GEO 131 – PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY

Fundamentals of geology applied in engineering field. Topics include mineral, rock and soil
properties, rock weathering, geologic structures, active tectonics and earthquake hazards,
dams & reservoirs, desert landforms, shoreline and beaches, landslides & other related
phenomena.

Geology – is the scientific study of the origin, history, structure and composition of earth.

Engineering Geology – is the application of geology to engineering study for the purpose of
assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation
and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for

MINERALS

Mineral – a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, crystalline substance which has a fixed
structure and a chemical composition which is either fixed or which may vary within certain
defined limits. They are found in all geologic environments. To appreciate the engineering
significance and properties of rocks and soils, a knowledge of minerals is necessary
requirement.

OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS

Minerals are found in all geologic environments including the alluvial sands along a river
bed, soils of plowed field, and bedrock exposures in a mountainous region.

The study of minerals in engineering geology is focused mainly on their physical properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1.) CLEAVAGE. It is the property of breaking more readily along certain direction than
others. Cleavage is not only important in identifying minerals but also has
considerable bearing on the physical properties of mineral aggregates occurring in
mass.

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2.) LUSTER. It is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of a
mineral reflects light. The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light
used to observe the mineral surface.
2 Main Types:
• Metallic – minerals that show a high degree of reflection.
• Non-metallic- minerals that do not show extreme degree of opaque-surface
reflection.

6 Types of Non-metallic Luster

LUSTER APPEARANCE EXAMPLE/S
Adamantine Sparkly/Shiny Diamond
Earthy/Dull Dull, clay-like, coarse Kaolinite
Greasy Look as if it is coated with grease/oil Opal
Pearly Pearl-like Apophyllite, Muscovite
Resinous Like resins Sulfur, Fire Opal
Silky Soft-looking with long fibers Gypsum, Asbestos
Vitreous Glassy Quartz, Tourmaline

3.) COLOR. Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for identification. In
opaque minerals, the color tends to be more consistent, so learning the colors
associated with these minerals can be very helpful in identification. Translucent to
transparent minerals have a much more varied degree of color due to the presence of
trace minerals. Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a single identifying
characteristic.

Figure 1. This mineral has shiny, gold, cubic crystals

with striations, so it is pyrite

Figure 2. This mineral is shiny, very soft, heavy, and

gold in color, and is actually gold

Different minerals may be the same color. Real gold, as seen in Figure 2, is very
similar in color to the pyrite in Figure 1.

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 Additionally, some minerals come in many different colors. Quartz, for example,
may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow, pink, red, or orange. So color can help, but
do not rely on color as the determining property.

 Streak (or the color of the mineral in powdered form) – it shows the true
color of the mineral. The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark
because the small particles of the streak absorb the light hitting them. Non-
metallic particles tend to reflect most of the light so they appear lighter in color
or almost white. It is a more reliable property of minerals than color for
identification. To check streak, scrape the mineral across an unglazed
porcelain plate.

4.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. It is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to the
weight of an equal amount of water. The specific gravity of a mineral is the ratio of its
weight compared to the weight of an equal volume of water. Knowing the properties
of minerals will help you to identify minerals in the field.

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5.) HARDNESS. It is used to designate a complex combination of physical properties
which is usually measured by the ability of one substance to scratch another.

MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS

6.) DIAPHANEITY/TRANSPARENCY. It is a mineral’s degree of transparency or ability

to allow light to pass through it. The degree of transparency may also depend on the
thickness of the mineral.
Minerals may be either transparent, translucent or opaque.
 Transparent – A clear outline of an object can be seen through the mineral.
 Translucent – Light is transmitted through the mineral but objects cannot be
discerned.
 Opaque – No light is transmitted through the mineral even on its thinnest edges.

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7.) TENACITY. It is the resistance a mineral show to various destructive mechanisms
such as crushing, breaking, bending and tearing.

Minerals can be described according to the following terms:

 Brittle – breaks or shatters easily.
 Malleable – can be hammered into thin sheets.
 Sectile – Can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
 Ductile – Can be drawn into a thin wire.
 Elastic – Bends but resumes its original shape when released.
 Flexible – Bends but does not but resumes its original shape on release.

8.) MAGNETISM. It is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic
materials.

COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are
formed from combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming
minerals”. Rockforming mineral, any mineral that shapes igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks and that acts as an intimate part of rock-making procedures, typically
or exclusively.

Amphibole – An important group of rock-forming minerals in igneous and metamorphic

rocks, amphiboles share a similar crystal structure and cleavage pattern, but contain
different proportions of sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg), which
substitute for one another in its crystal structure. Amphibole minerals are generally dark-
colored, hard, and are so similar in appearance that often they can only be distinguished
from one another by examination under an optical microscope. It is used as paving
stones and as a veneer or facing on buildings (both for interior and exterior use). It is also
used as crushed stone for the usual crushed stone applications such as road and
railroad bed construction.

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 Color Dark green, dark brown, black

Hardness 5 to 6 (harder than glass)

Specific Gravity 3.0 to 3.4

Luster Vitreous (glassy) to dull

Streak White to gray

Diaphaneity Translucent to Opaque

Calcites- most commonly occurs in sedimentary settings, particularly in shallow marine

settings as the shells and hard parts of marine organisms. It is also found in
hydrothermal veins and hot spring deposits. Calcite is the principal constituent of
limestone and marble. The properties of calcite make it one of the most widely used
minerals. Although cement production accounts for the bulk of calcite used by our
modern society, large amounts are also used in the manufacture of steel and glass.
Rocks composed primarily of calcite, such as limestone and marble, are also extensively
quarried as decorative building stones and for sculpture. Because of the ease with which
calcite reacts with even weak acids, calcite is used to balance soil acidity, in water
treatment, and as a calcium supplement in animal feed. Calcite even has medicinal value
as both a supplemental source of calcium and as an antacid. Calcite’s ready reaction
with dilute acids not only serves to identify its presence in geological samples, but can
neutralize excess stomach acids that cause discomfort

Color Transparent to translucent calcite crystals are colorless, white or light-colored;

massive forms of calcite are typically buff, gray, or white.

Hardness 3 (down to 2.5 on some surfaces) – easily

scratched by a metal nail, but too hard
to be scratched by a fingernail.

Specific
Gravity 2.7 (feels relatively light)
Luster vitreous (glass-like) to dull

Streak white

Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent

Feldspars – is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that make up
over 50% of Earth's crust. They are found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks in all parts of the world. Feldspars are also important constituents of gabbro and
basalt, which are the primary types of rock in Earth’s oceanic crust. Feldspar minerals
have very similar

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structures, chemical compositions, and physical properties. Feldspar is a common raw
material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in
paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, improves product hardness, durability, and
resistance to chemical corrosion.

Color pink, white, gray, brown, blue

Hardness 6-6.5

Specific
Gravity 2.5–2.8

Luster vitreous

Streak white

Diaphaneity Translucent to Opaque

Garnet – are a set of minerals of silicate that have been used as gemstones and
abrasives since the Bronze Age. The word ‘garnet’ comes from the Latin word granatus,
which means ‘seed-like,’ a reference to the common appearance of garnets as discrete
small red rounded crystals that look like pomegranate seeds embedded in rock. Although
red garnets are the most common variety, garnets occur in nearly every color except for
blue. Garnets occur in some igneous rocks, but are more typical of high-grade
metamorphic rocks. Most garnet found near Earth's surface forms when a sedimentary
rock with a high aluminum content, such as shale, is subjected to heat and pressure
intense enough to produce schist or gneiss. The role garnet plays in your life in part
depends on your interests and hobbies. For those with an interest in gems and jewelry,
several commonly known gemstones are simply just different colored varieties of garnet.
In contrast, woodworkers, model enthusiasts, and home repair aficionados know garnet
better as the ‘ sand’ of sandpaper. Both uses are tied to garnet’s remarkable hardness.

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 Color Variable, with dark red to reddish brown being the most common, but varieties
may be red-violet, brown,
black emerald green, or
even white

Hardness 6.5 – 7.5 (very hard)

Specific
Gravity 3.6 – 4.3 (increases with iron content)

Luster Vitreous (glass-like) to resin-like

Streak white (or pale shade of sample’s color)

Gypsum - is a very soft mineral that is easily identified by its hardness, cleavage, and
solubility in water. Typically clear to white, gypsum may be colored reddish to brown or
yellow if impurities are present. Most gypsum occurs in its massive form, as layers of
rock that often intercalate layers of shale, limestone, or dolostone. Gypsum has many
applications in art and pottery, but is also used in medicine as casts for broken bones or
as dental molds for making artificial teeth. Its many other uses include the ‘paste’
component of toothpaste, modern chalk used in classrooms, and as filler for paper and
paints. It is also an important component added to cement, to slow the rate at which
concrete settles or hardens. Large amounts of gypsum are used as fertilizer or as a
conditioner for soil, displacing sodium in the soil and allowing the soil to hold more
moisture.

Color Usually white, colorless or gray in massive

form. If impurities are present, gypsum
may also appear to be red, brown or
yellow.

Hardness 2 (very soft)

Specific
Gravity 2.3 (feels rather light)

Luster vitreous (glass-like) to pearly

Streak White

Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent

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Muscovite – Often called ‘white mica’, muscovite is the lightest colored mica mineral. A
common, widely distributed, rock-forming mineral. It does not occur in other igneous
rocks, but is very common in metamorphic phyllites and schists where it is largely
responsible for the shiny luster of those rocks. It also occurs in metamorphic gneiss
where it contributes to the rock’s light colored bands. Muscovite is so light in color that
light will easily pass through its thin transparent to translucent sheets. Muscovite’s
excellent insulating properties against both heat and electricity make it an essential
resource for many industries. In the past, sheets of muscovite were particularly useful as
insulating material in radio tubes. Presently they are still widely used in electrical
condensers and heating elements. Like most micas, however, the majority of muscovite
is ground up to be used as filler, roofing material, lubricant, or a dusting material to keep
rubber and asphalt goods from sticking to one another during transportation and storage.
Muscovite flakes are used to create the sparkle seen in artificial snow for Christmas
decorations and the glitter of many cosmetic products such as nail polish, glitter, glossy
lipstick and shimmering eye shadow.

Color Usually colorless, white or

silver, occasionally yellow or brown.

Hardness 2 to 3 (very soft)

Specific 2.8-3 (feels slightly lighter than expected for

Gravity sample size)

Luster vitreous (glass-like) to pearly

Streak White

Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent

Galena – also called lead glance, is the most abundant lead mineral, has been mined for
millennia, and remains our major source of that metal. It is a metallic, lead-gray mineral
with cubic cleavage and a distinctly high density that makes galena samples feel much
‘heavier’ than expected for their size. Because it melts at a relatively low temperature and
is so easily worked, lead was one of the first metals to be extensively used by many
societies. Over centuries, lead use has led to the historic development of coins, bullets,
batteries, televisions, and computers. As odd as it may seem though, lead has never
been used in the manufacture of lead pencils. The ‘lead’ in pencils is actually a mixture of
graphite and clay.

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 Color Lead gray

Hardness 2.5 (about as hard as a

fingernail)

Specific 7.4-7.6 (feels ‘heavy’, even for a

Gravity metallic mineral)

Luster Metallic

Streak Lead gray

Diaphaneity Opaque

Magnetite – is a black, opaque, magnetic mineral that leaves a black streak when
rubbed across a hard rough surface. Magnetite is one of the most widespread iron oxide
minerals and occurs in a variety of geologic environments. It is a common accessory
mineral in igneous rocks. Magnetite is one of the most widespread iron oxide minerals
and occurs in a variety of geologic environments. It is a common accessory mineral in
igneous rocks, but seldom forms crystals large enough to be seen in hand samples.
Magnetite has high iron content. ‘Magnetite’ was named after the Magnesia region of
Thessaly, Greece, the home of the Magnetes and an important center of iron production.
Fine dried Magnetite, produced from natural iron oxide, is used in foundry as a sand
additive to prevent surface defects of the casted metal.

Color Black to silvery gray

Hardness 5.5 – 6.5 (harder than glass)

Specific 5.2 (feels heavy compared to most

Gravity rock-forming minerals, but about the
same as other metallic minerals)

Luster Metallic to dull

Streak Black

Diaphaneity Opaque

Graphite – Graphite’s extreme softness, greasy feel, low specific gravity, and the ease
with which it leaves dark gray to black marks on paper, usually serve to distinguish it
from similar looking metallic minerals. Its name comes from the Greek word ‘graphein’
(‘to write’), a reflection of centuries of use in writing and drawing. Most of the graphite
seen at Earth's surface today was formed at convergent plate boundaries where organic-
rich shales and

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 limestones were subjected to the heat and pressure of regional metamorphism. This
produces marble, schist, and gneiss that contain tiny crystals and flakes of graphite.
Graphite is used in pencils and lubricants. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Its high conductivity makes it useful in electronic products such as electrodes, batteries,
and solar panels.

Color Black (but its shiny luster may

give it a silver appearance)

Hardness 1-2 (very soft)

Specific 2.2 (feels light, especially Gravity

for a metallic mineral)

Luster Metallic to dull

Streak Black

Diaphaneity Opaque

Quartz – Ancient Greeks called quartz ‘krystallos’, which means ‘ice’, a reflection of the
clarity of quartz’ clear transparent crystals. Quartz is a common component of silica-rich
igneous rocks. Because quartz is relatively stable at surface temperatures and
pressures, it can be concentrated by weathering processes to be even more abundant in
sedimentary rocks than it is in igneous rocks. Quartz sand grains are a significant
component of most sandstones and siltstones, and some detrital sedimentary rocks are
almost exclusively composed of quartz grains. Metamorphism of these sedimentary
rocks produces quartzite, a metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz.
Today, billions of quartz crystals are used to make oscillators for watches, clocks, radios,
televisions, electronic games, computers, cell phones, electronic meters, and GPS
equipment. Quartz is also used as an abrasive for sandblasting, grinding glass, and
cutting soft stones. Although glass is one of its most familiar products, our society has a
remarkable range of uses for quartz. By volume though, the bulk of all commercially
mined quartz is used in the construction industry as aggregate for concrete and as sand
in mortar and cement.

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 Color Quartz occurs in virtually every color.
Common colors are clear, white, gray,
purple,
yellow, brown, black, pink,
green, red

Hardness 7 (very hard)

Specific
2.6 to 2.7
Gravity Luster Vitreous

Streak White

Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent

Pyroxene – are a group of dark-colored

rock-forming minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks throughout the world.
They form under conditions of high temperature and/or high pressure. Augite, diopside,
jadeite and spodumene are four of the best-known members of the pyroxene group;
however, the pyroxene group has many other members. Pyroxene minerals are primary
or secondary constituents of many rocks used to make crushed stone, dimension stone,
and architectural stone. Pyroxene is in the trap rock of the construction industry and in
the "black granites" that are popular for making decorative tile and facing stone.

Color Usually dark green, dark brown or

black, but some varieties are white to
light green

Hardness 5 to 7 (harder than glass)

Specific
Gravity 3 to 4 (average)

Luster Vitreous (glass-like) to dull

Streak White, greenish white or gray

Diaphaneity Semi-translucent to Opaque

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 Olivine – is the name of a group of rock-forming minerals that are typically found in
igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite, diabase, and peridotite. They are usually
green in color. Most olivine found at Earth's surface is in dark-colored igneous rocks.
Olivine is one of the first minerals to be altered by weathering. Olivine’s best known
economic use is the gemstone peridot, often used as a birthstone for August.

Color Pale olive green to yellow-

green, occasionally brown

Hardness 6.5 to 7 (very hard)

Specific
Gravity 3.2 to 4.4

Luster glassy

Streak White

Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent

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