given are average values.
When we use the words "freely falling", we mean that we are neglecting the effects of air
resistance (as if we were in a vacuum). Of course. there is always air resistance, so how can we
neglect it?
When a body is falling with a great speed, air resistance can certainly not be neglected. To use
the acceleration formulas in these cases wouid give us results ihat are not valid. However, if a
body is falling close to the surface of the earth, the acceleration formulas do give us valid results
if the height from which it falls is not too great.

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Some numerical data should clarify the preceding statements. If a compact body, such as a
stone, is dropped (not thrown) from a height of 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, it will take
about 4.5 sec. for the body to reach the ground. It will have obtained a speed of 144 ft/sec. (98
MPH). At this speed, the effects of air resistance are still quite negligible. Above this speed (98
MPH), the effects of air resistance are not negligible.
Therefore, we can conclude that the fall of a body from a height of 324 ft. or less (or equivalently
during a time of 4.5 sec. or less) can be handled quite accurately with the ordinary acceleration
2 2
formulas. The value of the acceleration will be either 9.8 m/sec or 32 ft./sec if the body is rising
2
and therefore decreasing its speed the values of the acceleration will be 9.8 m/sec or - 32
ft/sec
2
-
If a body falls from a height greater than about 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, the air re
sistance becomes very important. As we have said, a height of 324 ft. corresponds to a fall of
4.5 sec. When the time of fall increases to about8 seconds, the speed of fall has increased to
about 115 MPH. When the time of fall is between 4.5 sec. and 8 sec. the speed increases in a
non-linear manner from 98 MPH to 115 MPH. As the time of fall increases beyond 8 seconds
the speed of fall remains constant at about 115 MPH. This speed of fall is called the "terminal
velocity".
All of the above data indicates that it is possible to use the acceleration formulas with accurate
results for many applications dealing with falling bodies. We will limit our applications to cases
where the formulas are valid: heights less than 324 ft. and times of fall less than 4.5 seconds.
EXAMPLE
A body started from rest and has been falling freely for 3 sec. At what speed is it falling?
u = o , t = 3 sec '
a =
2
32 ft/sec , v = ?
We will use Formula ii.
v = u +at
v = O+ (
32 �
sec
)(3sec)
v = 96 ft/sec

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EXAMPLE
A body started at rest and has been falling freely for 3 sec. How far has it fallen?
u= 0, t = 3 sec, a = 32 ft/sec2, s= ?
We will use Formula iii.
s = ut+ %at2
s= (0)(3 sec)+ ( )
! 32 !!_ (3 sec)2
2
··
sec2
s = 144 ft
EXAMPLE:
A body is thrown upward with an initial speed of 120 ft./sec. How high does it rise?
u= 120 ft/sec, v= 0, a= -32 ft/sec2, s =?
We will use Formula iv.

v2= u2+ 2as
S= ---
v2 -u2
2 a
S= -------
0-(120 ft/ sec)2
2 (-32 ft/ sec2)
sec2
s= 225 ___!f_
sec2 ft
s= 225 ft.

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Problems
2
1. A car on the motorway is accelerating at 25ft/sec . If it started from rest and has been
accelerating for 5 sec., how far has it travelled during this time of acceleration?
2
2. A truck had an initial velocity of 40tusec. It accelerated at 1Oft/sec and reached a final
velocity of 60ft/sec. How far did this truck travel while it was accelerating?
3. A car slowed down from 80 ft/sec. to 40 tusec. while travelling a distance of 100 ft. What
was its acceleration?
2
4. A car, originally travelling at 25 ft/sec, increases its speed at a rate of 5 ft/sec for a
period of 6 sec. What was its final speed?
2
5. A car has an initial velocity of 40 ft/sec. It slows down at a rate of 5 ft/sec and covers a
distance of 60 ft. while slowing down. What is its final velocity?
6. A stone is dropped from a high building and falls freely for 4 sec. How far (in meters) has
it fallen during this time?
7. A stone is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 64 tusec. How high does it rise?
8. A ball is dropped from a bridge into the river below and 2.5 sec. after the ball is dropped
a splash is heard in the water below. How high is the bridge?
9. A car starts with an initial velocity of 30 fUsec. and accelerates for 5 sec. at
2
4 ft/sec . How far has it travelled during this time?
10. A Cessna Agcarryall has a take-off run of 900 feet, at the end of which its speed is 80
MPH. How much time does the run take?
(Hint: convert MPH to ft./sec. first)
11. A Grumman Tomcat, powered by two Pratt & Whitney turbofan engines, has a maximum
2
acceleration during take-off of 20 ft/sec . What velocity can it achieve by the end of a
1000 foot take-off run?

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Answers
1. 312 ft.
2. 100 ft.
3. -24 ft/sec2
4. 55ft/sec.
5. 32 fUsec.
6. 78m
7. 64 ft.
8. 100 ft. or 30.6m
9. 200 ft
10. 15 sec.
11. 200 ft/sec

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Rotational Motion
Introduction
Previously we discussed constant speed and accelerated motion in a straight line and derived
four important formulas which will be reviewed below. In this chapter we will consider motion
which takes place on a circular path. Such motion is very common in our complex society and
we need to understand more about motion in curved paths.
Degrees and Radians

Before we begin our discussion, we need to define a new unit for measuring angles, the radian
(see figure 2.35).
A radian is defined as the central angle subtending a length of arc equal to the radius of the
circle.
A radian is approximately equal to 57.3°. The conve rsion factors for angle units are:
1 revolution= 360°
1 revolution = 2n radians
2n radians= 360°
1 radian= 57.3°
Now let us consider a body (represented by a point)

moving in a circular path. An initial reference line is
shown in figure 2.36. As the point moves about the
circle in a counter-clockwise sense, a line drawn
between the point and the centre of the circle
continuously sweeps out an angle. This angle can be
measured in revolutions, radians or degrees. We call
this angle the angular displacement of the point and
use the Greek letter theta (0) to represent this angular
//
displacement. "--.._
__ _,.....
Figure 2.35
If the point moves with constant speed it also has a constant angular velocity. That is, the line
drawn from the point to the centre of the circle sweeps out a definite number of revolutions,
radians, or degrees each second or minute. The symbol used to represent angular velocity is
the Greek letter omega (m).
Angular velocity can be expressed in different units, such as,
radians rev. degrees

sec. sec. sec.

min. min .. mm.

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It is also possible that the point is not moving with constant angular velocity. It may be
increasing or decreasing its angular velocity. When a CD starts rotating in a CD drive the
angular velocity increases until it reaches a constant value. After the reject button is pushed the
angular velocity decreases until the CD comes to rest.
In both of the above cases we say that the point has an angular acceleration. The Greek letter
alpha (a.) is used for angular acceleration. Note that a is positive if the angular velocity is
increasing and negative if the angular velocity is decreasing.
Angular acceleration can also be expressed in different units,

--
sec.2 sec.2 sec.2

min.2 min.2 min.2
Now as a body moves in a circular path four similar

equations hold as in the case of a body moving in a
straight-line path. Both sets of equations will be shown
below. It is important to re-memorize the equations for
straight-line motion. In this way the other four equations will
also be known, since they are exactly analogous.
R
Figure 2.36: A point moving in a circle
u+ v
s= t
2
V=U+at W2 = C01 + at
s = ut + �at2 e = ro1 t + � at2
v2 = u2 +2as roi.2 = ro1

2
+2a0
Study these equations carefully and note that the set to the right, the "rotational analogy'' are
easily remembered if the left set is well known. We recall that the subscripts nu" and "vn indicate
"initial" and "final".
These four rotational equations help us to solve many practical problems dealing with rotating ·
bodies.

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EXAMPLE:
A rotating machine part increases in angular velocity from 3 rev./min. to 35 rev./min. In 3.5
minutes. What is its angular acceleration?
We use the following equation and solve it for a.
0>2 == C01 + at
OJ2 - OJ1
--- =a
t
We now substitute our known vaiues.
a=
35 rev / min -3 rev / min
3.5min
==
·---------- �---· ------ ------·--..

9.
14
rev / mm.
2
I
]
EXAMPLE: l
A propeller starts from an angular velocity of 900 revJmin. and accelerates at 100
2
I
rev./min. for 5 minutes. Through how many revolutions has it turned?
2 2
e = (900 rev./min.)(5 min)+% (100 rev./min. )(5 min.}
o = 5,750 revolutions
EXAMPLE:
2
A propeller starts at 1,000 rev./min. and accelerates at 100 rev.lmin. through 2,000
revolutions. What is its final angular velocity?
2 2
0022 = (1,000 rev./min.) +2 (100 rev./min. )(2,000 rev.)
eoi = 1.180 rev./min.

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We note that there is an acceleration of the body "in the

path", called the tangentiat acceleration. The body is
increasing or decreasing its speed, or traversing the circle.
We recall also that when a body moves in a circle there is
2
also a centripetal acceleration, V /R, that is always
directed toward the centre of the circular path.
Thus when a body is increasing speed as it moves in a •
circular path there are two acceleration vectors, one

tangential to the path, and the other directed to the centre
of the path (centripetal acceleration ). In figure 2.37, the
body is increasing speed in the counter-clockwise sense.
The directions of the two acceleration vectors are shown.
Figure 2.37: Tangential

acceleration (a1) and Centripetal
acceleration (ac)
Radian Measure
In figure 2.38, 's' is the length along the path. We would like to relate this distance to the size of
the central angle (6) and the radius (R) of the circular path. In our preceding discussion, the
angle (0) was measured in any of three different units, degrees, revolutions, or radians.
Figure 2.38: s, Rand e
The equation that relates s to e and Ris a very simple one if we limit the angular unit to radians.
This equation is:
S =Re
We see that this equation is true if we look at figure 2.38. We note, by measuring, that the
equation is satisfied. We also see that it would not be true if the angle e was in revolutions or
degrees
We now have a new problem to deal with in our treatment of rotational motion. There is a limit to
the units that may be used in this equation. We repeat that, for this equation, we must use
radian measure. Also, any equation that is derived from s =Re will have this same restriction.

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Suppose that a body moves a small distance along the path and sweeps out a small central
angle.
The usual mathematical notation for a very small quantity is the use of the Greek letter Delta
(11).
!is= R 110
Let us divide both sides of this equation by the time, (!it) during which the motion occurred.
We can write:
v=Rm
If this velocity in the path is changing. there is also a change in the angular velocity. Assume
that this change occurs in the small time interval (!it).
We can write:
!iv= R !iro
Next we divide left and right members by !it.
The tangential acceleration (a) in the left side is the rate at which a body moving in a circular
path is picking up speed in the path. It is equal to the radius times the angular acceleration (a).
We can write:
a=Ra
Let us summarize the three important equations we have derived:
s=Re
v=Rm
a=Ra
All three of these equations require the use of radian measure. This means that:
e must be in radians
ro must be in rad/min. or rad./sec.
2 2
a must be in rad./min or rad./sec
Note that the radian is called a "dimensionless" unit. We put it in or take it out for clarity.

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EXAMPLES:
A car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 150 ft. It sweeps out an angle of 2000.
How far has i t travelled?
We note that:
6.28 rads. 9
3.4
_
.o = 2000 x rads.
_
u
360°
s=R0
s = (150 ft.) (3.49 rad.)
s = 523 ft.
3.36 rev./min.
EXAMPLE:
A race car is travelling at a speed of 176 ft./sec. (120 MPH) around a circular racetrack of
radius 500 ft. What is the angular velocity of this car in rev./min.?
Use the equation:

v = Rro
v 176 ft.I sec.

or (!)= · - ·
R 500 ft
ro = 0.352 rad.Isac.
Note that we knew that the unit of our answer is rad./sec. and not rev./sec. since the
equation we used always is in radian measure. The units in the right side of the second
equation above actually come out as "nothing"/sec. We put in the radian unit in the
numerator for clarity.
in order to find our answer in rev./min. we use the proper conversion factors.
0.352 rad./sec .x60 sec.

ro= = 3 36• rev./mm.
.
6.28 rad.

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EXAMPLE:
A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 4,000 ft. It is increasing its speed at
2 2
a rate of 15 ft./sec. What is its angular acceleration rev./sec. ?
We use the equation:
a=Ra
2
- a - 15 ft / sec
a- ----
R 4,000 ft
2
a= 0.00375 rad./sec.
2
We note that the unit is rad./sec. because the equation that we have used requires radian I
measure. ,
2
To obtain a in rev./sec. , we must use the standard conversion factor. i
O.00375 rad I sec 2
a=
--
--
6.28 rad.
a= 0.000597 rev./sec.2

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Problems
2
1. A propeller starts from rest and accelerates at 120 rev/sec for 4 seconds. What is its
final angular velocity in rev/sec? In rev/min?
2
2. A rotating turntable starts from rest and accelerates at 5 rev/min for 3 min. Through how
many revolutions has it turned?
3. A helicopter main rotor starts from an initial angular velocity of 2 rev/min and accelerates
at 60 rev/min2 while turning through 400 revolutions. What is its final angular velocity?
4. A p!ane is circling O'Hare in a circular pattern of radius 15,000 ft. !t sweeps out an angle
of 340°? How far has it travelled?
5. A plane is circling an airport in a circle of radius 5,000 ft. How far has it travelled after 4
revolutions?
6. A race car is moving on a circular track of radius 600 ft. It is travelling at a speed of 100
fUs. What is its angular velocity in rev/min?
7. A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 800 ft. It is accelerating at a rate of
2 2
10 ft/sec What is its angular acceleration in rev/sec ?
8. A helicopter tail rotor starts with an initial angular velocity of 15 rev/sec and decelerates
2
at a rate of 2.00 rev/sec until it comes to rest. Through how many revolutions has the
rotor turned while it comes to rest?

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,
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Answers
1. 480 rev/sec. 28,800 rev/min.
2. 22.5 rev.
3. 219 rev/min.
4. 89,000 ft.
5. 23.8 miles
6. 1/6 rad/s, 5/n rev/min
2
7. 1/1607t rev/sec
8. 56.3 rev.

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Periodic Motion
Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is one which can be considered to be a point mass
suspended from a string or rod of negligible mass. It is a resonant system with
a single resonant frequency. For small amplitudes, the period of such a
pendulum can be approximated by:
Where: L=the length of the pendulum is m, or ft

g=the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity=9.81
2 2
m/s or 32 ft/s
Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the mass of the

pendulum, and of the amount of initial displacement
Figure 2.39: A simple

pendulum
This expression for period is reasonably accurate for angles of a few degrees, but the treatment
of the large amplitude pendulum is much more complex
It is interesting to note that the pendulum will oscillate at only one frequency, regardless of how
far the pendulum is initially displaced, or for how long the pendulum is left to oscillate. The only
factor that changes, is the linear velocity of the mass. This fixed frequency is known as the
Natural Frequency of Oscillation.
If we consider only the horizontal motion of the mass and neglect its vertical motion as it swings
(an assumption which can be made if the string is long compared to the amplitude of swing),
then the periodic motion is said to be Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
Time period (T) and frequency (f) can also be related to each other by the formulae:
1 1
T = - or f = -
f T

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Mass and Spring

When a mass is acted upon by an elastic force which tends to bring it back to its equilibrium
position, and when that force is proportional to the distance from equilibrium (e.g., doubles
when the distance from equilibrium doubles - a Hooke's Law force), then the object will undergo
periodic motion when released.
A mass on a spring is the standard
example of such periodic motion. If
the displacement of the mass is
plotted as a function of time, it will
trace out a pure sine wave.
time
.
The motion of the medium in a
.
-
travelling wave is also simple

harmonic motion as the wave
passes a given point in the medium.
Figure 2.40: Sinusoidal motion of a spring/mass system
It is interesting to note that the spring/mass system will oscillate at

only one frequency, regardless of how far the mass is initially displaced, or for how long the
system is left to oscillate. The only factor that changes, is the linear velocity of the mass. The
fixed frequency is known as the Natural Frequency of Oscillation, and can be calculated from
the formula:
Where: k =the stiffness of the spring in Nim, or lb/in

m =the mass of the oscillating body
Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the magnitude of gravity, and of
the amount of initial displacement
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
What is SHM
Motion which repeats itself precisely and can be described with the following terms:
• Period: the time required to complete a full cycle, T in seconds.

• Frequency: the number of cycles per second, f in Hertz (Hz)
• Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium, A
and if the periodic motion is in the form of a travelling wave, one needs also
• Velocity of propagation: v
• Wavelength: repeat distance of wave, A.

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Simple harmonic motion is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator (such as a pendulum or
spring/mass system), a motion that is neither driven nor damped. The motion is periodic, as it
repeats itself at standard intervals in a specific manner - described as being sinusoidal, with
constant amplitude_ It is characterized by its amplitude, its period which is the time for a single
oscillation, its frequency which is the number of cycles per second, and its phase, which
determines the starting point on the sine wave. The period, and its inverse the frequency, are
constants determined by the overall system, while the amplitude and phase are determined by
the initial conditions (position and velocity) of that system.
A srngle frequency travelling wave will take the form of a sine wave. A snapshot of the wave in
space at an instant of time can be used to show the relationship of the wave properties
frequency, waveiength and propagation veiocity.
--- wavelen£th __..,

Velocity of
�ropa�ahon
""!""
,-- 4 -.... v
An..,
. l1t.\lda
J. • • • • • •- • • ........ ._ !". ·1'•&!!'11!'.!l! !l!K!:.!!t'lr.JK�
1 '""1-- l f frequency
==
T= Period
Figure 2.41: The sinusoidal waveform terminology
The motion relationship "distance= velocity x time" is the key to the basic wave relationship.
With the wavelength as distance, this relationship becomes A,=vT. Then using f=1fT gives the
standard wave relationship
This is a general wave relationship which applies to sound and light waves, other
electromagnetic waves, and waves in mechanical media.
Properties of SHM
Considering the motion of a mass on the end of a spring, or the horizontal motion of a
pendulum, the following properties can be observed:
• The velocity of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the undisturbed position
(centre of its motion) and zero at the extremities of its motion (maximum displacement
position)
• The acceleration of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the extremities of its
motion (maximum displacement position) and zero at its undisturbed position (centre of
motion).
In other words, when its velocity is zero, its acceleration is a maximum, and when its
acceleration is zero, its velocity is a maximum.

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Vibration
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be
periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a
gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a
woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration,
necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound -- noise. For
example, the vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in
operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating
parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimise
unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, pressure waves, are generated by
vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords) and pressure waves can generate vibration of structures
(e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce
vibration.
Types of vibration
Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed
to vibrate freely. Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then
letting go or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at
one or more of its natural frequencies and damp down to zero.
Forced vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system.

Examples of this type of vibration include a shaking washing machine due to an imbalance,
transportation vibration (caused by truck engine, springs, road, etc), or the vibration of a building
during an earthquake. In forced vibration the frequency of the vibration is the frequency of the
force or motion applied, but the magnitude of the vibration is strongly dependent on the
mechanical system itself.
Res o na nce
Vllhat isResonance?
Resonance is the phenomenon of producing large amplitude of vibrations by a small periodic
driving force. It is the tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a certain
frequency. This frequency is known as the system's resonance frequency (or resonant
frequency). When damping is small, the resonance frequency is approximately equal to the
natural frequency of the system, which is the frequency of free vibrations. Under resonance
condition the energy supplied by the driving force is sufficient enough to overcome friction.
Examples ofResonance
One familiar example is a playground swing, which is a crude pendulum. When pushing
someone in a swing, pushes that are timed with the correct interval between them (the resonant

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frequency), will make the swing go higher and higher (maximum amplitude), while attempting to
push the swing at a faster or slower rate will result in much smaller arcs.
Other examples:
• acoustic resonances of musical instruments

• the oscillations of the balance wheel in a mechanical watch
• electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios that allow individual stations to be picked
up
• the shattering of crystal glasses when exposed to a strong enough sound that causes the
glass to resonate.
A resonator, whether mechanical, acoustic, or electrical, will probably have more than one
resonance frequency (especially harmonics of the strongest resonance). It will be easy to
vibrate at those frequencies, and more difficult to vibrate at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its
resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise
excitation. In effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance.
What Causes Resonance?

Resonance is simple to understand if you view the spring and mass as energy storage elements
-the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. When the mass and
spring have no force acting on them they transfer energy back forth at a rate equal to the
natural frequency. In other words, if energy is to be efficiently pumped into the mass and spring
the energy source needs to feed the energy in at a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying
a force to the mass and spring is similar to pushing a child on swing - you need to push at the
correct moment if you want the swing to get higher and higher. As in the case of the swing, the
force applied does not necessarily have to be high to get large motions. The pushes just need
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_
A damper, instead of storing energy dissipates energy. Since the damping force is proportional
to the velocity, the more the motion the more the damper dissipates the energy. Therefore a
point will come when the energy dissipated by the damper will equal the energy being fed in by
the force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum amplitude and will continue to
vibrate at this amplitude as long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping exists, there
is nothing to dissipate the energy and therefore theoretically the motion will continue to grow to
infinity.
Such catastrophic resonance can be witnessed frequently, in, for example, the failure of
complete aircraft wing structures during control surface "flutter", failure of helicopter structural
components, and even the collapse of road bridges in gale force winds, as experienced at
h
Tacoma Bridge on November i , 1940.
Design Implications of Resonance

Designers of aircraft must be seriously concerned about the phenomenon of resonant frequency
because if a certain component of an aeroplane or helicopter is caused to vibrate at its resonant
frequency the amplitude of the vibration can become very large and the component will destroy
itself by vibration.

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Let us examine the case of a helicopter which has a tail boom with a natural or resonant
frequency of 1 Hz. That is, if you were to strike the boom with your fist it would oscillate once
each second. The normal rotational speed of the rotor is 400 RPM and the helicopter has 3
blades on its main rotor. Each time a rotor blade moves over the tail boom the blade is going to
cause a downward pulse of air to strike the tail boom. The designer must determine the speed
at which the pulses will be equal to the resonant frequency of the boom. One cycle per second
is equivalent to 60 cycles/minute. Since each of the three blades causes a pulse each
revolution, there will be 3 x 60 or 180 pulses/minute. Therefore a rotor speed of 180 RPM would
be critical and the pilot would be warned against operating at that speed. Since the boom also
has a secondary, or overtone, resonant frequency of twice the fundamental resonant frequency,
360 RPM would also have to be avoided but would not be as critical as 180 RPM. The third
frequency of concern wou!d be 3 x 180 or 540. but that is above the rotor operating speed, so is
not a problem.
The natural frequency of vibration is also an extremely important consideration in designing the
wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers of an aircraft. The designer must be certain that the
resonant frequency when the surface is bent is different from that resonant frequency when it is
twisted. If that is not the case, an aerodynamic interaction with the elasticity of the surface can
result in "flutter" which can cause the surface to fracture in a fraction of a second after it begins.
Harmonics
The harmonic of an oscillation is a component frequency of the oscillation that is a multiple of its
natural frequency (known as the fundamental frequency). For example, if the fundamental
frequency is f, the harmonics have frequency 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. The harmonics have the property
that they are all periodic at the input frequency.
Thus, if an oscillating body (e.g. a spring/mass system) can be oscillated by an excitation input
of frequency equal to its natural frequency (the 'fundamental frequency'), it will also be
oscillated at frequencies that are harmonics of that natural frequency.

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Problems
1. A pendulum has a length of 0.7m. What is its frequency of oscillation, and how long
will it take to oscillate 10 times?
2. A pendulum has a mass of 0.05 slugs. It takes 15 seconds to oscillate 10 times.

What is its length?
3. A mass of 0.4 kg oscillates freely on the end of a spring. The stiffness of the spring is
2 Nim. What is its natural frequency of oscillation and its time period?
4. A ball on the end of a spring bounces such that it nearly hits the floor 30 times in a
minute. The spring has a stiffness of 0.5 lb./in. What is the value of the mass of the
ball?

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Answers
1. 0.6 Hz, 16.8 seconds
2. 0.625 m
3. 0.36 Hz, 2.8 seconds
4. 0.05 slugs

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Simple Machines and the Principle of Work
The definition of work is as follows:
W=FD cos 8
The symbol for "distance" has been switched from S to D, to emphasize that we are dealing with
distances in our treatment of simple machines.
The angle (6) in this definition is the angle between the direction of the force vector and the
diiection of the displacement vector.
In this chapter, we will assume that in all the cases we will study the force and displacement
vectors act in the same direction. This implies that the angle (0) is a O"angle and since the
cosine of a 0° angle equals one, the equation for work becomes the simple equation:
W=FD
In this chapter, we will study six simple machines:
• The lever
• The pulley
• The wheel and axle
• The inclined plane
• The screw
• The hydraulic press
General Theory of All Machines

In discussing machines, we will assume that there is an object on which work is to be done. We
will call this object the load_ In most cases, it is required that the load be raised a certain
distance in a gravitational field. For example, we wish to put cement blocks originally on the
ground into the bed of a truck.
A machine is a device for doing this work. The input work is, by definition, the work done by the
worker, that is, the force applied by the worker multiplied by the distance through which the
worker's force acts. The output work is, by definition, the force that actually acts on the load
multiplied by the distance the load is raised.
We note that one way to do work is to do it directly. For example, it is possible for the worker to
raise each cement block directly to the truck bed. This is possible but can be difficult if each
block weighs, say, 175 lbs. In this case it would be better to use a machine since a machine
usually decreases the force supplied by the worker and increases the distance through which
his force acts.

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In the equations which follow, the subscript "o" will stand for output and the subscript "i" will
indicate input. We will use the following defining equations:
It is important to realize that there is no perfect machine. In our real world, on our earth, there is
always some friction. We always have, at least, air resistance. In addition, there is friction due to
the nooks and crannies that we would see if we inspected the surfaces of our machine parts
with a high-powered microscope.
Because of the constant presence of friction the input work is always greater than the output
work. Some of the input work is not useful work but serves to produce sound energy (a squeak),
light energy (a spark), or heat energy.
We will use the symbol 'Wr" to represent work lost because of friction.
We define two kinds of "mechanical advantage". The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is
the ratio of the output force to the input force. This actual mechanical advantage tells us how
much easier it is for the worker. The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) is the mechanical
advantage that would exist if there were no friction in the machine. It is the ratio of input
distance to the output distance.
The ideal mechanical advantage of a machine can always be determined by measurements

made on the machine itself.
The efficiency (Eff) of a machine is the ratio of the output work to the input work.
The efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or as a percentage. For example, if the efficiency
is calculated as 0.78, we can expressed it as 78%.

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One final point should be made regarding efficiency. There is no machine that is 100% efficient.
We always have some friction. However , sometimes we assume that there is no friction and that
the machine is perfect or ideal! if a problem says that the efficiency is 100%, we are doing a
make-believe problem. This kind of a problem is not meaningless, however, because it tells us
the best that this machine can do. In this ideal case the AMA equals the IMA.
EXAMPLES:
A worker is able to raise a body weighing 300 lbs. by applying a force of 75 lbs. What is the
AMA of the machine that he is using?
F 300 lbs 4
AMA= 0 = =
Fi 75 lbs
A worker applied his force through a distance of 15 ft. The load is raised a distance of 2.5 ft.
What is the IMA of the machine that he used?
o. 15 ft
IMA= - =-1 .=6
00 2.5 ft
The actual mechanical advantage of a machine is 8 and the efficiency of this machine is 78%.
What is the ideal mechanical advantage?
AMA 8
IMA= = - - =10.3
Eff 0.78
A worker uses a machine to raise a load of 500 lbs. a distance of 2 ft. He does this by applying
a force of 100 lbs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was the efficiency of the machine?
500 lbs
Method 1: AMA = =5
100 lbs
12 ft
IMA= =6
2 ft
AMA 5
Eff= = = 83%
IMA 6
Method 2:
Wo= (500 lbs)(2 ft)= 1,000 ft.lbs.
Wi=(100 lbs)(12 ft)=1,200 ft.lbs.
W0 1,000 ft.lbs.
Eff= = � 0_83= 83%
W; 1,200 ft.lbs.

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We will next consider six simple machines. In each of these cases the IMA is expressed, not as
the ratio D/Do, but in some other manner. We will study the geometry of each of these simple
machines to determine how to express the IMA in some simple equation.
The Lever
Consider the diagram in figure 2.42. Note that the
lever always pivots about some point called the
Ft
fulcrum. The input force (F1) is downward force and
in our diagram, is applied at the right end of the
lever. This input force gives rise to an upward force
at the left end in our diagram. This upward force
causes the load to be raised and is called "F0".
Figure 2.42: Simple lever

system
In figure 2.43. note that the input force acts through

a distance (Di) and the load is raised a distance
(D o).
Figure 2.43: Distances moved in a
simple lever system
The distance from the input end of the lever to the fulcrum is called the input lever arm (L;) and
the distance from the output end to the fulcrum is called the output lever arm (L0).
Recall that:
IMA=�
Do
However, figure 2.43 shows that the ratios of lever arms and distances are equal:
D.I
-
L1
---
Do Lo
Since it is much easier to measure lever arms that the distances of rotation, we always use the
ratio on the right hand side of the above equation to express the IMA of a lever.
(Lever) IMA= �

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There are three classes of levers:
• 1st Class: The fulcrum is between the load and the applied force. Examples are the·
claw hammer, scissors, and crowbar.
• 2nd Class: The load is between the fulcrum and the applied force. Examples are the
nutcracker and wheelbarrow.
• 3rd Class: The applied force is between the load and the fulcrum. An example is ice
tongs.
In a third class lever, the IMA is less than one. There is no force advantage. However, there is a
speed advantage. The work can be done in less time.
The Pulley
Some pulleys are firmly attached to an overhead support while other pulleys move up or down
with the load. We will refer to pulleys as "fixed" or "movable".
In figure 2.44 (A), we have shown a single fixed pulley. If a length of pulley cord (Di) is pulled
down by a worker, the load will be raised a distance (Do). We see from the diagram that these
distances equal each other. Therefore we conclude that the IMA of this type of pulley is one. For
example, it would take 100 lbs. of force to raise a 100 lbs. load. The advantage of using this
type of pulley is that the worker is able to pull down on the pulley cord and in this way an
upward force is applied to the load. We say that a single fixed pulley is a "direction changer".
(A) (B) (C)
Figure 2.44: Simple pulley systems
In figure 2.44 (B), there is a single movable pulley. A study of the diagram shows that Di is
always twice Do. For example, if the load is to be raised 2 ft. the worker must pull in 4 ft of cord.
Note also that there are 2 strands supporting the load. The IMA of a single movable pulley is 2.

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In figure 2.44 (C), there is a single movable pulley and a single fixed pulley. The fixed pulley
again serves to change the direction of the input force. The IMA is still 2. Note also that there
are again 2 strands supporting the load.
We conclude that the IMA of a pulley equals the number of strands supporting the load.
(Pulley) IMA = the number of strands supporting the load
Several other examples of various types of pulley blocks are shown in figure 2.45.
Fr
IMA·2 IMA .. 4
(A) (C)
Figure 2.45: More complex pulley systems

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The Wheel and Axle
Note that one cord is wrapped around the axle of

radius (r). The load is attached to this cord. Another
cord is wrapped around the wheel of radius (A). The
F1 worker applies his force to this second cord.
Both wheel and axle turn together. This means that if

the wheel rotates through one revolution the axle
also turns through one revolution.
Let us suppose that the worker pulls in a length of

cord equal to one circumference of the wheel (D1)
The load will be raised a distance equal one
circumference of the axJe. (Do).
Figure 2.46: Wheel and

axle
R
(Wheel and Axle) IMA= -
r
The lnclinked Plane
In the inclined plane shown in figure 2.47 we note

that the worker slides the load up the incline. The
input distance (Di) is therefore equal to the length
of the incline (L). The effect of this is that the load
h is raised a distance (h). This means that the
output distance (D0) equals h also.
D. L 1
IMA=-1 =-=-
Figure 2.4 7: Inclined plane D0 h h IL
We note that the sine of the angle of inclination (0) is also h/L Therefore, we can write the
expression for the IMA as follows:
1
(Inclined Plane) IMA=
sin0
-

2-105
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The Screw Jack
The pitch of the screw (p) is the distance between adjacent

R
threads (see figure 2.48). As the handle is turned through
one revolution, a distance given by
2 n: r ft., the load is raised a distance of one pitch.
Therefore, we have the relation:
2 TT r
(Screw Jack) IMA= - -·
Figure 2.48: The screw jack
A screw Jack has a great deal of friction. Therefore its efficiency is usually very low. However,
the distance through which the input force acts in comparison to the pitch is usually very large ..
This gives a screw jack a large mechanical advantage.
The Hydraulic Press

A cross section of an hydraulic press is shown in figure 2.49. The small rectangles are cross
sections of the circular input and output pistons. Usually, we talk about the areas of the input
and output pistons (Ai and Ao). We note that the smaller of the two pistons is the input piston
(radius = r) and, of course, the larger piston is the output piston (radius = R).
An hydraulic press is filled with some fluid (gas or liquid). This fluid exerts a common fluid
pressure throughout the device.
-
-- ---
----·-� ---
---------
�
1------�1- -
�---------
f ---- -_..:.
-
-
________ R_.,
-
.....
t--- - ---
...... - -
joo.. - - -- -
,,..-__ - � -..
- _ � ---
� ---
----
�-------------_-_-_-
-
�---------------------
--- - --- - - -�------------
--�----------- - --------
�---------------------�
-------------�---------
r---------------------
I- - - - - _
-----�-
- -
- - -----------
- - ...... ---- - -
- -... ----
-
-
- -- --
-
--
Figure 2.49: The hydraulic press
As the smaller piston moves downward a distance (di) the larger piston moves upward a
distance (do). We recall that the volume of a cylindrical shape is equal to the area of the circular
base x the height. Also, a volume of fluid is transferred from the input (left) cylinder to the output
(iiglit) cylindei. The volurne of fluid is constant since the pressure is constant. T he refore, we
can write the equation:

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We can cancel the common factor (it) and rearrange the equation. We obtain:
d0 r2
The left member of this equation is, by definition, the IMA. Therefore, the IMA is also equal to
the right member of this equation. Thus, we can finally say that:
R2
(Hydraulic Press) IMA=
r2
We have obtained equations for the IMA of each of the six simple machines_ We will do an
example of a typical problem dealing with machines_ Note that any one of the six could be
chosen as an example_ In the problems that follow the example, be sure to use the correct
formula for the IMA.
-------------�
EXAMPLE:
The radius of the wheel in a windlass (wheel and axle) is 3.5 ft. and the radius of the axle is
0.27 ft. The efficiency of the machine is 60%. What load can be lifted by this machine by using
a force of 75 lbs.?
3.Sft
IMA= = 13.0
0.27ft
AMA = (Eff) (IMA)
AMA=(0.60) (13.0) = 7.8
Fo =(AMA) (Fi)
F0 = (7.8) (75 lbs.)
Fa= 585 lbs.
EXAMPLE:
An inclined plane has a 32°angle of incline. A for ce of 50 lbs. Is required to slide a 90 lbs.
load up the incline. What i s the efficiency of this machine?
1
IMA= :::: 1.89
sin32°
an Ike
AMA= ............... ::::1.8
50 lbs
AMA
Eff = :::: � "" 0.95 == 95%
IMA 1.89

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Problems
1. It takes a force of 80 lbs. to raise a body that weighs 240 lbs. What is the actual
mechanical advantage of the machine that was used?
2. A load is raised a distance of 6 ft. by a force acting through a distance of 18 ft. What is
the ideal mechanical advantage of the machine that was used?
3. What is the efficiency of a machine having an IMA of 7 and an AMA of 5?
4. A load weighing 120 lbs. is raised a distance of 4 ft by a machine. The work.er using the
machine exerts a force of 50 lbs. through a distance of 12 ft What was the efficiency of
the machine?
5. The radius of the wheel of a windlass is 4.0 ft. and the radius of the axle is 0.2 ft. The
machine is 75% efficient. What force must be exerted to raise a load of 500 lbs. with this
machine?
6. The large piston of an hydraulic press has area 1.5 tt2. and the small piston has area
0.30 ft2. Assume that the machine is 100% efficient. What load can be raised by a force
of 75 lbs.?
7. A pulley system has four strands supporting the load. A force of 55 lbs. is needed to raise
a load of 200 lbs. What is the efficiency of this pulley system?
8. A light aircraft has a hydraulic braking system. Each rudder pedal is connected to a
master cylinder which provides braking for one of the main landing gear wheels. Each
-��•�- �· .1;�,..,.-- "'-- - -�,..,i;, ·- -r -t 111 ;��1,.,. ii..� �· .1;�...1-- �� •..__ ...i..-�r i-.�- - --...1:. ·- �r ..., "
111a;::ilt:::I vy1111Ut'I lld� C'l ICIUIU� UI U""t-111vll. I llt' vy 1111Ut'I VII Liit:: VVllt't'! llCI;::) a IC2l.UU;::) VI l.V
inch. If the system is 95% efficient and the pilot exerts a force of 55 lbs. on the pedal,
how much force is exerted on the brake disc by the wheel cylinder?

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Answers
1. 3
2. 3
3. 71%
4. 80%
5. 33.3 lbs.
6 .. 375 lbs.
7. 90.9%
8. 836 lbs.

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Dynamics
Newton's Laws
The rapid advance in aviation in the first half of the last century can be attributed in large part to
a science of motion which was presented to the world three centuries ago by Sir Isaac Newton,
a British physicist. Published in 1686, Newton's treatise on motion, The Principia, showed how
all observed motions could be explained on the basis of three laws. The applications of these
laws have led to great technological advances in the aerodynamics, structure, and power plant
of aircraft. It is safe to say that any future improvements in the performance of aircraft will be
based on these laws. This chapter will be devoted to Newton's laws, examining some of their
applications in aviation.
Newton's First Law

The old magician's trick of pulling a cloth out from under a full table setting is not only a
reflection of the magician's skill but also an affirmation of a natural tendency which dishes and
silverware share with all matter. This natural tendency for objects at rest to remain at rest can
be attested to by any child who ever tried kicking a large rock out of his path. It is also a well
known fact that once a gun is fired, the command "stop" has no effect on the bullet. Only the
intervention of some object can stop or deflect it from its course. This characteristic of matter to
persist in its state of rest or continue in whatever state of motion it happens to be in is called
inertia. This property is the basis of a principle of motion which was first enunciated by Galileo in
the early part of the 17th century and later adopted by Newton as his first law of motion.
The first law of motion is called the law of inertia. It can be summarized:
A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues to move at constant
velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced external force.
The importance of the law of inertia is that it tells us what to expect in the absence of forces,
either rest (no motion) or straight line motion at constant speed. A passenger's uncomfortable
experience of being thrown forward when an aircraft comes to a sudden stop at the terminal is
an example of this principle in action. A more violent example is the collision of a vehicle with a
stationary object. The vehicle is often brought to an abrupt stop.
Unconstrained passengers continue to move with the velocity they had just prior to the collision
only to be brought to rest (all too frequently with tragic consequences) by surfaces within the
vehicle (dashboards, windshields, etc.).
A less dramatic example of Newton's first law comes from the invigorating activity of shovelling
snow. Scooping up a shovel full of snow, a person swings the shovel and then brings it to a
sudden stop. The snow having acquired the velocity of the shovel continues its motion leaving
the shovel and going off onto the snow pile.

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Newton's Second Law

A Learjet accelerates down the runway a distance of 3,000 feet, takes off and begins its climb at
6,000 feet per minute quickly reaching a cruising altitude of 35,000 feet, where it levels off at a
speed of 260 knots. Subsequently, the plane may have to perform a variety of manoeuvres
involving changes in heading, elevation, and speed. Every aspect of the aeroplane's motion is
governed by the external forces acting on its wings, fuselage, control surfaces and power plant.
The skilled pilot using his controls continually adjusts these forces to make the plane perform as
desired.
The interplay between force and motion is the subject of Newton's second law. An
understanding of this law not only provides insight into the flight of a plane, but allows us to
analyse the motion of any object.
While Newton's first law tells us that uniform velocity is to be expected when an object moves in
the absence of external forces, the second law states that to have a change in speed or
direction an unbalanced force must act on the object. Using acceleration to describe the change
in motion of an object, the second law can he expressed
Fnet =ma
In words, the second law states that a net or unbalanced force acting on an object equals the
mass of the object times the acceleration of that object.
Here, the net force is the total force acting on the object, obtained by adding vectorially all of the
forces influencing the object. The mass is a scalar quantity. However, both the net force and the
acceleration are vector quantities. Mathematically, this means that they must always point in the
same direction. That is, at each instant the acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.
Before we consider cases where the net force acting on a body is not zero, it is most important
to understand that sometimes the net force acting o n a body is zero. The vector sum of the
forces acting on the body in the x-direction is zero and the vector sum of the forces acting on
the body in the y-direction is also zero. In this case we say that the body is in equilibrium. From
the law, net force equals mass times acceleration, we know that since the net force is zero the
acceleration is also zero. Zero acceleration means that the velocity of the body in not changing
in direction or in magnitude. This means that the body is moving in a straight line with constant
speed or it has the constant speed, zero (it is at rest). If we observe that a body is at rest we
know that all of the forces on this body are balanced. Similarly, if a body is moving in a straight
line with constant speed, all of the forces acting on this body are balanced.
For example, if a plane is travelling on a straight stretch of runway at constant speed, there are
four forces acting on this plane: the earth is pulling down on the plane (its weight), the earth is
pushing up on the plane (the normal force), the engine is giving a forward thrust to the plane,
and frictional forces (air resistance, tires on runway. etc.) are acting backward. This is illustrated
in figure 2.50.

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Next, we must consider some examples where the net force acting on a body is not zero. The
body is accelerating. The body is experiencing a change in its direction or in its speed or both.
As a first example, a plane accelerating down a runway gets a change in velocity in the direction
of its motion. This is the same direction as the thrust provided by the power plant.
In figure 2.51, note that the thrust is greater than the frictional forces. The net forward force is
the thrust minus the friction. It is this net forward force that results in the acceleration of the
plane.
THRUST
FRICTION
THRUST = FRICTION
WEIGHT= NORMAL FORCE
Figure 2.50: The four forces acting on an aeroplane
Thrust - Drag - (mass) (acceleration)
T-0-ma
ACCELERATION
0 9 I flt ta If I•
THRUST
FRICTION "" D
Figure 2.51: Thrust, drag and acceleration forces

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,_y·--=-�::--.� ,

--
Newton's Third Law

Newton's third law is sometimes referred to as the law of action and reaction. This law focuses
on the fact that forces, the pushes and pulls responsible for both the stability of structures as
well as the acceleration of an object, arise from the interaction of two objects. A push, for
example, must involve two objects, the object being pushed and the object doing the pushing.
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
The third law states that no matter what the circumstance, when one object exerts a force an a
second object the second must exert an exactly equal and oppositely directed force on the first.
An apple hanging from a tree is pulled by the earth with a force which we call its weight.
Newton's third law tells us that the apple must pull back on the earth with an exactly equal force.
The weight of the apple is a force on the apple by the earth, directed downward. The force
which the apple exerts back on the earth, is a pull on the earth directed upward. Another force
acting on the apple is the upward pull exerted by the branch. The law of action and reaction tells
us that the apple must be pulling down on the branch with the same magnitude of force.
People are often confused by this principle because it implies, for instance, that in a tug of war
the winning team pulls no harder than the losing team. Equally enigmatic is how a horse and
wagon manage to move forward if the wagon pulls back on the horse with the same force the
horse pulls forward on the wagon. We can understand the results of the tug of war by realizing
that the motion of the winning team (or losing team) is not determined exclusively by the pull of
the other team, but also the force which the ground generates on the team members feet when
they "dig in". Recall, it is the net force, the sum of all of the acting forces which determines the
motion of an object.
The results of a "tug of war" can be quite different if the "winning team", no matter how big and
strong, is standing on ice while the "losing team" is able to establish good solid footing on rough
terrain.
Similarly, the horse moves forward because the reaction force which the ground exerts in the
forward direction on its hooves is greater than the backward pull it receives from the wagon. By
focusing now on the wagon, we see that it moves forward because the forward pull of the horse
is greater than the backward pull of friction between its wheels and the ground.
n·4'ft�
l't"i��Ycit� � --?::.E APPLE PUU.S DOWN
t ��THE BRANCH
.r,:-:
:..
�� 'If l'.o�'lJJ7'>IJ'
�>
o� � 1 THE BRANCH PUUS UP
;
l:J ON THE APPLE
THE EAR1H PULLS DOWN
ON THE APPLE
ll
-"':"��:W-�
Figure 2.52: Gravitational force between two objects

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rd
Figure 2.53: Equal and opposite forces of Newton's 3 Law
One of the main difficulties people have with the third law comes from not realizing that the
action and reaction forces act on different objects and therefore can never cancel. Another
difficulty comes from forgetting that the motion of an object is determined by the sum of all of
the forces acting on that object.
In canoeing or rowing, a paddle is used to push water backward. The water reacts back on the
paddle generating a forward force which propels the boat.
Consider now a propeller as shown in figure 2.55.
The plane of rotation of the propeller is assumed to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The flow of air is from left to right We can imagine the action of the propeller is to take a mass
(m) of air on the left and accelerate it from some initial velocity (u) to a final velocity (v) to the
right of the propeller. The acceleration of this air mass requires a force which is provided by the
propeller. The air mass, in turn, reacts with an equal and
FORCE OF FORCE OF
PADDL£ ON WAT£R WATER OH PADDLE
Figure 2.54: Equal and opposite forces of an oar
-- ---
--- --� �- -- --
-- -- --
---
-
------------------------ -
-va---.
- ----- - - - - --------------
--
-- -- ---
-- ---
- - - - --
-----
PROPELLER
Figure 2,55: Action of a propeller

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opposite force on the propeller. This reaction force of the air on the propeller provides the thrust
for a propeller driven plane. The acceleration of the air mass is:
v-u
a= --
Substituting this into Newton's second law, we find for the net force on the air mass:
v-u
F=m --
Both of the velocities (u and v) are the velocities relative to the plane of rotation of the propellei.
The time (t) is the time involved in accelerating the air mass from u to v.
By Newton's third law, the thrust, which is the force the air mass exerts back on the propeller, is
equal in magnitude to F. Therefore, the thrust (T) is given by:
u-v
T=m --
Recall that we have a symbol for "change in", this means that we can write the above formula
as:
f),.V
T=m
t
The velocities of the air mass are relative to the plane, and therefore change as the plane's
speed changes. Also the time involved in accelerating the air mass changes with the speed of
the plane. This causes considerable variation in the thrust provided by a propeller.
EXAMPLE:
Each second a propeller accelerates an air mass of 12.2 slugs from rest to a velocity of 137
ft.Isac. How much thrust is provided?
137 ft/ sec- 0

T= (12_2 slugs)
1 sec
T= 1,670 lbs.

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In contrast to the reciprocating engine driven propeller which imparts a small change in velocity
to a relatively large mass of air, a turbojet induces a large change in velocity to a relatively small
mass of air. Here, the sole action of the Jet engine is considered to be the intake of a mass of
air at some velocity (u) and its exhaust at a higher velocity (v).
Figure 2.50 is a sketch of a turbojet engine. The velocity (u) in the figure denotes the relative
intake velocity and v denotes the exhaust gas velocity. The thrust formula which was obtained
above for the propeller will now be applied to a Jet engine. The thrust formula above can be
rewritten:
m m
T :::-v--u
t t
T =Gross thrust- Ram drag
The gross thrust is provided by the exhaust gases. The ram drag of the incoming air is due to
the speed of the aeroplane. The effect of the ram drag is to reduce the thrust provided by the
engine as the speed of the plane increases.
DIFFUSER
Figure 2.57: Principle of the turbojet engine
EXAMPLE:
The Pratt & Whitney J60 has a mass air flow of 23 kg/sec. During a static test (initial velocity =
0) the exhaust velocity was measured to be 580 m/sec. Determine the thrust produced.
Note that the ram drag is zero since v1 is zero. Therefore, the thrust is equal simply to the
gross thrust.
m
T:::: -v
t
23 kg
Substituting the given values we have: T = (580 m / sec) = 13,300 N
1 sec
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EXAMPLE:
What would the thrust have been if the J60 of the previous example had been in a plane
moving at 250 knots? Assume the same mass flow and exhaust velocity.
Note that the ram drag is not zero in this case. In order to calculate this ram drag we must use
the formula:
m
ram drag= -u
t
Before substituting, we must express the initial velocity in m/sec.
1.668 f t / sec x0.30480 m

u= 250 knotsx
1 knot 1 ft
= 129 m/sec.
23 kg
ram drag = 129m I sec
1 sec
ram drag= 2,970 N
T= gross thrust - ram drag
T= 13,300 N - 2,970 N
T= 10,300N
EXAMPLE:
During a static test (initial velocity=zero), a Pratt & Whitney J75 produced a thrust of 16,000
lbs. with an air mass flow of 8.23 slugs/sec. Determine the exhaust gas velocity of the engine.
Since u is zero, the ram drag is zero and T=gross thrust.
m
T=-V
t
We solve for the final velocity:
T
V=-
o/t
i6,000 ibs
V= --
--
8.23 slug s / sec
v=1,940 ft./sec.

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The air intake velocity of a turbojet will be approximately equal to the airspeed o f the plane. Let
us again examine the thrust formula.
m
T=-(v-u)
t
It can be seen that the thrust may be increased in two ways, either by increasing the air mass
flow through the engine (M/t) or increasing the exhaust gas velocity (v).
EXAMPLE:
A French Dassault Falcon 30 is powered by two Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines. Flying
at sea level with a velocity of 154 m/sec. the air intake velocity is 154 m/sec. and the air
exhaust velocity is 224 m/sec. The airflow through each engine is 109 kg per second.
Determine the thrust of each engine.
109 kg
T = (224 ml sec-154 m / sec)
1 sec
T = 7,630 N
EXAMPLE:
A Lockheed Jet Star is equipped with four Pratt & Whitney JT12 engines. Cruising at 220
knots, each engine was found to be providing 1,420 lbs. of thrust If the airflow through each
� .A �r • ' ._ .1 J.l-- • .L , ;,1. """'
. ;J;J ::>ruyt:Stl'I..,;., Wlll:2 L Wl:2:S LI ltl' tl'XI lC:IU:S L ya::> Vtl'IUl..,;llY !
-�� --- _ _ ___ - · - � --- _ _ _ _ _ _ 4__ -·· --··- �-- _ __ __ _ _
�r 1yir ltl' WC:i:S I
U = 220 knots = 371 ft/sec.
Tt
- =V - U
rn
Tt
V=-+U
m
(1,420 lbs)(1 sec)

v ::: + 3 71 ft / sec
1.55 slug
v = 1,290 ft./sec.

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Motion in a Circle
A ball whirled in a circle experiences an
acceleration toward the centre of the
circle.
This can be proven by considering that

the ball is continually changing direction
as it moves in a circle. Newton's first
law tells us that the ball would prefer to
follow a straight path, and that for it to
,..In,, #;,,....f." .,:,,..,...P'V\ "' �+,,...,... i r.""'+ n.....,..+h � .i,...,,..,.,."
uvv1c:uw 11u111 e1 �l1D1�111.. tJc.IL11, a 1v1�v
must be applied to it.
It is a direct result of Newton's first law

that a hammer thrower (Figure 2.58)
must continually pull towards the centre
of rotation, applying his full
weight to make the hammer accelerate
continually towards the centre of
rotation. As soon as the Figure 2.58: Centripetal force exerted by a
athlete stops applying the force towards hammer thrower
the centre (i.e. releases the hammer) the
hammer travels in a straight line, at a tangent to the circle.
This acceleration is in the same direction as the force which makes it move in a circle. This
force is called centripetal force (from the Latin meaning centre-seeking)
Since we have a constant change in the direction of the motion of the hammer, we have a
constant acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration and can be calculated by the
square of the velocity divided by the radius of the circular path, thus:
V
Centripetal acceleration= �
R
Newton's Second Law connects acceleration and force, by Force= Mass x Acceleration. Thus,
we can write the equation:
mV2
Fnet =mac or Fnet= --

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Units of Force
The units which we will use in our discussion of Newton's laws are the same as the units used
in the formula relating weight to mass (w=mg). These units are reviewed and summarized in
Table 2.4.
2 2
Each set of units, pound, slug, ft./sec. ) in the English system, or (Newton, kilogram, m/sec. ) in
the metric system is said to be consistent in the following sense: a force of 1 lb. when applied
2
to a mass of 1 slug gives it an acceleration of 1 ft./sec •
UNITS ENGLISH METRIC

Force pound (lb.) newton (N)
Mau flug kflogram (kg)
Acceleration ft./aec.2 m/sec.2
Table 2.4: Units of Force, Mass and Acceleration
Similarly, a force of 1 Newton applied to a mass of 1 kilogram causes it to accelerate at 1

2
m/sec •
Using Newton's second law, we can write:
. ?
Newton=1 Kiiogram m1sec-
• • • • • .• •
and
2
1 pound= 1 slug ft./sec
We note that Newton's second law is correctly written as:
Fnet= ma
However, we often assume that the force acting on mass (m) is the net force. Thus, we usually
write the second law simply as:
F= ma

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or, for circular motion,
mV2
F= --
(Centripetal Force)
R
Newton's second law when applied to bodies moving in a circular path states that the force
directed toward the centre of the path must equal the mass of the body times the square of the
speed of the body divided by the radius of the path. This force is called the centripetal (centre
seeking) force.
EXAMPLE:
Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object acted upon by a net force of 1.5 lbs.
F
8=
m
1.5 lbs
8=
3 slugs
a= 0.5 ft./sec2
EXAMPLE:
A mass of 6 kilograms accelerates at 5 rn/sec.2 Find the force which is acting on this object.
F= ma
F ::: (6 kg) (5 m/sec2) = 30 N

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Problems
2
1. Find the mass of an object which accelerates at 5 m/sec when acted on by a net force of
one Newton.
2. Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object experiencing a net force of 12 lbs.
2
3. Find the net force on a 5 slug object which is accelerating at 3ft/sec
4. A Learjet Model 24 of mass 6,000 kg is observed to accelerate at the start of its takeoff at
2
4 m/sec . What is the net forward force acting on the plane at this time?
5. During a static test, a Continental engine driving a two blade constant speed propeller
was found to accelerate each second a mass of 140 kg from rest to a velocity of 40
m/sec. Determine the thrust on the propeller.
6. A Piper Archer ii has an Avco Lycoming engine driving a two blade propeller. Each
second 8 slugs of air are given a change in velocity of 122 ft/sec. How much thrust is
generated on the propeller?
7. The Garrett TFE 731 turbofan engine which powers the Rockwell Saberliner 65 under
static testing has an exhaust gas velocity of 321 m/sec and an airflow of
50 kg/sec. Find the static thrust of the engine.
8. A plane weighs 36,000 lbs. The forward thrust on the plane is 20,000 lbs. and the
frictional forces (drag) add up to 2,000 lbs. What is the acceleration of this plane? Hint:
Be sure to find the mass of the plane from its weight.
9. What centripetal force is needed to keep a 3 slug ball moving in a circular path of radius
2 feet and speed 4ft/sec.?
10. A boy is swinging a stone at the end of a string. The stone is moving in a circular path.
The speed of the stone is 5 ft/sec. and the radius of the path is 1.5 ft. What is the
centripetal acceleration of the stone?

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Answers
1. 0.2 kg
2. 4 ft.lsec2
3. 15 lb.
4. 24,000 N
5. 5600 N
6. 976 lb.
7. 16,050 N
8. 16 fUsec2
9. 24 lb.
10. 16.67 ft/sec2

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Friction
When a body rests on a horizontal surface or is dragged or rolled on such a surface there is
always contact between the lower body surface and the horizontal surface. This contact results
in friction. Friction is work done as the surfaces rub against each other. This work heats the
surfaces and always results in wasted work.
We need to define a force known as the normal force. A body resting on a horizontal surface
experiences two forces, the downward force due to the gravitational pull of the earth on this
body (the weight of the body), and the upward push of the surface itself on the body (the normal
force).
The weight (w) and the normal force (N) are equal to
each other.
There are three kinds of friction:

1 . Static friction
2. Sliding friction
3. Rolling friction
Figure 2.58: Weight and its
reaction
Static Friction
Static friction (or 'starting' friction) is the force between two objects that are not moving relative
to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped
surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as µ5, is usually higher than the
coefficient of kinetic friction. The initial force to get an object moving is often dominated by static
friction.
Another important example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping
as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with
the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as
limiting friction, although this term is not used universally
Railing Friction
Rolling friction is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of a wheel or other
circular objects along a surface. Generally the frictional force of rolling friction is less than that
associated with kinetic friction. One of the most common examples of rolling friction is the
movement of motor vehicle tyres on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by
products.
Kinetic Friction
Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub
together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as µk,
and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Since friction is exerted in a direction
that opposes movement, kinetic friction usually does negative work, typically slowing something
down. There are exceptions, however, if the surface itself is under acceleration. One can see

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this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides
backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the floor. Thus, the kinetic friction
between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing
positive work.
Examples of kinetic friction:
• Sliding friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat
on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction
• Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas.
The drag of air on an aeroplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid
friction.
Calculating Friction
In all cases, the friction equation is the same.
F=µN
The symbol"µ" (the Greek letter mu) is called the coefficient of friction.
Every pair of flat surfaces has two different coefficients of friction:
Coefficients of Friction
Material Jlstart Jlslide
Steel on Steel 0 15
. 0.09
Steel on ice 0.03 0.01
Leather on Wood 0.5 0.4
Oak on Oak 05 . 0.3
Rubber on Dry Concrete 1.0 0.7
Rubber on Wet Concrete 0.7 0.5
Table 2.5: Some examples of Coefficients of Friction
The coefficient of starting friction - µstart

The coefficient of sliding friction - µs1ide
Some values for the coefficients of starting and sliding friction are given in Table 2.5.
We note that the coefficients of sliding friction are less than the coefficients of starting friction.
This means that the force needed to start a body sliding is greater than the force needed to
When we deal with a body that rolls over a flat surface, we have another coefficient of friction to
consider: the coefficient of rolling friction.

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The coefficients of rolling friction (µ,011) are very small. Therefore, rolling friction is much smaller
than either starting or sliding friction. Some values are:
Rubber tires on dry concrete 0.02

Roller bearings 0.001 to 0.003
EXAMPLE:
A steel body weighing 100 lbs. is resting on a horizontal steel surface. How many pounds of
force are necessary to start the body sliding? What force is necessary to keep this body
sliding at constant speed?
W=N=1001bs.
F=µN
Force to start sliding motion = (0.15)(100 lbs.) :::: 15 lbs.
Force to keep body sliding = (0.09) (100 lbs.)= 9 lbs.

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Problems
1. An aircraft with a weight of 85,000 lbs. is towed over a concrete surface. What force must .
the towing vehicle exert to keep the aircraft rolling?
2. It is necessary to slide a 200 lb. refrigerator with rubber feet over a wet concrete surface.
What force is necessary to start the motion? What force is necessary to keep the motion
going?

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Answers
1. 1,700 lbs.
2. 140 lbs. 100 lbs.

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Work, Energy and Power
Work
Work is done on a body when a force acts through a distance. The definition of work involves
the force acting on the body (F) the distance through which this force acts (S) and the angle (0)
between the force vector and the distance vector. The definition of work is:
W = FS cos 0
Very often the force vector and the distance vector act in the same direction. In this case, the
angle (0) is a zero degree angle. If you check on your calculator, you will find that the cosine of
a zero degree angle is equal to one. This simplifies things in this case because then work is
simply equal to the product of force times distance.
The unit of work in the English system is the foot-lb. Note that the two units are multiplied by
each other. Students tend to write ft.fib. This is incorrect. The unit is not feet divided by pounds.
In the metric system, the unit is the Newton-meter or the Joule (J). Note that the Newton-meter
has a name, the Joule. The foot-lb. has no special name.
EXAMPLE:
A puck lies on a horizontal air table. The air table reduces the friction between the puck and
the table to almost zero since the puck rides on a film of air. A player exerts a force of 70 lbs.
on this puck through a distance of 0.5 feet, and he is careful that his force is in the same
direction as the distance through the force is applied. The player has done 35 ft.-lbs. of work
on the puck.
EXAMPLE:
A book weighing 8 pounds is raised a vertical distance by a student demonstrating work. The
book is raised 2 feet. The student has done 16 ft.lbs. of work.
EXAMPLE:
A sled is dragged over a horizontal snowy surface by means of a rope attached to the front of
the sled. The rope makes an angle of 28°with the h orizontal. The sled is displaced a distance
a 50 ft. The worker exerts a force of 35 pounds. How much work does the worker do? We
use the formula:
W = FS case
VV = (35 lbs.) (50 ft.) cos 28°
W = 1550 ft. lbs.

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Sometimes the force and the displacement are in the opposite directions. This situation gives
rise to negative work. Note, in this case, the angle between the force and the displacement is a
180°angle. The cosine of 180°is negative one.
One example of negative work occurs when a body is lowered in a gravitational field. If a
student carefully lowers a book weighing 15 pounds through a distance of 2 feet, we note that
the displacement vector points downward and the force vector point upwards
W =FS cos 0
W =(15 lbs.)(2 ft.) cos 180°
W = (15 lbs.}(2 ft.)(-1)
W =-30 ft.lbs.
Energy
The concept of energy is one of the most important concepts in all of physical science. We often
hear of energy sources, alternate energy, shortage of energy, conservation of energy, light
energy, heat energy, electrical energy, sound energy, etc. What is the exact meaning of this
word. energy?
Sometimes energy is defined as the "capacity to do work". This definition is only a partial
definition. However, it has the advantage of immediately relating the concept of energy to the
concept of work. These two ideas are intimately related to each other.
Energy is a quality that a body has after work has been done on this body. Once work has been
done on a body of mass (m) this body has energy. The body can then do work on other bodies.
Consider the following situation:
A body of mass (m) was resting on a horizontal air table. A player exerted a horizontal force (F)
on this mass through a distance (s). Since the angle between the force and the displacement
was a zero degree angle, the work done on this body was simply Fs. At the instant the player
removed his hand from the body we note two facts. The body accelerated while the force (F)
was acting on the body and the body has acquired a velocity (v) during this time of acceleration
(a). The body has moved through a distance (s) in time (t).
2
s =%at
Also note that the force (F) is related to the acceleration by the relation:
F=ma
We now look again at this body at the instant the force (F) has ceased acting. We note that
work (W) has been done on this body and that the body moves with speed (v).
2
W =Fs =(ma) ( %at )

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W = % m(at)2
Now we note that the speed obtained by the body during the time of acceleration is given by the
equation:
V= at
Therefore, we can substitute v for at in the equation above.
W=%mV2
The equation we have obtained is the defining equation for a quantity known as kinetic energy.
Usually, we use the symbol "KE" for kinetic energy.
KE= 1/zmV2
After the work has been done on the mass (m) it moves off on the frictionless air table with this
kinetic energy. This body now is capable of doing work on other bodies that it contacts. For
example, it probably will strike the edge of the table. When this happens this kinetic energy will
be changed into other types of energy such as sound energy or heat energy.
We note that the initial kinetic energy of the mass (m) was zero. This is true because the body
was initially as rest. We can say that the work done on the body is equal to the change in the
energy of the body.
Gravitational Potential Energy

Another equally important situation where an agent easily can do work on a body (and thus give
the body energy) occurs when the agent raises a body vertically in a gravitational field, at the
surface of the earth.
In this case, the work done on the body again equals the force applied multiplied by the
distance the body is raised.
W=Fs
W = (weight of body) (distance raised)
We recall that w =mg. Also since the distance is a vertical distance we use the symbol "'h" for
height. In our discussion we will assume that the symbol "h" always represents the vertical
distance of the body above the surface of the earth.
Therefore, we write:

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W=mgh
Again we have a case where an agent did work on a body and the body has acquired "energy".
This type of energy is known as gravitational potential energy. however, we usually symbolize it
as"PE".
PE= mgh
If we neglect air resistance {which results in loss of energy to heat), we note that there is a
conservation of kinetic and potential energy of a body moving in a gravitational field. As a body
falls from a height (h) and moves closer to the surface of the earth, its potential energy
decreases and its kinetic energy in creases while it is falling. Therefore, there is an easy way of
finding the speed of a falling body during any instant of its fall.
The units for energy are the same as the units for work, the Joule (J) in the metric system and
the foot-pound in the English system.
EXAMPLE:
A body of mass 4 slugs is held by an agent at a distance of 6 ft. above the surface of the
earth. The agent drops the body. What is the speed of the body when it is on the way down
and at a distance of 2 feet above the earth's surface?
We note that the initial potential energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies on the way down (wd).
PE = PEwd + KEwd
(4 slug) (32 ft/sec2) (6 ft.} =(4 slug) (32 ft/sec2} (2 ft.)+% (4 slug} v 2
EXAMPLE:
A body of mass, 1 O kg, falls to the earth from a height of 300 rn above the surface of the
earth. What is the speed of this body just before it touches ground?
PEi =KEt
(1 O kg) (9.8 m/sec2) (300 m) = (1 o kg) V2
2 940 m2 /sec 2=% V 2

,
5,880 m2/sec2=V2
V = 76.7 m/sec
The kinetic energy that the body has just before it reaches the ground immediately changes to
sound energy and heat energy on impact. It may also "squash" any body in its path or make an
indentation in the earth- this is strain energy (energy to deform).

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Power
Power is the rate of doing work. The more rapidly a piece of work can be done by a person or a
machine the greater is the power of that person or machine.
We define power by the following equation:
= work = force x distance

Power
time time
In symbols:
p = Fs
t
In the English system the unit of power is the horsepower and in the metric system the unit is
the Watt .
Conversion factors exist giving information regarding these units.
- 55 ft.lbs. - 33 ft.lbs.
1 Horsepower - 0 000
-- - , --
.
sec. min.
1,000 Watts ;:;: 1 kilowatt
EXAMPLE:
An aircraft engine weighing 4,000 lbs. is hoisted a vertical distance of 9 feet to install it in an
5
aircraft. The time taken for this piece of work was minutes. What power was necessary?
Give the answer in fUb./sec. and in horsepower.
= �� = (4,000 lbs)(9 �J.

P
t 300 sec s.
1 HP
P = 120 ft.lbs./ sec . x ------
550 ft.lbs. / sec .
P;;;; 0.218 HP

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EXAMPLE:
An elevator cab weighs 6,000 N. It is lifted by a 5 kW motor. What time is needed for the cab
to ascend a distance of 40 m?
Fs
t=
p
(6,000 N)(40 m)
t=
5,000 \AJatts
L--�� t = 4 8 s_e_co n d s

____ ____�� ·��-___J
Alternate Form for Power
We can put our formula for power in another form by recognizing that �is speed (v). This leads
t
to the formula:
p = Fs =F�
t t
P= Fv
This form is particularly useful for obtaining an expression for the power output of a turbine
engine. These engines are ordinarily rated in terms of the thrust which they produce. To obtain
an expression for their power output it is necessary to multiply their thrust by the speed of the
plane. This thrust power, which is usually expressed in units of horsepower (THP, thrust
horsepower), can be obtained by multiplying the thrust in pounds by the speed in ft./sec. and
dividing by 550 where the conversion
1 HP= 550 ft-lbs./sec. is used. Thus:
= thr� �t in lbs. x aircraft speed in ft./ sec .

THP _
550
Alternatively, we can take the speed of the aircraft in MPH and use the conversion
1 HP= 375 mi.lbs./hr. to obtain:
thrust in lbs. x aircraft speed in MPH.

THP =
375

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EXAMPLE:
A gas turbine engine is producing 5,500 lbs. of thrust while the plane in which the engine is in
stalled is travelling 450 MPH. Determine the THP.
(550 lbs)(450 MPH)

THP ==
= 6,600 HP
375
It is important to note that while the thrust of a gas turbine engine may not vary much over a
particular range of aircraft speeds, the power must be recalculated each time the plane changes
its speed.

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Problems
1. How much work is done by a person in raising a 45 lb. bucket of water from the bottom of
a well that is 75 ft. deep? Assume the speed of the bucket as it is lifted is constant.
2. A tugboat exerts a constant force of 5,000 Non a ship moving at constant speed through
a harbour. How much work does the tugboat do on the ship in a distance of 3 km?
3. A father has his 45 lb. son on his shoulders. He lowers the child slowly to the ground, a
distance of 6ft. How much work does the father do?
4. A 6 slug body has a speed of 40 ft/sec. What is its kinetic energy? If its speed is doubled.
what is its kinetic energy?
5. A 2 kg ball hangs at the end of a string 1 m in length from the ceiling of a ground level
room. The height of the room is 3 m. What is the potential energy of the ball?
6. A body of mass 3 slug is a distance of 77 ft. above the earth's surface and is held there
by an agent. The agent drops the body. What is the speed of the body just before it hits
ground?
7. An aircraft of mass 4 tonnes lands at 30 m/s and the pilot immediately applies the brakes
hard. The brakes apply a retarding force of 2000N. How far will the aircraft travel before
it comes to rest.
8. A pile driver of mass 1000 kg, hits a post 3 m below it. It moves the post 10 mm. What
is the kinetic energy of the pile driver?
9. A pile driver of mass 1000 kg, hits a post 3 m below it. It moves the post 1O mm. With
what force does it hit the post when it hits the post?
10. An aircraft engine weighing 12,000 N is lifted by a 3.6 kW motor a distance of 10m. What
time was needed?
11. A hand-powered hoist is used to lift an aircraft engine weighing 3,000 lbs. a vertical
distance of 8 ft. If the worker required 4 minutes to do this job, what horsepower was
developed by the mechanic?
12. How long does it take a 5 kW motor to raise a load weighing 6,000 lbs. a vertical distance
of 20 ft.? (Hint: convert KW to ft.lb./sec first)

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Answers
1. 3370 ft.lb.
2. 15,000,000 J
3. -270 ft.lb. (Note the negative sign!)
4. 4800 ft.lb; 19,200 ft.lb.
5. 39.2 J (or 40 of g = 10 m/s2)
6. 70 ft./sec.
7. 900m
8. 30,000 J
9. 3 MN
10. 33 sec.
11. 100 ft.lb./sec. 0.182 HP
12. 32.5 sec.

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Momentum
Definition of Momentum
Momentum is a vector quantity defined as the product of mass times velocity. Note that velocity
(V) is also a vector quantity. We write the defining equation as:
Momentum = mV
Momentum is a very important quantity when we are dealing with collisions, because it is con
served in all such cases.
Conservation of Momentum
In a collision, there are always at least two bodies that collide. We will deal only with collisions
of two bodies. We will also limit our discussion to collisions occurring in one dimension. Such
collisions are called "head-on" collisions.
At this time, we need to recall two of Newton's laws. We need Newton's second law,
F = ma, and Newton's third law, which tells us that if two bodies collide, the force that the first
body exerts on the second body is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that
the second body exerts on the first body. Also recall that the acceleration (a) equals the change
in the velocity (symbolized by the Greek letter Delta,�) divided by the time (t).
Now let us visualize two bodies of masses, m1 and m2 on a one dimensional track.
If these two bodies collide, we have four different velocities to consider. We will name these
velocities very carefully.
V1' = the velocity of body one before the collision

V1"= the velocity of body one after the collision
V2' = the velocity of body two before the collision

V2" = the velocity of body two after the collision
From Newton's two laws, we can conclude that:
tiV1 AV2
m -= -m2
1
--
t t
After cancelling 't', we obtain:
If we remove the parentheses, transpose terms, and switch left and right parts we obtain:
The equation tells us that the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision. Sometimes we say simply that ''momentum is conserved".

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Recoil Problems
The simplest example of the conservation of momentum is in recoil problems.
EXAMPLE:
A boy and a man are both on ice skates on a pond. The mass of the boy is 20 kg and the
mass of the man is 80 kg. They push on each other and move in opposite directions_ If the
recoil velocity of the boy is 80 m/sec., what is the recoil velocity of the man?
First we note that both the man and the boy are at rest before the collision occurs.
(20) ( 0) + ( 80) (0) = (20) (80) + (80)Vz"
0 = 1,600 + 80V2"
-1,600 = 80V{
V2" = - 20 m/sec.
The negative sign indicates that the man recoils in the opposite direction from the boy.
Collision Problems
Whenever two bodies collide, momentum is always conserved. This is simply the result of
applying Newton's second and third laws as we have done in the preceding discussion.
Sometimes kinetic energy is also conserved in a collision. This happens when the bodies are so
hard that there is very little deformation of the bodies in the actual collision process. Billiard balls
are a good example. These collisions are known as elastic collisions. We will derive a formula
for determining the velocities of the bodies after the collision has occurred.
Another type of collision that we will discuss is the perfectly inelastic collision_ In this type of
collision, the bodies are deformed so much that they actually stick together after the collision.
An example would be the collision of two masses of putty. We will also do some problems for
this type of collision.

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Inelastic Collisions
We use the conservation of momentum for dealing with this type of collision. As we have said,
the colliding bodies stick together after impact. Therefore, the equation is simply:
Note that we use the symbol V" for the common velocity of the two bodies (which are now one
body) after the collision.
It is important to include the signs of the velocities of the bodies in setting up momentum
equations. As usual, we use a positive sign for east and a negative sign for west, a positive sign
for north and a negative sign for south.
EXAMPLE:
A truck of mass 1,550 kg is moving east at 60 m/sec. A car of mass 1,250 kg is travelling west
at 90 m/sec. The vehicles collide and stick together after impact.
What is the velocity of the combined mass after the collision has occurred?
V1' = 60 m/sec.
m1 = 1,550 kg
V2' = -90 m/sec.

mz = 1,250 kg
We will not include units in our substitution. However, we will note that the velocity, when we
obtain it, will be in m/sec.
(1,550) (60) + (1,250) (-90) = (1,550 + 1,250)V"
-19,500 = 2,800 V'
V" = -6.96 m/sec.
Since the calculated velocity has a negative sign, we conclude that the combined mass is
travelling west after the impact has occurred.
Our answer is that the wreckage starts moving west with a speed of 6.96 m/sec.
Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of an inelastic collision can
be used by the police to determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head-on collision.

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Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of inelastic collision can be
used by the police to determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head -on collision.
Suppose that a large truck with a weight of 12,000 lbs. (mass of 375 slugs) travelling east with
an unknown velocity enters into a head-on collision with a smaller truck of weight 6.400 lbs.
(mass of 200 slugs) initially travelling west with a speed of 30 MPH (44 ft./sec.). The trucks stick
together in the collision and marks on the highway indicate that the wreckage travelled a
distance of 120 feet east. The condition of the roadway (amount of friction) indicates that the
wreckage would travel for a time of 4 sec. Determine the initial speed of the large truck.
The equation:
can be used to determine the initial velocity of the wreckage. Note that the final velocity of the
wreckage is zero.
�
2s 2(120 ft)
u =
=
60ft./ sec.
t 4 sec
Next, we can use the conservation of momentum equation to determine the velocity of the large
truck at the instant of the impact. We will use the symbol V to represent this velocity.
(375 slugs) (V) + (200 slugs) (- 44 ft./sec.) = (575 slugs) (60 ft./sec.)
375V = 43,300
V = 115 ft./sec.
V = 78.4 MPH
Elastic Collisions
Elastic collisions are collisions that occur between bodies that deform very little in the collision.
Therefore we assume that no energy is lost. An example of such a collision is the collision
between pool balls.
In elastic collisions, both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved. In an ordinary elastic
collision problem, we know the masses and the velocities of two bodies that will collide. We
want to predict, by a mathematical calculation, the velocities the bodies will have after the
collision has occurred, the two unknowns. If we write the two conservation equations, we have
two equations in these two unknowns. It is possible to solve these two equations for these two
unknowns. However, one of the conservation equations, the energy equation, is a "second
order" equation. A "second order" equation contains the squares of the unknowns. This makes
the solution more difficult. Instead, we will use an algebraic trick! The two conservation
equations can be solved together producing a third equation. This third equation and the

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momentum conservation equation provide the two first order equations that we will use in
solving elastic collision problems.
We will write the two conservation equations:
Conservation of Energy
(1)
Conservation of Momentum
(2)
Divide (1) by �:
(3)
Now in both (2) and(3), we will transpose some terms:
(4)
(5)
Factorise (4) and (5):
(6) m1(V1' - V1") = m2(Vz" - V2')
(7) m1(V1'2 - V1"2) = m2(V2"2 - V2'2)
In(?), Factor again:
(8)
Divide(8) by (6):
" ('I
'2
"
�2 )
\J t
After cancelling common factors, we obtain:
Again we transpose terms:

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(9)
In words, this equation says that the relative velocity of the balls before the collision is equal to
the relative velocity of the balls after the collision.
Equation (9) has been obtained algebraically from two equations, the conservation of
momentum and the conservation of energy. We use equations (2), the conservation of
momentum equation, and equation (9), called the relative velocity equation, to solve for the
velocities of the two bodies after an elastic collision.
We will rewrite these two important equations for future reference:
(2)
(9)
In using these two equations, the two unknowns are usually V1" and V2", the velocities of the
two bodies after the collision has occurred. The known quantities are usually the two masses
and the velocities of the bodies before the collision. Also be careful to include the signs of the
velocities. If you forget to do this, you will always end up with incorrect results.
EXAMPLE:
A billiard ball of mass 2 kg is moving east at 3 m/sec. and undergoes an elastic collision
with another billiard ball of mass 3 kg moving west at 4 m/sec. Find the velocities of the
two balls after the collision.
m1 = 2 V1' = 3 (east)
m2 = 3 V2' = -4 (west)
Substitute in equation (2):
(10)
Substitute inequation (9):
3- (-4) = v2" - v1"
(11)
Rewrite equations (10) and (11) putting the unknowns in the left members and in order.
(10) 2V 1" + 3V2"= -6

(11) -V1" + V2" = 7
We now have two equations and two unknowns. There are several methods of solving
such a system of equations. We will use the method of addition. In this method we multiply

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either or both of the equations by constants to make the coefficient of one of the unknowns
in one of the equations a positive number and to make the coefficient of this same
unknown in the other equation a negative number of the same magnitude. We then add
the two equations to eliminate one of the unknowns. We then solve for the other unknown
by substituting in either equation.
We will multiply ( 11) by the number 2.
(12)
Add (1 O) and (12):
V2" = 1.6 m/sec.
Substitute this value back into (11 ) :
V1" = -5.4 m/sec.
We note that we interpret a positive sign for the velocity as motion east and a negative sign
as motion west.
Our final result is that the 2 kg ball is moving west with a speed of 5.4 m/sec after the
collision and the 3 kg ball is moving east with a speed of 1.6 m/sec. after the collision.

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Problems
1. A gun of mass 5 kg fires a bullet of mass 20 grams. The velocity of the bullet after firing,
is 750 m/sec. What is the recoil velocity of the gun?
2. An astronaut on a space walk has a mass of 5 slugs and is at rest relative to the space
station. She is working with a tool having a mass of 0.5 slug. She accidentally throws this
tool away from herself with a speed of 6 ft/sec. With what speed does the astronaut
recoil?
3. An automobile having mass 1,500kg is travelling east on an expressway at 30m/sec. It

overtakes a truck of mass 2,000kg also travelling east and moving with a speed of 25
m/sec. The automobile rear-ends the truck. The vehicles become locked together in this
collision and continue east. What is the velocity of this combined mass?
4. Two balls of putty become one mass of putty in a collision. The first, of mass 6 kg, was
originally moving east at 10 m/sec., and the second, of mass 4 kg was originally moving
west at 9 m/sec. What is the velocity of the total mass after the collision has occurred?
5. Due to a controller's error two aircraft are directed to land in opposite directions on the
same runway in a fog. A Cessna 150 of mass 50 slugs and a Beechcraft Bonanza of
mass 80 slugs undergo a direct head-on collision. The Beech-craft Bonanza was
originally travelling north at a speed of 30 MPH and the Cessna was travelling south. The
wreckage travels a distance of 20 ft. south during a time of 3.6 sec. What was the original
speed of the Cessna?
6. A 3 kg ball is moving right with a speed of 3 m/sec. before a collision with a

2 kg ball originally moving left at 2 m/sec. What are the directions and speeds of the two
balls after the collision?
7. A 2 kg ball moving right at 5 m/sec. overtakes and impacts a 1 kg ball also moving right
at 2 m/sec. What are the speeds and directions of the two balls after the impact?

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Answers
1. 3 m/sec.
2. 0.6 ft./sec.
3. 27 m/sec. East
4. 2.4 m/sec. East
5. 67.7 MPH
6. The 3 kg ball is moving left at 1 m/sec. and the 2 kg ball is moving right at
4 m/sec.
7. The 2 kg ball is moving right at 3 m/sec. and the 1 kg ball is moving right at
6 m/sec.

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Torque
Consider the diagrams 2.59 shown below. We define torque as the force (F) applied to a body
that is pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by the distance from the pivot point to the place where the
force is applied and multiplied by the sin of the angle between r and F. We will use the Greek
letter Tau (1:) for torque. The distance mentioned in the preceding sentence is called the lever
arm and symbolized by the letter r.
The defining equation is:
-r = r F sine
In the diagram, we note that 0 =90°. This is by far the most common case. Since
sin 90°= 1, this common case reduces to the more s imple equation:
t = r F
However, it must be remembered that in those cases where 0 is not 90� the full equation must
be used. Note also that the unit for torque is the lb.ft. , lb.in. or the Nm.
Figure 2.59: Force acting at a

distance creates torque
Extensions
Figure 2.60 shows a typical beam type torque wrench which has an extension spanner
attached. If this combination is used to torque load a fastener then the following formula should
be used to calculate the wrench scale reading which corresponds to the specified torque value:
L
Scale reading= specified torque x _ _
L+X
Where L =distance between the driving tang and the centre of the handle
X= length of extension spanner between centres
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EXTENSION SPANNER
Figure 2.60: A torque wrench fitted with an extension spanner
A simple way of calculating the scale reading required without using the formula is set out in the
following example, for which the specified torque loading is 300 lb in and the lengths of the
wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches respectively.
(a) Force required on wrench handle to produce a torque of 300 lb in is 300 lb in divided by
the distance between nut and wrench handle,
300 lb.in.
which is = 20 lb
10 in.+5 in.
(b) Scale reading when force on handle is 20 lb is, 20 lb x 10 in 200 lb in.
Force must therefore be applied to the wrench handle until a reading of 200 lb in is shown on
the wrench scale, and this will represent a 300 lb in torque load applied to the nut. With the
'break' type wrench, the adjustment must be preset at 200 lb in.
NOTE: For the purpose of conversion, 1 lb.in. = 115 kg cm or 0.113 N.m.
When using an extension spanner with a torque wrench, the spanner and wrench
should be as nearly as possible in line. If it is necessary to diverge by more than 15°
from a straight line (due, for example, to intervening structure), then the direct
distance (D) between the nut and wrench handle must be substituted for 'L + X' in the
formula for calculating wrench scale reading. This is shown in figure 2.61, and the scale reading
in this instance will be equal to specified torque x

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Figure 2.61: A torque wrench fitted with an extension

spanner positioned out-of-line with the wrench
Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the specified torque and the
wrench scale are in the same units; if not, then the specified torque should be converted, by
calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale, and any measurements taken in
appropriate units.
When applying torque the wrench handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly
at 90°to the axis of the wrench.
Couples
A 'couple' is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are equal and opposite but applied at points
separated by a distance d perpendicular to the forces. The combined moment of the forces
produces a torque Fd on the object on which they act.
An example is the cutting of an internal thread with a tap and tap wrench. The force applied at
one end of the wrench handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre of rotation is just half of
the torque felt at the tap itself, since there is an equal torque applied at the other wrench handle.
Torque applied by a couple
=one of the forces {F) x distance to centre of rotation (r) x 2
=one of the forces (F) x distance between the forces (d) = Fd
Another example is the forces applied to a car steering wheel.

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Problems
1. Calculate the torque applied to a nut and bolt by a 12 in. spanner when a force of 12 lb.
is applied perpendicular at the end of the spanner.
2. How much force is required to torque a nut and bolt to 50 Nm with a wrench 0.5 m long?
3. A nut is to be torqued to 50 in.lb. A torque wrench of 17 in is used with an extension of 3

in. What setting should the torque wrench be adjusted to?
4. A ships wheel has a couple applied to it by the captain of 60 Nm. The diameter of the
wheel is 0.8 m. What is the force applied on just one side of the wheel?

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Answers
1. 144in.lb.
2. 100 N
3. 42.5 in.lb.
4. 75 N

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The Gyroscope
Gyros are fascinating to study and a great deal of material is available on them. For the most
part, we will be concerned with only two of the properties of spinning gyros. The first is the
tendency of a spinning gyro to remain fixed in space if it is not acted upon by outside forces
such as bearing friction. This is the property of rigidity. Rigidity is used to measure position in
position gyros such as the HSI (gyro compass) and ADI {artificial horizon).
The other property of a spinning gyro that concerns us is its right angle obstinacy. It never goes
in the direction that you push it, but off to one side. Figure 2.62 illustrates this obstinate
characteristic.
AXIS precesses in this DIRECTION
� FINGER pushes in this DIRECTION
'#/!
71�,'
�
0 -r
�
ROTOR is SPINNI
-�
~
" t>;• DIRECTION
Figure 2.62: Force and resultant movement obstinacy- 'Precession'
Whichever way you apply the force to the axis of a gyro, it will move in a direction 90° (in
direction of rotation) to the force. The speed at which it moves is proportional to the force
applied. This action is called precession. The force of procession is used in rate gyros, such
as those in a turn and slip indicator, where the speed of turn is measured by the force that the
precessing gyro exerts on a spring.
Apparent Drift (or Wander)

Figure 2.63 illustrates the behavior of a gyro. A perfect gyro would be one without any external
forces acting upon it, mounted in a perfect suspension system that would give it complete
freedom of movement in all three axes. All the gyros in this figure are perfect gyros. Such gyros
are called free gyros.
Only four gyros are represented -A, B, C, and D. The other gyro symbols shown illustrate the
various positions of B, C, and D as the earth rotates.

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Gyro A has its spin axis parallel with the spin axis of the earth, sitting on top of the North Pole. It
could maintain that position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axis parallel to the earth's spin axis, and is located above the equator. The
other gyros in its group represent Gyro B as it would appear at different times of the day. If we
were to look at Gyro B sitting on a table in front of us, we would see that the upper end of its
spin axis is pointing off toward the north star. As time goes on and the earth turns 360°, we
would not see any change in its attitude on the table. Its spin axis would always point toward the
north star.
Gyro C is situated on the equator. The other gyros in its group represent Gyro C as rt would
appear at different times of the day.
Let's say that we have the Gyro C in front of us on a table. Its spin axis is parallel to the earth's
surface. As time goes on and the earth rotates, we would see its spin axis gradually tilting
upward at one end until, six hours later (90°of ea rth rotation), we would see it perpendicular to
the earth's surface, illustrated by the gyro shown to the right of the earth. Six hours later (behind
the earth out of sight in this drawing) the spin axis would once again be parallel to the earth, but
with the end which was first pointing east now pointing west.
Another six hours later,

the spin axis would once
again be perpendicular,
but this time the opposite
end of the axis would be
another six hours later.
When we get to the
same time of day at
which we started, the
gyro will again be
occupying its original
position.
Gyro D and its group

illustrate another chang
ing aspect of a gyro, in
different positions as
viewed from the earth's
surface at different times
of day.
These perfect gyros

illustrate what any gyro
tries to do but cannot
because of its orientation
of the spin axis - always in Figure 2.63: Apparent Drift
the same direction in space.

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Transport Drift (or Wander)

The outer ring of gyros in Figure 2.64 demonstrates that a completely free gyro in an aircraft
circling the earth would be perpendicular to the earth's surface at only two points.
The gyros drawn in the aircrafts are continuously being corrected to a vertical position as the
aircraft moves around the surface of the earth. The corrections are gentle and slow, since the
amount of correction needed in a ten minute period, for example, is small The gyro is relatively
very stable during the pitch and roll maneuvers of the aircraft. Such a gyro is called an earth
gyro or tied gyro.
The gyro's stable position with respect to the movements of the aircraft makes it possible for the
pilot to know the actual attitude of his aircraft, nose up or down, and wings level or not. This is
quite important to him when all he can see out of the window is a gray fog.
The aircraft attitude information derived from the gyros is also used by such systems as the
autopilot. radar antenna stabilization, flight recorders and flight directors.
\
.,.-.-..
--�--- ? - ---
---....
---�
� !
I
\
\l
FREE G'YRll
?
i
J
•'
Figure 2.64: Transport Drift

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URTICAl GVRO fDJ HIRIZON lfHllCATION.
Figure 2.65: Horizon indication and Compass indication (Position Gyros)
Cl_.) PLANE lun1$ UH
I x
GYRO BDlATION
Q__) I GlM!JAL and GVRO 1111a11

l•tt with 111t11u.>
�llDICATDfl NUULf. c!Jl11)Jlcll •& f11is p<1l111

T11t1 Dr 'I'• R.aie !lyre
Figure 2.66: Turn Rate indication (Rate Gyro)

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Fluid Dynamics
The Atmosphere
On November 21, 1783, a hot air balloon carrying Marquis d'Arlandes, flew 5 miles across the
skies of Paris opening up new possibilities in travel and a fresh interest in our atmosphere. It
wasn't however, until heavier-than-air flight became a reality that a detailed understanding of
the medium enveloping our globe became essential.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases which we call air. Dry air is composed of approximately
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% carbon dioxide. These percentages remain fairly constant
as we ascend in altitude. However, the density of air decreases. This drop in density with
altitude has gieat significance in aviation as it not only places limits on the attainable altitudes,
but also the powerplant performance of an aircraft.
The mapping out of our atmosphere, that is, determining its density, pressure, and temperature
at different altitudes, required the effort of many individuals working over many years. The fruit
of this labour is a vast quantity of data which has led to the definition of a standard atmosphere.
The standard atmosphere, a term coined by Willis Ray Gregg in 1922, is a compilation of mean
annual atmospheric properties. Since our atmosphere undergoes seasonal variations in
properties such as temperature. a mean or average value is used. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 are two
tables of values for the standard atmosphere. The first table (table 2.6) gives values in English
units and the second (table 2.7) in metric units. It must be kept in mind that the numbers in
these tables are annual averages which can be useful for reference purposes but do not
indicate the actual atmospheric conditions existing at any particular moment.
EXAMPLE:
Using the Gas Law and the tempeiatuie and piessuie at an altitude of 12,000 meteis listed in
the Standard Atmosphere Table (table 2.5}, 0.312
verify that the density of air at this altitude is
3
kg/m .
We will use the equation
19.4 kPa
p = (287 Pa m /kg K)(217 K)

3
= 0.312 kg/m3

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Cabin Altitude
Cabin altitude is a term used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above
sea level. For example, a cabin altitude of 6,000 feet means that the pressure inside the aircraft·
cabin is the same as the atmospheric pressure at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Looking at the
2
Standard Atmosphere Table (table 2.6), the pressure is found to be 1,696 lbs/ft which upon
2 2
division by 144 gives the pressure in lb/in to be 11.78 lbs/in
At a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet, the passengers and crew can ride in relative comfort without
any special oxygen supply. Planes which fly at much higher altitudes than 8,000 feet must be
furnished with a special atmosphere control system. It is highly advantageous to fly at high
altitudes both for economy of fuel consumption, and the smooth air high above the level of
turbulent weather systems. At these high altitudes, the pressure outside the plane can be
significantly lower than the cabin pressure.
2
At 8,000 ft., the Standard Atmosphere Table tells us that the air pressure is 1,572 lbs/ft or
2
10.92 lbs/in This is the pressure that is normally maintained in the cabin even though the plane
is flying at a higher altitude.
Suppose the plane is flying at an altitude of 40,000 ft. At this altitude the pressure (from the
2 2
table 5-1) is 393 lbs/ft or 2.73 lbs/in This means that for a cabin altitude of 8, 000 ft. for a plane
2
flying at 40,000 ft., there is a net outward pressure of 8.19 lbs/in This number was obtained by
2 2
subtracting 2.73 lbs/in from 10.92. For a Learjet with a pressurized area of 45,000 in , we are
dealing with a bursting force of over 368,000 lbs. (8.19 x 45 thousand). in addition to being able
to withstand this much force, a safety factor of 1.33 is generally used by design engineers.
Therefore, the pressurized portion of the fuselage must be constructed to have an ultimate
strength of over 460 thousand pounds or about 230 tons. The challenge of finding lightweight
materials which can withstand these large forces is great.
In the description of an aircraft's air conditioning and pressurization system, a differential

pressure is given. The differential pressure is the maximum difference between cabin pressure
and atmospheric pressure which the pressurization system can sustain. For example, the air
2
cycle air-conditioning system of a Boeing 747 can maintain a pressure differential of 8.9 lbs/in
2
This means that the system can maintain a cabin pressure 8.9 lbs/in greater than the
atmospheric pressure surrounding the plane. This also means that there is an upper limit
imposed by the pressurization system on the altitude at which the plane can fly.

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Standard Atmosphere - English Units
Altitude Temperature Pressure Density

(ft.) «R) (lb./Ft2) (Slug/Ft3)
0 519 2,116 0.002377
500 517 2,078 0.002342
11000 515 2,041 0.002308
2,000 512 1,968 0.002241
3,000 508 1,897 0.002175
4,000 504 1,828 0.002111
5,000 501 1,761 0.002048
6,000 497 1,696 0.001987
7,000 494 1,633 0.001927
8,000 490 1,572 0.001869
9,000 487 11513 0.001811
10,000 484 1,456 0.001756
15,000 465 1,195 0.001496
20,000 447 973 0.001267
25,000 430 786 0.001066
30,000 412 630 0.000891
35,000 394 499 0.000738
40,000 390 393 0.000585
45,000 390 309 0.000462
50,000 390 244 0.000364
55,000 390 192 0.000287
60,000 390 151 0.000226
65,000 390 119 0.000178
Table 2.6: Quantities within the Standard Atmosphere (English Units)

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Standard Atmosphere - Metric Units
Altitude Temperature Pressure Density

(M) (K) (kPa) (kg/m3)
0 288 101.3 1.225

100 288 100.1 1.213
200 287 98.9 1.202
300 286 97.8 1.190
400 286 96.6 1.179
500 285 95.5 1.167
600 284 94.3 1.156
700 284 93.2 1.145
800 283 92.1 1.134
900 282 91.0 1.123
1,000 282 89.9 1.112
1,500 278 84.6 1.058
2,000 275 79.5 1.007
2,500 272 74.7 0.957
3,000 269 70.1 0.909
3,500 265 65.8 0.863
4,000 262 61.7 0.819
4,500 259 57.8 0.777
5,000 256 54.0 0.736
5,500 252 50.5 0.697
6,000 249 47.2 0.660
6,500 246 44.1 0.624
7,000 243 41.1 0.590
7,500 239 38.3 0.557
8,000 236 35.7 0.526
8,500 233 33.2 0.496
9,000 230 30.8 0.467
9,500 227 28.6 0.439
10,000 223 26.5 0.414
12,000 217 19.4 0.312
. . , 000
14 --- 217 14.2 0.228
16,000 217 10.4 0.166
18,000 217 7.57 0.122
20,000 217 5.53 0.0889
22,000 217 4.04 0.0650
Table 2.7: Quantities within the Standard Atmosphere (Metric Units)

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Humidity
Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere.
It is the condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain,
snow, dew, frost and fog. There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this
limit varies with temperature. When the air contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for
a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated. Warm air can hold more vapour than
cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the possible water
vapour.
The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a
packet of air is usually denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that
the water vapour exerts. This is the absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured
by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the mass of vapour in saturated air at the
3
same temperature. For example, air at 10'C contains 9.4 g/m (grams per cubic metre) of water
3
vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m of water vapour, then
the relative humidity is 50%.
When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a

temperature at which it is saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to
condensation of the excess water vapour. The temperature at which condensation sets in is
called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity can be calculated from
readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry bulb or standard
air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an
ordinary thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an
absorbent wick dipped into water. Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature
of the thermometer. The difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate
the various measures of humidity.
Definitions
Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water
vapour in a given parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter
Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel.
Water in a gaseous state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air.
Vapour pressure is also measured in Millibars.
Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atmosphere, the change of water
vapour to liquid water.
Dewpoint: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The
dewpoint temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air.

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Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below.
Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice.
Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour.
Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water.
Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the
parcel (not including water vapour).
Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of
water vapour the air can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and can be
computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide the actual vapour pressure by the saturation
vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent.
Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the
maximum possible at the existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sublimation will
begin if the temperature falls or water vapour is added to the air.
Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules
would exert if the air were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour
pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.
Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the total mass of the air in
the parcel (including water vapour).
Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the
change of ice directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the
vapour to solid phase change as "deposition."
Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into
the air at constant pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the
bulb of a mercury thermometer and then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates.
Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will cool to a lower temperature than a
thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures can be used
along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity.

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Problems
1. Verify, that using the Gas Law (p = P/RT) and the temperature and pressure from the
Standard Atmosphere Table, at an altitude of 65,000 ft., the density of air is 0.000178
3
slug/ft.
2. A pressurized Cessna Centurion II has a cabin pressurization system which can maintain
2
a pressure differential of 3.45 lbs/in What is the maximum altitude at which the plane
can fly and still maintain a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet?
2 2
(Hint: convert the of 3.45 lbs/in to lbs/ft and compare with the Standard Atmosphere
table)
3. What is the maximum altitude at which this same Cessna plane can fly and maintain a
cabin altitude of 6,000 ft?

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Answers
2. About 18,000 ft
3. About 14,000 ft

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Density and Specific Gravity
Density
The density of a material is defined as the mass of a sample of the material divided by the
volume of the same sample. The symbol used for density is the Greek letter rho, (p).
m
p= -
v
Other algebraic forms of this same equation are:
m
m = pV and V=
p
Density is a very important and useful concept. If a body is made of a certain kind of material its
density is known. If the weight of the body is also known, it is possible to determine the volume
of this body. Similarly, if the kind of material and volume are known it is possible to determine
the weight of the body.
Table 2.8 is a table of densities. You can refer to this table when you solve the problems
dealing with mass, weight, and volume.

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.. ,.,
Densities of Liquids and Solids
Liquids Kg/m3 Sluglft3 Metals Kg/m3 Slug/ft3

Water 1000 1.940 Aluminium 2700 5.25
Sea Water 1030 2.00 Cast Iron 7200 14.0
Benzine 879 1.71 Copper 8890 17.3
Alcohol 789 1.53 Gold 19300 37.5
Gasoline 680 1.32 Lead 11340 22.0
Kerosene 800 1.55 Nickel 8850 17.2
Sulphuric Acid 1831 3.55 Silver 10500 20.4
Mercury 13600 26.3 Steel 7800 15.1
Tungsten 19000 37.0
Non-Metals Zinc 7140 13.9
Ice (32°F, 0°C) 922 1.79 Brass 8700 16.9
Concrete 2300 4.48
Glass 2,600 4.97 Woods
Granite 2700 5.25 Balsa 130 0.25
Pine 480 0.93
Maple 640 1.24
Oak 720 1.4
Ebony 1200 2.33
Table 2.8: Comparison of densities - Liquids and solids

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EXAMPLE:
An order has been placed for 120 gal. of lubricating oil. How much will this oil weigh?
1ft3
V = 120 galx =16.0 ft3
7.481 gal
p = 1.75
�
sl g
ft
The density of the lubricating oil has been obtained from table 2-1.
m=pV
W 150 lbs
m= = =4.69 slug
g 32 lbs/slug
W=mg= (28 slugs)

(32 lbs
-- =896 lbs
)
slug
EXAMPLE:
An order has been placed for 150 lbs. of turpentine. How many gallons of turpentine will be
delivered?
W 150 lbs
m= -=----=4.69 slug
g 32 lbs/slug
m 4.69 slug _ 3
V= = = 2 78 ft
p 1.69 slug/ft3
7 481 gal
V= 2.78 ft3 x · = 20.8 gal
1ft

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Specific Gravity
The term "specific gravity" is closely related to the idea of density. The definition is as follows:
density of the substance

Spec1.fi1c Grav1.ty =
density of water
The calculation will give the same result (for a given substance) no matter what units are used.
The example below will calculate the specific gravity of sulphuric acid (see table 2.8).
3
If we use the metric units (kg/m ) we obtain:
1 83
Specific Gravity = . • � = 1.83
1,000
3
If we use the English units (slug/ft ) we obtain:
Specific Gravity 3·55 1.83

1.94
= =
The specific gravity number (1.83) is unitless. It tells us that, for sulphuric acid, the density is
1.83 times as dense as water.

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Problems
1. What is the specific gravity of kerosene?
2. What is the specific gravity of aluminium?
3. What is the specific gravity of ice?
4. What is the specific gravity of glass?
5. What is the weight of 85 gallons of kerosene?

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Answers
1. 0.8
2. 2.7
3. 0.922
4. 2.6
5. 544 lbs. or 3029 N (Hint: Calculate weight of water, 1 litre= 1 kg, or 1 pint= 1 lb, then
convert to kerosene by multiplying by its specific gravity of 0.8)

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Compressibility in Fluids
Fluids are defined as any substance which flows readily. Gases and liquids are such
substances
Gases
A gas is relatively easy to compress, and the effects of which have already been discussed in
the chapter on Pressure and Force.
Liquids
Many people think that a liquid is incompressible. However, liquids are, like any material, to a
certain amount compressible. In calculations, the amount of compressibility of liquid is
considered to be 1 volume-% per 100 bar. This means that for example when there is liquid
supplied to a 200 litre oil drum which already is completely filled with liquid, the pressure
increases with 100 bar for each 2 litre of extra supplied liquid. When we supply 3 litre of extra oil
the pressure increases with 150 bar. The compressibility of liquid plays a key role in for example
fast hydraulic systems like servo-systems of a flight simulator_ To obtain a maximum dynamic
performance, the compressibility should be as little as possible. This is achieved by mounting
the control valves directly on the hydraulic motor or cylinder. In that case the amount of liquid
between the control valve and the motor/cylinder is minimised.
In some situations, the compressibility of liquids is made use of in design. A 'liquid spring' for
example, is the principle of a particular type of landing gear leg, which uses no gas. The leg is
completely filled with oil. The oil is compressed under the extremely large forces encountered
on landing, and the shock of the landing is absorbed by the compressibility of the liquid.

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Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to being deformed by either shear stress or
extensional stress. It is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow. Viscosity
describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick" having a
higher viscosity. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid
which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
The study of viscosity is known as rheology.
Viscosity coefficients
When looking at a value for viscosity, the number that one most often sees is the coefficient of
viscosity. There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on the nature of applied
stress and nature of the fluid.
• Dynamic viscosity determines the dynamics of an incompressible fluid;

• Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density;
• Volume viscosity determines the dynamics of a compressible fluid;
• Bulk viscosity is the same as volume viscosity
Shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity are much better known than the others. That is why they
viscosity. Simply put, this quantity is the ratio between the
are often referred to as simply
pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in
velocity of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is what is referred to as a velocity
3
gradient). For example, at "room temperature", water has a nominal viscosity of 1.0 x 10- Pa·s
and motor oil has a nominal apparent viscosity of 250 x 10-3 Pa·s.
Viscosity Measurement
Dynamic viscosity is measured with various types of viscometer. Close temperature control of
the fluid is essential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose
viscosity can double with a change of only 5�. For some fluids. it is a constant over a wide
range of shear rates. These are Newtonian fluids.
The fluids without a constant viscosity are called Non-Newtonian fluids. Their viscosity cannot
be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations
between shear stress and shear rate.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary
viscometer.
In paint industries, viscosity is commonly measured with a Zahn cup, in which the efflux time is
determined and given to customers. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic
viscosities (cSt) through the conversion equations.
Also used in paint, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine
viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer
viscometers.

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Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. These models use vibration rather
than rotation to measure viscosity.
Units of Measure
Viscosity (dynamic/absolute viscosity)

Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The symbol for viscosity is the Greek
symbol eta (fl), and dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to using the Greek symbol mu
(µ).The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa·s), which is identical to
1 kg-/(m s) (kilogram per metre-second). If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pa·s is placed between
two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one pascal, it moves a
distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one second.
Kinematic viscosity
In many situations, we are concerned with the ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force, the
latter characterised by the fluid density p. This ratio is characterised by the kinematic viscosity
(v), defined as follows:
where µ is the (dynamic) viscosity, and p is the density.
2
Kinematic viscosity (Greek symbol: v) has SI units (m -/ s). The cgs physical unit for kinematic
viscosity is the stokes (abbreviated S or St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is
sometimes expressed in terms of centistokes (cS or cSt). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes
used as the singular form.
2 2
1 stokes= 100 centistokes= 1 cm /s= 0.0001 m /s.
2
1 centistokes = 1 m m /s
Viscosity of air
The viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. At 15.0 'C, the viscosity of air is
5
1.78 x 10- kg/(m·s).
Viscosity of water
The viscosity of water is 8.90 x 10-4 Pa·s at about 25 'C.

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Drag and Streamlining

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a ·
solid object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag is made up of friction forces, which act in a
direction parallel to the object's surface (primarily along its sides, as friction forces at the front
and back cancel themselves out), plus pressure forces, which act in a direction perpendicular to
the object's surface. For a solid object moving through a fluid or gas, the drag is the sum of all
the aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces in the direction of the external fluid flow. (Forces
perpendicular to this direction are considered lift). It therefore acts to oppose the motion of the
object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust.
Types of drag are generaiiy divided into three categories: profiie drag (caiied 'parasitic' drag in
USA), lift-induced drag (also known as vortex drag or induced drag), and wave drag. Profile
drag includes form drag, skin friction, and interference drag. Lift-induced drag is only relevant
when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed only in the aviation
perspective of drag. Wave drag occurs when a solid object is moving through a fluid at or near
the speed of sound in that fluid. The overall drag of an object is characterized by a
dimensionless number called the drag coefficient, and is calculated using the drag equation.
Assuming a constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity. Thus, the
resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity. The standard
equation for drag is one half the coefficient of drag multiplied by the fluid density, the cross
sectional area of the specified item, and the square of the velocity.
Wind resistance or air resistance is a layman's term used to describe drag. Its use is often
vague, and is usually used in a relative sense (e.g., A badminton shuttlecock has more wind
resistance than a squash ball).
Stokes's Drag
The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for small objects or particles
moving through a fluid at relatively slow speeds where there is no turbulence. In this case, the
force of drag is approximately proportional to velocity, but opposite in direction. The equation for
viscous resistance is:
Viscous resistance = - bv
where:
b is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of
the object, and
v is the velocity of the object.
For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid, George
Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the drag constant,
B = 6n 11 r
where:
r is the Stokes radius of the particle, and 11 is the fluid viscosity.

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For example, consider a small sphere with radius r =0.5 micrometre (diameter= 1.0 µm)
moving through water at a velocity v of 10 µmis. Using 10-3 Pa-s as the dynamic viscosity of
water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.28 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium
experiences as it swims through water.
Drag Coefficient
The drag coefficient (Cd) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of
aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. Two objects of the same
frontal area moving at the same speed through a fluid will experience a drag force proportional
to their Cd numbers. Coefficients for rough unstream!ined objects can be 1 or more, for smooth
objects much less.
Aerodynamic drag= Cd 1h p V2 A
Where
Cct =drag coefficient (dimensionless)
p =fluid density (slug/ft3 or kg/m3)
V =Velocity of object (ft/s or mis)
A=projected frontal area (ft2 or m2)
The drag equation is essentially a statement that, under certain conditions, the drag force on
any object is approximately proportional to the square of its velocity through the fluid.
. • : .···
.
• l . ····
.
.
.
.·:,. ., ....� . .;. :· :· .
.
.
.
. .
.
.
,
. . . . .
. .. ... .. .� ..
. .
,'1 Ps ·
·�� ·
..
.
.·..
...
.
�
.
.
.
.
.
. ·•
/
l
.
.
.
.·
...
··: .. .
··· �� ·
· ··
·
Figure 2.67: Effect of airflow on a flat plate

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A Cd equal to 1 would be obtained in a case where all of the fluid approaching the object is
brought to rest, building up stagnation pressure over the whole front surface. Figure 2.67 (top)
shows a flat plate with the fluid coming from the right and stopping at the plate. The graph to the
left of it shows equal pressure across the surface. In a real flat plate the fluid must turn around
the sides, and full stagnation pressure is found only at the centre, dropping off toward the edges
as in the lower figure and graph. The Cd of a real flat plate would be Jess than 1, except that
there will be a negative pressure (relative to ambient) on the back surface.
1
Some examples of Cd
Object Cd
·
A smooth brick 2.1

A bicycle plus rider 0.9
A rough sphere 0.4
A smooth sphere 0.1
A flat plate parallel to the flow 0.001
A bullet 0.295
A man {upright position) 1.0-1.3
A flat plate perpendicular to flow 1.28
A skier 1.0-1.1
Wires and cables 1.0-1.3
Drag coefficients of some complete aircraft

Aircraft type Cd
Cessna 172/182 0.027
Cessna 310 0.027
0.022
I ��:�� !
. X-15
7 0.031
0.95
Streamlining
Streamlining is the shaping of an object, such as an aircraft body or wing, to reduce the amount
of drag or resistance to motion through a stream of air. A curved shape allows air to flow
smoothly around it. A flat shape fights air flow and causes more drag or resistance. Streamlining
reduces the amount of resistance and increases lift.
To produce less resistance, the front of the object should be well rounded and the body should
gradually curve back from the midsection to a tapered rear section.
Figure 2.68 shows how the drag of a flat plate can be reduced if its shape is changed to a
sphere, and more still if it is streamlined with fairings.

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:'>l;,1· · .
:-��·
:
•.
, · ·>PH.E'"""'"
r
u:.
�:
.' ·
SPHERE 'wTfH
• P, FAIRING
1 SPHEF':E lfwSIPE
. A HOUSING
Figure 2.68: Streamlining of an object reduces its drag

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Bernoulli's Principle
Basic Definitions
Before we begin our discussion of the lift and drag on an aircraft wing, the following definitions
must be understood.
The Pitot tube

(named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures a fluid velocity by converting the
kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at the stagnation
point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (Figure 2.69). A pressure higher than the free-stream
dynamic pressure) results from this conversion.
(i.e.
This static pressure is measured at the static taps (known as static ports or vents). The static
pressure is not affected by the speed of the aircraft, but is dependant upon the surrounding
atmospheric static pressure.
Pitot Pressure is the sum of static and dynamic pressures, thus:
Pitot Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
Streamtlnes Static ta�

(severalr equally
.,. -- s.,../ paced clrcu mfere nee)
----�---1;.
.,. -:.:.<� .•
............
··-
: :
Stagnation pcint
Figure 2.69: A combined Pitot tube and static taps

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� .
--·····----:: i't-
fuRA
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Bernoulli's Principle applies the ideas of work and energy and the conservation of energy to a
mass of fluid (liquid or gas). Since it is not as easy to think of a mass of fluid as it is to think of a
discrete body, the derivation of this principle requires some thought and effort.
It is worth the thought and effort, however, since this principle is the basic principle of the flight
of heavier-than-air aircraft.
We review that the density of a fluid (p) is related to the mass and volume of the sample of fluid
by the relation:
m=pV
V - AL
'
I
' A
I
,
I
/.
J. L
�
Figure 2.70: A volume of fluid
Figure 2.71: Fluid flowing through a tube of increasing cross sectional area
The fluid flows from a region where the cross-sectional area is less (labelled with 1 's in the di
agram) to a region where the cross-sectional area is greater (labelled with 2's in the diagram).
We assume that the volume of fluid in the left cylindrical shape of fluid (labelled with 1 's) is
equal to the volume of fluid in the right cylindrical shape of fluid (labelled with 2's) .
Hence, the volume flow rate in any part of the tube is constant, regardless of the tube diameter.
And, since the density of the fluid is constant (and air flowing at subsonic speed is considered
incompressible) than the mass flow rate is also constant, regardless of the diameter of the tube.

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The Venturi Tube

A venturi tube is a tube constructed in such a way that the cross sectional area of the tube
changes from a larger area to a smaller area and finally back to the same larger area. As a fluid
flows through this tube the velocity of the fluid changes from a lower velocity to a higher velocity
and finally back to the same lower velocity. We note that, if the rate (volume per second) of fluid
flow is to remain constant, the fluid must flow faster when it is flowing through the smaller area.
A diagram of a venturi tube is shown in figure 2. 72.
II LOWER
PRESSURE
0
Figure 2.72: A venturi tube
The height of the fluid column in the vertical tubes at the three places shown in the diagram, is
an indication of the fluid pressure. As we expect from Bernoulli's Principle, the pressure is
greater where the velocity is lower and vice versa.
Venturi tubes in different shapes and sizes are often used in aircraft systems.
If we consider the types of energy involved in the flowing fluid, we find that there are three types
- potential (gravitational), pressure and kinetic energies.
Now if we consider only two positions in the venturi - the wide part {marked '1 ') and the narrow
part (the throat. marked '2'), and consider the conservation of energy principle, we have:
Potential Energy at 1 Potential Energy at 2

+ +
Pressure Energy at 1 =
Pressure Energy at 2
+ +
Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2
The above is assumed since the total energy in the fluid cannot change, only transferred from
one form to another. This then, is the basis for Bernoulli's Formula.

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Since the venturi in this case is horizontal, there in no change in potential energy, and so the
potential energies can be cancelled from the formula thus:
Pressure Energy at 1 Pressure Energy at 2

+ = +
Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2
1 v2
Since Kinetic Energy is -m where m =mass of fluid, and V =velocity of fluid
2
p
and Pressure energy is m - where P =pressure, p =density of the fluid
p
Thus:
p 1 v 2 P2 1 2
m 1 + - m = m - + -mV2
1
-
p 2 p 2
Note that the:mass, m, has no suffix, since the mass flow rate is constant regardless of the area
of the flow_ The density, p, is also a constant since the fluid is considered incompressible (even
air, providing its velocity is subsonic)_
Cancelling the mass, m, from each equation, and multiplying each term by the density, p, gives
us
This is the standard mathematical form of the Bernoulli's Equation. It can be rearranged to give
the pressure difference (for example between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing) thus:
Factorising gives:

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Application of Bernoulli's Principle to Aerofoil Sections
The relative wind direction is the direction of the

airflow with respect to the wing and is opposite to
the path of flight (figure 2. 73).
The chord line of a wing is a straight line con

necting the leading edge of a wing to its trailing
edge (figure 2.74 }.
Figure 2.73: Relative wind
_l'U'°"Dn I Ii.it
A- - -
/ � . --e
Figure 2.74: Chord line
Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord line

of a wing and the relative wind direction (figure 2.75).
Figure 2.76 shows the cross section of a wing at rest

-B and subject to atmospheric pressure which on the
2
average is 14.7 lbs./in.
ANGLE OF
ATTACK
Figure 2.75:
I
Annlo nf <:>ff<:>,...lr
'\I 1�1""" VI U�'-�V•'\
\. \I 111111,,.
A force of 14.7 lbs. can be imagined as acting perpendicular

to every square inch of the wing. The resultant of these 14.7
lbs. force vectors is zero and therefore has no effect on the
dynamics of the plane.
Figure 2.76: Pressure forces on

an aerofoil
It is the motion of air past the wing that alters the pressure pattern. Whether the wing is in
motion through the air or the air is flowing past a stationary wing the result is the same.
For example, if a plane is moving through stationary air at a speed of 200 MPH, the effect is the
c!:lmo /!:lc
11" \""""
W'-'ll ""' f!:lr -:>c
1""41 """" tho nl!:lno !:inrl .:.ir 'LAI'-""'
"'"' "'' '" t'l""1ll '""' "'41 I...... \.Al I
moving with velocity 200 MPH past the plane.

'!lro l"'nnf"ornor4\ .:.c if
....,�I 1'-'"'-'1 I 1"-"'""'41 / .....
u II H'\o nl!:lno
ILi '""' t-'U
.AI ' """" YV '"" ' �
• �
•A1oro cf-:1finn-::1
�"""' Ll"'-'1 II.Al :f
!:Inn
1r\f 1i-AI tho -:1ir \A1!:lc
l""" '-1 '"""" '-"II 'WY........_"'-'
There is a thin layer of air in direct contact with the wing surface, which, due to skin friction, is
actually stationary (relative to the wing). This is called the boundary layer. In these

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discussions we will disregard the boundary layer and assume that the airflow is unaffected by
friction.
As air streams past the wing of a plane, the speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing
is greater than the speed of the air past the lower surface of the wing.
These exact speeds are determined by the shape of the wing and the angle of attack.
For example, if the speed of the relative wind (equal to the speed of the plane) is 200 MPH, the
speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing may be 21 O MPH and the speed of air past
the lower surface of the wing may be 195 MPH. As indicated above, the exact values for a given
case depend on the shape of the wing and the angle of attack.
In this example, we could say that the speed past the upper surface of the wing is [1.05 (200
MPH)] and the speed past the lower surface if the wing is [0.975 (200 MPH)].
In figure 2.77, the following symbols apply:
P1 = pressure on the upper surface of the wing

vo
--r-----___
-. �
P1
P2 = pressure on the lower surface of the wing '\_� A>B
Vo = relative wind velocity V2 P2
V1 = Wind velocity over upper surface
V2 = Wind velocity over lower surface Figure 2.77: Velocities and pressures
p = density of the air above and below an aerofoil
We apply Bernoulli's principle
We note that the ones refer to the upper surface and the twos apply to the lower surface of the
wing.
When finding the lift on a wing, the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces is
found from the above equation, and, since Force= Pressure x Area, simply multiply the
calculated pressure difference by the area of the wing, thus:
and Lift (or Force)= .1.P x Area
Lift = AP x Area
(Note: In some questions, the weight of the aircraft will be quoted. Thus, if the aircraft is flying
straight and level, the Lift= Weight).

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Problems
1 , An aeroplane having wing area 500 ft2 is moving at 300 ft/sec. The speed of the air
moving past the top surface of the wing is 400 fUsec. and the speed of the air past the
bottom surface of the wing is 200 ft/sec. The density of the air is 0.0025 slug/ft3. What is
the lift?
2. An aeroplane having wing area 400 ff is cruising at 230 ft/sec. The speed of the air
moving past the top surface of the wing is 240 ft/sec and the speed of the air past the
bottom surface of the wing is 230 ft/sec. The density of the air is 0.0025 slug/ft3. What is
the weight of the aeroplane?
3. An aeroplane is cruising at 310 ft/sec. The speed of the air moving past the top surface
of the wing is 340 ft/sec and the speed of the air past the bottom surface of the wing is
300 ft/sec. The density of the air is 0.001 slug/ft3 The weight of the aeroplane is 12,800
lbs. What is the wing area?

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Answers
1. 75,000 lbs.
2. 2350 lbs.
3. 1000 ft2

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TTS Integrated
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Module 2
Physics
2.3 Thermodynamics
Module 2.3 Thermodynamics 3-1

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Knowledge Levels - Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance

Licence
3) against each applicable subject Category C applicants must meet either the category B 1 or the category B2
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject
Objectives:
examples.
LEVEL 2
• An ability to apply that knowledge,
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate. typical
examples.
subject.
subject
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject
manner.
Objectives:
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject
describing the subject
·
• The applicant �hould he able to apply his !<nowlerlge in a practici:tl manner using manufacturer �
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Module 2.3 Thermodynamics

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Table of Contents
Module 2.3 Thermodynamics _______ 5

Temperature 5
The Gas Laws 11
Thermal Expansion 23
Heat 33
Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 49
Thermodynamics and the ·j st and 2nd Laws 57

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Objective
Reference 81 82
Thermodynamics 2.3 2 2
(a )
Temperature: thermometers and temperature
scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin; Heat
definition ---·----
------;
(b ) 2 2 ·-
Heat capacity, specific heat ------- -1

Heat transfer: convection. radiation and
I
conduction; _!_
_____
i
______··--· ·-··-··---·······-······---
Volumetric expansion I ----·---·
First and second law of thermodvnamics -··-··--
Gases: ideal gases laws; specific heat at

constant volume and constant pressure, work
done by expanding Qas
Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and
compression, engine cycles, constant volume
and constant pressure, refrigerators and heat
pumps
Latent heats of fusion and evaporation, thermal
energy, heat of combustion

3-4
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Temperature
Temperature Scales
Our common notion of hot and cold has its precise expression in the concept of temperature. As
objects are heated their molecules move faster. In a solid the molecules vibrate more rapidly. In
liquids and gases the molecules move all over in the container at a faster rate of speed. These
variations in speed of the moiecuies cause objects to expand when they are heated.
This expansion can be used to construct instruments called thermometers. The ordinary
mercury thermometer uses the expansion of a volume of mercury contained in a bulb to indicate
temperature.
A number of temperature scales are currently in use. The Fahrenheit scale is the one we have
used most extensively. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32°and its boiling point is
212°. The metric scale is the Celsius or centigrade scale. On this scale the freezing point of
water is zero and the boiling point is 100�
In theory, if we cool any substance enough, we can cause all molecular motion to cease. We
call this lowest possible temperature "absolute zero". Ordinary gases like air would be rock solid
at this temperature. Low temperature physicists have never been able to reach this extremely
low temperature in their laboratories. However, they have come close-down to a fraction of a
centigrade degree. Absolute zero is a limiting temperature which can never be reached. Two
other temperature scaies are used by engineers and experimentai scientists. in both of these
scales the zero of the scale is placed at absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature. These
scales are the metric Kelvin scale and the English Rankin scale.
In Table 3-3, the four temperature scales are compared.
There are formulas that enable us to change from a centigrade reading to a Fahrenheit reading
and vice versa. These formulas are:
5 9
C = -(F -32) and F = -C + 32
9 5
Note that there are parentheses in the first formula but not in the second formula. Be careful!
There are also formulas that change from a centigrade reading to a Kelvin reading and from a
Fahrenheit reading to a Rankin reading. These formulas are very important to us at this time
since we will have to use absolute temperatures in the gas laws.
These formulas are:
K =C +273 and R = F +460

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Boiling Freezing Absolute

Point of Point of Zero
Water Water
Centigrade 100° oo -273°
Kelvin 373 273 0
Fahrenheit 212° 32° -460°
Rankin 672° 492° oo
Table 3.1: Comparisons of boiling points, freezing points and

absolute zero in different units
Notes:
• Kelvin has no 0 sign in-front of the K.
• The accurate conversion factor for 0c to K is +273.15
()
, ---
?It' --- f I ! ioo· � __ ..., ---
,,,.t.--
:!
·1
I '
I
\OO'C IOOK
I
1
Room.
... . .
293 --··-· ____,
-- ·
' �l ....
·"'!
�"li'...;»l';>·' �;t=
"
...... .. '1emperat11.re
"
..--!:l!f;7
J•
:t · ''"""
27,:t,1 5 - j_·,-
····�, 'Wllll.'liaZ'
Falare:nl.eit 1Celsbas Kelvin
Figure 3.1: Temperature scale comparison

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Problems
1. Change 20'C to degrees F.
2. Change -15 'C to degrees F.
3. Change 86'F to degrees C.
4. Change -4'F to degrees C.
5. Change 100'F to degrees R.
6. Change 450'R to degrees F.
7. Change 100'C to degrees K.
8. Change 383 K to degrees C.
9. Gas turbine engine performance is very sensitive to variations in the temperature

of the air. All engines are rated with the air at a standard temperature of 59'F.
What is the equivalent Centigrade temperature?
10. On some large commercial turbojet engines, the temperature at the front end of
the combustion section is approximately 400'C. What is this temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale?
11 . As air enters the combustion chamber of a turbojet fuel is added and the
temperature is raised to about 3.SOO'F in the hotte st part of the flame. What is this
temperature on the Centigrade scale?

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3-8 Module 2.3 Thermodynamics

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Answers
1. 68'F
2. 5'F
3. 30'C
4. -20'C
5. 56o<R
6. -10'F
7. 373 K
8. 110CC
9. 15CC
10. 752'F
11. 1,930'C

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The Gas Laws

We will next discuss the volume and density of gases under varying conditions of temperature
and pressure. Three gas laws, named after the scientists that discovered them, will be
considered.
Boyle's Law
A cylinder containing gas is fitted with a light piston. This cylinder contains a certain mass of gas
and therefore a certain number of molecules of gas. The gas has a definite absolute
temperature. This temperature is a measure of the average speed of the gas molecules in the
sample. Some of the molecules are moving faster and some are moving slower. The average
speed determines the temperature.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant and the volume of the gas sample is decreased,
the molecules, still moving with the same average speed, are "squashed" into a smaller space
(see figure 3.2).
The result is that the sides of the container experience more collisions per unit time. This results
in an increase in the absolute pressure the molecules exert on the walls of the container.
Note that a decrease in volume produces an increase in absolute pressure. This is

characteristic of an inverse proportion. We write the equation as:
P1
-==-
V2
P2 V1
If we cross multiply in the above equation we

reach the form in which Boyle's Law is usually
written:
I o+
0
- -" t I
� �
Here P 1 and P2 are the absolute pressures

corresponding to the volumes V1 and V2
\, \ !
t
respectively. In working with Boyle's Law, it
must always be remembered to use absolute ,.-0
"°
pressures.
�
Figure 3.2: Boyle's Law

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EXAMPLE :
2
A cylinder fitted with a piston contains gas at a pressure of 35.5 lbs./in as indicated by a
gauge mounted to the outside of the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 lbs./in2 if the
piston is forced down reducing the volume in the cylinder to one fourth of its original volume
while holding the temperature of the gas constant, determine the new reading on the pressure
gauge.
P1=(35.5+14.5) lbs./in2
P 1 = 50 ibs./in2
Solving for P2 gives,
P2 = 200 ibs./in2 absolute
We still must express this new pressure as a gauge pressure since the problem asked for the
new reading on the pressure gauge. Our final answer is:
2
P2 = (200 - 14.5) lbs./in = 18 6 lbs./in2
Charles' Law
Toward the end of the 18th century, investigations carried out by French physicists, Jacques
Alexandre Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac led to the discovery of a relation between the
volume and absolute temperature of gases under conditions of constant pressure.
Let us again consider a sample of gas containing a definite number of molecules. We stipulate
that the pressure on this sample of gas will remain constant. If the pressure is to remain
constant, an increase in absolute temperature must be accompanied by a corresponding
increase in volume (see figure 3.3).

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in
We say that the volume is directly proportional to

the absolute temperature. provided that the o-+
pressure remains constant. We write the
equation as: r:?' t
� �
��if' A
"b
d"'t! � \, �
+ � �
The absolute temperatures must be either
Kelvin, or Rankin degrees. + ...-0
? o-+ � ,? �
Figure 3.3: Charles' Law
·-·--·-·--·-
-
· ----.
EXAMPLE:
A quantity of air occupies a volume of one cubic foot on a day when the temperature is 15'F.
What will be the volume of this quantity of air when the temperature increases to 85'F, and
the pressure stays the same?
1 ft3 v2
;:::: - -
475°R 545°R
Note that we have changed the temperatures from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankin,
because we must express the temperatures in absolute units. Cross multiplying, we obtain:
V2 ft 3 x
1 545 R
= o = 1 . 15 ft 3
475°R
Failure to convert to absolute temperatures will always lead to incorrect answers when
working with the gas laws!

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Gay-Lussac's Law
This third gas law relates the absolute pressure

to the absolute temperature of a gas when its � �
c? t <?' t
volume is held constant.
Again we consider a certain number of

molecules of gas in a closed container where the
volume of the gas is held constant If we
� � � �
b""' � \ t b""' � \ t
increase the absolute temperature of the gas,
the average speed of the molecules increases.
As these molecules strike the walls of the .... ,..
container they exert a greater pressure since

they are moving faster (see figure 3.4).
t ..-0 � ..-0
.
"° � "° �
Using absolute pressures and temperatures the
following simple relationship is obtained: Figure 3.4: Gay Lussac's Law
This equation is referred to as Gay-Lussac's Law.
EXAMPLE:
The tyre of a bicycle is filled with air to a gauge pressure of 50.0 lbs.fin. at 58'F What is the
gauge pressurn in tr1e tyrn on a day when the temperature rises to 86"F? Assume that the
2
volume of the tyre does not change and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lbs.fin.
We must first convert to absolute temperatures and pressures.
2 2 2
P1 = 50.0 lbs./in +14.7 lbs./in = 64.7 ibs./in
T1 = 460 + 58'F = 518'R
T2 = 460 + 86'F = 546'R
Substituting these values into Gay-Lussac's Law gives:
64.7 lbs/in2 P2
=
518°R 546°R
2
Solving for P2, we obtain P2 = 68.2 ibs./in . Finaiiy, the new gauge pressure is obtained by
subtracting the atmospheric pressure from P2•
2 2 2
68.2 lbs./in - 14.7 lbs./in = 53.5 lbs./in

3-14
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The General (Ideal) Gas Law

The three properties, pressure, temperature, and volume are interrelated for a fixed mass
(number of molecules) of gas in such a way that if two of them change in value the third can
immediately be determined. Combining the three gas laws the following general gas law can be
written:
Note that this equation gives us the three gas laws that we have studied.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant, we can cancel the temperatures in the
denominators and obtain:
Boyle's Law
If the pressure remains constant, we can cancel the pressures in the numerators and obtain:
Charles' Law
If the volume remains constant, we can cancel the volumes in the numerators and obtain:
Gay-Lussac's Law
EXAMPLE:
2
A tank of helium gas has a gauge pressure of 50.2 lbs/in and a temperature of 45Cf. A piston
decreases the volume of the gas to 68% of its original volume and the temperature drops to
10Cf. What is the new gauge pressure? Assume normal atmospheric pressure.
We must change both temperatures to absolute units. We must change the original gauge
pressure to absolute pressure. We remember that when the final pressure is obtained it will be
in absolute units. We also note that V2::::: 0.68 V1.
P1V1
--::::--
P2V2
T1 T2
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We transfer V2 from the numerator on the right to the denominator on the left. We also
transfer T2 from the denominator on the right to the numerator on the left. In this way, we
solve our formula for P 2.
P1V1T2
- p2
-
T1V 2
Next we substitute our known values:
p _ ( 64.9 lbs/-in2-)(V1 )(4WR)

2 -
(569R)(-&.68V1)
2
P2 = 88.8 lbs/in Absolute
P2 = 74.1 lbs/in2 (New Gauge Pressure)
'----
--- -·------· · ---
Alternate Form of the General (Ideal) Gas Law

The general gas law tells us that for a fixed quantity of gas, the expression PV/T is constant.
Since PV/T is a constant for a fixed mass of gas, we can set this expression equal to the
product of the mass (m) of the gas and what is referred to as a gas constant (R). This gas
constant (R) varies according to the type of gas. Table 3.2 gives values of R for various gases.
We can write:
PV
=mR
T
PV=mRT
If we divide both sides of this equation by V. we obtain:
We remember that the density of any substance is given by:
m
p=
v
Values of the Gas Constant, R,

for Some Common Gases
Pa m3/kg K ft.lbs/slug 0R
Air 287 1,710
Carbon Dioxide 189 1,130
Helium 2,077 12,380
Nitrogen 297 1,770
Oxygen 260 1,550
Water Vapour 462 2,760
Table 3.2: Gas Constants, R

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Therefore we can write:

P pRT
=
The most important application of this formula enables us to obtain the density of any particular
kind of gas if we know its absolute pressure and absolute temperature.
We write the equation in the form:
p
p=
RT
Note: When comparing the density of one type of gas to another, we need to use equal
temperatures and pressures for each gas (since, as the above equation shows, density
changes with pressure and temperature changes). The temperature and pressure we use for
this is known as Standard Temperature and Pressure. These are 0°C and 1 atmosphere
(273.15 Kand 760 mmHg).
EXAMPLE:
2
Find the density of air if the temperature is 80'F and the absolute pressure is 2.150 lbs./ft
P 2150 �s/ft2
p= =
RT (1710 ft.lbs/slug0R)(540°R)
= 0.00233 slug/ft3
Application of the General Gas Law to Compressors

We can apply the general gas law to the flow of air through the compressor of a turbojet engine.
The function of the compressor is to provide a large quantity of high pressure air to the limited
space of the combustion chamber. The reason for this is that the energy released in the
combustion chamber is proportional to the mass of air consumed. The pressure of the air when
it leaves the compressor is called the compressor discharge pressure (CDP) and the ratio of
this to the compressor inlet pressure (CIP) is the compression ratio. That is,
. CDP
Compressron a 10
Rf
= CIP
Note that the compression ratio can also be expressed as:
Compression Ratio= p
n
2
r1
where the 1's refer to the inlet pressure and the 2's to the discharge pressure.
Air entering a compressor having a compression ratio of 12.5:1 at a pressure of 14.7 PSIA will
leave with a pressure of:

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(12.5)(14.7) =
184 PSIA
If however, the temperature of the air is increased too much in the compression process the
volume of a quantity of air entering the combustion chamber will not be reduced significantly
and the compressor efficiency will be low.
EXAMPLE:
A quantity of air occupying 1 cu.ft. at pressure of 14.7 PSIA and a temperature of 59'F enters
the compressor of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 12.5:1 and is discharged at
a temperature of 2,000r. \IVith what voiume wiii thi s quantity of air enter the combustion
�m�� I'
Solving our general equation: 1.
Therefore, we can substitute our given values:
v2 = (1 ft 3 > (
2000 +460
59+460
)( )
12.5
-1-
EXAMPLE:
With what volume would the quantity of air of the previous problem enter the combustion
chamber if the discharge temperature of the compressor were 750'F instead of 2,000'F?
v2 = (1 ft3 ) ( 750 +460

59+460
)( )
-1-
12.5
V2 = 0.187 ft.3
We see that the volume of the original cubic foot of air is less (0.187 ft. 3) when the
. . . --- - .. - · - · - - -- -· '). . . . - - - . -
temperature 1s f!>Ur tnan 1t 1s (U.::Sf� ft.�) when the temperature 1s 2,UUOr.

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Problems
1. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The absolute pressure of
the gas is 240 kPa when the volume is 0.15 m3. What will the volume be when the
absolute pressure of the gas is changed to 80 kPa while the temperature is held
constant?
2. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The gauge pressure of the
gas in the cylinder is 335 lbs/in2 when the volume occupied by the gas is 72in3 What is
the gauge pressure when the volume is decreased to 60 in3? Assume atmospheric
pressure to be 15 lbs/in2, and assume that the temperature is held constant.
3. A sample of nitrogen is held at an absolute pressure of 1.50 atmospheres and a volume

of 7.80 m3. A piston gradually reduces the volume to 6.30 m3. The temperature does not
change. What is the new absolute pressure in atmospheres?
4. A volume of 1.35 m3 of air at 1TC is heated to 427� while its pressu re is held constant.
What is the volume of the gas at this elevated temperature.
5. A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an absolute pressure of 5,000 lbs/ft2. The

temperature is 190'F. What is the density of this c arbon dioxide?
6. The air pressure and density at a point o n the wing of a Boeing 747 flying at altitude are
70 kPa, and 0.9 kg/m3 respectively. What is the temperature at this point on the wing in
degrees Centigrade?
7. The Goodyear non-rigid airship, the Mayflower, has a volume of 4000 m3 and is filled with
helium to an absolute pressure of 100 kPa. The temperature is 2TC. Find the density
and total mass of the helium in the ship.
8. At an altitude of 8,000 ft. the absolute temperature of air is 500� and the absolute
pressure is 1600 lbs/ft2. What is the density of air at this altitude?
9. A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an absolute pressure of 5,830 lbs/ft2 and a

temperature of 70'F. What is the density of this ca rbon dioxide?
10. A quantity of air occupying 0.9 ft3 at a pressure of 15 PSIA and a temperature of 40'F
enters the compressor of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 13:1 and is
discharged at a temperature of 1,540'F. With what v olume will this quantity of air enter
the combustion chamber?

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Answers
3
1. 0 45m
.
2. 405 lb./in2
3. 1.86 atmosphere
4. 3.26 m3
3
5. 0.007 slug/ft
6. - 2'(;
3
7. 0.16 kg/m , 640 kg
3
8. 0.00 188 slug/ft
3
9. 0.01 slug/ft
10. 0.3 ft3

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Thermal Expansion
The temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of that
body. It follows that molecules of warm liquids and gases move around faster in their containers
than molecules of cool liquids and gases. A s a solid is heated its molecules vibrate faster about
their equilibrium positions. As a result of this increased motion of molecules as they are heated,
solids and liquids expand as the temperature is raised.
We're going to return to the idea of how temperature is related to molecular motion later, but
first let's look at what happens to materials when they change temperature. Let's say that
you've got a jar lid that's stuck and you want to get it off_ How can you do this? One common
way is by running the jar under hot waier so that the jar iid expands and can corne off the jar.
Thinking back to our model of solids, if temperature is a measure of how fast things are moving,
when a solid heats up, the molecules vibrate about their normal positions. At higher
temperature, they vibrate more and the material actually grows in size. When a material is
cooled, the molecules don't move as much and the material shrinks.
If we look at a long strip of metal, with length L0, we might want to find out what its change in
length is under certain conditions. This is important, for instance, in building roads that must
undergo temperature extremes. Experimentally, we find that the change in length is directly
related to the change in temperature and to the initial length of the bar. The dependence on the
initial length of the bar comes about because there are that many more molecules moving, so
the change in length will be greater than that of a shorter bar.
But let's think back to the jar. When you heat the lid, you're also heating the glass, too. Doesn't
the glass also expand? The answer is that it does, but it expands less than the material from
which the lid is made. This means that we somehow have to account for the fact that different
materials expand or contract by different amounts under the same temperature change.
Let's try to arrange these materials on a scale. The way we account for the different rates of
different materials in out equation is via the coefficient of linear expansion, a. a has units of
l'C (pronounced 'per degree Celsius') .

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Linear Expansion
A rod of a substance will increase its length for a given temperature change. The increase in
length depends on the original length of the rod, the temperature change, and the material of
the rod. The increase in size of the object comes about by the fact that an increase in
temperature results in a n increase in kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms which make up
the material. Increasing the movement of the molecules forces it to occupy more space.
We define alpha (a), the coefficient of linear expansion. Tables of values of alpha for various
substances are found in handbooks of physics.
The formula is:
A L =a La AT
In this formula,
Lo = the original length of the rod

ex =
the coefficient of linear expansion
AL = the change in length of the rod
AT= the change in temperature
Area Expansion
Two-dimensional solid bodies also experience thermal area expansion. The formula is as
follows:
AA = 2a Ao AT
In this formula,
Ao =
the original area of the body
u =
the coefficient of linear expansion
M = the change in area of the
body
COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION (a)
�T =
the change in
SUBSTANCE· 0
temperature perF
Aluminum 13 x 10-6 l
I
Brass 10 x 10-6
Concrete (varies) 5 )( 1r
Copper 9.4 x 10-6
Gian (PyreX) 1.6 x 1r
Ice 28 � 10...a
Iron 6.6 )( 10-6
Lead 16 )( 10--6
Steel 11 )( 10--6
Table 3.3: Coefficients of Linear Expansion

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Volume Expansion
Three-dimensional solid bodies experience volume expansion.
AV =3aVoAT
In this formula:
V0 = the original volume of the body

a = the coefficient of linear expansion
11V = the change in volume of the body
�T = the change in temperature
Expansion of Liquids and Gases

We have a minor problem with our expression for the thermal expansion of solids, which is that
it only works for solids. Neither liquids nor gases have a fixed shape when left on their own. The
expression also fails if you have to consider the expansion of a solid in all directions.
f3 iscalled the coefficient of volume expansion. For solids,·� is approximately equal to 3a. This
is true only when the change in volume is small compared to the original volume. The problem
is that for liquids and gases, � is very large and this formula sometimes won't work.
Liquids also experience thermal

expansion. We introduce beta COEFFICIENTS OF VOWME EXPANSION �)
(�),the coefficient of volume
LIQUIDS perF°
expansion. There are also tables
of the coefficients of volume Ethyl Alcohol o.so x 1r
expansion.
Methyl Alcohol 0.66 >< 1r
Benzene 0.69 x 1a-3
Gaaollne 0.58 )( 10�
Table 3.4: Coefficients of Volume Expansion
Generally, liquids expand more than solids, and gases much more than liquids, for any given
change in temperature. This is because the molecules of liquids are not tied to each other and
have more room and freedom to vibrate than do the molecules or atoms in solids. The
molecules of gases of course, are completely free to move, and thus will move much more
vigorously when heated than either solids or liquids

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The Interesting Case of Water

Most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. Water is an exception. Between
OCC and 4CC, water actually expands when cooled. Ab ove this range, it behaves normally.
Water therefore has its greatest density at 4CC. Th is turns out to be quite important for things
that live underwater. In the winter, you notice that the top of a pond always freezes first. As the
temperature decreases, there is a temperature gradient in the water. The top will be cooler than
the bottom because it is in contact with the cold air. When the water on the top of the lake
reaches 4'C, it becomes denser and sinks to the bottom of the lake, being replaced by warmer
water from the bottom. The water that is now on top cools to 4'C. and so on 1 until the whole
lake is at 4'C. The surface water cools even more, but now it is less dense than the water below
it, so it stays on the top of the lake and turns to ice (which is even less dense than cold water). If
the ice sank instead of floating, the lake would freeze all the way through and pretty much
everything inside would die. The layer of ice additionally acts as an insulator, keeping the rest of
the water away from the surface and the colder environment.
EXAMPLE:
A steel rail of length 140 ft. Is laid down when the temperature is 20Cf. What is the increase in
length of this rail when the temperature is 95Cf?
AL = a L0AT
AL = (11 x 10-6/°F) (140 ft.) (75 °F)
AL = 0.116 ft.
EXAMPLE:
An aluminium tank has volume 35 ft. 3 What is the increase in volume of this tank when the
temperature increases from 30'F to 90'F?
It should be noted that a solid block of a substance increases in volume as the body is heated.
Also, a container has a bigger volume as the temperature of the container increases.
!iV = 3<x V0AT

!iV = 3 (13 X 10-6/°F) (35 ft.3) (60 °F)
tiV = 0.0819 ft.3

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EXAMPLE:
The manager of an airport accepts delivery of 1,000 gallons of avgas on a cool evening when
the temperature is 35'F. This avgas completely fill s a 1,000 gallon aluminium tank. A warm
front moves in the next morning and the temperature rises to 95'F. How much avgas will
overflow?
If the avgas costs £1.25/gal. what is the loss to the airport?
For the gasoline:
!.iV = �V01.iT
f).V = (0.58 x 1 0 3/° F) (1,000 gal.) (60 °F)
-
11V = 34.8 gal.
For the tank:
AV=�Vo!.iT
l.iV = 3(13 x 10-6/°F) (1,000 gal.) (60 °F)
tiV = 2.3 gal.
The new volume of the avgas is 1,034.8 gal. and the new volume of the tank is 1,002.3 gal.
We note that 32.5 gallons of avgas will overflow!
Loss £1.25/gal. x 32.5 gaL = £40.63.
EXAMPLE:
A motorist puts 20.1 gallons of petrol in his gas tank on a hot summer day when the
temperature is 95'F. He uses 0.1 gal. in driving ho me. The temperature falls to 45'F that
evening after a cool front has moved into the area. How many gallons are in his tank the next
morning when he leaves for work?
t!V ::: �Vo t!T

&V = (0.58 x 10-6fF) (20 gal.) (50 °F)
�v = 0.58 gal.
There are 19.42 gallons of petrol in his tank the next morning!

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Problems
1. A 90 ft. aluminium rail is put in place on a hot summer day when the temperature is 85�.
What is the decrease in length of this rail when the temperature is 35 �?
2. A 150 ft. steel rail is put in place when the temperature is 35�. What is the increase in
length of this rail when the temperature is 95Cf?
3. A concrete bridge is laid down in sections with some space between sections to allow for
expansion. The length of one section is 250 ft. The lowest recorded temperature in the
area is -45 'F and the highest recorded temperatu re is 115 Cf'. How much space should
the builders leave between each section?
4. The volume of an aluminium tank is 200 gallons on a day when the temperature is 30 Cf'
It is completely filled with gasoline from a supply truck. The temperature rises to 70Cf'
when a warm front moves in. How many gallons of gasoline overflow?

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Answers
1. 0.0585 ft
2. 0.099 ft.
3. 0.20 ft
4. 3.7 gallons

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Heat
We recall that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules or atoms in
a gas, and therefore the average velocity, of the molecules of the substance whose temperature
is being measured.
Heat is a measure of the total energy of molecular motion. The more molecules that are moving,
the greater is the heat energy. Let us compare a teaspoon of water at 1 OOF with a cup of water
at 50F. The molecules of water in the teaspoon are moving faster than the molecules of water
in the cup. However, since we have so many more molecules in the cup, the heat energy in the
cup is greater than the heat energy in the teaspoon. If the teaspoon of water is placed on a
large block of ice and the cup of water is also placed on this block of ice, the cup of water at
SO'F would melt more ice than the teaspoon of water at 1 OO'F.
There are definite units for measuring heat energy. The units are theBtu (British thermal unit)
and the metric units, the large Calorie (written with a capital "C") and the small calorie.
The definitions are:
1 British thermal unit (Btu) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water 11=
1 Calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of

water 1CC
(Note: 1Calorie=4186 J, 1Btu=0.252 Cal.)
1 calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
1CC
1 Celsius Heat Unit (CHU) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water 1CC
(Note: The CHU is a mix of English and Metric units and is rarely used).
When we talk about the heat content of fuel (which must be burned to be released) -
commonly called the heat of combustion, we talk about Calories per lb. of fuel, orBtu per lb. of
fuel, or Joules per kg of fuel. Since 1Btu = 252 calories, and 1 calorie = 4.186 Joules, there are
1055 Joules in 1 Btu. And since 1 lb.= 2.2 kg, 1 Btu/lb.= 2326 J/kg.
We note that the Calorie is the famous dietary Calorie. The body stores excess food as fat and
we measure the Calories in a certain foodstuff by burning these foodstuffs and measuring the
heat produced!
In the solution of heat problems, we will limit our discussion to the English system, since this is
the system that is most often encountered in our society.

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As heat is added to a body its temperature increases. However, the same amount of heat
added to a piece of aluminium and a piece of copper will not produce the same temperature
change. Aluminium and copper have different "specific heats".
The important equation is the following:
Q=wCAT (when using English units)
In this equation:
Q =heat gained or lost (Btu)

w =weight of the body (lb.)
C =the specific heat of the substance Btu/lb.°F
AT= the temperature change (°F or 0R)
Q = mCAT (when using Metric units)
In this equation:
Q =heat gained or lost (J)

m =mass of the body (kg)
C =the specific heat of the substance (J/kg°C)
AT= the temperature change (°C or K)
It is important to note that this equation deals with substances that are not changing their states
of matter. Another equation will deal with heat added or lost as a body changes from one state
(solid, liquid, or gas) to another.
Since there are two equations, (depending on whether you are using English or Metric units)
there are also two sets of Specific Heat Capacity constants.
Table 3.5 shows various specific heats of substances in English and Metric units.

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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES
Liquids J/kg K Btu/lb°F
Acetic acid 2130 0.51

Alcohol 2930 0.70
Ammonia 470 0.11
Paraffin 2140 0.51
Petroleum 2090 0.50
Turpentine 1980 0.33
Water, fresh 4190 1.00
Water, sea 4°C 3940 0.93
I
Metals
Aluminium 912 0.212

Antimony 214 0.051
Copper 389 0.093
Gold 130 0.031
Iron 460 0.110
Lead 130 0.031
Mercury 138 0.033
Nickel 452 0.108
Platinum 134 0.032
Silver 234 0.056
Tin 230 0.055
Zinc 393 0.094
Solids
Asbestos 84 0.20
Ashes 84 0.20
Asphalt 80 0.19
Brick 92 0.22
Carbon 71 0.17
Coal 1310 0.314
Coke 850 0.203
Concrete 1130 0.27
Cork 2030 0.485
Glass 840 0.20
Granite 750 0.18
Graphite 710 0.17
Ice 2110 0.504
Wood 2300-2700 0.55-0.65
Table 3.5: Specific Heat Capacities of some

common substances

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---
Gases have a different specific heat capacity depending upon whether they are held at constant
volume or constant pressure. Therefore all gases, as well as having a specific heat capacity,
also has a value of its ratio of Cp to Cv.
For example:
Specific Heat Capacity of Dry Air:
at Constant Pressure, 1004 JI K kg

at Constant Volume, 717 JI K kg
Cp
Therefore Yair = - =
1. 4
Cv
Also Gp - Cv = R (the ideal gas constant we saw in Chapter 4).
Since both R and y are always positive values, and greater than 1, Gp is always greater than
Cv.
EXAMPLE:
How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of a 32 lb. aluminium fitting from
60'F to 90F?
Q = wCliT (imperial)
Q = ( 0.212
Btu
lb.ft.
) (32 lbs.)(30°F)
Q = 204 Btu.
EXAMPLE:
How much heat is given up as 100 lbs. of sea water cools from 90'F to SO'F?
Q = wC/1T (imperial)
Q = l0.93-==-
( Rt11 \
lb.ft J
(100 lbs.)(40°F)
Q = 3720 Btu.

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Heat Exchange
When hot bodies and cool bodies are mixed heat exchange occurs. The heat lost by the hot
body equals the heat gained by the cold body:
Heat lost = Heat Gained
On each side of this equation there is a wC8T term. In writing an expression for �T, we always
express this change as the larger temperature minus the smaller temperature.
I EXAMPLE:
If 5,000 lbs. of sea water at 1 OO'F are mixed with 7 ,000 lbs. of ordinary water at 40'F, what is
the final temperature of the mixture?
We note that, if the final temperature is T, the temperature 100° is more than T and the
temperature 40°is less than T. Therefore the tempe rature change of the sea water is (100 -
T) and the temperature change of the ordinary water is (T - 40).
Heat Lost = Heat Gained
In setting up the wC8T left and right members of the above equation, we will not include the
units. However we will note that the weights must be in lbs. and the temperature changes in
Fahrenheit degrees.
(0.93) (5,000) (100 - T) = (1.00) (7,000) (T - 40)
465,000 - 4,650 T = 7,000 T - 280,000
745,000 = 11,650 T
T = 63.9 °F

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Cooling and Heating Curves

When a substance changes phase, that is it goes from either a solid to a liquid or liquid to gas,
the energy, it requires energy to do so. The potential energy stored in the inter-atomic forces
between molecules needs to be overcome by the kinetic energy of the motion of the particles
before the substance can change phase.
If we measure the temperature of the substance which is initially solid as we heat it we produce
a graph like Figure 3.5.
,/
o,0
·
phase change
{vapourisation)
:S
.O'
..::
\
\ phase change
(melting)
Energy Input
Figure 3.5: Temperature change with time. Phase

changes are indicated by flat regions where heat
energy used to overcome attractive forces between
molecules
Starting a point A, the substance is in its solid phase, heating it brings the temperature up to its
melting point but the material is still a solid at point B. As it is heated further, the energy from the
heat source goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms in place. This takes place from B to
C. At point C all of the solid phase has been transformed into the liquid phase. Once again, as
energy is added the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles raising the temperature,
(C to D). At point D the temperature has reached its boiling point but it is still in the liquid phase.
From points D to E thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the particles have enough
kinetic energy to escape from the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase. Beyond E,
further heating under pressure can raise the temperature still further is how a pressure cooker
works.
Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of melting and boiling.

3-38
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Note: Since 'fusion' (meaning 'to melt') is the opposite of 'solidification', the Latent Heat of
Fusion is the same as the Latent Heat of Solidification. Also, since 'vaporisation' is the opposite
of 'condensation', the Latent Heat of Vaporisation is the same as the Latent Heat of
Condensation.
A heating curve summarises the changes:
solid => liquid => gas
The principle of latent heat (especially of vaporization) is what is behind the operation of the
fridge and air conditioning system, water injection of gas turbine engines, and the cooling effect
you feel when you perspire.
That principle is that if you make a fluid vaporize, it extracts heat (latent heat) to cause it to
vaporize, but the fluid does not change temperature.
Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation

The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat. The word
latent means hidden. When the phase change is from solid to liquid we must use the latent heat
of fusion, and when the phase change is from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of
vaporisation.
The latent heat energy required is given by the formula:
Q=ml
where m is the mass of the substance and L is the specific latent heat of fusion or vaporisation
which measures the heat energy to change 1 kg of a solid into a liquid.
Some values of Specific Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporisation are shown in table 3.6.
Specific
Specific Freezing latent heat Boiling
Substance latent heat of Temperature of Temperature
fusion kJ/kg <C vaporisation <(;
kJ/kg
Water 334 0 2258 100
Ethanol 109 -114 838 78
Chloroform 74 -64 254 62
Mercury 11 -39 294 357
Sulphur 54 115 1406 445
Hydrogen 60 -259 449 -253
Oxygen 14 -219 213 -183
Nitrogen 25 -210 199 -196
Table 3.6: Latent heats, freezing points and boiling points of some common
substances

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Further Discussion on Latent Heat

Each time water changes physical state, energy is involved.
In the vapour state, the water molecules are very energetic. The molecules are not bonded with
each other, but move around as single molecules. Water vapour is invisible to us, but we can
feel its effect to some extent, and water vapour in the atmosphere is a very important factor in
weather and climate.
In the liquid state, the individual molecules have less energy, and some bonds form, break, then
re-form. At the surface of liquid water, molecules are continually moving back and forth from the
liquid state to the vapour state. At a given temperature, there will be an equilibrium between the
number of molecules leaving the liquid, and the number of molecules returning.
In solid water--ice--the molecules are locked together in a crystal structure:

a framework. They are not moving around, and they contain less energy.
How do you make water evaporate? Here is a bowl of water. Make the
water evaporate. Go ahead.
How did you make the water evaporate? Probably you added heat. You
might have put it out in the sun, or possibly put it over a fire. To make
water evaporate, you put energy into it. The individual molecules in the
water absorb that energy, and get so energetic that they break the hydrogen bonds connecting
them to other water molecules. They become molecules of water vapour. Evaporation is the
change of state from liquid to vapour. In the process of evaporation, the molecule absorbs
energy. This energy is latent heat. Latent means hidden, so latent heat is "hidden" in the water
molecule-we can't feel it, but it is there. Wherever that individual molecule of water vapour
goes, it takes that latent heat with it. To get the molecule of water vapour to become liquid
again, we have to take the energy away, that is, we have to cool it down so that it condenses
(condensation is the change from the vapour state to the liquid state).
When water condenses, it releases latent heat.
Now, how do you make ice melt? Here is a block of ice, water in the solid
state. Make it melt. Go ahead.
Again, you probably melted the ice by adding energy. The additional
energy was absorbed by the individual molecules of water, which became
so energetic that they broke some of the hydrogen bonds holding the ice crystal together, and
became liquid (that is, the ice melted). This energy is also latent heat, and each molecule of the
liquid water is holding that latent heat. To change the liquid water back to ice, you have to take
that latent heat away, or in other words, cool the water.
Water could change directly from the frozen state to the vapour state without passing through
the liquid state first. This process is called sublimation. Water can also change from the
vapour state to the frozen state without passing through the liquid state. This is usually called
deposition, and is what you see when frost forms on grass or windows on a cold night.
(Sometimes the term sublimation is used when water changes state in either direction, that is,
from solid to vapour, or vapour to solid).

3-40
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The really important thing to remember is that each time water changes state, energy is
absorbed or released. This energy is latent heat. Latent heat is the energy absorbed or
released when a substance changes its physical state. Latent heat is absorbed upon
evaporation, and released upon condensation to liquid (as in clouds). Latent heat is also
absorbed when water melts, and released when it freezes.
How much heat does it take to get water to change state? if the water is at a temperature of
100 degrees C (that is, the boiling point, or 212 degrees F) it takes an additional 540 calories of
heat to convert one gram of water from the liquid state to the vapour state. When the vapour
converts to the liquid state, 540 calories of energy will be released per gram of water. If you are
converting solid water (ice) to liquid water at 0 degrees C, it will require about 80 calories of
hA::it tn mP.lt onP. or;;im
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Latent heat of fuslon-80 calorite:s·
Figure 3.6: Ice, water and water-vapour
Water does not have to be at the boiling point to evaporate. if you don't believe this, set a pan
of water out in the sun and watch it slowly disappear. The sun's heat is not boiling the water,
but it is evaporating it. in a given amount of water at a given temperature, some molecules of
water will have more energy than others, so some molecules will be able to evaporate, while
others remain in the liquid state. The lower the temperature of the water, the more energy is
required for evaporation. if the water is liquid at a temperature of 0 degrees C, the latent heat of
vaporization is 597 cal/g, compared to 540 cal/g at 100 degrees C. in between, at 50 degrees
C, an input of 569 cal/g would be required for evaporation.
It will take a total of about 720 calories per gram to sublimate water, that is change it directly
from ice at O degrees C, to vapour at 100 degrees C: this includes 80 calories from latent heat
of fusion (melting) + 100 calories to raise the temperature of the water 100 degrees C + 540
calories to make the liquid water evaporate (latent heat of vaporization). Similarly, about 720

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calories per gram will be released when water is changed directly from vapour to ice, the
process called deposition.
Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by one or more of the following processes:
Convection is the transfer of heat by the actual

movement of the warmed matter. Heat leaves a coffee
convection
cup as the currents of steam and air rise. Convection
is the transfer of heat energy in a gas or liquid by
movement of currents. Think of air and water currents!
{it can also happen is some solids, like sand.) The water
heat moves with the fluid. Consider this: convection is
responsible for making macaroni rise and fall in a pot
of heated water. The warmer portions of the water are
less dense and therefore, they rise. Meanwhile, the
cooler portions of the water fall because they are
denser.
Figure 3.7: Heat - convection

Conduction is the transfer of energy
through matter from particle to particle. It is
the transfer and distribution of heat energy
from atom to atom within a substance. For
example, a spoon in a cup of hot soup
becomes warmer because the heat from the
soup is conducted along the spoon.
Conduction is most effective in solids-but it
can happen in fluids. Have you ever noticed direction of heat flow
that metals tend to feel cold? Believe it or
not, they are not colder! They only feel
colder because they conduct heat away from
your hand. You perceive the heat that is Figure 3.8: Heat - conduction
leaving your hand as cold.
Radiation: Electromagnetic waves that directly transport ENERGY through space. Sunlight is a
form of radiation that is radiated through space to our planet at the speed of light without the aid
of fluids or solids. The energy travels through nothingness! Just think of it! The sun transfers
heat through 93 million miles of space. Because there are no solids (like a huge spoon)
touching the sun and our planet, conduction is not responsible for bringing heat to Earth. Since
there are no fluids (like air and water) in space, convection is not responsible for transferring the
heat. Thus, radiation brings heat to our planet.

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Heat Transfer
We know that heat flows through insulating materials from the warm side to the cool side. It is
possible to predict how many Btu will flow through a given insulator in a given amount of time.
The equation is:
Q kMT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES

=--
(Btu-IN./FT •2- HR 0F)
t L
.·
Air 0.17
The equation is less difficult than it
seems at first. We will carefully Corkboard 0.30
define each symbol.
Cotton 0.54
Q = heat flow in Btu
t = time in hours Fiberboard 0.42
A =the surface area of the
insulation in square feet Foam Plastic 0.30
8T the temperature difference

Glass Wool 0.27
=
in °F
L = the thickness of the
Table 3.7: Thermal conductivities of some
Insulation in inches
common materials
k =the thermal conductivity of the
material from which the insulation is made
EXAMPLE:
An outside wall of a house has total cross-sectional area of 2,000 ft.2 The thickness of the
fibreboard insulation is 3 inches. The inside temperature is 70'F and the outside I
temperature is 20'F What is the heat loss per hour through this outside wall?
Q kA8T
=--
t L
Q
=
(0.42 Btu in./ ft2hr°F)(2,000 ft)(SO F)
t 3 in
Q
- = 14,000 Btu/hr
t

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3-44
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Problems
1. How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of 67 lbs. of ethyl alcohol
from 32F to 76 °F?
2. How much heat is given up as 780 lbs. of steel cool from 90F to 45F?
3. If 1 lb. of vodka (alcohol) at 90F is mixed with 0.2 lb. of water at 40F what is the final
temperature?
4. If 3 lbs. of hot water at 200 F are poured into a 1.5 lbs. aluminium container at 40 F,
what is the final temperature?
5. A house has an outside wall area of 3,000 ft2 These walls are insulated with corkboard
4 in. thick. The inside temperature is 75F and the outside temperature is 15F. What is
the heat loss per hour through these outside walls?
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Answers
1. 2,064 Btu
2. 3,860 Btu
3. 79°F
4. 180°F
5. 13,500 Btu/hr

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Refrigeration and Heat Pumps

First of all, did you know that there is no such thing as cold? You can describe something as
cold and everyone will know what you mean, but cold really only means that something contains
less heat than something else. All there really is, is greater and lesser amounts of heat. The
definition of refrigeration is The Removal and Relocation of Heat. So if something is to be
refrigerated, it is to have heat removed from it. If you have a warm can of pop at say 80 degrees
Fahrenheit and you would prefer to drink it at 40 degrees, you could place it in your fridge for a
while, heat would somehow be removed from it, and you could eventually enjoy a less warm
pop. (oh, all right, a cold pop.) But lets say you placed that 40 degree pop in the freezer for a
while and when you removed ft, it was at 35 degrees. Even "cold" objects have heat content that
can be reduced to a state of "less heat content". The limit to this process would be to remove all
heat from an object. This would occur if an object was cooled to Absolute Zero which is -273° C
or -460° F, They come close to creating this temperature under laboratory conditions and
strange things like electrical superconductivity occur
How do things get colder?

Things get cold because they lose heat by one or more of the following methods:
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
Radiation Conduction
Figure 3.9: Summary of radiation, conduction and convection
The latter two are used extensively in the design of refrigeration equipment. If you place two
objects together so that they remain touching, and one is hot and one is cold, heat will flow from
the hot object into the cold object. This is called conduction. This is an easy concept to grasp
and is rather like gravitational potential, where a ball will try to roll down an inclined plane. If you
were to fan a hot plate of food it would cool somewhat. Some of the heat from the food would be
carried away by the air molecules. When heat is transferred by a substance in the gaseous
state the process is called convection. And if you kicked a glowing hot ember away from a
i g heat
bonfire, and you watched it glowing dimmer and dimmer, it is cooling itself by radiatn
ir'"\, .. ,_,1 k..I_,,._ , ....._.. Ar'\ _a...,.;,,...nl ,..,____J... ""-··- ..._ h- _,_,.,;__ ;_ _,,,.,.._.,. ,_ .,_..,...;_,._ 1,.....--.f. -It +L,....;....,. __ 1 •--
GIYVQY. l'IVlt:: LI IOI QI I UUJCvl UVt::.:>11 L 11avii::: LU LJC HIVVVll IH 111 VI UO'I LU I QUIC2l'C' I l'C'cll, 011 LI Ill I�� U�'C'
combinations of these methods to come to equilibrium with their surroundings. So you can see
that in order to refrigerate something, we must find a way to expose our object to something that
is colder than itself and nature will take over from there. We are getting closer to talking about
the actual mechanics of a refrigerating system, but there are some other important concepts to
discuss first.

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The States of Matter

They are of course; solid, liquid and gas. It is important to note that heat must be added to a
substance to make it change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to a gas. It is just as
important to note that heat must be removed from a substance to make it change state from a
gas to a liquid and from a liquid to a solid.
The Magic of Latent Heat
Long ago it was found that we needed a way to quantify heat.

Something more precise than "less heat" or "more heat" or "a great
deal of heat" was required. This was a fairly easy task to accomplish.
They took 1 Lb. of water and heated it 1 degree Fahrenheit. The
amount of heat that was required to do this was called 1 BTU (British
Thermal Unit). The refrigeration industry has long since utilized this
definition. You can for example purchase a 6000 BTU/H window air
conditioner. This would be a unit that is capable of relocating 6000
BTU's of heat per hour. A larger unit capable of 12,000 BTU/H could
also be called a One Ton unit. There are 12,000 BTU's in 1 Ton.
Figure 3.1O: Raising
1lb of by water 1°F
To raise the temperature of 1 LB of water from 40 degrees to 41 degrees would take 1 BTU. To
raise the temperature of 1 LB of water from 177 degrees to 178 degrees would also take 1 BTU.
However, if you tried raising the temperature of water from 212 degrees to 213 degrees you
would not be able to do it. Water boils at 212 degrees and would prefer to change into a gas
rather than let you get it any hotter. Something of utmost importance occurs at the boiling point
of a substance. If you did a little experiment and added 1 BTU of heat at a time to 1 LB of water,
you would notice that the water temperature would increase by 1 degree each time. That is until
you reached 212 degrees. Then something changes. You would keep adding BTU's, but the
water would not get any hotter! it would change state into a gas and it would take 970 BTU's to
vaporize that pound of water. This is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization and in the case of
water it is 970 BTU's per pound.
So what! you say. When are you going to tell me how the refrigeration effect works? Well hang
in there, you have just learned about 3/4 of what you need to know to understand the process.
What keeps that beaker of water from boiling when it is at room temperature? if you say it's
because it is not hot enough, sorry but you are wrong. The only thing that keeps it from boiling
is the pressure of the air molecules pressing down on the surface of the water. When you heat
that water to 212 degrees and then continue to add heat, what you are doing is supplying
sufficient energy to the water molecules to overcome the pressure of the air and allow them to
escape from the liquid state. If you took that beaker of water to outer space where there is no air
pressure the water would flash into a vapour. If you took that beaker of water to the top of Mt.
Everest where there is much less air pressure, you would find that much less heat would be
needed to boil the water. (it would boil at a lower temperature t.lian 212 degrees). So water boils
at 212 degrees at normal atmospheric pressure. Lower the pressure and you lower the boiling
point. Therefore we should be able to place that beaker of water under a bell jar and have a
vacuum pump extract the air from within the bell jar and watch the water come to a boil even at
room temperature. This is indeed the case!

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A liquid requires heat to be added to it in order for it to overcome the air pressure pressing down
on its' surface if it is to evaporate into a gas. We just learned that if the pressure above the
liquids surface is reduced it will evaporate easier. We could look at it from a slightly different
angle and say that when a liquid evaporates it absorbs heat from the surrounding area. So,
finding some fluid that evaporates at a handier boiling point than water (i.e. lower) was one of
the first steps required for the development of mechanical refrigeration.
Chemical Engineers spent years experimenting before they came up with the perfect chemicals
for the job. They developed a family of hydroflourocarbon refrigerants which had extremely low
boiling points. These chemicals would boil at temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit at
atmospheric pressure. So finally, we can begin to describe the mechanical refrigeration
proc.ess.
Co'11presoor
(Low Pressure) (High Pressure)
r;_�-.-�--- ---·--·-·--·· · ·· ······ ···· --"··�·;\.

�- - -----' _
.___ _ �
Evaporator Metering C.ondenser

Device
(Accepts heat) (Rejects heat)
Figure 3.11: Main components of a refrigeration system
There are 4 main components in a mechanical refrigeration system. Any components beyond
these basic 4 are called accessories. The compressor is a vapour compression pump which
uses pistons or some other method to compress the refrigerant gas and send it on it's way to
the condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger which removes heat from the hot
compressed gas and allows it to condense into a liquid. The liquid refrigerant is then routed to
the metering device. This device restricts the flow by forcing the refrigerant to go through a
small hole which causes a pressure drop. And what did we say happens to a liquid when the
pressure drops? if you said it lowers the boiling point and makes it easier to evaporate, then you
are correct. And what happens when a liquid evaporates? Didn't we agree that the liquid will
absorb heat from the surrounding area? This is indeed the case and you now know how
refrigeration works. This component where the evaporation takes place is called the evaporator.
The refrigerant is then routed back to the compressor to complete the cycie. The refrigerant Is
used over and over again absorbing heat from one area and relocating it to another. Remember
the definition of refrigeration? (The removal and relocation of heat)

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So what is a refrigerant?
Remember that a refrigerant, in order to cool the space, must evaporate at the temperature of
the space. So in the case of an air conditioning unit, we need a chemical which will evaporate
(boil) at the temperature of the room you are trying to cool. In the case of a fridge, you need a
chemical which will boil at the temperature of the inside of the fridge. There are hundreds of
chemicals which will do this. Several of the commonest are as follows:
Boiling
Refrigerant Formula temperature Properties Applications
oc
Penetrating odour,
soluble in water.
Ammonia NH3 -33 harmless in concentration Large industrial plants
up to 1/30%, non
flammable, explosive
Little odour, colourless as

C Cl2F2 Small plants with
gas or liquid, non
R12 Chlorodi- -29.8 reciprocating
flammable, non corrosive
fluoromethane compressors.
of ordinary metals. stable
Non flammable, non

Commercial plants with
R11 CCbF 8.9 corrosive non toxic,
centrifugal compressors.
stable
Little odour, colourless as

Packaged air
gas or liquid, non toxic.
conditioning units where
R22 CHCl F2 40 8
-
. non irritating, non
size of equipment and
flammable, non
economy are important.
corrosive, stable
C Cl2 F2 Offers approx. 20%

(73.8%) more refrigeration
RSOO -33 Similar to R12
CH3CH F2 capacity than R12 for
(26.2%) same compressor.
C Cl F2 (48.8%) Non flammable, non

Capacity comparable to
R502 CCI -45.6 toxic, non corrosive,
R22.
FrCf3 (51.2%) stable
f3CCH2F Non flammable, non Totally replaces other

R134a Tetrafluoro- -26.6 toxic, non corrosive, Freon types for auto and
ethane stable aircraft applications
Table 3.8: Some common refrigerants

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The range of refrigerants beginning with the 'R' prefix (R12, R22 etc.) are complex compounds
of fluorocarbons or hydroflourocarbons collectively known as 'Freon'.
Other chemicals could be used and have been used in the past Methyl bromide is a refrigerant
but has almost completely been phased out for safety and environmental reasons. Carbon
dioxide (dry ice) has also been used as a refrigerant (intact at one time Carbon Dioxide and
Ammonia were the only two refrigerants in use) but is no longer used because other complex
formulas are much more efficient.
So is water a refrigerant?
Remember that a refrigerant, in order to cool the space, must evaporate at the temperature of
the space. Unless the room you are trying to cool, or the inside of your fridge, is 1OOoC or
more, water will not work as a refrigerant at normal atmospheric pressure. You would have to
reduce the pressure to almost nothing before water will boil at 0°C (0.089 PSI to be exact). This
is impractical. However, if you want to cool something which is very hot (i.e. over 1 OOoC) like
the rods of a nuclear reactor, then pouring water on it will do the job. In turning to steam
(evaporating) the rods are cooled. This is how cooling towers work -water is poured onto the
hot object at the base of the cooling tower. The water turns to steam and rises (because water
vapour is lighter than air) and expands, which forces it to cool (Charles' Law). The cooled
steam condenses into water which runs down the inside of the cooling tower and back onto the
hot object where the process repeats. So you have water, as a refrigerant, cooling an object in
much the same way as Freon or Ammonia cools the interior of your car, office or fridge.
But also, water can vaporise at temperatures below 100°C, thus missing out the boiling process.
Hence water which exudes from the pores of your skin when you are hot (sweat) evaporates,
and in changing state absorbs the heat from your skin, and cools you. Again water is a
refrigerant. However, to be efficient, it usually helps to have a breeze over the skin to help the
evaporation process.
Heat Pumps
A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the 'source') to another
location (the 'sink' or 'heat sink'), using work. Most heat pump technology moves heat from a
low temperature heat source to a higher temperature heat sink. Common examples are food
refrigerators and freezers and air conditioners and reversible-cycle heat pumps for providing
thermal comfort
Heat pumps can be thought of as a heat engine which is operating in reverse. One common
type of heat pump works by exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing
a refrigerant. In heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC) applications, a heat pump normally
refers to a vapour-compression refrigeration device that includes a reversing valve and
optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow may be reversed. Most commonly,
heat pumps draw heat from the air or from the ground. Air-source heat pumps do not work well
when temperatures fall below around -5'C (23'F).
According to the second law of thermodynamics heat cannot spontaneously flow ·from a colder
location to a hotter area; work is required to achieve this. Heat pumps differ in how they apply
this work to move heat, but they can essentially be thought of as heat engines operating in
reverse. A heat engine allows energy to flow from a hot 'source' to a cold heat 'sink', extracting a

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fraction of it as work in the process. Conversely, a heat pump requires work to move thermal
energy from a cold source to a warmer heat sink.
Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the heat, the amount of energy
deposited at the hot side is greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount
equal to the work required. Conversely, for a heat engine, the amount of energy taken from the
hot side is greater than the amount of energy deposited in the cold heat sink since some of the
heat has been converted to work .
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;
\ .
' /i
\ ... ...
\ ...
Figure 3.12. A heat pump's vapour-compression refrigeration

cycle: 1) condenser, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator,
4) compressor.
The working fluid, in its gaseous state, is pressurized and circulated through the system by a
compressor. On the discharge side of the compressor, the now hot and highly pressurized gas
is cooled in a heat exchanger called a condenser until it condenses into a high pressure,
moderate temperature liquid. The condensed refrigerant then passes through a pressure
lowering device like an expansion valve, capillary tube, or possibly a work-extracting device
such as a turbine. This device then passes the low pressure, barely liquid (saturated vapour)
refrigerant to another heat exchanger, the evaporator where the refrigerant evaporates into a
gas via heat absorption. The refrigerant then returns to the compressor and the cycle is
repeated.
In such a system it is essential that the refrigerant reaches a sufficiently high temperature when
compressed, since the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing from a cold
fluid to a hot heat sink. Similarly, the fluid must reach a sufficiently low temperature when
allowed to expand, or heat cannot flow from the cold region into the fluid. In particular, the
pressure difference must be great enough for the fluid to condense at the hot side and still
evaporate in the lower pressure region at the cold side. The greater the temperature difference,
the greater the required pressure difference, and consequently more energy is needed to
compress the fluid. Thus as with all heat pumps, the energy efficiency (amount of heat moved
per unit of input work required) decreases with increasing temperature difference. Thus a
ground-source heat pump, which has a very small temperature differential, is relatively efficient.
(Figures of 75% and above are quoted.)

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Due to the variations required in temperatures and pressures, many different refrigerants are
available. Refrigerators, air conditioners, and some heating systems are common applications
that use this technology.
In HVAC applications, a heat pump normally refers to a vapour-compression refrigeration

device that includes a reversing valve and optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of
heat flow may be reversed. The reversing valve switches the direction of refrigerant through the
cycle and therefore the heat pump may deliver either heating or cooling to a building. In the
cooler climates the default setting of the reversing valve is heating. The default setting in
warmer climates is cooling. Because the two heat exchangers, the condenser and evaporator,
must swap functions, they are optimized to perform adequately in both modes. As such, the
efficiency of a reversible heat pump is typically slightly less than l'Nc separately-optimized
machines.

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Thermodynamics and the 1st and 2nd Laws

We have already seen, the three thermodynamic processes. Here is a brief recap:
Boyle's Law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other, providing temperature remains
constant (i.e. if you decrease the volume of a gas, its absolute pressure will increase by the
same proportion).
This is an ISOTHERMAL process (ISO means 'equal' and THERMAL means 'temperature')
Charies; Law
Volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other, providing the pressure remains
constant (i.e. if you increase the absolute temperature of an unrestrained volume of gas, its
volume will increase by the same proportion).
This is an ISOBARIC process {BARIC means 'pressure')
Gay Lussac's Law

Pressure and Temperature are directly proportional to each other, providing the volume remains
constant (i.e. if you increase the absolute temperature of a confined gas, its absolute pressure
will increase by the same proportion).
This is an ISOCHORIC process (CHORIC means 'volume' or 'size')
Note that all three processes involve absolute pressures and temperatures, those pressures
which include atmospheric pressure, and temperatures measured in Kelvin or degrees Rankin.
An Adiabatic Process
Another definition to know is that of ADIABATIC. That is:
When a change in the volume and pressure of the contents of a system takes place
without exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings.
Although there is no flow of heat, the system temperature can change as heat energy can be
converted to mechanical work and vice versa.
It is easy to appreciate how Charles' Law and Gay Lussac's Law are NOT adiabatic processes,
since heat clearly must cross the boundary of the system (in both systems heat is added). It
makes no difference to the definition of adiabatic if the heat is added in the form of fuel, which is
subsequently ignited, or the gas is heated from an external heat source such as a flame.
"A. !ittle more difficult to determine, is \•1hether Boyle,s La\A! is an adiabatic process er not. It is
true that no heat is added whilst the gas is compressed, but the natural tendency is for the gas
to rise in temperature as it is compressed (as Charles law tells us). The key then, to performing
a compression under Boyles's Law is to compress the gas so slowly, that any heat which builds
up leaks away before it has a chance to show itself in the form of a temperature rise. The fact

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that heat is leaking away (through the casing of the system) precludes it from being an adiabatic
process.
The definition of adiabatic does not differentiate between heat being added (as in Charles' and
Gay Lussac's Laws), conventionally considered positive, and heat removed (as in Boyle's Law),
conventionally considered negative.
One example of a process which is adiabatic, is that of an air compressor. Inside the cylinder of
an air compressor, as the volume is rabidly reduced, the air is compressed so quickly, that any
rise in temperature does not result in any loss of heat through the cylinder walls -the air being
removed from the cylinder before the heat has a chance to escape. However, if you put your
hands on the air compressor that supplies the air-lines around your hangar, you will almost
certainly find it to be hot. The conclusion is then that an adiabatic process exists mainly in
theoretical terms only, and is very difficult to achieve in practice.
Thermodynamic Work
Most thermodynamic processes are carried out in order to do work - the combustion of fuel
inside your car engine, or inside an aero engine for example. But as we saw previously, to do
work, there must be some movement, and a force in the same direction as that movement.
Consider a piston inside a cylinder as shown

spark p'lug valves
in Figure 3.13. After both valves are closed,
the gas is ignited and it expands. This
expansion pushes the piston down the
cylinder, with a considerable force. Hence,
work is done and can be calculated by
Work= Force x Distance
But the force on the piston is given by
Force= Pressure x Area
Where the Pressure is the pressure of the

crankshaft gas in the cylinder, and the Area is the
piston face area.
Figure 3.13: An internal combustion engine

converts chemical energy into heat energy and
then into mechanical work

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Hence our Work formula is now
Work = Pressure x Area x Distance where 'distance' is the

movement of the piston
Fore�
t
If we simplify the diagram as shown in Figure 3.13, you
will see that the distance that the piston moves,
multiplied by the Area of the piston, equates to the
increase in volume of the gas as it burns.
Figure 3.14: A simplified heat

engine
Our formula for work then becomes:
Work = Pressure x Change in Volume
r.e. Work= P llV Where '11' (delta) indicates a

'change in' the quantity V
This is the standard formula for Work done in a thermodynamic process (it is only applicable to
processes where the volume changes, if the volume does not change, no work is done). It
applies regardless of the direction of work, so if an external force is applied to the piston, the
volume of gas in the cylinder will reduce. The work required to reduce the volume is given by
the same formula.
Thermodynamicists often simplify the formula to
Work= PV
It makes certain assumptions, for example, that the pressure remains constant as the gas
expands. In a piston engine, this is not the case, as the pressure rises to a peak as the gas is
burned, then reduces as the piston is displaced. It is however, a fair assumption to make, in the
case of a gas turbine engine, as the gas in the combustion chamber is burned, and expands at
constant pressure. Even in the case of the piston engine however, the above formula can still
be used in conjunction with some complex calculus (which is not part of the EASA Part-66
syllabus, and way beyond the scope of these notes).

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Internal Energy
Whenever a gas increases in temperature, the molecules of the gas vibrate and move around
more vigorously. It is this increased kinetic energy that actually produces the increased
pressure as they collide with each other and with the walls of the container in which it is
confined. This kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature in the gas.
Thermodynamicists call the sum of this kinetic and potential energies in the gas, "Internal
Energy'', symbol U, and is measured in Joules.
When the temperature of a gas is increased, it will increase in volume (and provide work) or
increase in internal kinetic and potential (due to a rise in pressure) energies - that is, increase
Internal Energy, or more likely, a combination of both volume and internal energy changes.
Enthalpy
The combination of internal energy, and pressure and volume are the most likely things to
change whenever a gas is heated. Since this happens so often in thermodynamics, it is all
grouped together and given its own name and unit. It is called "Enthalpy" and given a symbol
H. It is simply the sum of the internal energy plus the pressure volume product.
Thus Enthalpy H = U + PV
Remember that PV is the work done when a gas expands when it is heated.
Intact, Enthalpy is the amount of energy in a gas which is capable of doing work.
The First Law of Thermodynamics

If you have understood this chapter so far, you will be pleased to know that we have already
covered the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is best thought of by thinking of the air/fuel
mixture that enters your car engine cylinder. It enters at about 15°C and standard atmospheric
pressure. When it is ignited to release all its internal chemical energy as heat energy, it will
expand, push the piston with a certain pressure, and provide work. The chemical energy of the
fuel (before it is ignited) is measured in J/kg, of the order of around 10 MJ/kg.
You would be forgiven for thinking that all the heat energy (symbol Q) released on burning can
be transformed into work (Symbol W), thus:
Heat energy added to system (Q) = Work done by system (W)
However, now imagine that you walk around the car and put your hand over the exhaust. Two
things you will notice; one is that it is considerably hotter than it went into the engine, and two;
that it is considerably higher pressure than when it went into the engine. This is because not all
of the heat energy added to the gas can be turned into useful work, some of the heat energy
added to the gas will leave via the exhaust in the form of Internal Energy (symbol U). Our
formula is now:
Heat energy added to the system (Q) = Work done by the system (W) plus a change in
Internal Energy (U)

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Or in its simplest terms
Q=W+U
t
This is the mathematical version of the 1s Law of Thermodynamics.
It is typical for chemistry texts to write the first law as �U = Q - W. It is the same law, of course -
the thermodynamic expression of the conservation of energy principle. It is just that W is defined
as the work done on the system instead of work done �the system. In the context of physics,
the common scenario is one of adding heat to a volume of gas and using the expansion of that
gas to do work, as in the pushing down of a piston in an internal combustion engine. In the
context of chemical reactions and process, it may be more common to deai with situations
where work is done on the system rather than �it.
Engine designers of course try to minimise the internal energy (U) rise which is wasted through
the exhaust, and maximise the Work output, thus making most efficient use of the chemical
energy locked away in the petrol. But as we will see in the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, an
engine of 100% thermal efficiency (where all the heat energy is transformed into work) is not
possible, theoretically as well as practically.
t
During the mid-eighteenth century, when the 1s law of thermodynamics was discovered, it was
thought possible that an engine could be produced which ran off the heat energy (internal
energy) in the exhaust of another engine. Indeed, it seemed possible theoretically to run an
engine off its own exhaust. This led to much research into such a machine. which would have
been the invention of perpetual motion. This same research led only to the conclusion that such
a machine, and with it, perpetual motion, was impossible, and a new law which described this
impossibility, the Second Law of Thermodynamics...
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics is really a prelude to the second. It states that the total
energy output (as that produced by a machine) is equal to the amount of heat supplied.
Generally, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, so the sum of mass and energy is
always conserved.
Physicists attempting to transform heat into work with full efficacy quickly learned that always
some heat would escape into the surrounding environment, eternally doomed to be wasted
energy (recall that energy can not be destroyed). Being obsolete, this energy can never be
converted into anything useful again.
One physicist noted for significant experiments in this field is the Frenchman, Sadi Carnot. His
ideal engine, so properly titled the 'Carnot Engine,' would theoretically have a work output equal
to that of its heat input (thus not losing any energy in the process). However, he fell into a
similar trap as in the first law, and failed to conduct his experiments as would naturally occur.
Realizing his error, he concluded (after further experimentation) that no device could completely
make the desired conversion, without losing at least some energy to the environment.

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Carnot created an equation he employed to prove this statement, and which is currently used to
show the thermodynamic efficiency of a heat machine:
. 1 TL
eff 1c1ency
' = - -
TH
(the efficiency of a heat machine is equal to one minus the low operating temperature of the
machine in degrees Kelvin, divided by the high operating temperate of the machine in degrees
Kelvin). For a machine to attain 100% efficiency, temperatures of absolute zero would have to
be incorporated. Reaching absolute zero is later proved impossible by the Third Law of
Thermodynamics (which would surface in the late 19th century).
The irrevocable loss of some energy to the environment was associated with an increase of
disorder in that system. Scientists wishing to further penetrate the realm of chaos needed a
variable that could be used to calculate disorder. Thanks to mid-nineteenth century physicist,
RJ_E. Clausius, this Pandemonium could be measured in terms of a quantity named entropy 1
(the variable S). Entropy acts as a function of the state of a system - where a high amount of
entropy translates to higher chaos within the system, and low entropy signals a highly ordered
state.
Like Carnot, Clausius worked out a general equation, his being devoted to the measurement of
entropy change over a period of time: (change)S =QI T (the change in entropy is equal to the
amount of heat added to the system [by an invertible process] divided by the temperature in
degrees Kelvin). The beauty of this equation is that it can be used to compute the entropic
change of any exchange in nature, not solely limited to machines. This development brought
thermodynamics out of the industrial workplace, and opened the possibility for further studies
into the tendencies of natural order (and lack therefore of), eventually extending to the universe
as a whole.
Applying this knowledge to nature, physicists found that the total entropy change (change in S)
always increases for every naturally occurring event (within a closed system) that could be then
observed. Thus, they theorized, disorder must be continually augmenting evenly throughout the
universe. When you put ice into a hot cup of tea (aristocrats of the Victorian era were constantly
thinking of tea). heat will flow from the hot tea to the cold ice and melt the ice in the beloved
beverage. Then, once the energy in the cup is evenly distributed, the cooled tea would reach a
maximum state of entropy. This situation represents a standard increase in disorder, believed to
be perpetually occurring throughout the entire universe.
1 - Entropy - Specifically is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system. Darrell Ebbing, in the textbook
General Chemistry, very usefully suggests thinking of a deck of cards. A new pack fresh out of the box, arranged
by suit and in sequence from ace to king, can be said to be in its ordered state. Shuffle the cards and you put them
into a disordered state. Entropy is a way of measuring just how disordered that state is and of determining the
likelihood of particular outcomes with further shuffles. Of course, if you wish to have any observations published in
a respectable journal you will need also t o understand additional concepts such as thermal non-uniformities, lattice
distances, and stoichometric relationships, but that's the general idea.

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The second law of thermodynamics (also known as 'the entropy law' or 'law of entropy') was
formulated in the middle of the nineteenth century by Clausius and Thomson following Carnot's
earlier observation that, like the fall or flow of a stream that turns a mill wheel, it is the "fall" or
flow of heat from higher to lower temperatures that motivates a steam engine. The key insight
was that the world is inherently active, and that whenever an energy distribution is out of
equilibrium a potential or thermodynamic "force" (the gradient of a potential) exists that the
world acts spontaneously to dissipate or minimize. All real-world change or dynamics is seen to
follow, or be motivated, by this law. So whereas the first law expresses that which remains the
same, or is time-symmetric, in all real-world processes the second law expresses that which
changes and motivates the change, the fundamental time-asymmetry, in all real-world
processes. Clausius coined the term "entropy" to refer to the dissipated potential and the
second law, in its most general form, states that the world acts spontaneously to minimize
potentials (or equivalently maximize entropy). and with this, active end-directedness or time
asymmetry was, for the first time, given a universal physical basis. The balance equation of the
second law, expressed as S > 0, says that in all natural processes the entropy of the world
always increases, and thus whereas with the first law there is no time, and the past, present,
and future are indistinguishable, the second law, with its one-way flow, introduces the basis for
telling the difference.
The active nature of the second law is intuitively easy to

grasp and empirically demonstrate. If a glass of hot liquid,
for example, as shown in Figure 16-3, is placed in a colder
room a potential exists and a flow of heat is spontaneously
produced from the cup to the room until it is minimized (or
the entropy is maximized) at which point the temperatures
are the same and all flows stop.
. . , .
-· . - ··
� . - _, . . . -
I he glass ot 11 u1d at temperature I · 1s placed 1n a room at
1
temperature T such that the disequilibrium produces a field
potential that results in a flow of energy in the form of heat
from the glass to the room so as to drain the potential until it
is minimized (the entropy is maximized) at which time
... . . 11
I
.
thermodynamic equilibrium is reached and all flows stop.
-NJ, =A(lj This refers to the conservation of energy in that the flow
from the glass equals the flow of heat into the room.
Figure 3.15: Heat transfer
from a hot space to a
less-hot space
The two laws have far reaching ramifications in physics and the real world. One such is that no
heat engine can ever be 100% efficient, unless the exhaust temperature (known as the 'sink'
temperature) is absolute zero. Absolute zero is both theoretically and practically impossible to
achieve. Another ramification is the fact that no thermodynamics process can be reversed,
precisely due to the first law which states that not all the heat energy supplied can be turned
into work.
The closest one can come to a fully reversible process is forcing a flow through a constricted
pipe. Ideal means no boundary layer losses. As the flow moves through the constriction, the

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pressure, temperature and velocity change, but these variables return to their original values
downstream of the constriction. The state of the gas returns to its original conditions and the
change of entropy of the system is zero. Aerodynamicists call such a process an isentropic
process. lsentropic means constant entropy.
The second law states that if the physical process is irreversible, the combined entropy of the
system and the environment must increase. The final entropy must be greater than the initial
entropy for an irreversible process:
Summary
Thermodynamics is the study of the inter-relation between heat, work and internal energy of a
system.
The British scientist and author C.P. Snow had an excellent way of remembering the three laws
rd
(including the 3 law):
1. You cannot win (that is, you cannot get something for nothing, because matter and
energy are conserved).
2. You cannot break even (you cannot return to the same energy state, because there is
always an increase in disorder; entropy always increases}.
3 . You cannot get out of the game (because absolute zero is unattainable).

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Module 2
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2.4 Optics (Light)
Module 2.4 Optics (Light} 4-1

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Objectives:
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Table of Contents
Module2.40�ics(Lighij ��
�� 5
Wavelength, Frequency and Speed 5
Light Waves in Matter 13
Lenses 15
Mirrors 25
Fibre Optics 31
Module 2.4 Optics (Light) 4-3

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Reference 81 82
Optics (Light) 2.4 2 2
Nature of Lioht; speed of lioht
Laws of reflection and refraction; reflection at
plane surfaces, reflection by spherical mirrors,
refraction, lenses
Fibre optics
--
--�
- -----
·
4-4 Module 2.4 Optics (Light)

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Module 2.4 Optics (Light)
Wavelength, Frequency and Speed

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. There is a certain band of frequency of
electromagnetic radiation that affects the retina of the human eye. We call this band of radiation
"visible light". Sometimes the word "light" means only visible light and sometimes the word "light"
is used as a generic word to mean any kind of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation is a type of wave. As in the case of all wave motion, the wave moves with a definite
soeed (c) called the soeed of liaht. The soeed of lioht has been measured manv
- times and has
the val�e, to three significant d i"Qits, 3.00 108 m/sec.
·x
The wavelength of visible light is usually measured in a unit called the Angstrom (A).
1 A= 10-10m
Various colours of visible light have characteristic wavelengths.
Table 4.1 is a list of some colours and

VIOLET 4500A their approximate wavelengths.
BLUE 4800A Wavelengths of electromagnetic

radiation shorter than 4,000 A are not
visible and are called "ultraviolet" and
Ql"CCN �A
wavelengths longer than 7,000 A are

YELLOW S800A
also not visible and are called
"infrared".
ORANGE 8000A
We also note that "colours" such as
"blue-green" also exist. The wavelength
RED 6400A
would be about 5,000 A
Table 4.1: The wavelengths of various colours of
light measured in A
Colours gradually change as the wavelength changes.
As in the case of all wave motion, the speed of electromagnetic radiation equals the frequency
times the wavelength. Therefore, for light, we have the relation:
c =fA.
In table 4.2. we list some common types of electromagnetic radiation with ranges of frequency
and wavelength. Note that the above equation is always satisfied. As the frequency increases,
the wavelength decreases in such a way that the product equals the speed of light (3 x 108
m/sec.).

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EM radiation consists of two different waves; an

FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
electrical field (E field) and a magnetic field (B
IN HERTZ IN METERS
field) moving at 90 degrees to each other
10 23 10-
14
(Figure 4.1 ).
COSMIC RAYS
22 13
10 10-
We see that both the electric field lines and
21 12
10 10- magnetic field lines vary sinusoidally.
GAMMA RAYS
D 11
1 Q2 10-
The electric field lines lie in a plane that is
19 10
10 10- perpendicular to the plane of the magnetic field
X-RAYS
linA� All
' " linht
,o;::J r�rli!:\tion y nr AIAMrnm�nnAtif"
� fFM\
\_, .,,.,
-ii
1oii
••• •--• • " "' ' ' "" •---·�-· -· � -· -·--••- • • •- r • --.•-
10
radiation, consists of these patterns of electric
17 8
10 10-- and magnetic field lines moving in free space
ULTRAVIOLET
16 7
(vacuum) with speed (c) or in some other
10 10-
transparent medium. We note that the
'5 1 frequencies and wavelengths of the various
10 10-4
VISIBLE
14 5
types of EM radiation vary greatly.
10 10-
13 -4
10 10
INFRARED
EXAMPLE:
12 3
10 10-
11 -2 (a) The frequency of an x-ray is

10 10-
5 x 1018 Hz. What is the wavelength of this
10 1
10 MICROWAVES/ 10-
radiation?
RADAR
9
10 1
c = f A..
8 1
10 TELEVISION/ 10
FM RADIO A, = c = 3 x 10 8 m I sec.
7
10 SHORTWAVE tn2 f 5x1018Hz
RADIO
6 3
10 10
AM RADIO
10
5
MARITIME 1 a4 = 0.6x1010m
COMMUINICATIONS
ta4
Table 4.2: Radiation types - their

frequencies and wavelengths
y
Figure 4.1: The Electrical (E) and magnetic (B) components of the
electromagnetic wave

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(b) An FM radio wave has a wavelength of 6 m.
What is the frequency in megahertz?
c 3 x 10 8 m I sec
f= =
'A 6m
6
f= 50 x 10 Hz= 50 megahertz
The Speed of light in Various Substances

¥
We have alread stated that the speed of light in vacuum (free space) is, to three significant
digits, 3.00 x 10 m/sec. The speed of light is less in various transparent substances. We define
the "index of refraction" (n) as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in
the substance (v).
speed of light in free space c

n= =-
speed of light in subs tance v
From this equation, we see that we can find the speed (v) in various transparent substances by
using the relation:
c
V=- INDICES OF REFRACTION
n FOR VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
EXAMPLE: n
MATERIAL (INDEX OF
Find the speed of light in water. REFRACTION)
Air 1.00029
3.00x 108m / sec
V=
--
--
1.33 Benzene 1.50
Carbon Dioxide 1.00045

8
v= 2.25 x 10 m/sec.
Diamond 2.42
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Glaaa, Crown 1.50
Glass, FHnt 1.70
fee 1.31
Water 1.33
Table 4.3: Indices of refraction for various

substances

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Problems
1. What is the wavelength in meters of an FM radio wave having a frequency of 90MHz?
0
2. What is the frequency of an x-ray having a wavelength of 4 x 10"1 m?
3. What is the frequency in kilohertz of an AM radio transmission if the wavelength is

500m? ( 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz)
4. Find the speed of light in crown glass.
5. The speed of iight in carbon tetrachioride is measured to be 2.05 x ·108 misec. vVhat is
the index of refraction of carbon tetrachloride?
6. Find the speed of light in a diamond.

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Answers
1. 3.33m
2. 7.5 x 1017 Hz
3. 600 kilohertz
4. 2 x 108m/sec.
5. 1.46
6. 1.24 x 108 m/sec
Module 2.4 Optics {Light) 4-11

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Light Waves in Matter

The speed of light waves is a maximum in a vacuum and less in materials which are
'transparent' to the waves. As a general rule, electromagnetic waves cannot travel at all through
'opaque' materials containing free electrons (e.g. metals) as the waves lose so much energy to
the electrons. Bound charged particles {including electrons) may also absorb energy from the
waves, but do so at definite frequencies or bands of frequencies that depend on the atoms or
molecules of the medium.
Refraction and the speed Of light waves

We have noted that light waves travel more slowly in a transparent medium than in a vacuum.
The diagram below shows what happens as waves enter a transparent medium in which their
speed is Cm. Their frequency stays the same but their wavelength gets less such that
Cm= fAm
This change in speed also causes the refraction effect - the wave-fronts change direction
when they enter or leave the surface of the material at other than 90° (at an angle to the
normal).
The diagram shows a set of parallel wavefronts of single frequency radiation entering a
transparent medium. As the leading edge enters the medium, the wave slows down but the
'outside' section of the front does not, so it catches up on the inside section. Inside the medium
the distance between successive fronts is smaller and the direction of travel of the wave has
changed. Snell's law of refraction follows directly from this effect.
(b):Waves cr<$s
'5m.mdary at
. . ....... :,.;.; .
= -.r
�ave an ang!e
:i·•·•:a·;�·�.�9e:i =·�99'.
�e.e'.d: c..
•
·
Vatwum
.
:.,, ·:.:: : : A:=j
.
'' ,,, ' ..

·
lower wave
Transparent spee,d Cm Transparen�

medll.111'1 medium
��--�_. Am=Cm
·
I
.
Figure 4.2: Refraction of light as it travels from a material Of low to

a high refractive index

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Refractive Index Varies with Wavelength

The speed of light in a given transparent medium is also likely to vary with frequency- the
refractive index is different for different frequencies. The diagram below shows how the
refractive index of fused quartz and crown glass varies with the vacuum wavelength of radiation
between short ultraviolet wavelengths (""'200nm) and near infrared (=750nm). Fused quartz is
widely used in optical devices as it is transparent over a wide range of wavelengths.
-
c:
.. � .; .
�- 1.54.. . I
----··-'·. - - - -'- ---- ...! -- _..J _,
:
]i
_____
l I
+ ��
I
I : l
�
v
1.52: --- -- -- -
-
03
I
I I !
L50 t : t J
...... -... ..---··"'�--- ...... - ... --� "'
I l
'
I
--·,
·-r-
:
- • ....,__ _
I ,---
I I
Fused;quartz ,
- . ---r ---- -r-- - i----�-__:
;_--------.-__,.......�
1.44..+ ... --
-- .......
2t'JO �O 400 500 600 700
·wavelength in vacuum/rm
Figure 4.3: Refractive index varies with

wavelength
Note that glass has a higher refractive index for light of shorter wavelengths (higher
frequencies) than for longer wavelengths: light of shorter wavelength is refracted more. This is
why prisms produce a spectrum from white light, with blue light deviated more than red light.
Dispersion and Chromatic Aberration

Dispersion is a serious problem that the
makers of optical instruments with lenses
have to solve. Dispersion means that red
light is brought to a focus further away from
a positive lens than blue light is. This blurs
images, an effect called chromatic aberra Chromatic aberration occurs because
,bwedi&ht moves more;�;tmin re_j, lilM. and
tion. Newton solved the problem for
_$Q is tefr.�teclmcit�
telescopes by designing one in which the
light was focused by a curved mirror.
An achromatic lens can be made - a

combined double-lens using two different
types of glass (e.g. crown and flint glass).
One lens is positive and stronger than the
other, negative, lens. The overall
combination is positive, but the negative
lens is made from a more dispersive type of
glass so that the total dispersion of the Figure 4.4: Dispersion and chromatic
combination can be made very small. aberration

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Lenses
The Converging Lens
How a Converging Lens Forms an image

We are familiar with convex glass lenses. They have equal surfaces that we can think of as
parts of a sphere, and are called spherical (or simple) lenses. Figure 4.5 shows what happens
to the wave-fronts of light waves when they pass through a simple glass lens. A lens like this,
which alters a plane wavefront to make the light waves pass through a point, or focus, is called
a converging or positive lens.
in the diagrams you can see that the wavelengths of the light are shorter after they pass across
the air-glass boundary. This is because the speed of the waves is less in glass than in air, and
the waves don't go as far in each period of the wave motion. This drop in speed causes
refraction, meaning that the light changes direction wherever the wavefront is not parallel to the
boundary.
Wave diagrams like those in the diagram are hard to draw, and they also hide some of the
features of the light paths. Here, it makes sense to revert to an old but very useful model of light
which assumes that light travels in straight lines. Where this model breaks down (as it will!), we
shall use the more advanced wave model.
The following diagrams, (a) and (b) show just some of the light rays we could draw. The rays
show the direction of the waves, which means that the rays are at right angles to the wavefront.
When a ray hits the glass surface, it is refracted as shown. Notice in (b) that the light ray hitting
the centre of the lens does so at 90° and that light rays increasingly far from the centre of the
lens hit the surface at smaller and smaller angles. We will return to this soon.

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Figure 4.5: Parallel and point-source light rays being 'focussed' by a lens

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Figure 4_6 shows light passing through a plane surface, such as the surface of a glass block.
The line at right angles to the boundary is the normal, and we can see that the angle i made
with the normal by the incident ray is greater than the angler of the refracted ray_ At the same
time, as i increases, so rincreases, while remaining less than i, see (b).
Hg.ht
I
n·1 ·· glass .
· · ··-- f1-'--__,,.�__,_
- . __ __,
r
.
L-�-�-�:·�-- -- _ ___.
_ ��---�
f r
I
�
Figure 4.6: Incident (i) and Refracted (r) light angles
The light rays are obeying Snell's law, the law of refraction:
sin i c
--- =-=n
sin r cm
The constant n is the refractive index (air to glass for glass lenses).
Figure 4.7 which shows rays from a point-source

passing through a lens. The radius lines of the
curved surface are shown extended beyond the
surface as normal lines. We can see again that the
law of refraction applies to the rays as they cross
the air-glass boundary_
The spherical geometry of the simple lens makes

the rays converge (but not accurately) to one point
or focus. For parallel rays (that form a plane
wavefront), this point is called the principal focus.
The distance of this point from the centre of the
lens is called the focal length of the lens, CF in Figure 4_7: Point-source light passing
figure 4.8- A lens has two principal focuses, one through a lens
on each side of the lens, at equal distances from it,
F and F'.

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In practice, the focus for simple spherical lenses is only at a point if the diameter of the lens is
very small compared with the radius of curvature of its surfaces. Otherwise, the lens forms a
partly blurred image. A lens defect like this, caused either by the shape or the material of the
lens, is called an aberration. For a lens with spherical geometry, it is called spherical
aberration. Removing aberrations is technically difficult, which explains why good optical
instruments, such as camera lenses, are expensive.
principal focus, F
• v•• '; ,-;> , v; v ••
Figure 4.8: Object and image
Predicting the image

The diagram above shows how a simple lens forms an image of an object. We can predict the
position and size of an image either by drawing or by using formulae.
Drawing to find the image

We can draw any number of rays to help us find the position and size of an image, but the three
rays that are most helpful to draw are shown above, with the labels we use when drawing ray
diagrams.
Figure 4.8 shows an upright object OX close to a lens. In ray diagrams, the rays are assumed to
change direction at a line that represents a plane in the centre of the lens. The object could be
anything, but by convention it is drawn simply as an arrow. Any ray that is parallel to the
principal axis of the lens is refracted to pass through the principal focus, F. In this way, we can
predict the direction of the ray labeled 1.
We use the same idea for ray 2. Going through F', it emerges from the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
The third useful line, for ray 3, goes straight through the centre of the lens - it does not deviate.
But see the close-up drawing. At the centre of the lens, the two faces are parallel to each other.
If the lens is thin compared with the distances of object and image, the slight sideways
displacement of the ray is not significant. All three rays pass through the same point, Y They all

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started at X, and it is clear that a screen placed at Y would catch them all together again: Y is a
focused image of X. Similarly, any point on OX would give a focused image of itself somewhere
between i and Y. IY is a real image.
These construction rays can be drawn to scale to find the position and relative size of the image
of any object placed in front of the lens. Objects viewed through a lens, and their images, are
usually much smaller than the distances they are from the lens. In such cases, it is best to make
the vertical scale larger than the horizontal one.
l-f- - f-1 �
I
D
object
obsexve:r
Focal point
l
I
-- f
v observer
Figure 4.9: Virtual and real images, depending on whether

the object is in-front of, or behind, the focal point
Note that the image may be inverted, or not, real or virtual, depending on whether the object is
placed behind or in-front of the focal point.

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Finding the image by formula

It is usually quicker and more accurate to find the position and size of an image by using the
lens formula:
1 1 1
- + - =
u v f
where u is the distance of the object from the lens centre, the object distance; vis the distance
of the image from the lens centre, the image distance; and f is the focal length of the lens. The
following diagram gives the geometry required to prove this formula for a thin converging lens.
You can now find the position and size of any image simply by inserting the other given values
in the fonnula.
Figure 4.10: components of the lens formula

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The Diverging Lens

Figure 4.11 to the right shows a lens with concave
spherical surfaces and what happens to parallel light

rays (that is, a plane wavefront coming from a distant
object) when they pass through it. The rays are
refracted so that they seem to diverge from a single
point, F. This point is the principal focus of a
diverging lens. As light doesn't actually come from the
point, or pass through it, it is a virtual.
Figure 4.11: Parallel light entering a

divergent lens
Figure 4.12 shows how a diverging lens forms an image of an object. As for a converging lens,
you would see the image by looking at the object through the lens. But light doesn't actually
pass back through the diverging lens to the image, so you cannot catch the image on a screen.
It is therefore a virtual image.
0 f
Figure 4.12: Convergent lens forming a

Virtual images

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�
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-
. .
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- · �!
The sign convention

The lens formula works for all simple optical devices. But we have to know whether the images,
principal focuses - and even objects - are real or virtual. Where they are virtual, the convention
is to give negative values to distances measured from them to the lens or mirror. For example,
the principal focus of a diverging lens is virtual, so its focal length is given a negative sign.
Suppose we place a real object 20 cm from the diverging lens as shown in the figure 4.12. The
principal focus of the lens is 1 O cm from the lens, so its focal length is
-10 cm. The lens formula gives:
1 1 1
-+- =-
20 v 10
1 - 1 1 -- 3
= ---·--= -
v 10 20 20
20
v=- - =-6.?cm
3
So the distance of the image from the lens centre is 6.7 cm, and the negative sign tells us that
the image is also virtual.
4-22 Module 2.4 Optics (light)

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The Power of a Lens

In optics, lenses are usually described in terms of their power. The more powerful the lens, the
closer to the lens is the image that the lens forms of a distant object. The power of a lens is
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length measured in metres:
1
Lens Power= -
The unit of power is called the dioptre, symbol D, and so a lens of focal length +10 cm (0.1 m)
has a power of +10 D. A diverging lens of focal length -5 cm (0.05 m) has a power of -20 D.
This way of describing lenses lets us work out what happens when two lenses are used
togethei. The combined powei of the lenses is simply the sum of the powei of each lens,
bearing in mind their signs, as shown in figure 4.13.
Power= 10D Power=20D Power= 300

{f=0.1m) (f = 0.05m) (f= 1/30m = 3.3cm)
Power= 200 Power= -100 Power= 100

{f= 1/10m = 10cm)
Figure 4.13: Adding and subtracting lens powers

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Mirrors
Plane mirrors are the most common optical devices we come across. The ordinary household
mirror is a sheet of flat glass, 'silvered' on the back with a layer of metal paint (the metal is
usually aluminium), which is then protected by a coat of ordinary paint.
Light passes through the glass and is reflected by the silvering. A plane wavefront is reflected
as a plane by a flat mirror, and the geometry results in the well-known rule:
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
The angles are shown in the diagram to the right, and are s1rvered
measured from the normal line drawn at right angles to the surface of mirror
surface.
\,
As shown in the figure 4.14, the image of an object reflected �

in a plane mirror is behind the mirror and as far from the
mirror as the object is.
mirrfe
normal
'\:
Figure 4.15: Incident angle

Figure 4.14: Source and image in a mirror
(i) and reflected angle (r)
Notice that light does not pass through the mirror,

and the image is really an optical illusion. It isn't
really 'there' - you couldn't, for example, catch it
on a photographic film placed at the image
position. The image is therefore a virtual image.
Compare this image with the one produced by the
convex lens which is formed from rays of light and
can be caught on a photographic film. Our brain
perceives ('sees') virtual images by making them
Yoor Face Virtual Image
into 'real' ones using another optical device - our
eyes. Figure 4.16: Mirrors produce a 'virtual'
imaae

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An ordinary glass mirror produces a

blurred image because of multiple
reflections - see figure 4.17. Such a
incidentray
mirror is not suitable for optical
instruments which need to give sharp
images. There are two main solutions
to this problem.
f!xternalfyreflected tay. �
internally re�ected r�Y
main reflected raY
subsidiary reflections /'

Figure 4.17: Reason for the 'blurred' image
of a mirror
Front-silvered mirrors
These have the metallic layer on the front surface. Very fine metal particles are deposited on
glass either from solution or from metal vapour in a vacuum. The large mirrors used in reflecting
telescopes are made in this way. The metal surface is easily damaged, by touching or
corrosion, and has to be treated with care.

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Reflecting Prisms
A glass (or clear plastic) reflecting prism provides a much cheaper and more practical plane
mirror by using the effect of total internal reflection.
Figure 4.17 shows light rays which are partly internally reflected. Figure 4.18 shows how total
internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of a ray exceeds the critical angle c for
the medium. When a ray reaches the inside of a plane boundary (say, between air and glass) at
an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, it cannot pass through the surface.
some reflection alw� occurs

l ". . . ··· .
;grazlngi emerge� of ray

.
I
'
ray ..Jtally' reflected

.,
Figure 4.18: Stages of Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection occurs at angles of (internal) incidence greater than c, the critical angle.
By Snell's law:
sin 90 1
--- =:n or n= - (since sin 90 == 1)
Sin C sin c
A prism is often used as a mirror. Angle a must

be greater than the critical angle c of the material
used:
Figure 4.19: A reflecting prism

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Concave Mirrors
Spherical mirrors can be thought of as a portion of a sphere which was sliced away and then
silvered on one of the sides to form a reflecting surface. Concave mirrors were silvered on the
inside of the sphere and convex mirrors were silvered on the outside of the sphere.
If a concave mirror is thought of as being

a slice of a sphere, then there would be a
line passing through the centre of the
sphere and attaching to the mirror in the
exact centre of the mirror. This line is R.
Vnr.lA�rti �t=- +ho. n.rin�in.�I �vi� Tno. nnin.f. in p.;-nrinAl � ... �
"I IV11VI I UV ..
... Joi• ......... ,....u. U.Al.oa� I I ...... tJVU n. 111
L.I n ---- r- I'
4 �
the centre of sphere from which the mirror
Am -+ --.... �----,._____..,. A
was sliced is known as the centre of F c
curvature and is denoted by the letter C
in the diagram below. The point on the
mirror's surface where the principal axis
meets the mirror is known as the vertex
and is denoted by the letter A in the Figure 420: Dimensions of a
diagram below. The vertex is the concave mirror
geometric centre of the mirror. Midway
between the vertex and the centre of curvature is a point known as the focal point; the focal
point is denoted by the letter Fin the diagram below. The distance from the vertex to the centre
of curvature is known as the radius of curvature (abbreviated by "R"). The radius of curvature
is the radius of the sphere from which the mirror was cut. Finally, the distance from the mirror to
the focal point is known as the focal length (abbreviated by "f'). Since the focal point is the
midpoint of the line segment adjoining the vertex and the centre of curvature, the focal length
The focal point is the point in space at which light

incident towards the mirror and travelling parallel to
the principal axis will meet after reflection. The
diagram at the right depicts this principle. In fact, if
some light from the Sun was collected by a concave
mirror, then it would converge at the focal point.
Because the Sun is such a large distance from the
Earth, any light rays from the Sun which strike the
mirror will essentially be travelling parallel to the
principal axis. As such, this light should reflect through
the focal point. Perhaps you remember the outdoors
demonstration in which a pencil was engulfed in
flames in a matter of seconds when placed at the focal
point of the demonstration mirror. In the demonstration,
Figure 4.21: Light rays pass through
whatever light from the Sun which hit the mirror was
the focal point
focused at the point where the pencil was. To the
surprise of many, the heat was sufficient to ignite the
pencil.

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Figure 422: The two images of a concave mirror depend on

where the object is placed
Note that the image may be inverted or not, depending on whether the object is placed outside
or inside the focal point. They are virtual images in both cases.

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Convex Mirrors
Convex mirrors are used to shrink the image, and therefore fit more detail into the mirror (such
as car rear-view mirrors). The focal point is at the half radius point (but behind the mirror. The
image is virtual.
obiect "
principal:
focus
virtualimage
principal axis (diminished)
Figure 4.23: Line diagram for a convex mirror
Your Face Vlrlual Imago

Figure 4.24: The virtual image of a convex mirror
4-30 Module 2-4 Optics (Light)

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Fibre Optics
Definition of Fibre Optics

Fibre optics uses light to send information (data). More formally, fibre optics is the branch of
optical technology concerned with the transmission of radiant power (light energy) through
fibres.
Fibre Optic Data Links

A fibre optic data link sends input data through fibre optic components and provides this data as
output information. It has the following three basic functions:
• To convert an electrical input signal to an optical signal

• To send the optical signal over an optical fibre
• To convert the optical signal back to an electrical signal
A fibre optic data link consists of three parts -transmitter, optical fibre, and receiver. Figure
4.25 is an illustration of a fibre optic data-link connection. The transmitter, optical fibre, and
receiver perform the basic functions of the fibre optic data link. Each part of the data link is
responsible for the successful transfer of the data signal.
A fibre optic data link needs a transmitter that can effectively convert an electrical input signal to
an optical signal and launch the data-containing light down the optical fibre. A fibre optic data
link also needs a receiver that can effectively transform this optical signal back into its original
form. This means that the electrical signal provided as data output should exactly match the
electrical signal provided as data input.
CONNECTOR SPLICE
DATA l..ul' TRANSMrTTER RECEIVER DATA OUTPUT
OPTICAL CABLE
Figure 4.25: Parts of a fibre optic data link.
The transmitter converts the input signal to an optical signal suitable for transmission. The
transmitter consists of two parts, an interface circuit and a source drive circuit. The transmitter's
drive circuit converts the electrical signals to an optical signal. It does this by varying the current
flow through the light source. The two types of optical sources are light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
and laser diodes.

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The optical source launches the optical signal into the fibre. The optical signal will become
progressively weakened and distorted because of scattering, absorption, and dispersion
mechanisms in the fibre waveguides.
The receiver converts the optical signal exiting the fibre back into an electrical signal. The
receiver consists of two parts, the optical detector and the signal-conditioning circuits. An optical
detector detects the optical signal. The signal-conditioning circuit conditions the detector output
so that the receiver output matches the original input to the transmitter. The receiver should
amplify and process the optical signal without introducing noise or signal distortion. Noise is any
disturbance that obscures or reduces the quality of the signal. Noise effects and limitations of
the signal-conditioning circuits cause the distortion of the receiver's electrical output signal.
An optical detector can be either a semiconductor positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diode or an

avalanche photodiode (APO).
A fibre optic data link also includes passive components other than an optical fibre. Figure 4.25
does not show the optical connections used to complete the construction of the fibre optic data
link. Passive components used to make fibre connections affect the performance of the data
link. These components can also prevent the link from operating. Fibre optic components used
to make the optical connections include optical splices, connectors, and couplers.
Proof of link performance is an integral part of the design, fabrication, and installation of any
fibre optic system. Various measurement techniques are used to test individual parts of a data
link. Each data link part is tested to be sure the link is operating properly.

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History of Fibre Optic Technology

People have used light to transmit information for hundreds of years. However, it was not until
the 1960s, with the invention of the laser, that widespread interest in optical (light) systems for
data communications began. The invention of the laser prompted researchers to study the
potential of fibre optics for data communications, sensing, and other applications. Laser
systems could send a much larger amount of data than telephone, microwave, and other
electrical systems. The first experiment with the laser involved letting the laser beam transmit
freely through the air.
Researchers also conducted experiments letting the laser beam transmit through different types
of waveguides. Glass fibres, gas-filled pipes, and tubes with focusing lenses are examples of
optical waveguides. Glass fibres soon became the preferred medium for fibre optic research.
Initially, the very large losses in the optical fibres prevented coaxial cables from being replaced.
"Loss" is the decrease in the amount of light reaching the end of the fibre. Early fibres had
losses around 1,000 dB/km making them impractical for communications use. In 1969, several
scientists concluded that impurities in the fibre material caused the signal loss in optical fibres.
The basic fibre material did not prevent the light signal from reaching the end of the fibre. These
researchers believed it was possible to reduce the losses in optical fibres by removing the
impurities. By removing the impurities, construction of low-loss optical fibres was possible.
There are two basic types of optical fibres, multimode fibres and single mode fibres.
In 1970, Corning Glass Works made a multimode fibre with losses under 20 dB/km.
This same company, in 1972, made a high silica-core multimode optical fibre with 4dB/km
minimum attenuation (loss). Currently, multimode fibres can have losses as low as 0.5 dB/km at
wavelengths around 1300 nm. Single mode fibres are available with losses lower than 0.25
dB/km at wavelengths around 1500 nm.
Developments in semiconductor technology, which provided the necessary light sources and
detectors, furthered the development of fibre optics. Conventional light sources, such as lamps
or lasers, were not easily used in fibre optic systems. These light sources tended to be too large
and required lens systems to launch light into the fibre. In 1971, Bell Laboratories developed a
small area light-emitting diode (LED). This light source was suitable for low-loss coupling to
optical fibres. Researchers could then perform source-to-fibre jointing easily and repeatedly.
Early semiconductor sources had operating lifetimes of only a few hours. However, by 1973,
projected lifetimes of lasers advanced from a few hours to greater than 1,000 hours. By 1977,
projected lifetimes of lasers advanced to greater than 7,000 hours. By 1979, these devices were
available with projected lifetimes of more than 100,000 hours.
In addition, researchers also continued to develop new fibre optic parts. The types of new parts
developed included low-loss fibres and fibre cables, splices, and connectors. These parts
permitted demonstration and research on complete fibre optic systems.
Advances in fibre optics have permitted the introduction of fibre optics into present applications.
These applications are mostly in the telephone long-haul systems, but are growing to include
cable television, computer networks, video systems, and data links. Research should increase
system performance and provide solutions to existing problems in conventional applications.

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The impressive results from early research show there are many advantages offered by fibre
optic systems.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fibre Optics

Fibre optic systems have many attractive features that are superior to electrical systems. These
include improved system performance, immunity to electrical noise, signal security, and
improved safety and electrical isolation.
Other advantages include reduced size and weight, environmental protection, and overall
system economy. The following list details the main advantages of fibre optic systems.
Advantages of Fibre Optics

• System Performance
• Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
• Lower signal attenuation (loss)
• Immunity to Electrical Noise
• Immune to noise (electromagnetic interference [EMI] and radio-frequency
interference [RFI])
• No crosstalk
• Lower bit error rates
• Signal Security
• Difficult to tap
• Non conductive (does not radiate signals) - Electrical Isolation
• No common ground required
• Freedom from short circuit and sparks
• Reduced size and weight cables
• Environmental Protection
• Resistant to radiation and corrosion
• Resistant to temperature variations
• Improved ruggedness and flexibility
• Less restrictive in harsh environments
Silica is the principal, abundant, and inexpensive material (source is sand)
Despite the many advantages of fibre optic systems, there are some disadvantages.
Because of the relative newness of the technology, fibre optic components are expensive. Fibre
optic transmitters and receivers are still relatively expensive compared to electrical interfaces.
The lack of standardization in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fibre optics. Many
industries are more comfortable with the use of electrical systems and are reluctant to switch to
fibre optics. However, industry researchers are eliminating these disadvantages.
The cost to install fibre optic systems is falling because of an increase in the use of fibre optic
technology. Published articles, conferences, and lectures on fibre optics have begun to educate
managers and technicians. As the technology matures, the use of fibre optics will increase
because of its many advantages over electrical systems.

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Frequency and Bandwidth

Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can be transmitted at one time.
In the early days of radio transmission when the information transmitted was mostly restricted to
Morse code and speech, low frequencies were (long waves) were used. The range of
frequencies available to be transmitted (which determines the bandwidth) was very low. This
inevitably restricted us to low speed data transmission.
·m iu�1• JD-" :11JZ . rn•

. . .:•.
,,
A 1·
.
1·0.�jo;
:'�l�v�loo9L'1 1,�i
Figure 4.26: The Electromagnetic Spectrum, with wavelengths measured in Angstrom (10-10 m)
As time went by, we required a wider bandwidth to send more complex information and to
improve the speed of transmission. To do this, we had to increase the frequency of the radio
signal used. The usable bandwidth is limited by the frequency used- the higher the frequency,
the greater the bandwidth.
When television was developed we again had the requirement of a wider bandwidth and we
responded in the same way- by increasing the frequency. And so it went on.
More bandwidth needed? Use higher frequency. For something like sixty years this became an
established response - we had found the answer!
Until fibre optics blew it all away.

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The early experiments showed that visible light transmission was possible and we explored the
visible spectrum for the best light frequency to use.
The promise of fibre optics was the possibility of increased transmission rates.
The old solution pointed to the use of the highest frequency but here we met a real problem. We
found that the transmission losses were increasing very quickly. In fact the losses increased by
the fourth power. This means that if the light frequency doubled, the losses would increase by a
factor of 2 or 16 times.
We quickly appreciated that it was not worth pursuing higher and higher frequencies in order to
obtain higher bandwidths if it meant that we could only transmit the data over a very short
distance.
The bandwidth of a light based system was so high that a relatively low frequency could be
tolerated in order to get lower losses and hence more transmission range. So we explored the
lower frequency or the red end of the visible spectrum and then even further down into the
infrared.
And that is where we are at the present time.
Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of wavelengths and is generally used for all fibre optic
communications. Visible light is normally used for very short range transmissions using plastic
fibre.

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Basic Structure of an Optical Fibre

The basic structure of an optical fibre consists of three parts; the core, the cladding, and the
coating or buffer. The basic structure of an optical fibre is shown in figure 4.27. The core is a
cylindrical rod of dielectric materiaL Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates
mainly along the core of the fibre. The core is generally made of glass. The core is described as
having a radius of (a) and an index of refraction n1. The core is surrounded by a layer of
material called the cladding. Even though light will propagate along the fibre core without the
layer of cladding material, the cladding does perform some necessary functions.
\ COATING
CORE
'I.,.
OR
" CLAf.ID'lNG BUFFER
FIBER ENO
Figure 4.27: Basic structure of an optical fibre.
The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of refraction n2. The index of
refraction of the cladding material is less than that of the core material. The cladding is generally
made of glass or plastic. The cladding performs the following functions:
• Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
• Reduces scattering loss at the suriace of the core
• Protects the fibre from absorbing surface contaminants
• Adds mechanical strength
For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called the coating or buffer.
The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an optical fibre from physical
damage. The material used for a buffer is a type of plastic.
The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions. The buffer also prevents the optical fibre
from scattering losses caused by microbends. Microbends occur when an optical fibre is placed
on a rough and distorted surface. Microbends are discussed later in this chapter.
Propagation of Light along a Fibre

The concept of light propagation, the transmission of light along an optical fibre, can be
described by two theories. According to the first theory, light is described as a simple ray. This
theory is the ray theory, or geometrical optics, approach. The advantage of the ray approach is
that you get a clearer picture o f the propagation of light along a fibre. The ray theory is used to
approximate the light acceptance and guiding properties of optical fibres. According to the
second theory, light is described as an electromagnetic wave. This theory is the mode theory, or
wave representation, approach. The mode theory describes the behaviour of light within an
Module 2.4 Optics (light) 4-37

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optical fibre. The mode theory is useful in describing the optical fibre properties of absorption,
attenuation, and dispersion. These fibre properties are discussed later in this chapter.
Ray Theory
Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fibre. The first type is called meridional rays.
Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fibre. Meridional rays are
used to illustrate the basic transmission properties of optical fibres.
The second type is called skew rays. Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fibre
without passing through its axis.
Meridional Rays. - Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays. Bound rays
remain in the core and propagate along the axis of the fibre. Bound rays propagate through the
fibre by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are refracted out of the fibre core. Figure 4.28
shows a possible path taken by bound and unbound rays in a step-index fibre. The core of the
step-index fibre has an index of refraction n1. The cladding of a step-index has an index of
refraction n2, that is lower than n1. Figure 4.28 assumes the core-cladding interface is perfect.
However, imperfections at the core-cladding interface will cause part of the bound rays to be
refracted out of the core into the cladding. The light rays refracted into the cladding will
eventually escape from the fibre. In general, meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and
refraction.
INCl0ENT
·;•• ./, "· -:'-. • • : -:·.�:
RAVS
.
"'
>� . . . ..�, ••• •
Figure 4.28: Bound and unbound rays i n a step-index fibre.
It is known that bound rays propagate in fibres due to total internal reflection, but how do these
light rays enter the fibre? Rays that enter the fibre must intersect the core-cladding interface at
an angle greater than the critical angle (6 c ) - Only those rays that enter the fibre and strike the
interface at these angles will propagate along the fibre.
How a light ray is launched into a fibre is shown in figure 4.29. The incident ray 11 enters the
fibre at the angle 0 a- 11 is refracted upon entering the fibre and is transmitted to the core
c!add!ng interface. The ray then strikes the core-cladding interface at the critical angle (8 c)- !1 is
totally reflected back into the core and continues to propagate along the fibre. The incident ray 12
enters the fibre at an angle greater than 9 a- Again, bis refracted upon entering the fibre and is
transmitted to the core-cladding interface. 12 strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle less
than the critical angle (9 c). bis refracted into the cladding and is eventually lost. The light ray

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incident on the fibre core must be within the cone of acceptance defined by the angle ea
shown in figure 4.30.
Angle 8 a is defined as the acceptance angle. The acceptance angle (9 a) is the maximum
angle to the axis of the fibre that light entering the fibre is propagated. The value of the angle of
acceptance (8 a) depends on fibre properties and transmission conditions.
f.
1
Figure 4.29. - How a light ray enters an optical fibre.

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,
""IR
M
-. l� �
';
__._. ' . ,,�p��
:, ......
..
/�-- �
�'
.->'.
_.,, LOSI ,_CLADDING '(n 2)

,
.:
;' .,
.// '\"' �
v
·r
,I ,,, ""..
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v ... ,....
/�--- ---··· --·-·
� �" , /,.,.
/ CLADDING (n1>
�
�.,../
._ .;,
.CLADDING-(n 1)
. .
Figure 4.30: Fibre acceptance angle.
The acceptance angle is related to the refractive indices of the core, cladding, and medium
surrounding the fibre. This relationship is called the numerical aperture of the fibre. The
numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical fibre to capture light. The
NA is also used to define the cone of acceptance of an optical fibre.
Figure 4.30 illustrates the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices.
The index of refraction of the fibre core is n1. The index of refraction of the fibre cladding is n2.
The index of refraction of the surrounding medium is n0. By using Snell's law and basic
trigonometric relationships, the NA of the fibre is given by:

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Since the medium next to the fibre at the launching point is normally air, no is equal to 1.00. The
NA is then simply equal to sin 8 a-
The NA is a convenient way to measure the light-gathering ability of an optical fibre. It is used to
measure source-to-fibre power-coupling efficiencies. A high NA indicates a high source-to-fibre
coupling efficiency.
Typical values of NA range from 0.20 to 0.29 for glass fibres. Plastic fibres generally have a
higher NA. An NA for plastic fibres can be higher than 0.50.
In addition, the NA is commonly used to specify multimode fibres.
However, for small core diameters, such as in single mode fibres, the ray theory breaks down.
Ray theory describes only the direction a plane wave takes in a fibre. Ray theory eliminates any
properties of the plane wave that interfere with the transmission of light along a fibre. In reality,
plane waves interfere with each other. Therefore, only certain types of rays are able to
propagate in an optical fibre. Optical fibres can support only a specific number of guided modes.
In small core fibres, the number of modes supported is one or only a few modes. Mode theory is
used to describe the types of plane waves able to propagate along an optical fibre.
Skew Rays. - A possible path of propagation of skew rays is shown in figure 4.31.
Figure 4.31, view A, provides an angled view and view B provides a front view.
Skew rays propagate without passing through the centre axis of the fibre.
The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than the acceptance angle of meridional rays. This
condition explains why skew rays outnumber meridional rays. Skew rays are often used in the
calculation of light acceptance in an optical fibre. The addition of skew rays increases the
amount of light capacity of a fibre. In large NA fibres, the increase may be significant.
/
(.A) ANGLED VIEW (B) FRONT VIEW
Figure 4.31: Skew ray propagation: A. Angled view; B. Front view.

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The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a fibre. Skew rays tend to
propagate near the edge of the fibre core. A large portion of the number of skew rays that are
trapped in the fibre core are considered to be leaky rays. Leaky rays are predicted to be totally
reflected at the core-cladding boundary. However, these rays are partially refracted because of
the curved nature of the fibre boundary. Mode theory is also used to describe this type of leaky
ray loss.
Mode Theory
The mode theory, along with the ray theory, is used to describe the propagation of light along an
optical fibre. The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light that ray theory is unable
to explain. The mode theory uses electromagnetic '·l.Jave behaviour to describe the propagation
of light along a fibre. A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fibre.
Plane Waves. - The mode theory suggests that a light wave can be represented as a plane
wave. A plane wave is described by its direction, amplitude, and wavelength of propagation. A
plane wave is a wave whose surfaces of constant phase are infinite parallel planes normal to
the direction of propagation.
The planes having the same phase are called the wavefronts. The wavelength (A) of the plane
wave is given by:
c
wavelength p,) = -
fn
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, f is the frequency of the light, and n is the index of
refraction of the plane-wave medium.
Figure 4.32 shows the direction and wavefronts of plane-wave propagation. Plane waves, or
wavefronts, propagate along the fibre similar to light rays. However, not all wavefronts incident
on the fibre at angles less than or equal to the critical angle of light acceptance propagate along
the fibre. Wavefronts may undergo a change in phase that prevents the successful transfer of
light along the fibre.
LIGHT
.... ....
SOURCE .... ....
DIRECTJ ON
Figure 4.32: Plane-wave propagation.

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Wavefronts are required to remain in phase for light to be transmitted along the fibre. Consider
the wavefronts incident on the core of an optical fibre as shown in figure 4.33. Only those
wavefronts incident on the fibre at angles less than or equal to the critical angle may propagate
along the fibre.
The wavefront undergoes a gradual phase change as it travels down the fibre. Phase changes
also occur when the wavefront is reflected. The wavefront must remain in phase after the
wavefront transverses the fibre twice and is reflected twice. The distance transversed is shown
between point A and point Bon figure 4.33. The reflected waves at point A and point Bare in
phase If the total amount of phase collected is an integer multiple of 2rr radian. If propagating
J -·--l"'r---· . . . - . -·. -· ··- -·--r-r- --· ---- --- -·
v.1::a\1Afrnntc:: J:1ri:> nnt in
··- ·- · · -· ··- -· - . ·-·
nh::::ic::.i:> thP\J !'>\/Anti
" . ,.... ·---, .. ·- J
1.::ilh1
- . -· ··--" rli�.::innA::ir W.::i\tl='frnntc: rlic::::innA::ir hAr::u 1c:A nf
destructive interference. The wavefronts that are in phase interfere with the wavefronts that
are out of phase_ This interference is the reason why only a finite number of modes can
propagate along the fibre.
/:;(: � . CORE
-"10
' ·X 8
....
- - z. DIRECTION
·' -
·)<: :2;:::?' ;_'.-:

..
-· ; ,., _____,.:...::�
: -- - ...
__
-)<
' )\' .
I " ,
·-·� ! .;#' ,
.,_.
".:/'�
·'JtttIDl::MJ
"11¥.AVEFROMT'
Figure 4.33: Wavefront propagation along an optical fibre.
The plane waves repeat as they travel along the fibre axis. The direction the plane waves travel
is assumed to be the z direction as shown in figure 4.33. The plane waves repeat at a distance
equal to A /sin 9. Plane waves also repeat at a periodic frequency
� = 2n sin 8 I A. The quantity p is defined as the propagation constant along the fibre axis.
As the wavelength (A) changes, the value of the propagation constant must also change.
For a given mode, a change in wavelength can prevent the mode from propagating along the
fibre. The mode is no longer bound to the fibre. The mode is said to be cut off. Modes that are
bound at one wavelength may not exist at longer wavelengths. The wavelength at which a
mode ceases to be bound is called the cut-off wavelength for that mode. However, an optical
fibre is always able to propagate at least one mode. This mode is referred to as the fundamental
mode of the fibre. The fundamental mode can never be cut off.
The wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cut-off
wavelength of the fibre. An optical fibre that operates above the cut-off wavelength (at a longer
wavelength) is called a single mode fibre. An optical fibre that operates below the cut-off
wavelength is called a multimode fibre. Single mode and multimode optical fibres are discussed
later in this chapter.

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In a fibre, the propagation constant of a plane wave is a function of the wave's wavelength and
mode. The change in the propagation constant for different waves is called dispersion. The
change in the propagation constant for different wavelengths is called chromatic dispersion.
The change in propagation constant for different modes is called modal dispersion.
These dispersions cause the light pulse to spread as it goes down the fibre (fig. 4.34). Some
dispersion occurs in all types of fibres. Dispersion is discussed later in this chapter.
INPUT PULSE OUTPUT PULSE
Figure 4.34: The spreading of a llght pulse.
Modes. - A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of an optical fibre.
Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having two components. The
two components are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the magnetic field, H(x, y, z). The electric
field, E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right angles to each other. Modes travelling in an
optical fibre are said to be transverse. The transverse modes, shown in figure 4.35, propagate
along the axis of the fibre. The mode field patterns shown in figure 4.35 are said to be
transverse electric (TE). In TE modes, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
The magnetic field is in the direction of propagation. Another type of transverse mode is the
transverse magnetic (TM) mode. TM modes are opposite to TE modes. In TM modes, the
magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The electric field is in the
�;--.-L=-- -£ .&.: C:-··-- A ..... t= -1--.. .- --1� . "'T'"I ---1--
------- --
Ullt:\;llUll UI fJIUfJd�dLIUll. r1�urt:: '+ . .,);:J �llVW� u111y I c lllUUt::::.:i.
CORE
':��kfR�<�
- · ·----· ...
. :J1lffD
i�, T�1 'tfE2, 'te:3

Figure 4.35: Transverse electric (TE) mode field patterns.
The TE mode field patterns shown in figure 4.35 indicate the order of each mode. The order of
each mode is indicated by the number of field maxima within the core of the fibre. For example,
TE0 has one field maxima. The electric field is a maximum at the centre of the waveguide and
decays toward the core-cladding boundary. TE0 is considered the fundamental mode or the

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lowest order standing wave. As the number of field maxima increases, the order of the mode is
higher.
Generally, modes with more than a few (5-10) field maxima are referred to as high-order
modes.
The order of the mode is also determined by the angle the wavefront makes with the axis of the
fibre. Figure 4.36 illustrates light rays as they travel down the fibre. These light rays indicate the
direction of the wavefronts. High-order modes cross the axis of the fibre at steeper angles. Low
order and high-order modes are shown in figure 4.36.
·
/. ·,{\I \
�./-···
," __,..,
: \ . · (/
.\ J'A
\ --1· t \\
" \\
:·(�\
, LOW-ORDER
'
INCIDENT ,,..
,/ MODES
WAVE \ I· . ,!
\.XI \/
, '
II \
' I
\
,.
,•'
Figure 4.36: Low-order and high-order modes.
Before we progress, let us refer back to figure 4.30. Notice that the modes are not confined to
the core of the fibre. The modes extend partially into the cladding material. Low-order modes
penetrate the cladding only slightly. In low-order modes, the electric and magnetic fields are
concentrated near the centre of the fibre. However, high-order modes penetrate further into the
cladding material. In high-order modes, the electrical and magnetic fields are distributed more
toward the outer edges of the fibre.
This penetration of low-order and high-order modes into the cladding region indicates that some
portion is refracted out of the core. The refracted modes may become trapped in the cladding
due to the dimension of the cladding region. The modes trapped in the cladding region are
called cladding modes. As the core and the cladding modes travel along the fibre, mode
coupling occurs. Mode coupling is the exchange of power between two modes. Mode coupling
to the cladding results in the loss of power from the core modes.
In addition to bound and refracted modes, there are leaky modes.
Leaky modes are similar to leaky rays. Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the
fibre. For a mode to remain within the core, the mode must meet certain boundary conditions. A
mode remains bound if the propagation constant � meets the following boundary condition:
21tt12<P<2m11
1' i\
where n 1 and n2 are the index of refraction for the core and the cladding, respectively. When the
propagation constant becomes smaller than 21tn2 / A, power leaks out of the core and into the
cladding. Generally, modes leaked into the cladding are lost in a few centimetres. However,
leaky modes can carry a large amount of power in short fibres.

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Normalized Frequency. - Electromagnetic waves bound to an optical fibre are described by the
fibre's normalized frequency.
The normalized frequency determines how many modes a fibre can support. Normalized
frequency is a dimensionless quantity.
Normalized frequency is also related to the fibre's cut-off wavelength. Normalized frequency (V)
is defined as:
where n1 is the core index of refraction, n2 is the cladding index of refraction, a is the core
diameter, and A. is the wavelength of light in air.
The number of modes that can exist in a fibre is a function of V. As the value of V increases, the
number of modes supported by the fibre increases. Optical fibres, single mode and multimode,
can support a different number of modes. The number of modes supported by single mode and
multimode fibre types is discussed later in this chapter.
Optical Fibre Types

Optical fibres are characterized by their structure and by their properties of transmission.
Basically, optical fibres are classified into two types. The first type is single mode fibres. The
second type is multimode fibres. As each name implies, optical fibres are classified by the
number of modes that propagate along the fibre. As previously explained, the structure of the
fibre can permit or restrict modes from propagating in a fibre. The basic structural difference is
the core size. Single mode fibres are manufactured with the same materials as multimode
fibres. Single mode fibres are also manufactured by following the same fabrication process as
multimode fibres.
Single Mode Fibres

The core size of single mode fibres is small. The core size (diameter) is typically around 8 to 10
micrometers (µm). A fibre core of this size allows only the fundamental or lowest order mode to
propagate around a 1300 nanometre (nm) wavelength. Single mode fibres propagate only one
mode, because the core size approaches the operational wavelength (A.). The value of the
normalized frequency parameter (V) relates core size with mode propagation.
In single mode fibres, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When Vs; 2.405, single mode fibres
propagate the fundamental mode down the fibre core, while high-order modes are lost in the
cladding. For low V values (�1.0), most of the power is propagated in the cladding material.
Power transmitted by the cladding is easily Jost at fibre bends. The value of V should remain
near the 2.405 level.
Single mode fibres have a lower signal loss and a higher information capacity (bandwidth) than
multimode fibres. Single mode fibres are capable of transferring higher amounts of data due to
low fibre dispersion. Basically, dispersion is the spreading of light as light propagates along a
fibre. Dispersion mechanisms in single mode fibres are discussed in more detail later in this
chapter.

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Signal loss depends on the operational wavelength (A). In single mode fibres, the wavelength
can increase or decrease the losses caused by fibre bending. Single mode fibres operating at
wavelengths larger than the cut-off wavelength lose more power at fibre bends. They lose
power because light radiates into the cladding, which is lost at fibre bends. In general, single
mode fibres are considered to be low-loss fibres, which increase system bandwidth and length.
Multimode Fibres
As their name Implies, multimode fibres propagate more than one mode. Multimode fibres can
propagate over 100 modes. The number of modes propagated depends on the core size and
numerical aperture (NA). As the core size and NA increase, the number of modes increases.
Typical values of fibre core size and NA are 50 to 100 µm and 0.20 to 0.29, respectively.
A large core size and a higher NA have several advantages. Light is launched into a multimode
fibre with more ease. The higher NA and the larger core size make it easier to make fibre
connections. During fibre splicing, core-to-core alignment becomes less critical. Another
advantage is that multimode fibres permit the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Single mode
fibres typically must use laser diodes. LEDs are cheaper, less complex, and last longer. LEDs
are preferred for most applications.
Multimode fibres also have some disadvantages. As the number of modes increases, the effect
of modal dispersion increases. Modal dispersion (intermodal dispersion) means that modes
arrive at the fibre end at slightly different times. This time difference causes the light pulse to
spread. Modal dispersion affects system bandwidth. Fibre manufacturers adjust the core
diameter, NA, and index profile properties of multimode fibres to maximize system bandwidth.
Properties of Optical Fibre Transmission

The principles behind the transfer of light along an optical fibre were discussed earlier in this
section. You learned that propagation of light depended on the nature of light and the structure
of the optical fibre. However, our discussion did not describe how optical fibres affect system
performance.
In this case, system performance deals with signal loss and bandwidth_
Signal loss and system bandwidth describe the amount of data transmitted over a specified
length of fibre. Many optical fibre properties increase signal loss and reduce system bandwidth.
The most important properties that affect system performance are fibre attenuation and
dispersion. Attenuation reduces the amount of optical power transmitted by the fibre.
Attenuation controls the distance an optical signal (pulse) can travel as shown in figure 4.37.
Once the power of an optical pulse is reduced to a point where the receiver is unable to detect
the pulse, an error occurs. Attenuation is mainly a result of light absorption, scattering, and
bending losses. Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fibre. This
spreading of the signal pulse reduces the system bandwidth or the information-carrying capacity
of the fibre. Dispersion limits how fast information is transferred as shown in figure 4.37. An
error occurs when the receiver is unable to distinguish between input pulses caused by the
spreading of each pulse. The effects of attenuation and dispersion increase as the pulse travels
the length of the fibre as shown in figure 4.38.

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____..
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ATTENUATION - REDUCES POWER
1 0 'I 1 1
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Figure 4.37. - Fibre transmission properties.
--!\
DISTANCE TRAVELED
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INPUT PULSE OUTPUT PULSE
Figure 4.38: Pulse spreading and power loss along an optical fibre.
In addition to fibre attenuation and dispersion, other optical fibre properties affect system
performance. Fibre properties, such as modal noise, pulse broadening, and polarization, can
reduce system performance.
Modal noise, pulse broadening, and polarization are too complex to discuss as introductory
level material. However, you should be aware that attenuation and dispersion are not the only
fibre properties that affect performance.
Attenuation
Attenuation in an optical fibre is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses.
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fibre. Signal attenuation is
defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po ) . Optical input
power is the power injected into the fibre from an optical source. Optical output power is the
power received at the fibre end or optical detector. The following equation defines signal
- (10)! (P1Po]
attenuation as a unit of length:
attenuation= L og10
Signal attenuation is a log relationship. Length (L) is expressed in kilometres. Therefore, the unit
of attenuation is decibels/kilometre (dB/km). As previously stated, attenuation is caused by
absorption, scattering, and bending losses. Each mechanism of loss is influenced by material
material properties and fibre structure. However, loss is also present at fibre connections. Fibre
connector, splice, and coupler losses are discussed later. The present discussion remains
relative to optical fibre attenuation properties.

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Absorption -Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fibre. Absorption is

defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another
energy form, such as heat. Absorption in optical fibres is explained by three factors:
• Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fibre material

• The intrinsic or basic material-material properties
• The extrinsic (presence of impurities) material-material properties
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules or
oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass
fibre. Since intrinsic and extrinsic material properties are the main cause of absorption, they are
discussed further.
Intrinsic Absorption - Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic material-material properties. If an

optical fibre were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would
be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.
In fibre optics, silica (pure glass) fibres are used predominately. Silica fibres are used because
of their low intrinsic material absorption at the wavelengths of operation.
In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometres (nm) to 1600 nm.
Figure 4.39 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation. This wavelength of
operation is between two intrinsic absorption regions. The first region is the ultraviolet region
(below 400-nm wavelength). The second region is the infrared region (above 2000-nm
wavelength).
ATTENUATION dB/km
0
100 ·001r·· 900 1omr·-11mr ··-· 1200-1Joo 1400 1500 ·--1smr
WAVELENGTH NANOMETERS
Figure 4.39: Fibre losses.

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Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic absorption bands. Basically,
absorption occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts with an electron and excites it to a
higher energy level. The tail of the ultraviolet absorption band is shown in figure 4.39.
The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic vibration
frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration of silicon
oxygen (Si-0) bonds. The interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field
of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is transferred from the
electromagnetic field to the bond. The tail of the infrared absorption band is shown in figure
4.39.
Extrinsic Absorption - Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fibre
material. Trace metal impurities. such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the
fibre during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these
metal ions from one energy level to another.
Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the fibre. Water in
silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond. This bond has a fundamental absorption at
2700 nm. However, the harmonics or overtones of the fundamental absorption occur in the
region of operation. These harmonics increase extrinsic absorption at 1383 nm, 1250 nm, and
950 nm. Figure 4.39 shows the presence of the three OH- harmonics. The level of the OH.
harmonic absorption is also indicated.
These absorption peaks define three regions or windows of preferred operation. The first
window is centred at 850 nm. The second window is centred at 1300 nm. The third window is
centred at 1550 nm. Fibre optic systems operate at wavelengths defined by one of these
windows. Visible light has a wavelength between 400 and 750 nm. Therefore all three of these
vvavelengths used in fibreoptic data transmission are vvithin the infrared range.
The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fibre should be less than a few parts per
billion. Fibre attenuation caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level of impurities
(OH-) present in the fibre. If the amount of impurities in a fibre is reduced, then fibre attenuation
is reduced.
Scattering. - Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fibre. Density changes are produced when optical fibres are manufactured.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the
average density of the fibre, are created. Light travelling through the fibre interacts with the
density areas as shown in figure 4.40. Light is then partially scattered in all directions.

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Figure 4.40: Light scattering.
In commercial fibres operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source of
loss is called Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering is the main loss mechanism between the
ultraviolet and infrared regions as shown in figure 4,39. Rayleigh scattering occurs when the
size of the density fluctuation (fibre defect) is less than one-tenth of the operating wavelength of
light. Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
( 1I 'A 4). As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.
If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering
mechanism is called Mie scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these large defects in the fibre
core, scatters light out of the fibre core. However, in commercial fibres, the effects of Mie
scattering are insignificant. Optical fibres are manufactured with very few large defects.
Bending Loss - Bending the fibre also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified according
to the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss.
Micro bends are small microscopic bends of the fibre axis that occur mainly when a fibre is
cabled.
Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fibre diameter.
Microbend and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fibre loss caused by
microbending can still occur even if the fibre is cabled correctly. During installation, if fibres are
bent too sharply, macro bend losses will occur.
Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fibre. Uneven
coating applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss. External forces
are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the cabled jacket surrounding the
fibre but causes only a small bend in the fibre. Microbends change the path that propagating
modes take, as shown in figure 4.41. Microbend loss increases attenuation because low-order
modes become coupled with high-order modes that are naturally leaky

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Figure 4.41: Microbend loss.
Macrobend losses are observed when a fibre bend's radius of curvature is large compared to
the fibre diameter.
These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of curvature is less than several
centimetres. Light propagating at the inner side of the bend travels a shorter distance than that
on the outer side. To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must
increase. When the fibre bend is less than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must
increase to a speed greater than the speed of light However, it is impossible to exceed the
.
speed of light. This condition causes some of the light within the fibre to be converted to high
order modes. These high-order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fibre.
Fibre sensitivity to bending iosses can be reduced. if the refractive index of the core is
increased, then fibre sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also decreases as the diameter of the
overall fibre increases. However, increases in the fibre core diameter increase fibre sensitivity.
Fibres with larger core size propagate more modes. These additional modes tend to be more
leaky.
Dispersion
There are two different types of dispersion in optical fibres.
The types are intramodal and intermodal dispersion. lntramodal, or chromatic, dispersion occurs
in all types of fibres. lntermodal, or modal, dispersion occurs only in multimode fibres. Each type
of dispersion mechanism leads to pulse spreading. As a pulse spreads, energy is overlapped.
This condition is shown in figure 4.42. The spreading of the optical pulse as it travels along the
fibre limits the information capacity of the fibre.

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PULSE SPREADING
Figure 4.42: Pulse overlap.
lntramodal Dispersion - lntramodal, or chromatic, dispersion depends primarily on fibre

materials. There are two types of intramodal dispersion. The first type is material dispersion.
The second type is waveguide dispersion.
lntramodal dispersion occurs because different colours of light travel through different
materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds.
Material dispersion occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the
wavelengths' interaction with the refractive index of the fibre core. Different wavelengths travel
at different speeds in the fibre material. Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a fibre
at one time exit the fibre at different times. Material dispersion is a function of the source
spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can propagate in the
fibre. Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths.
Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant(�) is a function of the
size of the fibre's core relative to the wavelength of operation. Waveguide dispersion also
occurs because light propagates differently in the core than in the cladding.
In multimode fibres. waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically separate
properties. Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material dispersion.
Waveguide dispersion is usually neglected.
However, in single mode fibres, material and waveguide dispersion are interrelated.
The total dispersion present in single mode fibres may be minimized by trading material and
waveguide properties depending on the wavelength of operation.
lntermodal Dispersion
lntermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light pulse is
made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate along the fibre, light energy distributed
among the modes is delayed by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode
propagates along the fibre at different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some
modes travel longer distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a
different distance over the same time span, as shown in figure 4.43. The modes of a light pulse
that enter the fibre at one time exit the fibre at different times. This condition causes the light
pulse to spread. As the length of the fibre increases, modal dispersion increases.

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CLADDING {
Figure 4.43: Distance travelled by each mode over the same time span.
Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multi mode fibres. Modal dispersion
does not exist in single mode fibres. Single mode fibres propagate only the fundamental mode.
Therefore, single mode fibres exhibit the lowest amount of total dispersion. Single mode fibres
also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth.

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The Transmission of Signals
Analogue Transmission
This is the simplest method. Although it is not generally used on aircraft systems, it is
discussed here as a background to digital techniques. The incoming information signal,
speech, music, video etc. is used to control the power output from the LED or the laser. The
light output is, as near as possible, a true copy of the electrical variations at the input. At the far
end of the fibre, the receiver converts the light back into an electrical signal which is, hopefully,
the same as the electrical signal.
However, any nonlinearity of the characteristics of the transmitter or receiver will reduce the
accuracy of the electrical/optical (E/O) and optical/electrical (O/E) conversions and give rise to
distortion in the output signal.
Another problem is noise. Since the receiver is receiving an analogue signal, it must be
sensitive to any changes in amplitude. Any random fluctuations in light level caused by the
light source, the fibre or the receiver will cause unwanted noise in the output signal. Electrical
noise due to lightning, electromagnetic interference (EMI) or High Intensity Radiated Fields
(HIRF) will also give rise to electrical noise in the non-fibre parts of the system.
Digital Transmission
In a digital system, the information signal is represented by a sequence of on/off levels. The
'on' state is often referred to as logic 1 and the 'off' state as logic 0. The 1 and 0 have no
numerical significance and are just convenient ways to differentiate between the two states.
The 'yes' and 'no' approach means that it ignores noise and distortion since all voltages above
the threshold level are recognised as logic 1 state and all below this level as a logic 0. The
signal is then generated as a perfect copy cf the original signal_
4-54 Module 2.4 Optics (light}

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Optical Fibres and Cables
Optical Fibre and Cable Design

Optical fibres are thin cylindrical dielectric (non-conductive) waveguides used to send light
energy for communication. Optical fibres consist of three parts: the core, the cladding, and the
coating or buffer. The choice of optical fibre materials and fibre design depends on operating
conditions and intended application. Optical fibres are protected from the environment by
incorporating the fibre into some type of cable structure. Cable strength members and outer
jackets protect the fibre.
Optical cable structure and material composition depend on the conditions of operation and the
intended application.
Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are classified as either single mode or multimode fibres. Fibres are classified
according to the number of modes that they can propagate. Single mode fibres can propagate
only the fundamental mode. Multimode fibres can propagate hundreds of modes. However, the
classification of an optical fibre depends on more than the number of modes that a fibre can
propagate.
An optical fibre's refractive index profile and core size further distinguish single mode and
multimode fibres. The refractive index profile describes the value of refractive index as a
function of radial distance at any fibre diameter. Fibre refractive index profiles classify single
mode and multimode 'fibres as follows:
• Multimode step-index fibres

• Multimode graded-index fibres
• Single mode step-index fibres
• Single mode graded-index fibres
In a step-index fibre, the refractive index of the core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt
change at the core-cladding boundary. Step-index fibres obtain their name from this abrupt
change called the step change in refractive index. In graded-index fibres, the refractive index of
the core varies gradually as a function of radial distance from the fibre centre.
Single mode and multimode fibres can have a step-index or graded-index refractive index
profile. The performance of multimode graded-index fibres is usually superior to multimode
step-index fibres. However, each type of multimode fibre can improve system design and
operation depending on the intended application. Performance advantages for single mode
graded-index fibres compared to single mode step-index fibres are relatively small. Therefore,
single mode fibre production is almost exclusively step-index. Figure 10-28 shows the refractive
index profile for a multimode step-index fibre and a multimode graded-index fibre. Figure 10-28
also shows the refractive index profile for a single mode step-index fibre. Since light propagates
differently in each fibre type, figure 4.44 shows the propagation of light along each fibre.

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Figure 4.44: The refractive index profiles and light propagation in

multimode step-index, multimode graded-index, and single mode step
index fibres.
Previously you learned that fibre core size and material composition can affect system
performance. A small change in core size and material composition affects fibre transmission
properties, such as attenuation and dispersion.
When selecting an optical fibre, the system designer decides which fibre core size and material
composition is appropriate.
Standard core sizes for multimode step-index fibres are 50 µm and 100 µm. Standard core
sizes for multimode graded-index fibres are 50 µm, 62.5 µm, 85 µm, and 100 µm. Standard core
sizes for single mode fibres are between 8 µm and 10 µm. In most cases, the material used in
the preparation of optical fibres is high-quality glass (Si02).
This glass contains very low amounts of impurities, such as water or elements other than silica
and oxygen. Using high-quality glass produces fibres with low losses. Small amounts of some
elements other than silica and oxygen are added to the glass material to change its index of
refraction. These elements are called material dopants. Silica doped with various materials
forms the refractive index profile of the fibre core and material dopants are discussed in more
detail later in this chapter. Glass is not the only material used in fabrication of optical fibres.
Plastics are also used for core and cladding materials in some applications.
A particular optical fibre design can improve fibre optic system performance.

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Each single mode or multimode, step-index or graded-index, glass or plastic, or large or small
core fibre has an intended application. The system designer must choose an appropriate fibre
design that optimizes system performance in his application.
Multimode Step-Index Fibres

A multimode step-index fibre has a core of radius (a) and a constant refractive index n1. A
cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2 surrounds the core. Figure 4.45 shows the refractive
index profile n(r) for this type of fibre. n(r) is equal to n1 at radial distances r <a (core). n(r) is
equal to n2 at radial distances r :2: a (cladding). Notice the step decrease in the value of
refractive index at the core-cladding interface.
This step decrease occurs at a radius equal to distance (a). The difference in the core and
cladding refractive index is the parameter fl:
fl is the relative refractive index difference.
n(r) : ---------
+ I
Tn1
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---·--------· · ·--·-·-- - - -
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I I!
.. b I
Jt-i-. a ---:
Figure 4.45: The refractive index profile for multimode

step-index fibres.
The ability of the fibre to accept optical energy from a light source is related to fl. fl also relates
to the numerical aperture by
The number of modes that multimode step-index fibres propagate depends on fl and core
radius (a) of the fibre. The number of propagating modes also depends on the wavelength (A) of
the transmitted light.
In a typical multimode step-index fibre, there are hundreds of propagating modes.

Most modes in multimode step-index fibres propagate far from cut-off.
Modes that are cut off cease to be bound to the core of the fibre. Modes that are farther away
from the cut-off wavelength concentrate most of their light energy into the fibre core. Modes that
propagate close to cut-off have a greater percentage of their light energy propagate in the

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cladding. Since most modes propagate far from cut-off, the majority of light propagates in the
fibre core.
Therefore, in multimode step-index fibres, cladding properties, such as cladding diameter, have
limited affect on mode (light) propagation.
Multimode step-index fibres have relatively large core diameters and large numerical apertures.
A large core size and a large numerical aperture make it easier to couple light from a light
emitting diode (LED) into the fibre. Multimode step-index fibre core size is typically 50 µm or 100
µm.
Unfortunately, multimode step-index fibres have limited bandwidth capabilities.
Dispersion. mainly modal dispersion, limits the bandwidth or information-carrying capacity of the
fibre. System designers consider each factor when selecting an appropriate fibre for each
particular application.
Multimode step-index fibre selection depends on system application and design. Short-haul,
limited bandwidth, low-cost applications typically use multimode step-index fibres.
Multimode Graded-Index Fibres

A multimode graded-index fibre has a core of radius (a). Unlike step-index fibres, the value of
the refractive index of the core (n1) varies according to the radial distance (r). The value of n1
decreases as the distance (r) from the centre of the fibre increases.
The value of n1 decreases until it approaches the value of the refractive index of the cladding
(n2) The vaiue of n1 must be higher than the vaiue of n2 to aiiow for proper rnode propagaiion.
.
Like the step-index fibre, the value of n2 is constant and has a slightly lower value than the
maximum value of n1. The relative refractive index difference (.6) is determined using the
maximum value of n1 and the value of n2 .
Figure 10-30 shows a possible refractive index profile n(r) for a multimode graded-index fibre.
Notice the parabolic refractive index profile of the core. The profile parameter (a) determines
the shape of the core's profile. As the value of a increases, the shape of the core's profile
changes from a triangular shape to step as shown in figure 4.46. Most multimode graded-index
fibres have a parabolic refractive index profile. Multimode fibres with near parabolic graded
index profiles provide the best performance. Unless otherwise specified, when discussing
multimode graded-index fibres, assume that the core's refractive index profile is parabolic (a
=2).

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Light propagates in multimode graded-index fibres according to refraction and total internal
reflection. The gradual decrease in the core's refractive index from the centre of the "fibre causes
the light rays to be refracted many times. The light rays become refracted or curved, which
increases the angle of Incidence at the next point of refraction. Total internal reflection occurs
i... -- .ii... - -�-1- -s: :--:...1 ---- !...---�-- t-�--� .u .. -- .ii...- -�:.i:--1 ---1- -S: :--:...J---- r:-. -�� A A 0
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shows the process of refraction and total internal re'flection of light in multimode graded-index
fibres. Figure 4.48 also illustrates the boundaries of different values of core refractive index by
dotted lines. Light rays may be reflected to the axis of the fibre before reaching the core
cladding interface.
CLA001NG
Figure 4.48: Refractive index grading and light propagation in multimode graded-index
fibres.
The NA of a multi mode graded-index fibre is at its maximum value at the fibre axis. This NA is
the axial numerical aperture [NA(O)J. NA(O) is approximately equal to
Module 2.4 Optics (light) 4-59

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However, the NA for graded-index fibres varies as a function of the radial distance (r). NA varies
because of the refractive index grading in the fibre's core. The NA decreases from the
maximum, NA(O), to zero at distances greater than the core-cladding boundary distance (r>a).
The NA, relative refractive index difference (h.), profile parameter (a), and normalized frequency
(V) determine the number of propagating modes in multimode graded-index fibres. A multimode
graded-index fibre with the same normalized frequency as a multimode step-index fibre will
have approximately one-half as many propagating modes. However, multimode graded-index
fibres typically have over one-hundred propagating modes.
Multimode graded-index fibres accept less light than multimode step-index fibres with the same
core h.. However, graded-index fibres usually outperform the step-index fibres. The core's
parabolic refractive index profile causes multimode graded-index fibres to have less modal
dispersion.
Figure 4 .48 shows possible paths that light may take when propagating in multi mode graded
index fibres. Light rays that travel farther from the fibre's axis travel a longer distance. Light rays
that travel farther from the centre travel in core material with an average lower refractive index.
Earlier, you learned that light travels faster in a material with a lower refractive index. Therefore,
those light rays that travel the longer distance in the lower refractive index parts of the core
travel at a greater average velocity. This means that the rays that travel farther from the fibre's
axis will arrive at each point along the fibre at nearly the same time as the rays that travel close
to the fibre's axis. The decrease in time difference between light rays reduces modal dispersion
and increases multimode graded-index fibre bandwidth. The increased bandwidth allows the
use of multimode graded-index fibres in most applications.
Most present day applications that use multimode fibre use graded-index fibres. The basic
design parameters are the fibre's core and cladding size and h.. Standard multimode graded
index fibre core and cladding sizes are 50/125 µm, 62.5/125 µm, 85/125 µm, and 100/140 µm.
Each fibre design has a specific h. that improves fibre performance. Typical values of h. are
around 0.01 to 0.02. Although no single multimode graded-index fibre design is appropriate for
all applications, the 62.5/125 µm fibre with a h. of 0.02 offers the best overall performance.
A multimode graded-index fibreis source-to-fibre coupling efficiency and insensitivity to

microbending and macrobending losses are its most distinguishing characteristics. The fibre
core size and h. affect the amount of power coupled into the core and loss caused by
microbending and macrobending. Coupled power increases with both core diameter and 11,
while bending losses increase directly with core diameter and inversely with h.. However, while
these values favour high h. s, a smaller h. improves fibre bandwidth.
In most applications, a multimode graded-index fibre with a core and cladding size of 62.5/125
µm offers the best combination of the following properties:
• Relatively high source-to-fibre coupling efficiency

• Low loss

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• Low sensitivity to microbending and macrobending

• High bandwidth
• Expansion capability
For example, local area network (LAN) and aircraft applications use multimode graded-index
fibres with a core and cladding size of 62.5/125 µm. In LAN-type environments, macrobend and
microbend losses are hard to predict. Cable tension, bends, and local tie-downs increase
macrobend and microbend losses. In aircraft applications, a cable-way may place physical
restrictions, such as tight bends, on the fibre during cable plant installation. The good microbend
and macrobend performance of 62.5/125 µm fibre permits installation of a rugged and robust
cable. 62.5/125 µm multimode graded-index fibres allow for uncomplicated growth because of
high fibre bandwidth capabilities for the expected short cable runs onboard aircraft.
Single Mode Step-Index Fibres

There are two basic types of single mode step-index fibres: matched clad and depressed clad.
Matched cladding means that the fibre cladding consists of a single homogeneous layer of
dielectric material. Depressed cladding means that the fibre cladding consists of two regions:
the inner and outer cladding regions.
Matched-clad and depressed-clad single mode step-index fibres have unique refractive index
profiles.
A matched-clad single mode step-index fibre has a core of radius (a) and a constant refractive
index n1. A cladding of slightly lower refractive index surrounds the core. The cladding has a
refractive index n2. Figure 4.49 shows the refractive index profile n(r) for the matched-clad
single mode fibre.
I
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I
b ...Ii._()_..JJ
Figure 4.49: Matched-clad refractive index profile.
Figure 4.50 shows the refractive index profile n(r) for the depressed-clad single mode fibre. A
depressed-clad single mode step-index fibre has a core of radius (a) with a constant refractive
index n1. A cladding, made of two regions, surrounds the core.
An inner cladding region surrounds the core of the fibre and has a refractive index of n2. The
inner cladding refractive index n2 is lower than the core's refractive index n1.

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An outer cladding region surrounds the inner cladding region and has a higher refractive index
n3 than the inner cladding region. However, the outer cladding refractive index n3 is lower than
the core's refractive index n1.
n(r)
I
------ -- ---- --- �:�-r
- ..... - ------- - i I 1
n3
n1
� !
_t
_ j'I "-·--·----- -�-i - -�- I l
, · ·'-· --·-··-····· -··· ·-- -- · -··· · -_t_
____. ...
_
_
_ I ----·--- .
_
! i I l
I
� I I
! i+ b --+1""'· ..1
l
I
' I' a ,
� ,!
j�c
Figure 4.50: Depressed-clad refractive index profile.
Single mode step-index fibres propagate only one mode, called the fundamental mode. Single
mode operation occurs when the value of the fibre's normalized frequency is between O and
2.405 (0 � V < 2.405). The value of V should remain near the 2.405 level. When the value of V
is less than 1, single mode fibres carry a majority of the light power in the cladding material. The
portion of light transmitted by the cladding material easily radiates out of the fibre. For example,
light radiates out of the cladding material at fibre bends and splices.
Single mode fibre cut-off wavelength is the smallest operating wavelength when single mode
fibres propagate only the fundamental mode. At this wavelength, the 2nd-order mode becomes
leaky and radiates out of the fibre core. As the operating wavelength becomes longer than the
cut-off wavelength, the fundamental mode becomes increasingly leaky.
The higher the operating wavelength is above the cut-off wavelength, the more power is
transmitted through the fibre cladding. As the fundamental mode extends into the cladding
material, it becomes increasingly sensitive to bending loss.
Single mode fibre designs include claddings of sufficient thickness with low absorption and
scattering properties to reduce attenuation of the fundamental mode. To increase performance
and reduce losses caused by fibre bending and splicing, fibre manufacturers adjust the value of
V. To adjust the value of V, they vary the core and cladding sizes and relative refractive index
difference (8).
A single mode step-index fibre has low attenuation and high bandwidth properties. Present
applications for single mode fibres include long-haul, high-speed telecommunication systems.
Future applications include single mode fibres for sensor systems. However, the current state of
single mode technology makes installation of single mode systems expensive and difficult.
Short cable runs, low to moderate bandwidth requirements, and high component cost make
installation of single mode fibre aircraft systems impractical at this time.
4-62 Module 2.4 Optics {Light)

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Therefore, field measurements may require two people.
The main field measurement technique involves optical time-domain reflectometry. An optical
time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is recommended for conducting field measurements on
installed optical fibres or links of 20 meters or more in length. An OTDR requires access to only
one fibre end. An OTDR measures the attenuation of installed optical fibres as a function of
length. It also identifies and evaluates optical connection losses along a cable link and locates
any fibre breaks or faults.
End users can also measure fibre attenuation and cable plant transmission loss using an optical
power rneter and a stabilized iight source. End users use this rneasurernent technique when
optical time-domain reflectometry is not recommended. Measurements obtained with a
stabilized light source and power meter are more accurate than those obtained with an OTDR.
Measuring fibre attenuation and transmission loss using a power meter and light source
requires access to both ends of the fibre or link. An optical loss test set (OL TS) combines the
power meter and source functions into one physical unit
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry

End users use optical time-domain reflectometry to characterize optical fibre and optical
connection properties in the field. In optical time-domain reflectometry, an OTDR transmits an
optical pulse through an installed optical fibre. The OTDR measures the fraction of light that is
reflected back due to Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflection. By comparing the amount of
light scattered back at different times, the OTDR can determine fibre and connection losses.
When several fibres are connected to form an installed cable plant, the OTDR can characterize
optical fibre and optical connection properties along the entire length of the cable plant. A fibre
optic cable plant consists of optical fibre cables, connectors, splices, mounting panels, jumper
cables, and other passive components. A cable plant does not include active components such
as optical transmitters or receivers.
The OTDR displays the backscattered and reflected optical signal as a function of length. The
OTDR plots half the power in decibels (dB) versus half the distance. Plotting half the power in
dB and half the distance corrects for round trip effects. By analyzing the OTDR plot, or trace,
end users can measure fibre attenuation and transmission loss between any two points along
the cable plant. End users can also measure insertion loss and reflectance of any optical
connection. In addition, end users use the OTDR trace to locate fibre breaks or faults.
Figure 4.51 shows an example OTDR trace of an installed cable plant. OTDR traces can have
several common characteristics. An OTDR trace begins with an initial input pulse. This pulse is
a result of Fresnel reflection occurring at the connection to the OTDR. Following this pulse, the
OTDR trace is a gradual down sloping curve interrupted by abrupt shifts. Periods of gradual
decline in the OTDR trace result from Rayleigh scattering as light travels along each fibre
section of the cabie piant. Periods of graduai deciine are interrupted by abrupt shifts caiied point
defects. A point defect is a temporary or permanent local deviation of the OTDR signal in the
upward or downward direction. Point defects are caused by connectors, splices, or breaks along
the fibre length. Point defects, or faults, can be reflective or non-reflective. An output pulse at
the end of the OTDR trace indicates the end of the fibre cable plant. This output pulse results
from Fresnel reflection occurring at the output end-end face.

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INITIAL INPUT
REFLECTIOH
r OUTPUT END-FACE
REFLECTIOH
OTDR
SIGNAL
(dB)
PERIOD OF
GRADUAL DECLIHE
NONREFLECTIVE
FAULT
.
,
---.....,__
;!!_ tlOISE
DISTANCE Z
Figure 4.51: OTDR trace of an installed cable plant.
Attenuation - The accuracy of this test method depends on the user entering the appropriate
source wavelength, pulse duration, and fibre length (test range) into the OTDR. In addition, the
effective group index of the test fibre is required before the attenuation coefficient and accurate
distances can be recorded. The group index (N) is provided by fibre manufacturers. By entering
correct test parameters, OTDR fibre attenuation values will closely coincide with those
measured by the cutback technique.
Test personnel can connect the test fibre directly to the OTDR or to a dead-zone fibre. This
dead-zone fibre is placed between the test fibre and OTDR to reduce the effect of the initial
reflection at the OTDR on the fibre measurement. The dead-zone fibre is inserted because
minimizing the reflection at a fibre joint is easier than reducing the reflection at the OTDR
connection.
Figure 10-88 illustrates the OTDR measurement points for measuring the attenuation of the test
fibre using a dead-zone fibre. Fibre attenuation between two points along the test fibre is
measured on gradual down sloping sections on the OTDR trace. There should be no point
defects present along the portion of fibre being tested.

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OTDR
SIGNAL
(dB)
P1�+-��-1-�__-,...--�
P2 �l--��-!��.l.-��__::::!=:..�
I I Zz
DISTANCE Z
Figure 4.52: OTDR measurement points for measuring fibre

attenuation using a dead-zone fibre.
OTDRs are equipped with either manual or automatic cursors to locate points of interest along
the trace. In figure 4.52, a cursor is positioned at a distance z0 on the rising edge of the
reflection at the end of the dead-zone fibre. Cursors are also positioned at distances z1 and z2.
The cursor positioned at z1 is just beyond the recovery from the reflection at the end of the
dead-zone fibre. Since no point defects are present in figure 10-88, the cursor positioned at z2
locates the end of the test fibre. Cursor z2 is positioned just before the output pulse resulting
from Fresnel reflection occurring at the end of the test fibre.
Pov1er Meter
Test personnel also use an optical power meter and stabilized light source to measure fibre
attenuation and transmission loss in the field. Optical power meter measurements are
recommended when the length of an installed optical fibre cable or cable plant is less than 50
meters. A test jumper is used to couple light from the stabilized source to one end of the optical
fibre (or cable plant) under test. An additional test jumper is also used to connect the other end
of the optical fibre (or cable plant) under test to the power meter. Optical power meter
measurements may be conducted using an optical loss test set (OLTS). An OL TS combines
the power meter and source functions into one physical unit. When making measurements, it
does not matter whether the stabilized source and power meter are in one physical unit or two.
Power meter measurements are conducted on individual optical fibre cables installed onboard
the aircraft. The installed optical fibre cable must have connectors or terminations on both ends
to make the measurement. If the installed optical fibre cable does not have connectors or
terminations on both ends, an OTDR should be used to evaluate the cable. If the cable is too
short for evaluation with an OTDR, cable continuity can be verified using a flashlight.
Power meter measurements for cable assembly link loss require that test personnel clean all
optical connections at test jumper interfaces before performing any measurement. Test
personnel should use cotton wipes dampened with alcohol to clean connectors and blow dry

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before making connections. End users should also ensure that test equipment calibration is
current.
Power meter measurements connecting a test reference cable between the light source and
power meter. The test reference cable has the same nominal fibre characteristics as the cable
under test The optical power present at the power meter is the reference power (P1).
Disconnect the test reference cable and connect the optical fibre cable under test between the
light source and power meter using test jumpers. If possible, the test reference cable should be
used as the input jumper cable for the test cable measurement. The test jumper fibre properties,
such as core diameter and NA, should be nominally equal to the fibre properties of the cable
being tested. The optical power present at the power meter is test power (P2).
Test personnel use P1 and P2 to calculate the cable assembly link loss. The cable assembly link
loss (BcA) of optical fibre installed with connectors or terminations on both ends is
The cable assembly link loss should always be less than the specified link loss for that particular
link.
Besides measuring individual cables, test personnel measure the transmission loss of installed
fibre optic cable plants. The transmission loss of fibre optic cable plants is measured using
method B (multimode fibre) or (single mode fibre). The procedure measures the internal loss of
the cable plant between points A and B, plus two connection losses. Figure 4.53 (A) illustrates
the method for measuring the reference power (P1). Figure 4.53 (B) shows the final test
configuration for measuring the cable plant test power (P2).
OPTICAL
LIGHT p POWER
SOURCE 1
METER
(A) REFERENCE POWER MEASUREMENT FOR EIAfflA-526-14 METHOD B
TEST JUMPER 1
"""'\
/ TEST JUMPER 2
I =· �h � rn: � o===Im-=== �! = P
2
=
METER
A B;
(B) CABLE PLANT POWER MEASUREMENT FOR EIA!TIA-526-14 METHOD B
Figure 4.53: Methods for measuring the reference power (P1).
The procedure is exactly the same as described for measuring the link loss of an individual
cable assembly. The total optical loss between any two termination points, including the end
terminations, of the optical fibre cable plant link is measured. The measured cable plant link loss
should always be less than the specified cable plant link loss.
Test personnel should conduct cable assembly link loss, and cable plant transmission loss
measurements in both directions and at each system operational wavelength. By performing
4-66 Module 2.4 Optics (Ught)

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these measurements in each direction, test personnel can better characterize cable and link
losses. Unlike optical time-domain reflectometry, bi-directional readings are always possible
when performing power meter measurements. In power meter measurements, by definition, end
users have access to both ends of the cable or cable plant.

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Module 2
Physics
2.5 Wave Motion and Sound
Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound 5-1

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Knowledge Levels - Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft Maintenance

Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B 1 and 82 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82
LEVEL 1
Objectives:
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms,
LEVEL 2
• An ability to apply that knowledge,
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
subject.
subject
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject
manner.
Objectives:
instructions.
5-2 Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound

For Training
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Table of Contents
Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound ----��----

5
Wave Motion 5
Resonance 9
Sound 15
Supersonic Speed and Mach Number _______ 23
The Doppler Effect ______ 23

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Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
EASA 66 Level
Objective
Reference 81 82
Wave Motion and Sound 2.5 2 2
Wave motion; mechanical waves, sinusoidal
wave motion, interference phenomena,
standing waves
Sound: speed of sound, production of sound,
intensity, pitch and quality, Doppler effect
_j
·- -- · ---
- - ------- - ---··--- --··---
-·· ----------·-·--·--·-· -·-

I
-----i

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Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound
Wave Motion
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Mechanical waves can be classified as transverse or longitudinal according to how they
travel. Both types of wave can be demonstrated using a slinky (a long steel spring). The
transverse wave occurs when the coils move at right angles to the direction of motion of the
wave, with the motion along the length of the slinky. To produce a transverse wave, the slinky is
rested on a flat surface and one end is moved from side to side, setting up the oscillation and
hence the traveling wave.
... .. ... .. .... ... ..., ...
� ! � v v v v l/ 'I I I I ' I ' I ' I I I ' , , I' /' I ,. /\ 11 I' I' /' I I ' I
Figure 5.1: Transverse and longitudinal waves produced on a slinky
The end of the slinky can also be moved in and out along its axis. The coils undergo
compression, followed by rarefaction when the coils open out. Displacement of the coils is
now along the axis of the spring.

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Pro gressive and Stationary Waves

When we start a wave in the slinky, either transverse or longitudinal. we can watch it travel from
one end to the other. Because it progresses along the slinky it is called a progressive wave.
However, if the far end of the slinky is fixed, waves are reflected back. These can combine with
the next waves which are traveling foiwards. At the right combination of frequency and speed,
the waves traveling in opposite directions can produce a stationary or standing wave. Here
we shall consider both types.
The Wave Formula

There are many types of waves: light waves, sound waves, radio waves, cosmic rays, x-rays.
communication waves, waves on cords, etc. In our first discussion of waves, we will deal with
that type which is called just "wave", that is, a water wave.
Let us assume that a stone is thrown into A

the middle of a large, calm pond on a day
when there is no wind. If there is a
perpendicular plane surface cutting the p
water surface through a point where the
stone hits the water, an observer would
see the water surface disturbed in such a
way that a curve would be visible. This curve
Figure 5.2: Waveform dimensions
would have a shape as shown in figure 5.2.
In figure 5.2 it is important to note that the
pattern of crests and troughs is moving. If the stone hits the water surface at the point (P), the
pattern is moving to the right in the diagram above. Of course, the entire pattern is moving out
from point (P) in all directions, but we are looking in only one direction. We should also note that
the pattern is moving with a definite speed, called the wave speed (v).
The amplitude (A) of the wave is the greatest displacement from the rest position. The
amplitude is shown in figure 5.2.
Another distance that we will need in our discussion of waves is the wavelength, 'A (Greek letter
lambda). The wavelength is defined as the distance from one point on the wave pattern to the
next point in a similar position. The distance from the top of a crest to the top of the next crest is
a wavelength. Also the distance from the bottom of one trough to the bottom of the next trough
is also the same distance, one wavelength. The distance A. is also shown in the diagram.
Let us next consider sinusoidal wave motion impressed on a very long flexible cord by an
oscillating body. Assume that the oscillating body is a sphere attached to a vertical spring.
After the spring has been oscillating for some time, the physical situation is as shown in figure
5.3.
The frequency (f) of the oscillating body is defined as the number of complete oscillations in one
second. Frequency is expressed in cyciesisec. or Hertz. The period (T) is defined as the time
for one complete oscillation. It is expressed in seconds.
Let us suppose that the oscillating body completes 6 oscillations in one second. It follows that
the time for one oscillation is one-sixth of a second.

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In this case:
1
F=6Hz and T= -sec.
6
T\T \TV \T\

Figure 5.3: A waveform produced on a piece of string by a mass
oscillating on the end of a spring
From this example we see that f and T are reciprocals of each other.
1 'l
T =
-
and f =
f T
We next seek a relationship between wave speed (v), frequency (f), and wavelength (A.).
We note that the wave moves forward a distance of one wavelength in a time of one period. Of
course, the wave moves with speed (v).
Since the distance equals the speed times the time, we can write the equation:
A.=vT
From this equation, we have:
A.
-=V
T
And finally:
fA=
. v
v = f A.
EXAMPLE:
(a) A body oscillates with a frequency of 8 Hz, and sends out a wave having a
wavelength of 0.2 ft. What is the speed of the wave?
V = (8 cycles/sec.) (0.2 ft.) = 1 .6 ft./sec.
(b) What is the wavelength of a wave moving with a speed of 5 ft./sec. If the
frequency of the oscillating body which is the source of the wave is 12 Hz?

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v 5 ft I sec .
A.= = = 0_417 ft.
f 12 cycles/sec.
(c) An observer times the speed of a water wave t o be 2 ft/sec. and notes that the
wavelength is 0.5 ft. What is the frequency of the disturbance that gives rise to this
wave?
v 2 ft/sec.
f =- = = 4 cycles/sec.= 4 Hz
A. 0.5 ft.

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Resonance
In the case of water waves and in the case of waves
on a very long cord, we were able to neglect waves
that were reflected back along the medium. We now
must consider reflected waves.
The most common example is the case of waves

originating in a disturbance impressed on a cord or
>-1•1 L
2
string of a definite length. Many musical instruments
depend on such vibrations.
,/' '
,,,.----
"'"'
....,,
/ '
,
If a sinusoidal disturbance is impressed on a very
'
long cord a sinusoidal wave travels continuously

along the cord. However, if the sinusoidal wave
meets a fixed end, a reflected wave moves back
along the cord.
The wave patterns which are observed are called

the normal modes of vibration of the cord. In figure
5.4. the length of the cord is L. The wavelength in
the various modes of vibration are X. The n is the
index of the mode. In the equations which follow, n
has an integral value, that is n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
We can write a general relation as follows:
A. n == 2L
n
The vibration where n = 1 is called the fundamental

mode of vibration of the body. The other vibrations
A.5• i L
2
are called overtone vibrations. Every body which
can vibrate has a certain fundamental mode of
vibration of a definite frequency. If this frequency is Figure 5.4: Normal modes of vibration
impressed on the body, it will vibrate with a relatively
large amplitude. We say that the body is vibrating in
resonance with the impressed frequency.

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Problems
1. A water wave has a wavelength of 0.9 ft. and the wave speed is 4.5ft/sec. What is the
frequency of the disturbance setting up this wave?
2. A wave on a cord is set up by a body oscillating at 12 Hz. The wavelength is 0.25ft. What
is the wave speed?
3. A water wave is set up by a source oscillating at 12 Hz. The speed of the wave is
24ft/sec. What is the wavelength?

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Answers
1. 5 Hz
2. 3ft/sec.
3. 2 ft.

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Sound
Sound waves are usually defined as pressure waves in air or in some other material medium.
Sound waves originate in some vibrating body such as the oscillation of a person's vocal cords
or the periodic rotation of a plane's propeller.
As the source of sound vibrates, the air surrounding the source is periodically compressed and
rarefied (made less dense). This periodic change in the atmospheric pressure moves forward
with a definite speed of propagation called the uspeed of sound".
The speed of sound in air is dependent on the temperature of the air. This is not surprising
since the molecules of air move faster in their random motion if the temperature is higher. Thus
we should expect these pressure waves to move somewhat more rapidly in warmer air.
The speed of sound in air is approximately 331.5 m/s at OCC
At an air temperature of 20<C, the speed of sound i ncreases to 344 mis
If an ear and its eardrum are in the vicinity of a sound wave, the air which strikes that eardrum
has a periodically changing atmospheric pressure. If the frequency of the sound is middle C
(256 Hz), and the atmospheric pressure that day is 14.7 lbs/in2, 256 times each second the air
2
pressure is slightly above 14.7 lbs/in and 256 times each second the pressure is slightly below
2
14.7 lbs/in it should be emphasized that "slightly" means very small. The human ear is a
remarkably sensitive instrument. It can detect air pressure variations as small as about
2
0,000000005 lbs./in.
Sound travels faster in liquids, and even faster still, in solids.
Intensity of Sound
For those working in the aviation industry it is important to understand something regarding the
intensity of a sound wave.
The intensity level (IL) of sound waves is measured in a unit called the decibel (after Alexander
Graham Bell).
The equation is:
I
IL= 10 log -
lo
In this equation IL is in decibels. The intensity, (lo), is the intensity of the "threshold of hearing",
the softest sound that the average human ear can detect Also in the equation, I is the intensity
of the sound we are measuring.
We note that:
12 2
io = i 0- Watts/m
We also review that the log 1on = n.

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EXAMPLE:
2
The intensity of a given sound is 10- Watts/rn .
What is the intensity level (IL) in decibels?
105
IL=10 Log --=10 log (10-5)(1012)
10-12
7
= 10 log 10
IL= 10 (7) = 70db
It should be noted that 120 db is the

INTENSITY LEVELS OF "threshold of pain". Sound of this
SOME COMMON SOUNDS intensity is painful to the normal ear. If
- ·--··
the ear is continuously subjected to
INTENSITY
sound of this intensity, ear damage
SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL
and hearing loss can result.
(W/m2) (db)
Rocket Engine 106 180 Those who work in the aviation

industry should take precautionary
Jet Plane at Takeoff 10� 150 measures and wear ear protectors.
Amplifled Rock Music 10-• 110 The intensity of sound decreases

inversely with the square of the
RlvAtlnn
... 10-3 90
� ... .. -----
distance from the source of sound.
Therefore, doubling the distance from
Elevated Train 10-t 80
a source of sound decreases the
Busy Street Traffic 10-5 70 intensity to one-fourth of the previous
value. A worker who is suddenly
Conversation In Home 10-6 60 subjected to a very intense sound with
unprotected ears should move as
'"Quiet" Radio In Home 10� 40 quickly as possible away from the
sound of the source.
Whisper 10""10 20
Rustle of Leaves 10-11 10
Hearing Threshold 10-12 0
Table 5.1: Intensity levels of some common sounds
Sound Waves and Resonant Vibrations

Intense sound waves can cause resonant vibrations in pieces of equipment. There is a
fundamental mode of vibration and a set of overtone vibrations (multiples of the fundamental)
for any body that can vibrate. The frequencies of these vibrations are all natural frequencies for

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the given body. Vibrations of moving parts of equipment are often caused by "sympathetic
vibrations" to some impressed sound wave.
The Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, had a powerful voice. Wine glasses have a natural frequency
of vibration. As an attention getter at parties. Caruso used to sing the resonant note of a wine
glass and cause the glass to vibrate with such amplitude that it would shatter! Try it sometime!
Constructive and Destructive Interference

When two sinusoidal waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the frequency (or
wavelength) amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two waves have the same
amplitude A and wavelength the resultant waveform will have an amplitude between 0 and 2A
depending on whether the two waves are in phase or out of phase.
Resultant
(combined)
waveform
Wave 1
Wave2
Figure 5.5: Constructive and destructive interference
Noise Cancelling Headphones

Noise-cancelling headphones reduce unwanted S!OO'nd �es created Noise created
fyheadphone speaker' t,, . external souree
ambient sounds (i.e., acoustic noise) by means of
¥·l¥
active noise control. Essentially, this involves using
a microphone, placed near the ear, and electronic
circuitry which generates an "anti-noise" sound
wave with the opposite polarity of the sound wave
arriving at the microphone. This results in
destructive interference, which cancels out the
noise within the enclosed volume of the headphone.
Keeping noise low at the ear makes it possible to

enjoy music without raising the volume
unnecessarily. It can also help a passenger sleep in
a noisy vehicle such as an airliner.
Figure 5.6: Noise cancelling headphones

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Another effect of constructive and destructive
I��'""' interference is the "dead zones" produced when

two identical waves emanate from separate
locations, as shown in figure 5.7.
� . ,.\·'\.·\' \:\ .
. • ·';" ' '\ Here, water waves are progressing from two
� J•'•' .
�·••11111
. ·..
'
�...
,,_
".
\ \ .
.·
.. ..··.
__ ;
points, causing destructive interference where a
peak from one source coincides with a trough from
,
the other source, the effect being to cancel each
- � . · ·.'1:: ' ·'·. ,_. , , other at those points.
·-) '
:J I 11··
...
.'· . . . . ., · '
.
Striations (or "rays") of undisturbed water result.
�101·
.
Figure 5.7: Destructive interference

causing "dead zones"

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Reflected Waves
Let us look in more detail at how to set up standing waves. We set off a short wave on a slinky
which has been firmly fixed at its far end. Assume that the wave consists of one and a half
wavelengths. The wave travels along the slinky until it reaches the far end.
At this point, the wave can travel no further forwards and is reflected back. This means that the
velocity has changed sign. In addition, the phase of the wave has changed. If the displacement
of the forward wave is upwards at the instant of time when it reaches the far end, then its
displacement is downwards on reflection. This makes sense. At the fixed end, the displacement
of the incoming and outgoing waves sum to zero. This must be so because there can be no
displacement of the string at the fixed point. The reflected wave is out of phase by it. It passes
back 'through' the forward wave (think how ripples can pass through each other on the surface
of a pond). Where the two waves over1ap, the displacement of the slinky is the sum of the two
waves. But, eventually, we see the reflected wave emerge complete and pass back along the
slinky.
The frequency, velocity and wavelength of the wave all remain the same in reflection. If no
energy is lost at the far end, the amplitude of the reflected wave equals that of the incoming
one. The phase difference of x which we have identified and is crucial to the setting up of
standing waves.
When waves pass through each other, the displacement at any point is the sum of the individual
displacements of the two waves passing in opposite directions.

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Producing Stationary Waves

Stationary waves are set up in stringed instruments such as a guitar. What we see is the string
vibrating from side to side. At the moment that the string is plucked, a progressive transverse
wave is set up traveling out from that point. It meets the fixed end of the string and is reflected
back. The amplitudes of the two waves add together as they meet.
The string vibrates naturally at certain frequencies because it is fixed at both ends. When the
outgoing and reflected waves are added together subject to this condition, a stationary wave is
set up in the string. If the string is plucked centrally we get the fundamental mode (shape of
wave). In this case, the string vibrates with maximum displacement at the central position
(called the antinode) and the displacement falls away to zero at the two ends (called nodes).
Fundamental Frequency or 1st Harmonic

------ L -------t
)<�---
I --
- -��.
-- -
,; �
1
_,-· -----�,�
_j
-
-_-_--_
-
-
____ --·---·····----·-·
<' � - '1j
K) �L --�
2"d Harmonic
1s
t
or
Overtone
------�2-��---1
anti-node node
)_� -b1
rd
3 Harmonic
or
nci
--- /\.3 I z Overtone
l - - -- - ------- -- - �[
4th Harmonic
3
rd
or
Overtone
----A4--1
Figure 5.8: Stationary waves and harmonics
When a string on an instrument is plucked, vibrations, that is, waves, travel back and forth
through the medium being reflected at each fixed end. Certain sized waves can survive on the
medium. These certain sized waves will not cancel each other out as they reflect back upon
themselves. These certain sized waves are called the harmonics of the vibration. They are
standing waves. That is, they produce patterns which do not move.
On a medium such as a violin string several harmonically related standing wave patterns are
possible. The first four of them are illustrated above. It is important to understand that for any

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one given medium fixed at each end only certain sized waves can stand. We say, therefore, that
the medium is tuned.
The first pattern has the longest wavelength and is called the first harmonic. It is also called the
fundamental.
The second pattern, or second harmonic, has half the wavelength and twice the frequency of
the first harmonic. This second harmonic is also called the first overtone. This can get confusing
with the second member of the harmonic group being called the first member of the overtone
group.
The third haiiiionic, or pattern, has one thiid the wavelength and three times the frequency
when compared to the first harmonic. This third harmonic is called the second overtone.
The other harmonics follow the obvious pattern regarding wavelengths, frequencies, and
overtone naming conventions described in the above paragraph.
Depending upon how the string is plucked or bowed, different harmonics can be emphasized. In
the above animation all harmonics have the same maximum amplitude.
This is for purposes of illustration. Actually, the higher harmonics almost always have maximum
amplitudes much less than the fundamental, or first harmonic.
It is the fundamental frequency that determines the note that we hear. It is the upper harmonic
structure that determines the timber of the instrument
Beats
Suppose we tune two strings of a guitar to vibrate at almost, but not quite, the same frequency.
Plucked simultaneously, the volume of the sound produced by them appears to rise and fall
continuously. This rise and fall has a fixed frequency called the beat frequency. What is
happening is that the sound waves produced by the two guitar strings interfere and our ears
detect the variation of the resultant intensity. Maximum intensity is heard when the waves add
together (interfere constructively) and minimum intensity Is heard when the waves cancel each
other out (interfere destructively).
We can see what is happening by adding together the two separate waves as shown in the
diagram below. The resultant, obtained by the principle of superposition, is shown.

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');.
·
1'.i tri�
fa)
resultant
·fo..
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: · . ,..dl-
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� ..,,. _ .,.,__
:•..._:;· . ,,,_,.
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timer between success;.\fe

beat! (beat period)
Figure 5.9: A beat created by two sound waves of similar (but not the
same) frequencies

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Supersonic Speed and Mach Number

Jet planes can travel at speeds greater than the speed of sound. In this case, we have a source
of sound, the plane, moving at a greater speed than the sound itself. The pressure waves of the
sound all "pile up" and a very strong V-shaped pressure "bow-wave" is produced. A sonic boom
results as this strong pressure ridge reaches the earth.
The Mach number is the ratio of the speed of the plane (v0) to the speed of sound (v). If a plane
is travelling at 1.000 MPH and the local speed of sound is 750 MPH. the Mach number is
calculated in the following way:
Aircraft speed V0 1,000 MPH

Mach Number== = - = -- - = 1.25
Local speed of sound V 750 MPH
We say that the plane is travelling at Mach 1.25.
The Doppler Effect

The "Doppler effect" is named after Christian Doppler (1803-1853), the American physicist who
first named the effect.
The effect is present for all wave motion. However, we will describe it for sound waves since it is
most easily understood for a case where it can be observed (heard might be a better word).
Whenever you have stood on a railway platform and a train blows its whistle as it approaches,
passes, and recedes, you have heard the Doppler effect. In this case, the sound suddenly
changes from a higher pitch (frequency) as the source of sound approaches to a lower pitch as
the source of sound recedes from your ear at rest o n the station platform. The change in pitch
occurs at the instant the train passes. Before this instant the source of sound was approaching
your ear and after this instant, the source of sound is receding from your ear.
Figure 5.10: Effect on frequency of a stationary and moving sound source

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There is another problem to be considered. Suppose that the source is at rest and the ear is
moving. Consider the figure 5.11.
As the ear moves to the left, it picks up more waves than it normally would if it were at rest.
If the observer moves away from the source, the ear picks up less waves than it would if it were
at rest.
As a conclusion, note that the ear hears a higher frequency if source and observer approach
each other. Also, the ear hears a lower frequency if the source and observer recede from each
other.
Figure 5.11: Doppler effect caused by a

stationary sound source and moving ear

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Integrated Training System

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Licence Category 81 and 82

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For Training Purposes Only Module 2 Preface Page2

Module 2 Preface iii

Module 2.1 Matter 1-1

Knowledge Levels - Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 Matter �

Module 2.1 Matter 1-3

Module 2.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

1-4 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 - Matter

The Nature of Matter

The Components of Atoms

Module 2.1 Matter 1-5

Particle Relative Electrical Comments

Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus

Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus

I Electron 111850 -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels

UI �I 1�11� di UU1 IU l111;::: I IU!Ult:U:::.

Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom.

Figure 1.1: The structure of an atom

1-6 Module 2.1 Matter

Periodic Table of the Elements

\\ \\ La' Ce ••.. Pr Nd Pm· Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb, Lu

�\ if9 90 91 92 $3 M 95 96 it7 H W 1® 101• fOZ 103

Figure 1.2: The Periodic Table of the Elements

The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number

Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group

Module 2. 1 Matter 1-7

1-8 Module 2.1 Matter

Note that an element:

• consists of only one kind of atom,

Note that a mixture:

• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

Note that a compound:

• consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,

Module 2.1 Matter 1-9

Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

1-10 Module 2.1 Matter

• Cation -A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

Module 2.1 Matter 1-11

club66pro.com question practice aid

1-12 Module 2.1 Matter

The Electronic Structure of Atoms

• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

Electrons within an atom have definite energies.

Module 2.1 Matter 1-13

Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation

Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of electrons in a

lithium (3) 2 .1 catbon (6) 2 .4 neon (10) 2 .8

1-14 Module 2.1 Matter

Na(11) 2.8.1 Cl (17) 2.8.7 Ar(18) 2.8.8

Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium,

potassium (19) calcium (20)

Module 2.1 Matter 1-15

Table 1.2: Electrons in outer shells of some

1-16 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.2 Mechanics ��