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48 Perforating Table 2.3 Explosives, acronyms and application Abbreviation Name Formala ‘Comments TNT ‘Winitrotoluene CgHy(NO.);CHy Melts at 80°C (176°F) — therefore not suitable for downhole use RDX Research department CsHNoOg Most common, composition X, downhole explosive HMX High molecular weight CsHgNgOy Higher temperature RDX version of RDX, HNS Hexanitrostilbene CygHyNoOi, Higher temperature stability, but reduced performance compared to HMX, PYX Picrylaminodinitro- Slightly reduced pyridine penetration compared to HINS, but very high temperature ability TATB ‘THiaminotrinitrobenzene Not used om its own downhole. Common in missile systems! Very HTX High-temperature Combines HNS Various different explosive and TATB formulations possible better penetration than HNS, with high temperature stability commonly used explosives. TNT is included in the table for comparison — its low melting point whilst making it very useful for creating moulded explosives limits its downhole application The temperature stability of the main explosives used is shown in Figure 2.36 (Economides et al., 1998a). The stability of HTX is typically below, but close to that of HNS. As it is not a pure compound, the performance can vary with the formulation. Explosive power can also vary with the pressed density and grain size (Baird et al., 1998). These curves are determined experimentally, with no reduction in explosive performance observed if the time-temperature limitations are obeyed. Straying beyond these limits risks the explosives degrading. This will reduce the explosive power, but also generates heat through the exothermic reaction. Possible outcomes include outgassing, low-order detonation (akin to burning) and even autodetona~ tion, High-temperature explosives such as HNS, PYX and HTX are less likely to autodetonate, but can burn at high temperatures. Given that the explosive power generally deteriorates with the more high temperature stable explosives, a balance is required for the selection of theReservoir Completion 49 Temperature (°F) 1 10 100 000 Time (h) Figure 2.36 Temperature stability of perforating explosives (courtesy of M. J. Economides, LT. Watters, and S. Dunn-Norman). appropriate explosive. This balance will be dependent on the gun deployment method (Section 2.3.6). Guns deployed in single tip by electricline will be downhole for substantially less time than guns deployed at the base of a permanent completion. Allowance should be given for contingent operations that could slow down operations, for example bad weather. The procurement and handling of explosives is a time-consuming operation. In most countries, necessarily stringent legislation provides strict controls on the purchasing, transport and handling of explosives. With time critical completions, carly communication with the perforating company is required, even if precise details relating to the well are not yet known. 2.3.2. Perforation geometry and size This subsection considers the geometry and size of a single perforation shot under downhole conditions. The contribution of all the perforations combined including phasing and shot density is discussed in Section 2.3.4. Clearly, a single perforation cannot be considered in isolation; however, it is important to have tools that can realistically predict the geometry of a single perforation, The overall perforation design can then be optimised based on the combined performance of many adjacent perforations. A typical perforation hole geometry is shown in Figure 2. The hole through the casing is usually free of burrs on the inside, although if the clearance from gun to casing is tight, a small burr can be created. The burr on the outside of the casing is shown in Figure 2.38, but is less of a concern. ‘The aim in most cased and perforated completions is to generate the maximum perforation length — deep penetrating charges. This is achieved by a relatively tight conical geometry of the shaped charge as shown with the conical liner in Figure 2.34 and the charge casing in Figure 2.39. Typical entrance hole sizes will then vary from 0.2 to 0.4 in. Occasionally, even with deep penetrating charges, the entrance50. Perforating ‘Small burton Perforation diameter typically ‘outside of casing. increases through cement. Entrance hole tapered. and smaller ‘onnaton, No burr on Inside of casing res 1 1 \ dest pertorations ar designed. Perforation length dependent on Fluid Liner Cement for maximum penetration at the charge weight, and type, rock or casing ‘expense of perforation diameter. strength, gun clearance and fluid, Perforation tapers over length Figure 2.37. Typical perforation geometry. Cn Scale (in) Figure 2.38 Outside of casing with a smallediameter perforation, igure 2.39 Shaped charge casing.

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