Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Welding of super alloys: A review

Ravinder Kataria a, Ravi Pratap Singh b, Parveen Sharma a,⇑, Rakesh Kumar Phanden c
a
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India
b
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present research paper, an attempt has been made to discuss, elaborate, and critically explore the
Received 3 July 2020 welding practices and applications in joining the super alloys. There have been reported several types of
Received in revised form 8 July 2020 welding processes being approached to join different types of super alloys. In addition to this, the extraor-
Accepted 10 July 2020
dinary applications of the super alloys in various industrial solicitations have also been explored and
Available online xxxx
mentioned. The mathematical modelling-based studies, as well as theoretical studies, have been dis-
cussed. The major critical observed aspects were including the metallurgical based elaborations made
Keywords:
and the microstructure analysis of the welded samples for having deeper insights. The future research
Review
Super alloys
aspects related to the welding of super alloys have also been discussed more dominantly.
Welding Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Joining Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Con-
Modelling ference on Future Learning Aspects of Mechanical Engineering.

1. Introduction super alloys for different parts of the gas turbine. The high levels of
temperature, wear, strength, tear and the sluggish endurance
Super alloys are made of an iron base, cobalt basis (cobalt) or a towards oxidation process and corrosion are responsible for these
nickel blend, or iron or cobalt, and are added in a small amount to applications under harsh conditions.
further improve the properties of the alloys, such as chromium, Ni-based alloys constitute at least 50% nickel, and in Ni-iron
tungsten, molybdenum, iron, cobalt, aluminium, titanium, tanta- base alloys, Ni is the chief constituent. Other alloying elements
lum, zirconium, niobium [1–3]. Because of their improved proper- like; aluminium and chromium are added to enhance surface sta-
ties, super alloys have been widely used in manufacturing. Highly bility. Most of the wrought Ni-base super alloys consists of 5–
resilient to surface degradation such as corrosion and oxide, high 15% Co, 10–20% Cr, 8% Ti and Al combined, and fewer amount of
tension and creep resistance are superior alloys at high tempera- other additives like tungsten, molybdenum, magnesium, zirco-
tures [2,4–6]. nium, boron, niobium to further enhance their properties [13,14].
There are numerous applications for such alloys, for example, Ni-base super alloys are heat treated by two methods- precipi-
(a) a steam Turbine Power Plant, for example, turbine blades, tation heat treatment and solution heat treatment. Fig. 1 shows the
reheaters etc.; (b) Nuclear power stations, such as springs, rotary classification of super alloys. Successful industrial use of Non-
controls, ducting, valve stems etc.; (c) aerospace industry, such as based super-alloys involves welding of motor parts along with
gas turbine blades, vanes, fuel chambers, bolts, etc. [5,7–11]; (d) the complicated geometries as well as the replacement of defective
heat processing apparatus such as trays, fixtures, conveyor belts components throughout operation [7,8]. Generally, the production
etc, (e) Metals processing, for example, casting dies, hot processing and repair of fusion welding techniques like gas-tungsten-arc
apparatus and dies, etc.; (f) components of medical apparatus, for welding, electron-beam welding, and laser soldering are applied
example, prosthesis devices, dentistry, etc. (g) chemical and petro- to the process [9]. While strong solution fusion soldering rein-
chemical plants [10,12]. Throughout the aerospace and power pro- forced Ni-based superalloys is often carried out, high-intensity
duction sectors, super-alloys have a significant part. High welding, Ni-based superalloys have over years become a major
operating temperatures and performance are obtained by utilizing challenge as such alloys have been vulnerable to solidifying crack-
ing, heat zone harm cracking, strain age cracking, alloy splitting
and the development of porosity in the zone [10–13]. So, the devel-
⇑ Corresponding author. opment and restoration of Ni-based superalloys are constrained by
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Sharma). these issues.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.198
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Future Learning Aspects of Mechanical Engineering.

Please cite this article as: R. Kataria, R. Pratap Singh, P. Sharma et al., Welding of super alloys: A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.198
2 R. Kataria et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Classification of super alloys.

Various welding techniques have been applied to super alloys weldability. Travel velocity was varied to observe the change in
because of their superior properties. Gas Tungsten arc welding bead cross-sectional shape. Grain boundary liquation in the HAZ
(TIG) is an arc-based jointing process that makes an arc entre a was examined by measuring the widths of healed and liquefied
workpiece and a tungsten electrode that is not consumed [15– grain boundaries. Energy Dispersive Electroscope (EDX) is used to
17]. It is commonly used for protection against atmospheric con- analyze the micro-constituent on the fracture surface.
tamination by gases such as argon and helium. It is added sepa- Nematzadeh et al. [23] examined the influences of TIG welding
rately to the welding bowl when the filler is necessary. As the factors such as input heat and welding speed on the mechanical
electrode is non-consumable, the TIG welding is typically used to properties and microstructure of Udimet-520 super alloy. Hard-
transfer heat to the direct-current electrode negative (DCEN) ness is measured by Rockwell hardness equipment and Quantome-
roughly 2/3 and 1/3 to the tungsten electrode. TIG is used for AC ter was used to determine the dispersion of elements in the weld
while oxide film products such as aluminium have problems layer. Thermocouple and Pyrometer were used to measure the dis-
[16,18–20]. Laser soldering with mega alloys has been commonly tribution of the temperature. To study hot cracking and
used. Laser welding is a procedure without touch where the weld- microstructure, SEM analysis and optical microscope with Energy
ing is carried out by the laser directed at a specific location, such Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) were utilized.
that the desired region fuses and a soldered joint is produced. Rezaei and Moosavy [24] have studied the effects of pre-cold
treatment of Inconel 718 on mechanical properties, microstruc-
ture, and weldability of super alloys in laser welding. Dry ice with
2. Literature Review the temperature around 30 °C was used to perform the pre-cold
treatment. Ronix 1101 heat gun of 2000 W power was used for
There have been several research studies conducted in past heating purpose and IRG 420, a laser thermometer was used to
investigations on the joining of several super alloys by employing measure temperature. Philips XL30 SEM and Olympus BX51 M
different welding processes. The past researchers have explored optical microscope were used to analyze the microstructure of
their novel research findings to enhance the knowledge and capa- the material. Field emission SEM with EDS were used for detailed
bilities of future researchers. The reviewed investigations have study of microstructure. Hardness was measured by Buehler Vick-
been therefore summarized in the form of this presented section ers Microhardness Tester. To experiment, the temperature of sam-
entitled as – ‘‘literature review”. ples before welding was varied and Nd:YAG pulsed laser machine
Wang et al. [21] reliance upon the variables of TIG solder, such was used to make bead on the plate. Graneix et al. [25] have inves-
as welding speed, soldering current, impulse frequency, grooves, tigated the weldability of Haynes 188 and Hastelloy X alloys under
and solder re-melting index, on tensile characteristics, morpholog- Nd:YAG laser. The study is performed on a butt joint. TRUMPH Tru-
ical, microstructural, and weld fraction of nickel-based super Laser Cell 3000 machine was used to cut, and butt weld the sam-
alloys. TIG welding is used for the manufacturing of GH99, plated ples. The variation in parameters such as feed rate, power of the
with an equivalent thickness for butt welds of the nickel founda- laser, gas flow and focal diameter and their effects on the mechan-
tion. Samples were concentrated in three positions, the striking ical attributes and weld geometry had been studied. The
end of the arc, the arc end, and the central part of the retreating microstructures analyzed by the SEM process and optical micro-
end. The tensile property was measured by Instron Series IX mate- scopy attached with EBSD analysis. CORICO software was used to
rial tester. CamScam MX2600FE scanning electron microscope was find the most influential parameter of the welding process.
used to observe the morphology of fracture surface. Carl Zeiss
Axiovert 40 Mat metalloscopy was used to observe the microstruc-
ture of welded joints. Shinozaki et al. [22] investigate laser weld- 3. Various investigated welding characteristics in past research
ability of Inconel 718, the connection between welding
parameters, weld defects, and the mechanism of weld cracking. There are various welding responses studied and investigated in
Low order multi-mode tri-axial cross-acting type CO2 laser oscilla- the past research related to the superalloys. The tabular represen-
tor is used. Four beads of bead length 50–70 mm are used to test tation of the reviewed literature work is exemplified in Table 1.

Please cite this article as: R. Kataria, R. Pratap Singh, P. Sharma et al., Welding of super alloys: A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.198
 R. Kataria et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

Table 1
Tabular representation of literature review on super alloys.

S. Investigators Work Process used Process Response studied Research findings

No. materials parameters
1. Wang et al. Ni-base TIG Welding Welding speed, Tensile strength, Yield With the rise in the value of welding speed and
[21] alloy, Welding current, strength, Elongation, HAZ, welding current, tensile attributes first get increased
GRADE- Impulse Crystal morphology and then fall down, with the increased value of
GH99 frequency impulse frequency tensile strength decreased.
2. Choudhury Inconel Machining with Depth of cut, Tool wear, Thermal stresses Notch-wear occurs in machining of Inconel with
and Baradie 718 different cutting tool cutting speed, ceramic. For machining Inconel-718 Uncoated
[26] materials feed carbide tools are better than coated, for high speed
machining Alumina-TIC ceramic tools are preferred.
3. Bohua et al. Cobalt- EDM, FE-SEM, – Surface roughness, Mass of A two-layer oxide film at 600-900°CExternal layer-
[27] Nickel- Electronic Balance, samples, Composition Cr2O3, Internal layer-Al2O3, Evaporation of MoO3 in
base SEM, Laser variation, Phase external oxide film which creates voids
super microscope, XRD, characterization of oxide film
alloy EDX
4. Araujo et al. Inconel SEM, Annealing, EDS, Temperature, Mass fraction of all phases, Size of grains increased with overheating time,
[28] 718 XRD heating time grain size, cross-section of continuous and extensive liquation at grain
Niobium-rich phases boundary. Precipitation of Niobium-ample phases
while cooling, and later on accelerated liquid loss
from boundary and its disruption
5. Nematzadeh Udimet Gas tungsten arc Heat input, Hardness, Ductility At enhanced values of input heat hot cracking
et al. [23] 520 welding welding speed witnessed, cracking happened where concentration
of Ti and Al is high, hardness was improved when
input heat was decreased and weld speed was
increased
6. Shinozaki Inconel Laser welding Welding speed, Critical curvature radius, At maximum power (travelling speed less than 1.5 m/
et al. [22] 718 heat input, power Number of cracks min), a cross sectional shape of weld bead like
champagne glass is attained and nail head shape at
speed 2–5 m/min, weld cracks at HAZ, porosity and
underfills occur
7. Thellaputta Ni-base Machining Feed rate, cutting Surface integrity, creep For machining Ni base superalloys, contemporary
et al. [29] superalloy speed, depth of strength, cutting forces ceramic based tools, multi-layer carbide coated tools,
cut, and CBN tools are revealed to be good.
8. Kiaee et al. A516- GTAW Welding current, Tensile strength, hardness Optimum value of HAZ hardness, tensile strength,
[30] Gr70 flow rate of value at weld, hardness at and weld hardness for boilers equipment fabrication
carbon shielding gas, heat affected zone were obtained at speed 9.4 cm/min, welding current
steel welding speed 130A, and flow rate of gas 15.1 l/min. Welding speed
is the most influential factor.
9. Graneix et al. Haynes Laser beam welding Power of laser, Yield strength, tensile Power of laser and focal diameter were the most
[25] 188 and welding speed, strength, ductility influential parameters. Tensile strength and ductility
Hastelloy focal diameter, decreases than the base metal whereas yield strength
X gas flow remains same
10. Rezaie and Inconel Laser beam welding Welding Hardness, length of mushy Length of PMZ and HAZ decreases, lower hardness of
Moosavy 718 temperature zone, HAZ and partially weld fusion zone
[24] before welding melted zone, WTOP/WNECK
11. Sihotang Hastelloy Tungsten inert gas Heat input Ultimate tensile strength, For high input heat, localized liquation coarse
et al. [31] X arc welding yield strength, elongation carbides and an inter-granular liquation film has
been examined. This liquation film lowers the tensile
properties of used HX. For low input heat, the
carbides are dissolved back into the matrix,
particularly in the HAZ area close to the WZ.

3.1. Tensile strength the process conditions or the subsequent microstructural charac-
teristics, no significant loss of ductility of most welds was
During TIG welding it was seen that the tensile strength of Ni- observed. Different research work has also detailed the processing
base super alloys varies with impulse frequency, welding speed of similar advanced materials [27–31].
and welding current [26]. The root of the joint left without getting
welded when the welding current is too small (55-60A), leading to
3.2. Yield strength
poor elongation and tensile strength of the welded joint. A collapse
in the seam and undercutting appeared when the current is too
It changes similar to tensile strength during TIG welding. Wang
large (plus 90A). Wang et al. [21] investigated that the strength
et al. [21] examined that the yield strength first goes up and then
(tensile) first goes up with the increase of welding speed and weld-
falls with an increment of welding current and welding speed
ing current and then falls. The determined optimized value of
and it decreases with the increase of impulse frequency.
welding current is 80A and for welding speed, the optimized value
is 25 cm/min. But the tensile strength reported being decreased
with the escalation of impulse frequency. The reason behind this 3.3. Hardness
is the shortening of time span between two contiguous peaks of
impulse current, which increases the heat accumulated and the During TIG welding of UDIMET 520 super alloy, Nematzadeh
optimized value to be determined is 3 Hz. The total high- et al. [23] examined that with the rise in the value of welding
temperature elongation of solderings in the conditions of PWHTed speed, hardness increases and with the rise in heat input hardness
was significantly lower than the high temperature of Inconel-718 decreases, this is because at lower heat input fine grain structure
except for a 923 K (650C) inertia friction weld. However, despite will be formed.

Please cite this article as: R. Kataria, R. Pratap Singh, P. Sharma et al., Welding of super alloys: A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.198
4 R. Kataria et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

3.4. Elongation Sharma: Resources, Writing - review & editing. Rakesh Kumar
Phanden: Resources, Writing - review & editing.
It first goes up with an increment of welding speed and welding
current and then falls. Wang et al. [21] in his study examined that Declaration of Competing Interest
the elongation increases sharply from 3% to 32.1% when welding
current increases from 60A to 80A. The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
Weld regions are subjected to the very high levels of tempera- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
ture rates, rapid cooling as well as serious plastic deformations to influence the work reported in this paper.
while soldering superalloys. These cause various major modifica-
tions to microstructures throughout weld and hence it affects the References
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CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ravinder Kataria: Conceptualization, Writing - original draft.

Ravi Pratap Singh: Writing - original draft, Supervision. Parveen

Please cite this article as: R. Kataria, R. Pratap Singh, P. Sharma et al., Welding of super alloys: A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.198