DESIGN OF 15 SEATER COMMUTER AIRCRAFT (PART I AERODYANMIC DESIGN) By BALA ABINESH.C KARTHIK.K PRADEEP KUMAR.S SAI SSHRIMAN.M YADHAVAN.

U (42007101009) (42007101023) (42007101033) (42007101041) (42007101306)

Under the guidance of

Dr. K. Padmanaban Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College

A report submitted to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering

ANNA UNIVERSITY, Chennai. April 2010

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the design project report titled DESIGN OF 15 SEATER COMMUTER AIRCRAFT being submitted by BALA ABINESH.C KARTHIK.K PRADEEP KUMAR.S SAI SSHRIMAN.M YADHAVAN.U (42007101009) (42007101023) (42007101033) (42007101041) (42007101306)

to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College Chennai, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Aeronautical Engineering) is a bonafide record of the work carried out by this group under my guidance and supervision in the even semester of the academic year 2009-2010.

Dr.K.PADMANABAN, Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai - 600 048.

Dr.P.BASKARAN, Professor and Head, Dept. Of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai - 600 048.

INTRODUCTION
TYPE: Twin-turboprop, 15 seater commuter aircraft. DESIGN FEATURES: Low mounted unswept wing, circular section pressurised fuselage, conventional tail with fixed incidence tail plane. Wing section, NACA 631412, incidence at 1.88 with a dihedral of 3. FLYING CONTROLS: Conventional. Split flaps at the trailing edge of the wing. LANDING GEAR: Retractable, tricycle arrangement with nose wheel. All units retract into the fuselage. Tyre pressure & size: Main wheel = 90 p.s.i Main wheel = 27 7.25 in2 Nose wheel = 40 p.s.i. Nose wheel = 19 POWERPLANT: Two PRATT & WHITNEYCANADA PT6A-13A turboprop engines each rated 750 shp, driving a 3 blade variable pitch propeller of diameter 3m. ACCOMODATION: Two pilots in flight deck, Main cabin accommodates one attendant and 15 passengers in pressurised and air-conditioned environment. 6.25 in2

BASIC SPECIFICATIONS OF 15 SEATER COMMUTER AIRCRAFT

CRUISE VELOCITY PAYLOAD RANGE CRUISE ALTITUDE

: 461 km/hr : 15 passengers : 2000 km : 4 km

DETAILED SPECIFICTIONS
DIMENSIONS:
WING SPAN LEGNTH OF FUSELAGE FUSELAGE DIAMETER WING AREA HORIZONTAL TAIL AREA VERTICAL TAIL AREA WING ASPECT RATIO ROOT CHORD OF WING TIP CHORD OF WING : : : : : : : : : 15.58 m 13.44 m 2.7 m 27 m2 4.79 m2 4.05 m2 9 2.475 m 0.99 m 1.732 m 2000 N/ m2

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD : WING LOADING TAIL ASPECT RATIO HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL WING AEROFOIL TAIL AEROFOIL PROPELLER DIAMETER : : : : : :

4 1.5 NACA 631412 NACA 0009 (both vertical and horizontal tails) 3m

WEIGHTS:
TAKEOFF WEIGHT FUEL WEIGHT ENGINE WEIGHT PAYLOAD WEIGHT : : : : 54,249 N 14,479 N 3060.72 N 15,000 N

PERFORMANCE:
MAXIMUM SPEED CRUISE SPEED RANGE ENDURANCE CRUISE ALTITUDE RUNWAY LENGTH RUNWAY LOADING RATE OF CLIMB MAXIMUM TIME TO CLIMB TO CRUISE ALTITUDE LIFT TO DRAG RATIO AT CRUISE SERVICE CEILING : : : : : : : : : : : 128 m/s 115 m/s 2000 Km 4.83 hrs 4 Km 900 m 4.85 ton/ft2. 821 m/min at sea level 5.83 minutes 13.3 6.9 km

ENGINE SPECIFICATION:
S.H.P WEIGHT S.F.C LENGTH DIAMETER : : : : : 750 hp 1530.36 N 2.7468 (N/hr)/SHP 1575 mm 483 mm

CONTENTS
List of symbols used. List of tables List of graphs Comparative data 1. Initial weight estimation 2. Engine selection 3. Fuel weight estimation 4. Second weight estimation 5. Selection of tip chord and root chord 6. Estimation of thickness to chord ratio of wing aerofoil 7. Aerofoil selection 8. Estimation of landing speed and stalling speed 9. Flap selection 10. Tyre selection 11. Fuselage details 12. Propeller design 13. Configuration layout 14. C.G calculations 15. Drag estimation 16. Drag polar estimation 17. Performance calculations 18. Stability analysis 19. V-n diagram 20. Conclusion

Bibliography

LIST OF SYMBOLS USED

AR a aw at av a.c b

Aspect Ratio Temperature Lapse Rate Slope of the CL vs. curve for wing Slope of the CL vs. curve for a horizontal tail. Slope of the CL vs. curve for a vertical tail aerodynamic centre Wing span Mean aerodynamic chord m m C/m /deg /deg /deg

CD CDi CD0 wing CDt CL Cmac Cmc.g Cmfus,nac Cn cr ct

Drag coefficient Induced drag coefficient Drag coefficient of wing Total Drag Coefficient Lift Coefficient Pitching moment coefficient at aerodynamic centre Pitching moment coefficient at centre of gravity Pitching moment coefficient due to fuselage and nacelle Yawing Moment coefficient. Root Chord Tip Chord m m

Cs Cl. C.G D D E e it iw J K le lt lv N N0 n n R R/C Re S St Sv S

Speed Power Coefficient of Propeller Dihedral effect Centre of gravity Diameter of propeller Drag Endurance Ostwalds efficiency factor Orientation of tail plane on the fuselage Orientation of wing on fuselage Advance ratio of propeller Gust alleviation factor. Distance between inoperative engine and centre line of fuselage Distance between C.G position of aircraft and horizontal stabilizer Distance between C.G position of aircraft and vertical stabilizer. Rotation per minute. Neutral point Rotation per second Load factor Range Rate of climb Reynolds number Wing area Horizontal tail area Vertical tail area Area of individual components m2 m2 m2 m2 km m/min m m m /min m /s deg deg /deg m m N Hrs

S.F.C S/L SHP THP t/c

Specific fuel consumption Sea Level Shaft horse power Thrust horse power Thickness to chord ratio Tail volume ratio

(N/hr)/SHP

U Vcruise Vs Wf Wfuel Wpayload Wpilot Wpowerplant Wmax Wstructure WT.O W/S Xa,c XC.G

Gust velocity. Cruise velocity Stalling velocity Weight of fixed equipment like seats, galleys etc Weight of the fuel Weight of payload (passengers) Weight of the pilot Weight of the power plant Maximum weight of the aircraft Weight of the structure of the aircraft Takeoff weight Wing loading Distance between nose of the aircraft to the a.c of Aircraft

m/s m/s m/s N N N N N N N N N/ m2 m

Distance between nose of the aircraft to the C.G position of the aircraft. m Angle of attack Blade angle. Dihedral angle Floating tendency Restoring tendency deg deg deg /deg /deg

e r

Deflection of the elevator Deflection of the rudder Damping ratio

deg deg

Tail efficiency Angle of downwash Density Density of air at sea level deg kg/ m3 kg/ m3

Density ratio Taper ratio Viscosity Airplane mass parameter. (W/S)/ g Elevator effectiveness factor Airplane time parameter (W/S)/ gV s N-s/ m2

undamped natural frequency

LIST OF TABLES

1. Comparative data 2. Engines and its specification 3. Aerofoils and their CLMAX & CDMIN 4. Different runways and their runway loadings. 5. Propeller efficiency and blade angle at various condition 6. C.G calculation of fuselage 7. C.G calculation of wing 8. C.G calculation for 10% fuel and full payload condition 9. C.G calculation for 10% fuel and no payload condition 10. Airplanes C.G position at various configuration 11. Parasite drag calculation for takeoff condition 12. Parasite drag calculation for cruising condition 13. Parasite drag calculation for landing condition 14. Drag polar estimation for takeoff condition 15. Drag polar estimation for cruising condition 16. Drag polar estimation for landing condition 17. Rate of climb estimation for various altitude 18. Elevator deflection for various CL 19. Yawing moment coefficient for various velocity 20. Load factor limitations for various category of aircraft 21. Velocity at various load factors

LIST OF GRAPHS
1. Aspect ratio Vs velocity 2. Wing loading Vs velocity 3. Span to length ratio Vs velocity 4. Drag polar 5. THP Vs velocity 6. Rate of climb Vs velocity 7. Maximum rate of climb Vs altitude 8. 1/(R/C)max Vs altitude 9. CL Vs 10. Cm Vs CL for various C.G positions 11. Cm Vs CL for various elevator deflections 12. Elevator deflection Vs equilibrium CL 13. Cn Vs velocity 14. Amplitude Vs time for phugoid oscillation 15. V-n diagram

COMPARATIVE DATA

Aircraft design is both an art and engineering. From the time that an airplane first materializes as a new thought in the mind of one or more persons to the time that the finished product rolls out of the manufacturers door, the complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out in the sequence. These phases in chronological order are conceptual design, preliminary design & detail design. This conceptual aerodynamic design project involves the estimation of weight and choice of the aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission requirements. It also estimates drag, size of the powerplant, the best airframe size to accommodate the payload, wing and engine placement. This conceptual design locates principal weight groups in order to satisfy static stability requirements. It also sizes control surfaces to achieve the degree of manoeuvrability. The designing process started with the collection of comparative data from various aircraft of the present requirement existing in market. Data on nearly 12 aircraft were collected out of which 6 aircraft were selected. From the comparative data parameters like aspect ratio, span to length ratio, wing loading and maximum velocity were finalised. The comparative data was obtained from JANES ALL WORLD AIRCRAFT-2006-07

NAME OF AIRCRAFT

Beechcraft King Air C90GTi

Beechcraft King Air B100

Cessna 441

Dornier Do 228

Beechcraft B200

Piaggio P.180 Avanti

COUNTRY OF U.K ORIGIN POWERPLANT PWC PT6A135A

U.K Garrett TPE-331-6251B U.S.A 2 Garrett TPE331 U.S.A 2

INDIA Garrett TPE331 U.S.A 2 PWC PT6A42 U.S.A 2

ITALY PWC PT6A-66 U.S.A 2

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN NO. OF ENGINES DIMENSIONS: LENGTH SPAN HEIGHT WEIGHTS: W(MAX) W(EMPTY) W(PAY LOAD) W(FUEL) W(LANDING) AREAS: WING HORIZ.TAIL VERT.TAIL FLAPS AILERONS RUDDER ELEVATOR

U.S.A 2

10.82 m 15.32 m 4.34 m 4,580 kg 3,150 kg

12.17 m 14.0 m 4.7 m 5,352 kg 3,212 kg

11.89 m 15.04 m 4.01 m 4,611 kg 2,489 kg

16.56 m 16.97 m 4.86 m

13.34 m 16.61 m 4.57 m

14.41 m 14.03 m 3.97 m 5,239 kg 3,400 kg 907kg 1271kg 4965 kg 16 m 3.83m 4.73m 1.60m 0.58m 0.66m 1.24m

6,200 kg 5,670 kg 3,687kg 3,520 kg 1653 kg 5,670 kg 28.2 m 4.52 m 3.46 m 4.17 m 1.67 m 1.4 m 1.79 m

5900 kg 27 m 26.0 m 23.5 m2 32.0 m 8.33 m 1.5 m 5.87 m

SPEEDS: V(CRUISE) V(MAX)

416 km/h 500 km/h

491 km/h

454 km/h 315 km/h 536 km/h 480 km/h 433km/h 545 km/h 148 km/h 139 km/h

593 km/h 0.70 M 172km/h 2213 km 869 m 872 m 12.3 0.34 11124 327.4 kg/m

145 km/h V(STALL) RANGE/ENDURANCE: 2,446 km WITH FULL PAYLOAD TAKE OFF DISTANCE LANDING DISTANCE ASPECT RATIO 8.7 TAPER RATIO SWEEP BACK 170 kg/m WING LOADING

2,455 km

2,078 km

2445km 442 m 457 m

3,338 km 567 m 536 m 9.8

7.5

205.84 kg/m

193.8 kg/m

201.6 kg/m

From the above data, graphs of aspect ratio, wing loading, and span to length ratio were drawn against the velocity.

Aspect Ratio Vs Velocity

14 12

10

AR

8 6 4
Aspect Ratio = 9

Velocity =461 km/hr

2
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Velocity (km/hr)

3500 3000 2500

Wing loading Vs Velocity

W/S 2000
1500 1000

Wing Loading =2000 N/m2 Velocity = 461 km/hr

500
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Velocity (km/hr)

Span to Length Ratio Vs Velocity

1.6
1.4 1.2
b/l = 1.15 V = 461 km/h

b/l

1 0.8

0.6
0.4 0.2 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Velocity (km/hr)

THE SPECIFICATIONS FOUND FROM THE COMPARATIVE DATA ARE: ASPECT RATIO AR SPAN TO LENGTH RATIO b/l = 9 = 1.15 = 2000 N/m2 = 128 m/s

WING LOADING W/S MAXIMUM VELOCITY VMAX

CRUISE VELOCITY VCRUISE = 115 m/s RANGE CRUISE ALTITUDE R H = 2000 km = 4 km

INITIAL WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The weight estimation is an iterative process. There are various ways to subdivide and categorize the weight components of the aircraft. The standard way is to divide the weight as 1. Crew weight Wcrew : The crew comprises the staff necessary to operate the airplane in fight. In this design it is assumed that the airplane has a pilot, co-pilot and an attendant. Hence 3 crew members. The unit weight for crew is assumed as 1000 N. 2. Payload weight Wpayload : The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport. Thus 15 passengers are the payload of this aircraft. It assumed that the passenger unit weight is 1000 N. 3. Fuel weight Wfuel : This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. It is assumed that it is 15% of the total weight of the aircraft. 4. Powerplant weight Wpowerplant: This is the weight of the engine. The weight of the engines is assumed as 10% of the total weight of the aircraft. 5. Structural weight Wstructure : It is assumed that structural weight of the aircraft is 30% of the total weight. 6. Fixed equipment weight: Fixed equipment is the weight of seat, galleys, electronic equipments ....etc. It is assumed that fixed equipment weight is 4.5% of the total weight.

The total weight of the aircraft is calculated by adding the weight of its components as shown below. INITIAL WEIGHT ESTIMATION: W1 = Wstructure + Wpayload + Wpowerplant + Wfuel + Wcrew + Wfixed equipment = 0.3W1 + (1000 x NO OF PASSENGERS) + 0.1W1 + 0.15W1 + (1000 x NO OF CREW) + 0.045W1 = 0.3W1 + 1000*(15+3) + 0.1W1 + 0.15W1 + 0.045W1 0.405W1 = 18000 W1 = 44,444 N From the comparative data (SHP/W) AVG is calculated to be 0.01506 hp/N. Therefore SHP = (SHP/W) AVG * W1 hp = 669.32 hp An engine with 10% extra power is considered.

ENGINE SELECTION
From the Janes engine data book, engines having shaft horse power in the range 650 750 hp were considered. ENGINE S.H.P WEIGHT N PT6A-114A PT6A-15AG PT6A-25C PT6A-27 PT6A-34AG PT6A-135 PT6A-36 675 680 750 680 750 750 750 1557.828 1459.728 1539.287 1459.728 1472.579 1530.360 1472.579 0.640 0.602 0.595 0.602 0.595 0.585 0.590 SFC (N/hr)/SHP

From that PT6A-135A PRATT WHITNEY CANADA ENGINE was selected as it had low weight, low SFC, high SHP. The specification of the airplane engine is S.H.P WEIGHT S.F.C LENGTH DIAMETER = 750 hp = 156.0 kg = 0.585 (lb/h)/ehp = 1575 mm = 483 mm = 1530.36 N = 2.7468 (N/hr)/SHP

FUEL WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The weight of the fuel was calculated from the data obtained from the engine configuration and comparative data collected. The formula used to calculate the fuel weight is Weight of the Fuel = (SFC x (Range/VCruise) x SHPALTITUDE x No of Engines) For emergency needs 20% of the fuel is kept as reserve. Thus the weight of the fuel is multiplied by a factor of 1.2. Weight of the Fuel = 1.2(SFC x (Range/VCruise) x SHPALTITUDE x No of Engines) From comparative data RANGE CRUISE VELOCITY NO. OF ENGINES CRUISE ALTITUDE (H) SHPALTITUDE Where = 2000 km = 410 km/hr =2 = 4 km = SHPS/L *
1.2

is the density ratio which is approximately determined from the equation = 20 H/20 + H = 0.6667 for 4 km altitude.

Therefore SHPALTITUDE = 750 * 0.66671.2 = 461 hp SFC Thus the weight of the fuel is Weight of the Fuel = 1.2(2.7468*(2000/416)*416*2) = 14,472 N = 2.7468 (N/hr)/SHP

SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Since the exact weight of the powerplant and the fuel are known the corresponding values are substituted in weight equation to obtain the second weight estimation. W2 WFUEL Wpowerplant(2 engines) = Wstructure + Wpayload + Wpowerplant + Wfuel + Wcrew + Wfixed equipment = 14,472 N = 156 * 2 * 9.81 = 3061 N Therefore W2 = 0.3 W2 + 1000*(15+3) + 3061 + 14,472 + 0.045 W2 = 35,533 N = 54,249 N

0.655 W2 W2

This is taken as the maximum takeoff weight of the airplane in the subsequent calculations.

SELECTION OF TIP CHORD AND ROOT CHORD

As the wing loading and the weight of the aircraft from the second weight estimation are known the wing area is found as follows: W/S 2000 N/m2

S 54,249 / (2000) S Similarly AR b2 27 m2 b2 / S = 9 9*27

b 15.58 m b/l 1.15 (from comparative data)

l 15.58/1.15 = 13.55 m

ct/cr
Where,

------------------- (1)

aper Ratio
0.4 (From the comparative Data)

S b*(ct+cr)/2 ------------------- (2)

Solving (1) & (2), we get Root chord cr Tip chord ct 2.475 m 0.99 m 1.732 m

The mean aerodynamic chord

ESTIMATION OF THICKNESS TO CHORD RATIO OF WING AEROFOIL.

The thickness to chord ratio of the aerofoil for wing is selected such that the wing has sufficient space for storing the fuel. Part of the fuel can also be stored in fuselage if necessary. But, for the enhanced safety of the occupants, it is extremely desirable to store the entire fuel in the wing rather than in the fuselage. Also, with the fuel storage in wings, the shift in the airplanes centre of gravity as fuel is consumed is usually much less than with fuel in the fuselage. The front spar is located at 15% of the chord from the leading edge and the rear spar is at 65 % of the chord. The fuel must be stored within this region. The volume of the fuel can be calculated from the weight of the fuel used and the specific gravity of the fuel. Once the volume of the fuel tank is calculated (t/c)max can be estimated by equating the volume available in the wing.
Area available for holding fuel Front spar at 0.15

of b/2

Rear spar at 0.65 7.8 m

Specific gravity of the fuel (aviation kerosene) Weight of the fuel Volume of the fuel

= 0.8 = 14,472 N = 14,472/ (0.8*1000*9.81) = 1.844 m3

The volume available in both the wings Area available Mean chord for area shown

= 2*((t/c)max *area* ) = 5.61 m2 = 1.577m

Thus on equating the volume of the fuel and volume available in the wing the (t/c) max is found to be 10.42 % A 12% aerofoil is selected.

ESTIMATION OF CL cruise: The cruising CL was calculated by knowing the air density at cruising altitude and cruising velocity

*0.667

kg/m3 CL cruise =2(W/S)/ V2cruise = 2*2000/(0.8173*1152) CL cruise = 0.37

AIRFOIL SELECTION
The airfoil selection is one of the crucial steps in airplane design. Criteria for the selection of airfoil are that, the airfoil should have high lift coefficient and the drag coefficient should be as low as possible. Various conventional airfoils like NACA 4 digit, 5 digit airfoils & laminar flow airfoils were considered. The airfoil data were collected from the book THEORY OF WING SECTIONS by Abbott and von Doenhoff. The graphs in the book were given for various Reynolds numbers. As a first step, the Reynolds number at which the aircraft was flying was found. T a = To aH = Temperature Lapse Rate = 0.0065 K/m T = To aH = 288.15 0.0065*4000 = 262.15 K

*(262.15/288.15) = 1.628 * 10-5 N-s/m2 Re = V /

cruising altitude = 4 km

Data on laminar flow NACA airfoils with 12 % thickness were collected at Re = 9*106 and compared.

AEROFOIL 63-012 631212 631412 63015 63215 1.42 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.6

CL MAX 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.0045 0.005

CD MIN

NACA 631412 was selected, as it had high CL as well as low CD0 min compared to other airfoils. The digits in the airfoil nomenclature indicate the nature of the airfoil. The last two digits indicate that the thickness of the airfoil is 12% of the chord. The third digit stands for the design lift coefficient of airfoil viz. 0.4. The fourth digit indicates the location of the maximum pressure which is at 30% of the chord. The subscript 1 indicates that minimum drag extends on either side of design CL by 0.1 in CL vs.CD graph.

ESTIMATION OF LANDING SPEED & STALLING SPEED

Since the aircraft is to be operated between small cities, it should be designed such that it lands in small runways. Hence the runway length was chosen as 900 m. The CAR (Civil Air Regulation) states that the landing distance should not exceed 60% of the runway length. Therefore landing distance = runway length *0.6 = 900*0.6 = 540 m From the Newtons laws of motion, it is known that v2 u2 = 2aSL where SL is the landing distance. The final velocity of the aircraft is zero. Also, deceleration while landing is maintained at 20% of the acceleration due to gravity. Substituting these values and solving for u gives the value of the landing speed. It is found that the landing speed is equal to 46 m/s. Also the landing speed is usually 15% more than the stalling speed. Thus the stalling speed = 46/1.15 = 40 m/s at sea level.

FLAP SELECTION
ESTIMATION OF CL max: The required available CL max. CLmax(reqd) = 2(W/S)/ VS2 CL max) was calculated by computing the difference between required CL max and

= 2*2000/ (1.226*402) = 2.04 CL max reqd = CL max reqd CLmax available =2.041.8 =0.24 This CL max reqd value must be made available using part span flaps. From the flap data book CL is found to be 0.98 for the t/c ratio of 12%.For Cf/C=0.3 the flap data given is for the full span. Hence it is converted for the part span using correction factor of 0.6 ( CL)avg from part span flap = 0.98*0.6 = 0.59 Thus the flap can provide the necessary CL max) for the aircraft.

S.NO 1. 2. 3.

t 30 o 45 o 60
o

FULL SPAN PART SPAN CL CL x 0.6 0.69 0.414 o.88 0.530 0.98 0.590

TYRE SELECTION
Various landing gear arrangements were observed, like tail dragger, bicycle, tricycle arrangements. Tricycle arrangement with nose wheel was chosen because of the following advantages of the arrangement. 1. Cabin floor for the passengers is horizontal when the aircraft is on the ground 2. Forward visibility is improved for the pilot on the ground 3. The tricycle landing gear requires the center of gravity of the airplane be ahead of the main landing gear and this enhances the stability of the plane during ground roll, allowing the airplane to crab into a cross wing, i.e. the fuselage does not have to be aligned parallel to the runway Usually in tricycle arrangement 90% of the total load of aircraft is taken by the main landing gear and remaining 10% is taken by the nose wheel on the ground. The landing gear should be selected such that the runway loading should be acceptable for the type of runway chosen. For different runways the allowable loadings are GRASS GRASS STRIP ASPHALT(TAR) CONCRETE 2 ton/ft2 3.5 ton/ft2 7 ton/ft2 11 ton/ft2

Since the 15 seater aircraft is a commuter aircraft, it should be able to land on the small airports which usually have runway loading 7 ton/ft2 & below. Thus the selected tyre should satisfy three main criteria: 1. It should have low runway loading. 2. It should be able to carry the aircrafts total load. 3. It should be compact for retraction into fuselage/wing.

WT.O = 54,249 N = 12,193.5 lb=5.529 tons. Load taken by main landing gear Load taken by nose landing gear = 0.9 WT.O = 0.1 WT.O = 10,974.224 lb = 1219.3 lb

Main Landing Gear: The main wheel is designed to have 1 tyre per leg. Therefore the load on the main landing gear is withstood by these two tyres equally. Load taken by each leg = 5487.112 lb

From the DUNLOP tyre manual the tyre with 90 psi tyre pressure was chosen. The tyre dimensions are: 1. Inflation pressure 2. Diameter of the tyre (2R) 3. Width of tyre (b) 4. Radius at maximum deflection (r) = 90 p.s.i = 27 in = 7.25 in = 9.35 in

The runway loading of the aircraft can be calculated by knowing the area of contact of the tyre at the maximum deflection under the load.

The area of contact is approximated as ellipse whose area =

a*b

Where a = (R2 r2) 0.5= (11.829.352)0.5= 7.2 in b = (width of tyre) =3.625 in Hence the area of the contact = = in2 = 0.5694 ft2 The runway loading is found by dividing the aircrafts weight by the total area of contact of the tyres. Hence the runway loading is = 5.529 ton/ (0.5694*2) ft 2 = 4.85 ton/ft2 This loading is acceptable as it is below 7 ton/ft2 Nose Landing Gear: Load taken by nose landing gear Inflation pressure Diameter of tyre (D) Width of the tyre Radius at maximum deflection No of wheels = 1219.3 lb = 40 p.s.i = 19 in = 6.25 in = 6.15 in =1 a*b

LANDING GEAR POSITIONING: The nose wheel is located at a distance of 0.75 m from the nose of the aircraft. The track length i.e. the distance between the legs of the main landing gear is taken as one third of the wing span i.e. 15.58*(1/3) = 5.2 m

PROPELLER DESIGN

The selected engine for the 15 seater aircraft is PT6A-135A turboprop engine. In the turboprop engine more than 80% of the thrust is produced by the propeller. Thus an efficient propeller is needed for the aircraft. The choice of propeller depends on various parameters like the propeller with high aerodynamic efficiency, sufficient thrust for cruise and high static thrust for the take off. Other conditions are low noise level, ground clearance, etc., The propeller parameters here are calculated by estimating a non-dimensional quantity called speed power coefficient. The propeller rotates at 2000 rpm. The speed power coefficient Cs is calculated by the formula Cs = {( V5)/Pn2}1/5 Where density kg/m3 P = shaft horse power = SHP * 746 n = rotation per second = RPM/60 V= velocity m/s The Cs is calculated for both take off and cruising speed. Substituting the appropriate values the Cs for both the cases is found to be Cs takeoff = 1.0839 Cs cruise = 2.1227

From the propeller charts of Cs Vs J (advance ratio), the value of the J and blade angle are read on maximum efficiency line. J take off = 0.6 J cruise = 1.25

T.O = 15 cruise = 30

J = V/n*D Where n = rotation per second D = diameter of the propeller m V = velocity m/s Since the values of the J, V & n are known from the above formula, the diameter of the propeller is calculated to be 3m (for takeoff) & 2.76m (for cruising). The propeller with diameter 3m is selected for the aircraft. The blade angle of the propeller which is calculated at 75% of the radius is found to be 15 for takeoff and 30 for cruise. Efficiency of the propeller at takeoff and cruising are found to be 80% and 85% respectively. Propeller diameter = 3.0 m

CONDITION TAKE OFF LANDING

BLADE ANGLE 15 30

EFFICIENCY 80% 85%

CONFIGURATION LAYOUT
Based on the values calculated so far, an initial 3-view diagram of the aircraft is drawn. Even though the data acquired so far can clearly define a certain type of aircraft, a large number of size and shape could satisfy these data. Thus by considering the merits and demerits of various layouts, a basic configuration is decided. Basic configuration: 1. Unswept low wing. 2. Conventional horizontal and vertical stabilizers. 3. Wing mounted turboprop engine 4. Landing gear with tricycle arrangement, main wheel retracting into the fuselage. 5. The propeller is of tractor type.

C.G CALCULATIONS
The weight of an airplane changes during the flight due to consumption of fuel, also the payload and the amount of fuel carried may vary from flight to flight. All these factors lead to change in the location of the centre of gravity (C.G) of the airplane. The shift in the C.G location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane. Thus the C.G calculation is one of the crucial steps in the design process. For conceptual design it is assumed that C.G position lies at 30% of mean aerodynamic chord of the wing.

The variation of C.G for different cases such as 1. 2. 3. 4. C.G position with full payload and full fuel. C.G position with full payload and 90% of fuel emptied. C.G position with no payload and 90% of fuel emptied. C.G position with no payload and full fuel. are calculated.

It is acceptable if the variation is within 5% from the 30% of mean aerodynamic chord. WEIGHT BREAKUP: To calculate C.G it is mandatory to know the weight of the various components of the aircraft. From the second weight estimation, the takeoff weight had been calculated. Hence the component weights are assumed as some fraction of the takeoff weight. The weight breakage is listed below WT.O Wwing WFus structure WV.T WH.T WNose (U.C) WMain(U.C) TOTAL = 54,249 N = 0.100 WT.O = 0.100 WT.O = 0.020 WT.O = 0.030 WT.O = 0.010 WT.O = 0.040 WT.O = 0.300 WT.O Wstructure= 0.3WT.O= 16274.7 N = 5,424.9 N = 5,424.9 N = 1085 N = 1628 N = 542.49 N = 2170 N = 16274.7 N = 2441.205 N

WFixed Equipment = 0.045 WT.O

C.G OF THE WEIGHTS IN FUSELAGE

The C.G of the weights in the fuselage is calculated as follows. The fuselage houses the payload, crew, electronic equipments, horizontal tail, vertical tail and nose wheel. For calculating C.G of the fuselage, weight of these components and the distances at which they are placed from the nose must be taken into account. C.G of the fuselage = WX/ W, where W is the summation of the weights of all the fuselage components, X is the distance of the components from the nose of the fuselage; WX is the summation of the moment created by the components about the nose of the aircraft. The distance X is assigned for all the components. SL.NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. WEIGHT N PILOT-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 PASSENGER-2 nos 2000 HORIZONTAL TAIL 1628 VERTICAL TAIL 1058 NOSE WHEEL 542.5 FUSELAGE + FIXED 7866.205 EQUIPMENT TOTAL 29094.705 COMPONENTS X m 1 3.38 4.26 5.14 6.02 6.90 7.78 8.66 9.54 11.00 10.25 0.75 5.42 W*X N-m 2,000 6,760 8,520 10,280 12,040 13,800 15,560 17,320 19,080 17,908 10,844.5 406.875 42,634.83 177154.2061

XC.G OF FUSELAGE = WX/ W = 177154.2061/29094.705 = 6.08 m. from the nose of the aircraft .

C.G OF WING

The wing houses the fuel, powerplant and main landing gear. The C.G of the wing is also calculated in the same manner as that of the fuselage by considering the weight of the wing components and their respective distances from the leading edge of the wing root chord. The tabular column below is for half span of wing.

SL.NO 1. 2. 3. 4.

COMPONENTS Fuel Powerplant Main landing gear Wing structure TOTAL

WEIGHT N 7236 1530 1085 2710.5 12561.5 0.9906 0.5910 1.5345 0.9777

X m

W*X N-m 7167.98 904.23 1664.9325 2650.0385 12387.19

XC.G OF WING = W*X/W = 12387.19/12561.5 = 0.986 m. from the nose of the leading edge of wing root chord. The C.G of wing structure is taken at 35 % of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. The distance of wing from the nose of the aircraft (x) can be calculated by equating the sum of moments of fuselage and wing about the nose to the total moment of the aircraft about nose. The Xfinal is assumed to be at 35% of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. (WFus. Xfuselage) + Wwing (X+ Xwing) = (X + XFinal)Wtotal

177154.2061 + 25123*(x + 0.986) = (x+ 0.9777)*54217.5 From above equation the value of x is found to be 5.118 m from the nose of the aircraft.

CASE 1: C.G WHEN 90% OF THE FUEL IS EMPTIED:

SL.NO 1. 2. 3. 4.

COMPONENTS Fuel Powerplant Main landing gear Wing structure TOTAL

WEIGHT N 723.6 1530 1085 2710.5 6049.1 0.9906 0.5910 1.5345 0.9777

X m

W*X N-m 716.798 904.23 1664.9325 2650.0385 5936.016

XC.G OF WING = W*X/W = 5936.016/6049.1 = 0.9813 m from leading edge of wing root chord. Finding C.G: (WFus. Xfuselage) + Wwing (X + Xwing) = (X+ XFinal)Wtotal 177154.2061 + 12098.2*(5.118+0.9813) = 41192.905*(5.118 + XFinal) Solving the above equation, the value of XFinal is found to be 0.9739 m from the leading edge of the wing. This shifts the airplane C.G to 34.7% of the aerodynamic chord.

CASE 2: FUSELAGE WITH NO PAYLOAD & 90% 0F THE FUEL

SL.NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. COMPONENTS Pilot-2 Horizontal tail Vertical tail Nose wheel Fuselage + fixed equipment. WEIGHT N 2000 1628 1058 542.5 7866.205 13094.705 Xfuselage = W*X/W = 73794.205/13094.705 = 5.635 m from the leading edge of the wing root chord. Finding the C.G : (WFus. Xfuselage) + Wwing (X + Xwing) = (X + XFinal)Wtotal 1.00 11.00 10.25 0.75 5.42 X m 2000 17908 10844.5 406.875 42634.83 73794.205 W*X N-m

73794.205 + 12098.2*(5.118+0.9813) = 25192.905*(5.118+Xfinal) Solving the equation the value of Xfinal is found to be 0.74018 m, i.e. the C.G is found to be at 21.2% of the mean aerodynamic chord.

CASE 3: FUSELAGE WITH NO PAYLOAD & FULL FUEL

WFus Wwing = 13094.705 N = 25123 N Xfuselage = 5.635 m Xwing = 0. = (X + XFinal)Wtotal

(WFus. Xfuselage) + Wwing (X+ Xwing)

73794.205+25123*(5.118+0.986) = 38217.705*(5.118+ XFinal) Solving the above equation, the XFinal is found to be 0.82549 m, thus the C.G is at 26.2% of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing.

The C.G variation for the above cases is listed below.

SL.NO 1. 2. 3. 4.

CONFIGURATIONS Airplane when fully loaded Airplane with only 10% fuel Airplane with 10% fuel & no payload Airplane with full fuel &no payload

C.G. % of mean chord 35 34.7 21.2 36.2

This C.G range is acceptable.

DRAG ESTIMATION
The drag is estimated by proper area method. This method evaluates the drag of the aircraft by considering the appropriate areas & adding the drag of each component. Drag coefficients for various components like fuselage, powerplant, etc. were obtained from the book FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG by S.F.HOERNER. The total drag of an airplane is sum of wing drag, parasite drag and induced drag. Wing drag is the drag produced by the wing. Dwing = ( V2SCD0W) Induced drag is the drag due to lift. CDi= CL2/ eAR Parasite drag is the drag of all the non-lifting surfaces (including horizontal & vertical tail) Sum of Parasite drag and wing drag is called parasite drag of airplane. Parasite drag = drag of wing + drag of fuselage + drag of horizontal tail + drag of vertical tail +drag of powerplant +drag of propeller + drag of nose, main wheel + drag of flaps. CD0 a/p = 1/2 V2S (CD0W + CD0F SF/S + CD0HTSHT/S + CD0VT SVT/S + .) Where S is the wing planform area, SF is the frontal area of fuselage, SHT horizontal tail area, SVT is the vertical tail area etc.

The areas of various components of the aircraft are calculate as follows Fuselage Area = d2max / 4 = Powerplant Frontal Area
2

/4

= 5.72 m2

= d2max / 4 x No of Engines = x2 = 0.366 m2

Main Landing Gear Area

= (Diameter x Width) x No of Tyres = (0.6858*0.18415)*2 = 0.25258 m2

Nose Wheel Area

= (Diameter x Width) x No of Tyres = (0.4826*0.15875)*1 = 0.0766 m2

Flap Area: To calculate the area of the flap, first the length of the flap is calculated by assuming aileron area to be 5% of the total wing area. Thus the length of the flap is total wing span subtracted by fuselage diameter and the length of the aileron. i.e. LFlaps = Wing Span(b) Laileron Fuselage Diameter(dmax) = 15.58 0.779 2.6 = 12.201 m

The rear spar is located at the 65% of the chord. Thus the remaining 35% of the mean aerodynamic chord would be the flap width bFlaps = 0.35*1.732 = 0.6062 m = 7.72 m2

Therefore the area of the flap is = LFlaps * bFlaps

PROPELLER SWEPT AREA: The area swept by the propeller is D2/ 4. Where D is the diameter of the propeller. D2 / 4 = 32/ 4 = 7.07 m2

Horizontal Tail Area & vertical tail area: The primary purpose of the tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing. Thus the relationship between the size of the tail and wing can be used to calculate the tail area. The relationship is obtained from the equilibrium equation for the longitudinal stability. From the equation, the horizontal tail volume ratio CHT=SHTLHT/S* The vertical tail volume ratio CVT=SVTLVT/S*b

From the book AIRCRAFT DESIGN A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH by DANIEL.P.RAYMER, it is learnt that for the twin turboprop engine the tail volume ratio CHT =0.48 & CVT = 0.05. The vertical tail area and horizontal tail area are calculated to be 15% and 17% of the wing area respectively. I.e. vertical tail area is 4.05 m2 and horizontal tail area is 4.79 m2. NACA 0009 is chosen as tail aerofoil. The aspect ratio of horizontal tail & vertical tail are chosen as 4 and 1.5 respectively.

The parasite drag for various cases like cruise, takeoff & landing are found as follow FOR TAKEOFF: S.NO COMPONENT CD 0.03 0.03 0.015 0.007 0.0065 0.12 0.12 0.03 S m2 5.72 2*0.18 2*7.07 4.59 4.05 0.0766 2*.12629 2*3.86 CD S m2 0.1716 0.0108 0.2121 0.03213 0.02633 0.009192 0.03096 0.231747

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

FUSELAGE POWER PLANT PROPELLER HORIZONTALTAIL VERTICAL TAIL NOSE WHEEL MAIN WHEEL FLAP(3/4)

TOTAL 0.711908

(CD0)OTHERS = CD S S = 0.026367 5% of the (CD0)OTHERS is taken as interference drag. Therefore the (CD0)OTHERS for takeoff condition is 0.02769

FOR CRUISE: S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 COMPONENT FUSELAGE POWER PLANT PROPELLER HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL 0.03 0.03 0.015 0.007 0.0065 CD S m2 5.72 2*0.18 2*7.07 4.59 4.05 CD S m2 0.1716 0.0108 0.2121 0.03213 0.02633 TOTAL 0.44066

(CD0)OTHERS = CD S S = 0.44066/27 = 0.01632 5% of the (CD0) OTHERS is taken as the interference drag. Therefore the (CD0) OTHERS for cruise condition is 0.01714.

FOR LANDING:
S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 COMPONENT FUSELAGE POWER PLANT PROPELLER HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL NOSE WHEEL MAIN WHEEL FLAP(600) CD 0.03 0.03 0.015 0.007 0.0065 0.12 0.12 0.04 S m2 5.72 2*0.18 2*7.07 4.59 4.05 0.0766 2*12629 2*3.86 CD S m2 0.1716 0.0108 0.2121 0.03213 0.02633 0.009192 0.0303096 0.3088

TOTAL 0.78896

(CD0)OTHERS = CD S S = 0.78896/27 = 0.029221 5% of the (CD0) OTHERS is taken as the interference drag. Therefore the (CD0) OTHERS for landing condition is 0.03068.

DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION

Drag polar is the graph between the CL Vs CDt . where CDt is the total drag coefficients of the aircraft which is the sum of the parasite drag of airplane and induced drag coefficients. As stated earlier Induced drag is the drag due to lift. CDi= CL2/ eAR or CDi = KCL2. The e is known Ostwalds efficiency factor and it is taken as 0.85. FOR TAKEOFF: K CL2 0.000 0.00381 0.0149792 0.0337032 0.05991696 0.09362025 0.13481316 CDt = KCL2 + CD0 0.03369 0.036 0.04817 0.0696 0.0976 0.1353 0.1825

CL 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 0.0060 0.0045 0.0055 0.0082 0.0100 0.014 0.020

CD0W

CD0 others 0.02769 0.02769 0.02769 0.02769 0.02769 0.02769 0.02769

FOR CRUISE:
CL 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 CD0W 0.0060 0.0045 0.0055 0.0082 0.0100 0.014 0.020 CD0 others 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 KCL2 0.000 0.00381 0.0149792 0.0337032 0.05991696 0.09362025 0.13481316 CDt = KCL2 + CD0 0.02314 0.0254 0.0376 0.0590 0.0871 0.1248 0.17195

FOR LANDING:
CL 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 CD0W 0.0060 0.0045 0.0055 0.0082 0.0100 0.014 0.020 CD0 others 0.03068 0.03068 0.03068 0.03068 0.03068 0.03068 0.03068 KCL2 0.00000 0.00374481 0.01497924 0.03370329 0.05991696 0.09362025 0..13481316 CDt = KCL2 + CD0 0.03668 0.0389 0.05116 0.0726 0.1006 0.1383 0.1855

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 CL 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

DRAG POLAR

Take off Cruise Landing

0.05

CDt

0.1

0.15

0.2

PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
The performance analysis is important to assess the capabilities of an airplane. This analysis would give the thrust or power required, maximum speed of the airplane, etc. to achieve a desired performance. Performance analysis also points out as to what new developments are possible in airplane aerodynamics or engine selected.

The performance parameters calculated are, THPreqd = D*V/746 hp Where D = (CDt/CL)*WT.O N , CDt = CD0 + KCL2 .

THPavailable = SHP*efficiency of propeller at cruise Rate of climb can be calculated as follows R/C = (THPavailable- THPreqd)*746*60/WT.O m/min THPavailable & THPreqd Vs velocity graphs are plotted to calculate the maximum speed of the aircraft at various altitudes. (R/C) max Vs altitude plot gives the absolute and service ceilings of the aircraft. The area under the curve of 1/ ((R/C)max) Vs altitude gives the time to climb to the cruising altitude.

Performance parameters for various altitudes are calculated below, At sea level : kg/m3

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

V m/s 42.57 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 115 120

CL

CD0W

CD0 other

CDt

D N

THPREQD

THPAVA

R/C m/min 807.82 821.05 814.99 790.99 741.34 671.66 574.45 519.01 352.78 273.28

1.8 1.3047 0.9064 0.6661 0.5101 0.4028 0.3267 0.2698 0.2467 0.2265

0.02 0.0123 0.0083 0.0058 0.005 0.0045 0.0044 0.0053 0.0053 0.0053

0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714

0.1720 0.1003 0.0596 0.0414 0.0330 0.0284 0.0260 0.0255 0.0250 0.0245

5.184 4.17 3.57 3.37 3.51 3.82 4.317 5.127 5.497 5.867

295.82 279.49 287.13 316.22 376.41 460.86 578.69 755.99 847.39 943.75

1275 1275 1275 1275 1275 1275 1275 1275 1275 1275

At 1 km altitude : = 1.111kg/m3

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

V m/s 44.72 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 115 120

CL 1.8 1.44 1.00 0.73 0.56 0.44 0.36 0.30 0.27 0.25

CD0W 0.02 0.0128 0.0088 0.0064 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.0051 0.0051

CD0 other 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714

CDt 0.1720 0.1162 0.0676 0.0457 0.0352 0.0301 0.0261 0.0254 0.025 0.0245

D N 5.18 4.38 3.67 3.40 3.41 3.71 3.93 4.59 5.02 5.316

THPREQD 310.52 293.56 295.17 319.03 365.68 447.59 526.81 676.81 773.86 855.12

THPAVA 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86 1132.86

R/C m/min 678.43 692.42 691.09 671.41 632.92 565.34 499.99 456.05 296.175 229.135

At 2 Km altitude:

kg/m3

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

V CL m/s 46.9 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 115 120 1.8 1.59 1.104 0.811 0.621 0.490 0.397 0.328 0.30 0.276

CD0W 0.02 0.0145 0.0086 0.0072 0.0055 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.0052

CD0 other 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714

CDt 0.17195 0.13683 0.07645 0.05170 0.03868 0.03203 0.02859 0.02651 0.02579 0.02511

D N 5.18 4.66 3.75 3.45 3.38 3.55 3.91 4.38 4.65 4.74

THPREQD 326.2 312.3 301.6 323.7 362.3 427.8 523.7 645.8 717.5 762.46

THPAVA 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35 1006.35

R/C m/min 561.12 572.59 581.41 563.18 531.34 477.30 398.18 294.97 238.30 201.20

At 3Km altitude: S. NO V m/s CL CD0W

kg/m3 CD0 other CDt D N THPREQD THPAVA R/C m/min

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

49.4 60 70 80 90 100 110 115 120

1.8 1.22 0.898 0.687 0.543 0.440 0.364 0.3326 0.3054

0.02 0.010 0.008 0.0057 0.0053 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714

0.17195 0.08907 0.05869 0.04247 0.03470 0.03018 0.02763 0.02674 0.02602

5.18 3.96 3.55 3.35 3.47 3.72 4.12 4.36 4.622

343.22 318.49 332.64 359.57 418.27 498.92 607.9 672.27 743.48

890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78 890.78

451.73 472.14 460.46 438.24 389.82 323.28 233.38 180.27 121.52

At 4Km altitude:

kg/m3

S. NO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

V
m/s 52.08 60 70 80 90 100 110 115 120

CL

CD0W

CD0 other

CDt

D
N

THPREQD THPAVA R/C

m/min 361.62 339.89 344.08 364.93 408.98 477.34 573.15 630.18 692.81 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 786.05 350.15 368.08 364.62 347.42 311.08 254.68 175.64 128.59 76.923

1.8 1.356 0.996 0.763 0.63 0.488 0.403 0.369 0.339

0.02 0.012 0.0088 0.0065 0.0056 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714 0.01714

0.17195 0.10564 0.06721 0.04785 0.03775 0.03206 0.02891 0.02782 0.02692

5.18 4.23 3.67 3.40 3.39 3.56 3.89 4.09 4.307

THP Vs VELOCITY ( S/L & 1 km)

3500 3000
THP REQIURED AT S/L THP AVAILABLE AT S/L THP REQUIRED AT 1km THP AVAILABLE AT 1 km

2500

THP 2000
1500 1000 500 0 0 50 100 150 200

Velocity (m/s)

THP Vs VELOCITY ( 2km & 3km)

3000 2500
THP REQUIRED AT 2km

THP

2000 1500

THP AVAILABLE AT 2km THP REQUIRED AT 3 km THP AVAILABLE AT 3 km

1000
500 0 0 50 100 150 200

Velocity (m/s)

2500 2000

THP Vs VELOCITY ( 4km)

THP

1500
1000 500 0 0 50 100 150 200

THP REQUIRED AT 4 km THP AVAILABLE AT 4km

Velocity (m/s)

RATE OF CLIMB Vs VELOCITY (S/L & 1km)

900 800 700 R/C 600 (m/min) 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 50 100 150

AT SEA LEVEL AT 1 Km

Velocity (m/s)

RATE OF CLIMB Vs VELOCITY ( 2km & 3km)

700 600 500

R/C 400 (m/min)

300

AT 2 Km AT 3 km

200
100 0 0 50 100 150

Velocity (m/s)

RATE OF CLIMB VS VELOCITY (4km)

400 350 300 250 R/C (m/min) 200 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150

Velocity (m/s)

SERVICE CEILING:
Service ceiling is that altitude at which the maximum rate of climb is 30m/min. The service ceiling can be calculated from the graph of maximum rate of climb Vs altitude.

MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB Vs ALTITUDE

900 800 700 600

max.R/C 500
(m/min) 400

SERVICE CEILING = 6.9 Km

300 200
100 0 0 2 4 Altitude (km) 6 8

The service ceiling of the aircraft is found to be 6.9 km. The absolute ceiling of the aircraft is found to be 7.2 km.

Time to climb:
Time to climb the cruising altitude is found out by calculating the area under the curve of the graph 1/(R/C)MAX Vs altitude.

1/(R/C)max Vs Altitude
4 3.5 3

1/(R/C)max 2.5 x 10-3 2 (min/m) 1.5

1 0.5

Time to climb = 5.83 min

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Altitude (km)

The area under the curve of the above graph upto 4km gives the time to climb to the cruising altitude as 5.83 minutes.

RANGE AND ENDURANCE

The total distance (measured with respect to ground) traversed by an airplane on one load of the fuel is defined as the range R of the aircraft. The amount of time that an airplane can stay in the air on one load of the fuel is defined as the endurance. The range & endurance of the aircraft can be obtained from the Breguet equation, which assumes that at flight the velocity, lift coefficient CL, & lift to drag ratio are constant. The specific fuel consumption (C) of a propeller driven aircraft is defined as the weight of the fuel consumed per unit time per unit power. C= (dW/dt)/(*SHP)

Therefore integrating the equation dt = dW/ (C* *SHP) the endurance can be obtained as E = (CL/CD)*( *746/(V*C))*ln (Wi/Wf) Hrs

Where CL is cruise lift coefficient & CD is the total drag at cruise speed V dW/dt is the rate of change of fuel weight. The efficiency of the propeller is given by p. Wi is the initial weight, Wf is the final weight after all the fuel has been consumed. E = (0.369/0.02782)*(0.85*3600*746/0.28*9.81*115)*ln (54249/39777) = 8.27 hrs The range R = V * E km = 8.27*115*3600/1000 = 3422.87 km

STABILITY ANALYSIS
If an airplane is to remain in steady uniform flight, the resultant forces as well as the resultant moments about the center of gravity must both be equal to zero. An airplane satisfying this requirement is said to be in a state of equilibrium or flying at a trim condition. The aircraft stability is generally divided into static and dynamic stability. The aircraft is said to be statically stable, if it shows a tendency to return to its equilibrium position on its own when disturbed. It doesnt matter how much time it takes. The aircraft is said to possess dynamic stability, if it returns to equilibrium position within a finite period of time after a disturbance. The aircraft possessing the static stability need not possess dynamic stability. But the aircraft possessing dynamic stability must possess static stability. For the stability analysis, equilibrium equations must be written and solved for the unknowns. The airplane has 6 degrees of freedom with control surfaces locked and 9 degrees of freedom with control surfaces free to move. These 9 degrees of freedom are divided into,

Longitudinal Degrees Of Freedom:

Translations along X and Z axis, rotation about Y axis and deflection of the elevator about its hinge line.

Lateral Degrees Of Freedom:

Translations along Y and Z axis, rotation about X axis and deflection of the aileron about its hinge line.

Directional Degrees Of Freedom:

Translations along X and Y axis, rotation about Z axis and deflection of the rudder about its hinge line.

For each degree of freedom one equilibrium equation has to be written, thus forming four equations and 4 unknowns in longitudinal, lateral and directional mode respectively. For the ease of initial analysis, it is assumed that the controls are locked (control stick is fixed) in each mode, reducing the equilibrium equation to 3 equations and 3 unknowns. If the stability analysis of the airplane is carried out with the control sticks locked, it is called stick fixed stability. If the analysis includes the effect of freeing the controls it is known as stick free stability analysis.

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

The study of longitudinal equilibrium and static stability of the airplane requires an investigation into moments about the airplanes Y axis through the C.G and their variation with the airplanes lift co-efficient. Equilibrium demands that the summation of these moments equal zero and the static stability demands that a diving moment accompany an increase in lift coefficient and a stalling moment accompany a decrease in lift coefficient from the equilibrium. It is assumed that wing and tail surfaces can be represented by a mean aerodynamic chord, the forces and moments on which represent all the forces and moments operating on the surface. It is also assumed that there exists an aerodynamic center on this mean aerodynamic chord about which the wing pitching moment co-efficient is invariant with lift coefficient. Considering the contribution of wing, tail and fuselage, a moment equation in a nondimensionalised form can be written as Cmc.g = CL* Where, Cmc.g CL Xc.g Xa.c = moment co-efficient about C.G of the airplane. = lift co-efficient at cruise. = 0.37 = C.G location with respect to mean aerodynamic chord. = 0.35 = aerodynamic center location with respect to the aerodynamic chord. = 0.270C for NACA 631412 Cmac [from THEORY OF WING SECTIONS]

Cmac+ Cm fus,nac

at* t* * (w

iw

+ it) (1)

= moment coefficient about aerodynamic centre. = 0.075 for NACA 631412 [from THEORY OF WING SECTIONS]

Cm fus,nac =

= 0.035*0.37 = 0.01295

at

= horizontal tail lift slope

From THEORY OF WING SECTIONS at = 0.1/deg for NACA 0009, also AR = 4. Thus at for aspect ratio corrected can be calculated from the following equation,

at = 0.0686/deg
t

= tail efficiency = 0.9 = tail volume ratio = 0.481

Where St is tail area, lt is the distance between the C.G of tail to C.G of airplane. S is wing area and is the mean aerodynamic chord

= absolute angle of attack. = downwash angle = (d /d)* w

iw it

= wing incidence angle = 1.88 = tail incidence angle.

CL VS FOR WING AEROFOIL NACA 631412

2 1.5

CL

1 0.5 0 -10 -5 -0.5 0 5 10 15 20 25

CL VS ALPHA

FOR AR = INFINITE
CL VS ALPHA FOR AR CORRECTED

FOR AR = 9

(deg)

TAIL INCIDENCE ANGLE :

At level flight, the aircraft is trimmed and hence Cmcg = 0. Therefore the equation (1) becomes

CL*

Cmac+ Cm fus,nac =

at* t*( )*( )* (w

iw

+ it) = 0 iw = 1.88

w = 4.88 , (d /d) = 0.4,

Therefore

* w =0.4*4.88 =1.952 ,

0.47*(0.008) 0.075 + 0.01295 0.0686*0.9*0.481*(4.88-1.88-1.952- it) = 0

it =

2.215

STICK FIXED STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

By differentiating the equation (1), the equation for stick fixed static stability can be obtained as
c.g

fus

*( )*( )* t*

...........(2)

= 0.08 + 0.035 = The negative sign of 0.09967 s

c.g indicates

that the aircraft is stable in stick fixed condition.

STICK FIXED NEUTRAL POINT:

The neutral point N0 is the point, where the aircraft is neutrally stable. i.e.
c.g

fus

*( )*( )* t*

..(3)

0.27 0.035 + 0.2146 0.4496. The neutral point gives the most aft location at which the C.G can be placed before making the airplane unstable. Therefore the airplanes permissible C.G travel is limited to the point 0.4496 . If a stable airplane is desired, the airplane should never be balanced aft of this point. Once the neutral point is known, the stability at any other C.G position can be obtained. - N0

c.g

STICK FREE STATIC STABILITY:

The effect of freeing the elevator is also considered in the analysis. Thus the equation
c.g

changes to,

c.g

fus

*( )*( )* t*

(4)

Where, floating tendency , = elevator effectiveness factor. From the book AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE STABILITY AND CONTROL by Perkins and Hage, the values of , are taken as 0.008 and 0.012 respectively. is taken as 0.5. Therefore
c.g

restoring tendency

0.08 + 0.035 0.08 + 0.035 0.1431 0.0281

STICK FREE NEUTRAL POINT: = =

fus

*( )*( )* t*

(5)

= 0.270 0.035 + 0.1431 = 0. 3781

Cm
0.1 0.08 0.06

Vs

CL FOR VARIOUS C.G

Cm

0.04
0.02 5E-17 -0.02 0 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

AT C.G 21.2% AT C.G 26.2% AT C.G 34.7% AT C.G 35% C.G AT 45%

CL
ELEVATOR POWER :
Deflecting the elevator effectively changes the angle of attack of the whole horizontal tail, thereby changing its lift and producing a control moment about the airplanes centre of gravity. The magnitude of the moment coefficient obtained per degree deflection of the elevator is termed the elevator power and is analytically written as

Cm =
= =

at*( )*( )* t* ..(6)

0.0686*0.481*0.9*0.5 0.01485.

ELEVATOR ANGLE VERSUS EQUILIBRIUM LIFT COEFFICIENT :

The equilibrium equation for the stick free condition is

Cmc.g = CL*

Cmac+ Cm fus,nac

at* t*( )*( )* (w

iw

+ it +e)(7)

The control of the equilibrium lift co-efficient is affected through the influence of the term e. A change in the elevator deflection and lift co-efficient will not change the slope of the pitching moment curve , for is independent of the lift co-efficient and the term

vanishes when the derivative is taken with respect to CL. For every CL, the elevator deflection required to trim the airplane is found by equating the equation (7) to zero and substituting various CL. w , , Cm fus,nac are the functions of CL. Hence both w and changes with change in CL.

S.NO
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

CL
0.10 0.30 0.37 0.50 0.70 1.00 1.30 1.50 1.80

aw
1.203 3.607 4.880 6.013 8.415 11.020 15.626 18.030 22.636 0.4812 1.4408 1.8800 2.4052 3.3660 4.4080 6.2504 7.2120 9.0544

e
+2.1750 +0.8468 0.0000 -0.4760 -1.7970 -2.5804 -5.7689 -7.0930 -10.280

The elevator deflection required at most forward C.G position at maximum CL : Most forward C.G position = 0.212 CLmax = 1.8

e =
Where = (w iw + it).

....(8)

e = (0.212-0.270)*1.8 0.075 + 0.035*1.8 0.02943*(22.63-9.05-1.88-2.215)/{0.02943*0.5)

= - 27 `

Cm vsCL at C.G 35%

0.08 0.07 0.06
ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = +2.5 deg

0.05

Cm

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0

ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = +0.85 deg ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = 0 deg ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = - 1.8 deg ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = -5.8 deg ELEVATOR DEFLECTION = - 10.3 deg

0.5

1.5

CL

de Vs CL
12 10

8 6 4 2 AT C.G 35 % 0.5 1 1.5 2 AT NEUTRAL POINT

de

0 -2 0 -4

-6 -8 -10 -12

CL

ESTIMATION OF THE AIRPLANE DIHEDRAL EFFECT

Control over the angle of bank is necessary to provide a force to accelerate the flight path in the horizontal plane. With simple rudder control the airplane can be made to sideslip, thereby creating a cross wind or side force that can accelerate the flight path in the horizontal plane. However this force is small for modern aircraft and totally inadequate for the rate of turn required. The problem of holding the wings level or of maintaining some angle of bank is one of the controls over the rolling moments about the airplanes longitudinal axis. The phenomenon of rolling moment due to sideslip is termed as dihedral effect. An airplane is said to have stable dihedral effect if a negative rolling moment is created as the result of positive sideslip . The rolling moment due to sideslip is mainly created by wing dihedral angle , which is positive for tip chord above the root chord. In a sideslip, the angle of attack of the forward wing will be higher than the angle of attack of the trailing wing, thereby creating a rolling moment about the axis. The desired dihedral effect (Cl) of the airplane is 0.0014.The dihedral effect of the complete airplane may be given as,

(Cl)airplane = (Cl)wing + (Cl)vertical tail + ( Cl)1 + ( Cl)2..........(9)

( Cl)1 = dihedral effect due to wing- fuselage interference. ( Cl)2 = dihedral effect due to wing-vertical tail interference. From the book AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE STABILITY AND CONTROL by Perkins and Hage, the value of ( Cl)1 and ( Cl)2 for a low wing is found to be -0.0008 and 0.00016. ( Cl)1 ( Cl)2 = -0.0008 = 0.00016

(Cl)vertical tail = av*(sv/s)*(Zv/b)*t = 0.045*0.15*(3.73/15.58)*0.9 = 0.001454 Where, Zv is the vertical distance from C.G of wing to the C.G of vertical tail. Therefore, (Cl)wing = 0.0014 +0.0008-0.00016-0.001454 = 0.000586. But (Cl)wing = 0.0002
wing

= 0.000586

wing

= 2.93

Thus the dihedral angle of the wing is 3 .

ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE CONDITION (OEI)

In an airplane with more than one engine, if one engine is not functioning, the other working engine thrust will produce yaw which is the product of the engine thrust and distance of the engine from airplane centreline. The problem is severe for wing mounted engine arrangements than in airplane with rear mounted engines. Also the outermost engine failure will be critical as the moment arm will be the largest & more rudder power is required to produce yaw. Again the problem is more in low forward speed as the large rudder area is required to overcome this yaw. T.H.P = F*V/746 = S.H.P*P F = S.H.P*P *746/V The moment arm produced is airplane centreline. . Where, le is the distance of engine from the

Thus the yawing moment coefficient Cn due to OEI = S.H.P = S.H.Palt = 461.0535

P =

efficiency of the propeller at cruise = 0.85

le = 3.3m Cn due to OEI = 5598.38/V3 S.NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

V
40 50 60 70 80 90 115

m/s

Cn due to OEI
0.0874 0.0447 0.0259 0.0163 0.0109 0.0076 0.0036

Cn DUE TO RUDDER DEFLECTION

Cn =
*r

= av**(Sv/S)*(lv/b)* = 0.00081

= 0.045*0.15*(4.1543/15.58)*0.9*0.5

The maximum rudder deflection is

30.

Therefore, the Cn at full rudder deflection =

*30 = 0.00081*30

= 0.0243
The critical velocity at maximum rudder deflection (Cn = 0.0243) is 61.30 m/s.

Cn Vs V (OEI)
0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06

Cn

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 25 50 75 100 125

Engine Induced Yaw (OEI) Yaw due to full Rudder Critical speed = 61.3 m/s

V(m/s)
The graph indicates that below the critical speed , the engine induced yaw is more than the rudder induced yaw (due to full rudder). Thus during OEI condition, the aircraft must never be flown below this critical speed.

DYNAMIC STABILITY ANALYSIS

Longitudinal stick fixed dynamics:
The equations of equilibrium governing the longitudinal stick fixed dynamics is, (CD + d)*u + *(CDa CL)* + CL/2 = 0--------------(10) CL*u + (1/2* CL + d)* d = 0................. (11) (Cm + Cmd*d) * + (Cmd*d hd2) = 0-------------- (12) These equations can be written in matrix form as shown below, ....................(13)

These equations are first order linear differential equations. The solutions for these equations are of the form X(t) = X0 airplane time parameter,

, where X0 is the Eigen vector , is the eigen value , is the

seconds. is the dimensionless time.

These equations are homogeneous algebraic equations. Hence there is a non zero solution for the equation only when the determinant of the equation vanishes.

= 0 ................ (14)

By expanding this determinant a quartic equation in equation is A

4

is obtained. The general form of the

+B

+C

+ D + E = 0 ..................(15)

The solution for this quartic, for a statically stable airplane, in almost all cases combines into two complex pairs,
1,2 = 3,4 = 1 2 1 2

The corresponding eigen vector could be

a1 a3
Substituting the value of

+ a2 + a4

& the solution can be expanded as

a1
The above equation can be rearranged as

+ a2 (A1cos + A2sin ).

This indicates that airplanes longitudinal motion, when a disturbance with elevator locked, have two oscillatory modes. The period and damping of these modes can be obtained as follows, Period = Time to damp to amplitude = Logarithmic decrement = seconds seconds = seconds

Where

is the damping ratio equal to

is the undamped circular frequency

PHUGOID ANALYSIS
The characteristic modes of the stick fixed longitudinal motion for nearly all the airplanes are two oscillations one of long period poor damping(PHUGOID) and the other of short period with heavy damping. Under the assumption of no change in angle of attack, no damping, no inertia, the equations (10), (11), (12) reduce to, (CD + d)*u + CL/2 = 0-----------(16) CL*u d = 0------------(17)

The determinant of the coefficient of the above equation must be zero as the equations are homogeneous. 0 -------------(18) Therefore expanding the determinant of the algebraic equation in
2

gives

+ CD +

= 0 ------------(19)

The root of the quadratic equation is given by,

Where, CL& CD are the lift coefficient and total drag coefficient at cruising speed. CL = 0.37 CD = 0.02782 Therefore

The airplane time parameter

seconds

= 2.1737 seconds.

The period and time to damp for the PHUGOID mode are, Period = seconds =

= 52.32 seconds.
seconds = = 108.3 seconds.

Time to damp to amplitude =

Undamped circular frequency Damping Ratio

= 0.12 /s

= = 0.03

= 0.0532.

Logarithmic decrement =

The longitudinal stick fixed dynamic behaviour of the aircraft is of second order system and hence can be described in terms of two parameters namely The transfer function of the second order system is given by and

=
For phugoid mode, and transfer function becomes, is found to be 0.0053 & 0.12 respectively. Therefore the

For the sake of analysis, an unit impulse deflection on the elevator is assumed. This causes pitch angle to increase causing the aircraft to go upward. This leads to decrease in velocity, because of which the lift is reduced. Slowly pitch angle will decrease again causing the aircraft to go downward leading to increase in velocity. This in turn increases the lift. The pitch angle will increase again. The whole process repeats itself until the motion is damped out.

The unit impulse response curve for this phugoid mode can be obtained from the transfer function.

=
The response curve (amplitude Vs time) was obtained using the MATLAB software. In the MATLAB, the transfer function of the system is represented as two arrays each containing the co-efficient of the polynomials in decreasing powers of s as follows num = [ 0 0 0.0144] den = [ 0 0.01272 0.0144]. The command impulse (num, den) plots the unit impulse response curve.

The matlab program for amplitude Vs time is given below,

% unit impulse response curve for the phugoid num = [ 0 0 0.0144]; den = [ 0 0.001272 0.0144]; impulse(num , den); grid title ( impulse response( phugoid))

Impulse Response (Phugoid)

0.15

0.1

Amplitude

0.05

-0.05

-0.1

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Time (sec)

Amplitude Vs Time (PHUGOID)

0.15 0.1 t1/2 = 108 s

amplitude

1/2 amplitude

0.05
period = 52.5 s

0 0 50 100 150

t1/2 = 108 s

-0.05
-0.1

period=52.5 s

time (sec)

V-n DIAGRAM
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increase in weight requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increase in weight & so on. Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the economic viability of the aircraft. Therefore there is a need to reduce aircrafts weight to the minimum compatible with safety. Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness regulations lay down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft must satisfy. These are 1. LIMIT LOAD: the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal operation. 2. PROOF LOAD: product of the limit load and proof factor(1.0-1.25) 3. ULTIMATE LOAD : product of limit load and ultimate factor(1.0-1.5) The aircrafts structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion & should not fail until the ultimate load has been reached.. The manoeuvrability of the aircraft is also dictated by the loads falling on the structure during the manoeuvres. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are illustrated in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. A V-n diagram is a type of flight envelope for the aircraft establishing the manoeuvre boundaries. The BCAR (British Civil Airworthiness Requirements) has given the basic strength and flight performance limits of various categories of the aircraft. They are listed below

Category normal Semi aerobatic Fully aerobatic

Positive load factor (n+) 2.5 4.0 6.0

Negative load factor(n-) -1 -2 -3

The 15 seater commuter aircraft comes under the normal category. Therefore the load factor limit for the aircraft is 2.5 & -1. The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely 1. Intentional manoeuvre( pilot induced manoeuvre ) 2. Unintentional manoeuvre( gusts) INTENTIONAL MANOEUVRE: Intentional manoeuvres are induced by the pilot during climb, pull up or dive, banking the plane etc... The load factor is a function of velocity. The expression relating the load factor and the velocity is given by nmax = (V/Vs)2 Where nmax is the maximum load factor, V is the speed of the aircraft, Vs is the stalling speed of the aircraft. The stalling speed of the aircraft is given by Vs 2 = (2W/S)/ CLmax Vs= 52.07 m/s at 4km altitude. For various values of V , nmax is calculated and tabulated below, V 52.070 62.490 78.105 82.726 93.726 104.14 nmax=(V/Vs )2 1.00 1.44 2.25 2.50 3.24 4.00 V 60.13 72.16 nmax=(V/Vs )2 -1 -1.44

The cruising speed of the aircraft is 115 m/s. The dive speed of the aircraft is the maximum speed of the aircraft. The dive speed is taken as 60 knots above Vcruise as per BCAR. VD = 115 + 60 knots = 115 +30.55 m/s = 145.55 m/s

UNINTENTIONAL MANOEUVRE:
The movement of air in turbulence is known as gusts. It produces changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increase or decrease in lift from which normal accelerations result. These may be critical for large, high speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than control initiated manoeuvres. Thus in the gust analysis, the change in load factor due to the gust is calculated. The BCAR has given standard gust velocities for stall, cruise & dive speeds as 66, 50, 25 ft/s respectively. The small change in load factor n due to the gust is calculated by assuming a sharp gust. The change in load factor n = aUV/2(W/S) Where is the density at cruising altitude kg/m3 aw is the lift slope, in radians U is the gust velocity in m/s V is the velocity of the aircraft in m/s W/S is the wing loading in N/m2 In the above formula, gusts are assumed to be sharp but it is usually graded, hence a relief factor called gust alleviation factor K is introduced in the term. The value of the K is obtained from the book AIRPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND PERFORMANCE by ROSKAM Where K = 0.88 Where , 2(W/S)/ gCL

is the density, is the mean aerodynamic chord, g is the acceleration due to gravity, C L graph for the wing aerofoil NACA 631412.

is the lift slope in CL Vs

The CL (corrected for aspect ratio) is 0.083/deg or 4.75/rad.

K = 0.88

= 0.809

Therefore n =K aUV/2(W/S)

For stall speed V= 52.07 m/s, U= 20m/s n = 0.8197 For cruise speed V= 115 m/s, U= 15m/s n = 1.357 For dive speed V= 145.55 m/s, U= 7.5 m/s n = 0.8592

V 52.07 115 145.55

1+ n 1.8197 2.3570 1.8592

1- n 0.1803 -0.3570 0.1408

V-n Diagram
5 load factor limits:

4
3

n+ = 2.5 n- = -1 Vs+ = 52 m/s

+
n

Vs- = 60 m/s
1 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 -1 -2 -3

Vcruise = 115 m/s Vdive = 145.55 m/s

U = + 20 m/s U = + 15 m/s U = + 7.5 m/s U = - 20 m/s U = - 15 m/s

Velocity (m/s)

U = - 7.5 m/s

CONCLUSION
The aerodynamic design of the 15 seater aircraft was completed with the calculation of V-n diagram, with which the part II structural design starts. The parameters obtained in the design are not the final parameters. These should be refined through numerous computer simulation and wind tunnel testing. The aircraft design is more often an evolutionary process than revolutionary one. As Donald W. Douglas said, it is just a matter of development. What we have got today is the Wright brothers airplane developed and refined. But the basic principles are just what they always were. Thus the successful design lies in understanding these basic principles and applying it in an innovative way satisfying the customers requirement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jackson, P. (Editor) Janes All the Worlds Aircraft 2006-2007 , Janes information group ltd., Surrey , UK, 2006. 2. Roskam, J Airplane design Vol. II &V Roskam aviation and Engg. Corp. Ottawa, Kansas 1989. 3. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach AIAA` educational series second edition 1992. 4. Perkins, C.D. & Hage, R.E., Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control, John Wiley 1949. 5. Anderson, Jr. J.D. Introduction to Flight McGraw Hill 2005. 6. Anderson, Jr. J.D. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics McGraw Hill 2006. 7. Anderson, Jr. J.D Aircraft performance and design McGraw Hill International edition 2006. 8. Hoerner, S.F. Fluid dynamic drag published by Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Brick Town, NJ, 1965 9. Abbott I. H. & Von Doenhoff A. E. Theory of wing sections, Dover, 1959. 10. Etkin , B. and Reid L.D. Dynamics of Flight Stability and Control 3rd edition John Wiley 1996 11. Ogata K, Modern Control Engineering prentice-hall, India. 12. DUNLOP tyre manual. 13. Flap data book(RAeS Data sheets). 14. Propeller charts