- Neural (Nervous) system is a system that controls and • Axon: A long fibre which transmit impulses away from

s away from the

coordinates the body activities, conducts and integrates the cell body. The branching of axon is called axonite. Each
information and responds to stimuli. axonite ends as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knob.
- It includes brain, spinal cord and nerves. Types of Neurons
- It is made up of specialized cells known as neurons. • Unipolar: One axon. No Dendron. Found in embryo.
Neuron (nerve cell) • Bipolar: One axon and one dendron. Found in the retina.
• Multipolar: One axon and 2 or more dendrons. Most
common type. Found in the CNS & PNS.
Types of axon
• Myelinated axon: It is enveloped with Schwann cells that
form a myelin sheath around the axon. Found in spinal &
cranial nerves. The white coloured area, formed of
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of neural myelinated nerve fibres is called white matter. Gaps b/w
system. It is composed of 2 adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.
• Cell body (cyton): Contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and • Non-myelinated axon: Schwann cells present but no
Nissl’s granules (granular bodies). myelin sheath. The gray coloured area without myelin
• Dendron: Short fibres projecting from the cyton. Their sub sheath is called gray matter. Found in autonomous &
branches (dendrites) transmit impulses towards the cyton. somatic neural systems.

GENERATION & CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSES

Impulse transmission is electrochemical. It has 3 steps: - The electrical potential difference during depolarization
1. Maintenance of resting membrane potential across the plasma membrane is called action potential (a
- Neural membrane contains various selectively permeable nerve impulse).
ion channels. 3. Propagation of action potential
- In a resting neuron (neuron not conducting impulse), the - At sites ahead (site B), outer surface is positive and inner
axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and nearly surface is negative. As a result, a current flows on the inner
impermeable to Na+ ions. Also, the membrane is surface from site A to site B.
impermeable to negatively charged proteins in axoplasm. - On the outer surface, current flows from site B to site A to
- Therefore, concentration of K+ and –vely charged proteins complete the circuit. Hence, the polarity is reversed and
in axoplasm is high and concentration of Na+ is low. action potential is generated at site B. i.e., action potential
- The fluid outside the axon contains low concentration of at site A arrives at site B.
K+ and high concentration of Na+. This forms an ionic or - The sequence is repeated along the axon and the impulse is
concentration gradient across resting membrane. conducted.
- The ionic gradients are maintained by the active transport - The rise in permeability to Na+ is extremely short lived. It
of ions by the Na-K pump. It transports 3 Na+ outwards is quickly followed by a rise in permeability to K+.
for 2 K+ into the cell. As a result, the outer surface becomes - Immediately, K+ diffuses outside the membrane and
positively charged and inner surface becomes negatively restores the resting membrane. Thus the fibre becomes
charged (i.e, polarized). ready for further stimulation.
- The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma Synaptic transmission of impulses
membrane is called as the resting potential. - Synapse is a functional junction between two neurons.
- It is 2 types: Electrical & Chemical.
1. Electrical synapses
- In this, the membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons
are in close proximity. So impulse transmission is similar
to the transmission along an axon.
- Impulse transmission is faster than in chemical synapse.
- Electrical synapses are very rare in human system.
2. Chemical synapses
2. Action Potential - In this, there is a fluid filled space (synaptic cleft) between
- When a stimulus is applied, the membrane at the site A the presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron.
becomes permeable to Na+. This causes rapid influx of Na+ - The presynaptic regions have swellings called Synaptic
and reversal of the polarity at that site (outer negative and knob (buttons). They contain synaptic vesicles filled
inner positive). It is called depolarization. with neurotransmitters (acetylcholine or adrenaline).
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 Impulse transmission through chemical synapse:
Impulse reaches at axon terminal → synaptic vesicles bind on
plasma membrane → release of neurotransmitter → It
diffuses across synaptic cleft → combine with receptors on the
post synaptic membrane → opening of ion channels allowing
entry of ions → generates action potential.
- This action potential may be excitatory or inhibitory.

HUMAN NERVOUS (NEURAL) SYSTEM

It has 2 parts: Diencephalon (Thalamus & Hypothalamus)
• Central neural system (CNS): Brain & spinal cord. • Thalamus: It is the structure around which the cerebrum
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): All nerves. wraps. It is a coordinating centre (relay station) for sensory
CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM (CNS) and motor impulses.
• Hypothalamus: Seen below the thalamus. It
A. BRAIN a. Regulates temperature, thirst, hunger and emotions.
- It is protected in cranial cavity. b. Secretes hypothalamic hormones.
- It has 3-layered connective tissue membranes called c. Controls pituitary gland.
cranial meninges. d. Controls sleep, wakefulness, blood pressure, heart rate.
- Meninges consist of outer dura mater, middle arachnoid - The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a group of
mater and inner pia mater. associated deep structures like amygdala, hippocampus,
- The subarachnoid space (space between pia mater and hypothalamus, etc. together constitute Limbic system
arachnoid mater) is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). (Limbic lobe). It regulates sexual behavior, motivations,
The ventricles of brain are also filled with CSF. emotions (excitement, pleasure, rage, fear etc).
- Brain has 3 divisions: Forebrain, Midbrain & Hindbrain. b. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
• It is located between thalamus/hypothalamus and Pons.
• A canal (cerebral aqueduct) passes through the mid brain.
• Mid brain consists of 4 round lobes called Corpora
quadrigemina. Their anterior pair is the centre of visual
reflexes and the posterior pair is a centre of auditory reflex.
c. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
It consists of cerebellum, Pons & Medulla oblongata.
Midbrain & hindbrain form the Brain stem.
• Cerebellum (“little cerebrum”): It has very convoluted
surface to accommodate more neurons. It co-ordinates
muscular activities and body equilibrium.
a. Forebrain (Prosencephalon) • Pons varoli: It consists of fibre tracts that interconnect
It is the anterior part. Consists of cerebrum & diencephalon. different regions of the brain. It co-ordinates the activities
Cerebrum of eye and ear and regulates respiration.
- Largest part. It has 2 cerebral hemispheres held together • Medulla oblongata: It is connected to spinal cord. It
by a tract of nerve fibres (Corpus callosum). controls respiration, cardiovascular reflexes, gastric
- Outer part of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex. It has secretions, peristalsis etc. It also controls salivation,
convulsions & depressions and is formed of gray matter. vomiting, sneezing & coughing.
Gray colour is due to the presence of neuron cell bodies. B. SPINAL CORD
- Inner part of cerebrum is formed of white matter.
- It is enclosed within the spinal canal of vertebral column.
- Cerebral cortex consists of
- It is also protected by meninges.
• Motor area: Controls voluntary movements of muscles.
- Spinal cord has a central canal containing CSF.
• Sensory (Somaesthetic) area: Controls the functioning
- Outer white matter and inner gray matter.
of sense organs.
Functions:
• Association area: It is neither clearly sensory nor motor
a. Conduction of impulses to and from the brain.
in function. Responsible for intersensory associations,
b. Centre of spinal reflexes.
memory and communication.
Integrated activities of different centres of cerebral cortex PERIPHERAL NEURAL SYSTEM (PNS)
control intelligence, memory, judgment, learning, thinking It includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
and articulate speech. Nerve fibres of PNS are 2 types:
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• Afferent (sensory) fibres: Carry impulses from sense ¨ Closing of the eyelids when light falls on them.
organs to CNS. ¨ Knee jerk phenomenon.
• Efferent (motor) fibres: Carry impulses from CNS to ¨ If a child sees or smells a food unknown to him, he does
muscles and glands. not salivate. But if he sees or smells that food every time
PNS has 2 divisions. They are before tasting it, he salivates (conditioned reflex).
• Somatic neural system: Relays impulses from the CNS to The pathway of impulses in a reflex action is called Reflex
skeletal muscles. arc. It consists of
• Autonomic neural system (ANS): Transmits impulses § A receptor organ: It receives the stimulus.
from CNS to involuntary organs & smooth muscles. It § Sensory (afferent) neuron: It transmits impulses from
includes sympathetic & parasympathetic nerves. Sympathetic sense organ to CNS.
system prepares body to cope with emergencies, stresses & § Intermediate (connector) neuron: It connects sensory and
dangers. It increases heartbeat, breathing rate, constricts motor neurons.
arteries and elevates BP. Parasympathetic system returns § Motor (efferent/effector/excitor) neuron: It conducts
the body to a resting state after stressful situations and impulse from the CNS to effector organ.
slows down heartbeat, dilates arteries, lowers BP etc. § An effector organ (muscle/gland): It responds to impulse.
Visceral nervous system is the part of PNS. It includes
nerves, fibres, ganglia & plexus by which impulses travel
from CNS to the viscera and from viscera to CNS.
REFLEX ACTION
It is the rapid, involuntary and unconscious actions of body
in response to a stimulus. E.g.
¨ Withdrawal of the hand when it touches a hot object.
¨ Touching lips of a nursing baby evokes sucking reflex.

SENSORY RECEPTION & PROCESSING (SENSE ORGANS)

- These are the organs that detect the changes in the c. Retina
environment and convey the information to the CNS. - Inner layer. It contains 3 layers of cells – from inner to outer
- It includes eye, ear, nose, tongue & skin. – ganglion cells, bipolar cells & photoreceptor cells.
EYE - Photoreceptor cells are 2 types: rods and cones. They
- Two eyes are located in sockets of the skull called orbits. contain photosensitive proteins (photopigments).
- The adult human eyeball is nearly spherical. - Photopigments are formed of opsin (a protein) and retinal
- Eyeball has three layers: Sclera, Choroid & Retina. (an aldehyde of vitamin A).
Cone cells:
• Function: Daylight (photopic) vision & colour vision.
• There are 3 types of cones containing photopigments
(photopsin) that respond to red, green and blue lights.
• The sensations of different colours are produced by
combinations of these cones and their photopigments.
• When the cones are stimulated equally, a sensation of
white light is produced.
Rod cells:
a. Sclera • Function: Twilight (scotopic) vision.
- The external layer formed of a dense connective tissue. • They contain a purplish-red protein called rhodopsin
- Anterior transparent portion of sclera is called cornea. (visual purple). It contains a derivative of Vitamin A.
b. Choroid - At the region, slightly above the posterior pole of the
- Bluish middle layer. Contains many blood vessels. eyeball, optic nerves leave the eye and retinal blood
- Choroid is thin over posterior two-thirds of the eyeball, but vessels enter it. Here, photoreceptor cells are absent. It is
it is thick in the anterior part to form ciliary body. called blind spot.
- Ciliary body continues forward to form a visible pigmented - Lateral to the blind spot, there is a yellowish pigmented
and opaque portion of the eye called the iris. spot called macula lutea with a central pit (fovea).
- Iris has a central opening called pupil. The diameter of the - The fovea is a thinned-out portion of the retina where only
pupil is regulated by the muscle fibres of iris. This helps to the cones are densely packed. It is the point of greatest
regulate the amount of light entering the eye. visual acuity (resolution).
- The eyeball contains a transparent crystalline lens. It is - The space between the cornea and lens is called aqueous
held in place by ligaments attached to the ciliary body. chamber. It contains aqueous humor (thin watery fluid).
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- The space between the lens and retina is called vitreous - Scala media and scala tympani are separated by basilar
chamber. It contains vitreous humor (a transparent gel). membrane.
Mechanism of vision - S. vestibula & S. tympani are filled with perilymph and
scala media is filled with endolymph.
Light reflected from an object → enters the eye through
- Resting on the basilar membrane and projecting into scala
cornea & lens → focus on retina → dissociation of retinal
media is complex receptor organ called Organ of Corti. It
from opsin → changes in membrane permeability →
consists of row of sensory hair cells. The hairs (stereo
generates potential differences (impulse) in photoreceptor
cilia) of these cells project upwards and lie in contact with
cells → generates action potentials in ganglion cells through
tectorial membrane, which projects above them.
bipolar cells → impulses are transmitted by optic nerves to
brain (visual cortex) → impulses are analyzed and the image
is recognized based on memory and experience → vision.
EAR (STATO-ACOUSTIC ORGAN)
- It is the organ for hearing & balancing.
- It has 3 divisions: External ear, middle ear & inner ear.

Vestibular apparatus:
- It consists of 3 semicircular canals and otolith organ.
External ear - 2 semicircular canals are vertical and one is horizontal. One
- Consists of pinna (ear lobe) & auditory meatus (ear canal). end of each canal has a bulging called ampulla. Inside it is
- At the opening of ear canal, hairs are seen. a lump called crista ampullaris. Long cilia of cells of
- Ear canal and skin of pinna contains ceruminous glands crista are grouped together in a bundle (cupula).
(modified sweat glands). They secrete wax (cerumen). - Otolith organ consists of utricle and saccule.
- Wax and hairs protects ears from foreign objects. - Utricle & Saccule have a projecting ridge called macula.
- Ear canal ends in tympanic membrane (Tympanum or - Crista and Macula are specific receptors in vestibular
ear drum). It is a semi-transparent membrane covered by apparatus. They contain sensory hair cells. They are
a thin layer of skin on its outer surface and by mucous responsible equilibrium & posture of body.
membrane on the inside. Mechanism of hearing
Middle ear Pinna collects sound waves → waves reach the tympanic
- Consists of tympanic cavity and ear ossicles. membrane via ear canal → tympanic membrane vibrates →
- Tympanic cavity is an air filled space that separates the vibrations transmit to ear ossicles & oval window →
external and inner ear portions. perilymph in the vestibular canal vibrates → vibrations
- An auditory tube (Eustachian canal) connects middle ear reach the scala tympani and force the basilar membrane to
to the pharynx. It maintains an equal pressure on either side vibrate → hair endings of sensory hair cells press against
of the eardrum. tectorial membrane → sensory hair cells are excited →
- Ear ossicles include 3 small bones namely Malleus, Incus auditory nerve carries impulses to auditory centre of the
and stapes. Malleus is attached to tympanum. brain → hearing.
- Stapes is the smallest bone of the body. It is attached to NOSE
membrane of oval window (fenestra ovalis) of inner ear. - Organ of smell (olfaction).
Inner ear - It contains mucus-coated receptors (olfactory receptors)
- It consists of bony labyrinth & membranous labyrinth. made up of olfactory epithelium. They receive sense of
- Bony labyrinth is a cavity filled with perilymph. smell. It contains 3 kinds of cells.
- The membranous labyrinth consists of cochlea and - The neurons of olfactory epithelium extend from the
Vestibular apparatus. outside environment directly into a pair of broad bean-
Cochlea (organ of hearing): sized organs, called olfactory bulb. These are extensions
of the brain’s limbic system.
- It is a coiled structure having 3 canals - upper scala
vestibula, middle scala media and lower scala tympani. TONGUE
- Scala vestibula & scala media are separated by Reissner’s - Organ of taste (gustation).
membrane. - 4 primary tastes are sweet, salt, sour and bitter.
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- Taste buds (Gustatoreceptors + supporting cells) are taste buds and a complex flavour is perceived.
seen around the bases of taste papillae. SKIN (Cutaneous receptors)
Nose & tongue are chemoreceptors (detect dissolved - Largest sense organ.
chemicals). Senses of taste & smell are functionally similar - It contains receptors for heat, cold, touch, pain & pressure.
and interrelated. The brain integrates different input from

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Analyze the concept map given below and fill the gaps appropriately.
Cerebrum
Fore-brain Thalamus
(c)
Brain (a) Corpora quadrigemina
Pons
(b) Medulla oblongata
(d)

2. Note the relationship between first two words and fill up the fourth place
a) Cone cells: Iodopsin Rod cells: …………………
b) Unipolar: No Dendron Bipolar: ………………….
3. Odd man out. Justify your answer.
a) Tympanic membrane, Basilar membrane, Arachnoid membrane, Reissner’s membrane
b) Amygdala, Crista, Ampulla, Vestibular apparatus
4. Arrange the following processes in nerve impulse conduction in a sequential order.
a) Bursting of synaptic vesicle b) Development of action potential
c) Na+ - K+ pump starts functioning d) Stimulus received and influx of Na+ ions
e) Maintenance of resting potential f) Binding of neurotransmitter with post synaptic membrane
5. Match the following
A B C
Yellow spot Macula CSF
Otolith organ Neurotransmitter Keenest vision
Synaptic knob Subarachnoid space Acetyl choline
Meninges Cone cells Equilibrium
6. Observe the following figure.

a) Identify the diagrammatic representation.

b) Name P & Q.
c) Mention the function of P & Q.

7. Prepare a flow chart showing the steps of hearing processes.