Coursebook Grammar 2007-2008

Grammar
Semester: 1
Jaar :1
Afdeling : Engels VO/BVE
Samensteller:
Original edition : Peta Eisberg
Revised edition (Aug. 2007) : Trui Veen
Chapter 1: Introduction: Building blocks and terminology
Educatieve Hogeschool van Amsterdam

Studiejaar 2007-2008
Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 2

List of contents
LIST OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: BUILDING BLOCKS AND TERMINOLOGY.......................................4
1.1 CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS (ANALYSIS)...........................................................................................4
1.1.2 PATTERNS FOR ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................4
1.1.3. PHRASES FOR ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................................5
1.3 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS.............................................................................................................5
1.4 DISCOURSE................................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2: THE FUNCTIONS FOR ANALYSIS..........................................................................................6
2.1 SUBJECT = S.............................................................................................................................................6
2.2 PREDICATE = P..........................................................................................................................................7
2.3 ADVERBIAL = (A)......................................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 ADVERBIAL = A....................................................................................................................................9
2.4 DIRECT OBJECT = DO.............................................................................................................................10
2.4.1 DIRECT OBJECT* = DO*.....................................................................................................................11
2.5 INDIRECT OBJECT = IO............................................................................................................................12
2.6 SUBJECT COMPLEMENT = SC..................................................................................................................13
2.7 OBJECT COMPLEMENT = OC...................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 3: THE FIVE BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS...........................................................................15
3.0 BASIC FUNCTIONS IN BASIC PATTERNS....................................................................................................16
3.1 S P (= SUBJECT / PREDICATE)................................................................................................................16
3.2 S P SC (= SUBJECT / PREDICATE / SUBJECT COMPLEMENT)....................................................................17
3.3 S P DO (= SUBJECT / PREDICATE / DIRECT OBJECT)...............................................................................18
3.3.1 S P DO* (= SUBJECT / PREDICATE / DIRECT OBJECT*)........................................................................18
3.4 S P IO DO (=SUBJECT / PREDICATE / INDIRECT OBJECT / DIRECT OBJECT)..................................19
3.5 S P DO OC (= SUBJECT – PREDICATE – DIRECT OBJECT – OBJECT COMPLEMENT)......................20
3.6 VARIATIONS.............................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER 4: THE WORD CLASSES: PARSING..........................................................................................22
4.1 NOUNS.....................................................................................................................................................22
4.1.1 Proper nouns or names...................................................................................................................22
4.1.2 Common nouns................................................................................................................................22
4.2 VERBS......................................................................................................................................................24
4.2.1 Auxiliary verbs................................................................................................................................24
4.2.2 Main verbs or lexical verbs.............................................................................................................26
4.2.3 FINITE AND NONFINITE...............................................................................................................................29
4.3 ADJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................30
4.3.1 attributive adjectives..............................................................................................................................30
4.3.2 predicative adjectives.............................................................................................................................30
4.4 ADVERBS.................................................................................................................................................31
4.5 NUMERALS OR NUMBERS........................................................................................................................32
a Cardinal numerals..................................................................................................................................32
b Ordinal numerals....................................................................................................................................32
4.6 ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS (DETERMINERS)............................................................................................33
4.6.1 Articles: definite and indefinite article (determiners).....................................................................33
4.6.2 Pronouns (determiners).........................................................................................................................33
4.6.3 Personal pronouns..........................................................................................................................33
4.6.4 Self pronouns or reflexive pronouns...............................................................................................34
4.6.5 Possessive pronouns + determiners................................................................................................34
4.6.6 Demonstrative pronouns + determiners.........................................................................................34
4.6.7 Interrogative pronouns + determiners............................................................................................35
4.6.8 Quantifier (or indefinite) pronouns + determiners.........................................................................35
4.6.9 Relative pronouns + determiners....................................................................................................36
4.7 CONJUNCTIONS........................................................................................................................................37
a co-ordinating conjunctions.....................................................................................................................37
b subordinating conjunctions.....................................................................................................................37
4.8 PREPOSITIONS..........................................................................................................................................37
4.9 INTERJECTIONS........................................................................................................................................38
4.10 THE INFINITIVE PARTICLE........................................................................................................................38
4.11 SPECIAL CASES: IT, THERE.......................................................................................................................38
4.12 WORD CLASSES AND MEANING...............................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 5 CATEGORIES: PHRASES AND CLAUSES.............................................................................41
5.1 FIVE TYPES OF PHRASES................................................................................................................................41
5.1.1 Noun Phrase (NP)..................................................................................................................................41
5.1.2 Adjective Phrase (AdjP)........................................................................................................................41
5.1.3 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)...........................................................................................................................42
5.1.4 Verb Phrase (VP)..................................................................................................................................42
5.1.5 Prepositional Phrase (PrepP or PP).....................................................................................................42
5.2 Phrases within Phrases.............................................................................................................................43
5.3 Clauses......................................................................................................................................................44
5.3.1 Complex sentences.................................................................................................................................44
5.3.2 Markers of subordination.......................................................................................................................45
5.3.3. Three types of clauses...........................................................................................................................45
5.3.4 Functions of dependent clauses.............................................................................................................46
5.4 CLAUSES WITHIN PHRASES............................................................................................................................46
5.5 Summary of grammatical categories.............................................................................................................47

1.1 Constituents and functions (Analysis)

Every sentence can be divided into parts which can consist of one or more words. You often recognise
intuitively which words belong together:
The telephone / rang.
Growth / was accelerating.
The Secretary of State / is meeting / the trade union leaders.
Such parts are called sentence elements or constituents (zinsdelen of constituenten). They play a
major role in the structure of the sentence. A constituent can be one word, or a group of two or more
words:
Dogs / smell.
The journalists / had been discussing / the situation of ethnic minorities in the UK.
Constituents have a syntactic function, e.g. subject (onderwerp), predicate (gezegde), direct object
(lijdend voorwerp) &c. Dividing a sentence into these constituents and labelling them Subject,
Predicate &c. is called analysis (redekundig ontleden). (See chapter 2.)
1.1.2 Patterns for analysis

There are five basic functions in the sentence:
S = subject,
P = predicate,
A = adverbial,
DO = direct object,
IO = indirect object,
SC = subject complement,
OC = object complement,
They are put together in patterns in various ways: the five basic sentence patterns:
1 S P (main verb=intransitive)
2 S P SC (main verb=link verb/copula)
3 S P DO (main verb=mono-transitive)
4 S P IO DO (main verb=di-transitive)
5 S P DO OC (main verb=complex-transitive)
These five basic patterns can be extended by using adverbials.

1.1.3. Phrases for analysis

The term constituent is used to indicate that a word or group of words acts as a unit with a syntactic
function. As indicated before, a constituent can consist of one word, or a group of two or more words:
S P
The dogs / were barking.
S P
The furious dogs / were barking.
Both The dogs and The furious dogs are constituents with the function of Subject. A constituent is
formed by a certain type of phrase (woordgroep.) Word groups are named after the most important
word in the group. The subject is realised by a noun phrase in both sentences. It is called a noun
phrase as its most important word is a noun (dogs).
There are five types of phrases:
noun phrases
verb phrases
adjective phrases
adverb phrases
preposition phrases
(see chapter: 5)
1.2 Word classes (Parsing)
Every individual word in a sentence belongs to a certain category: a word class or part of speech
(woordsoort): noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun, determiner &c. Stating the word class of each
word in a sentence is called parsing (taalkundig ontleden).
The furious dogs were barking.

the = article
furious = adjective
dogs = noun
were = auxiliary
barking = verb
There are many different subcategories, which will be dealt with later.
1.3 Internal structure of words

Words can also have an internal structure, many can be further analysed into morphemes.
dog/s, bark/ing, beauti/ful, table/cloth, un/kind
Plural endings, verb endings, suffixes and prefixes are called morphemes: they are the smallest
meaningful units within a word. There are different kinds of morphemes, which will not be dealt with in
this course.
1.4 Discourse

Sentences are not isolated occurrences. They are used in spoken or written communication between
people. The analysis of the way in which sentences are combined for communication is called
discourse analysis. It does not form part of this course.

Chapter 2: The functions for analysis

2.1 Subject = S
The subject (onderwerp) of a sentence may be ‘the person who performs the action of the verb’, but
often there is no action at all, or no person.
Many classrooms have computers.

Yesterday her friend was shot in the chest.
He is my friend.
His name is Peter.
Is this what you meant?
The subject of a sentence is the person or thing about whom or which a statement is made or a
question is asked.
Characteristics of the subject which may help you to identify it in a sentence are:
 In statements the subject precedes the verb;

 There is concord of number between the subject and the finite verb (persoonsvorm); so: if the
subject is singular the finite verb is also singular;
 The subject is repeated in tag questions;
 The subject is the answer to the question: Who or what is (doing) what is expressed by the
main verb?
Examples:
It offended her feelings. [Who or what offended her feelings?]
Does anyone have a question? [Who or what has a question?]
How big is your overdraft at the moment? [Who or what is so big?]
Here and there a fallen tree trunk spans
the narrow gorge. [Who or what spans the gorge?]
What he said was true. [Who or what was true?]
Note:
Sometimes the subject is a meaningless ‘there’ followed by a real subject later in the sentence:
There were some weird types in the bar. [Who or what were in the bar?]
The subject can also be a formal it, which is also meaningless, in sentences about the weather, the time or distance:
It is ten to five.
It is another five miles to the village.
It will be rather hot in the south.
(These topics will be dealt with in chapter 4.11 parsing: special cases.)

2.2 Predicate = P
The predicate is the verbal part of the statement or question (werkwoordelijk (deel van het) gezegde).
Trends toward the globalisation of industry have affected food production in California.
They left the house in a hurry.
It may consist of only one verb, which is then called a main verb (hoofdwerkwoord).
Mary likes strawberries.

These are my relatives.
It may also consist of two or more verbs. In this case the last verb is the main verb (which carries the
most meaning) and all the preceding verbs are auxiliaries (hulpwerkwoorden). There can only be one
main verb in a predicate.
Five inches of snow had fallen.

Without contacts you can’t succeed.
You shouldn’t feel unhappy about it.
Have you ever watched The Outsiders?
She had been watching him for a long time.
The predicate consists of verbs only. In negative statements the word n’t / not is usually considered
part of the predicate.
Note:
There are so-called phrasal verbs or multi-word verbs. They consist of a verb plus a preposition (voorzetsel) or
adverb (bijwoord) or both; or they are longer idiomatic expressions.
The guerrillas blew up the restaurant. = blasted the restaurant

They had dealt with the problem intelligently. = solved the problem
At first we cold-shouldered him. = ignored him
Could you make out my bill, please? = prepare my bill
I caught sight of an old friend of mine. = spotted an old friend
In many cases these phrasal verbs can be replaced by a one-word main verb. So the preposition or adverb are
considered to be part of the main verb in these cases and are therefore considered part of the predicate.
A sentence can be ‘complete’ grammatically correct with just a subject and a predicate, depending
on the meaning of the main verb:
It works.
It might be working.
Mary dances.
Sentence pattern 1: S P
As other examples show, there are also predicates that require a following sentence element in
order to be complete, e.g.:
Mary likes ….. strawberries.

Physics is ….. fun.
These sentences are analysed:

S P DO
Mary / likes / ….. strawberries. [sentence pattern 3]
S P SC
Physics / is / ….. fun. [sentence pattern 2]
2.3 Adverbial = (A)
Adverbials give more information about when, how, where, why, in what circumstances, to what
degree, from what point of view, something happened.
The adverbial (bijwoordelijke bepaling) occurs very frequently as a sentence element. In many cases it
is not required by the verb: it can often be left out without making the sentence incomplete or
ungrammatical. The meaning of the sentence will be different, though, when we leave out the
adverbial.
The characteristics of adverbials (A) are:

 They are often optional.
 More than one may occur within a basic sentence pattern.
 Adverbials can occur in different positions in the sentence.
Adverbials can be characterised, according to their meaning, as adverbials of time, place, manner,
frequency, condition &c.
He greatly admired Monet.

He was looking really ill this time yesterday.
It would not in any case be for him.
The other girls had found seats elsewhere.
Every time I go to that class, I panic.
Don’t bring her unless she’s sober.
If a tap is dripping, it needs a new washer.
I bought six cows so that we should have some milk to sell.
He was happy where he was.
So adverbials may consist of just one word or of complete subclauses and anything in between.
All the above sentences are grammatically correct and complete without the adverbials.
He admired Monet.
He was looking really ill.
It would not be for him.
The other girls had found seats.
Therefore the (A) for the optional Adverbial is not included in any of the basic sentence patterns.

2.3.1 Adverbial = A
All of the adverbials (A) in the sentences in 2.3 were optional: they could be left out without making
the sentence incorrect. In some cases the adverbial cannot be left out depending on the nature of the
main verb. In these cases it is an obligatory element in the sentence. Some grammarians do not make
this distinction and term both Adverbial, some do make a distinction and make this distinction visible
by using (A) for the optional adverbial and A for the obligatory adverbial. The sentence would be
ungrammatical without the obligatory adverbial A, or it would get a different meaning.
The road leads …. nowhere.

We put the children’s toys … in the cupboard.
He kept the money … in a piggy bank.
An A is a special case of the adverbial. It cannot be left out. So it is an obligatory element in a

sentence.
Some characteristics of the obligatory adverbial A

 The A usually indicates place or time.
 The A is obligatory.
 The main verb is often ‘to be’ or a verb which indicates position, movement, or extent.
 The A cannot be moved about in the sentence (like an adverbial).
 The A does not describe qualities (like a subject complement).
The road leads to the Houses of Parliament.

The switch is by the door.
He was sitting towards the rear.
Our train went at 2.25pm.
The other opening was on the same evening.
She went to London.
The others burst from their tents.
Transport to the mainland is by ferry.
Calls for assistance flooded into the emergency services.

2.4 Direct Object = DO
The direct object (lijdend voorwerp) refers to another person or thing whom the action affects, relates
to or produces.
The referee kicked the ball.

I saw the car.
A truck hit our oak tree.
In general we can say that the direct object can be the subject of a passive sentence having the same
meaning as the active sentence in which it occurs as a direct object.
Active sentence with DO Corresponding passive sentence

She described her background. Her background was described by her.
The trial raised a number of questions. A number of questions were raised by the trial.
Her death had surprised everybody. Everybody had been surprised by her death.
She looked after her invalid mother. Her invalid mother was looked after by her.
Which graph are you going to use? Which graph is going to be used by you?
So, as you can see, when you turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, you use the corresponding form of ‘to
be’ followed by the past participle of the main verb. E.g. described > was described.
Sometimes it is hard for a direct object to be the subject in a passive sentence, e.g. with
self-pronouns (= reflexive pronouns, wederkerende voornaamwoorden) or with longer
subclauses.
Active sentence with DO Corresponding ‘incorrect’ passive sentence
We introduced ourselves. Ourselves were introduced by us.
They believed that war could be avoided. That war could be avoided was believed by
them.
Even so we analyse ourselves and that war could be avoided as direct objects, because
sentences that resemble them grammatically admit of the passive transformation:
Active sentence with DO Corresponding passive sentence

We introduced them. They were introduced by us.
They believed the story. The story was believed by them.
Some more examples:

‘hard to analyse’ ‘easy’
I told her she must be out of her mind. I told her a story.
He knows he’s being watched. He knows the truth.
Barbara stared at herself in the mirror. Barb. watched her face in the mirror.
I caught sight of an old friend. I saw an old friend.
Sentence pattern 3: S P DO
The obligatory adverbial A can also occur in sentences that contain a direct object.
The main verb indicates a position or a movement: (see: A, ch.2.3.1)
We put the toys in a box.

She kept his picture on her bedside table.
He passed the second page to the editor.
He took her to Edinburgh.
He had clipped an article from the Washington Post.
2.4.1 Direct Object* = DO*
The Direct Object* has the same function as a direct object, but cannot be made the subject of a
passive sentence.
Most grammarians do not make a distinction between a direct object that can be made the subject of a
passive sentence and a direct object that cannot be made the subject of a passive sentence. In this
case, both are called direct object. If you do want to make this distinction, the ‘direct object’ that cannot
be made the subject of a corresponding passive sentence, might be indicated as such: direct object*.
The direct object* is usually in the company of a main verb indicating

 ‘having’ or ‘lacking’
 ‘fitting’ or ‘suiting’
 ‘resembling’ or
 ‘(not) containing’
have become resemble contain

lack fit look like comprise
suit equal hold
belong to agree with consist of
mean
Examples of sentences that have no grammatically correct passive equivalent:

Japan has a population of about a hundred million.
She resembles her father in many respects.
(NB: You cannot say: *‘A population of a hundred million is had by Japan’ or *‘Her father is resembled by her’!)
Have some cheese.
He belongs to the aristocracy.
Each pill contains 75 milligrams of aspirin.
The engine consists of a housing, power unit and feedpipes.
The sandal fitted her perfectly.

2.5 Indirect Object = IO
The indirect object is an additional person, animal or thing who or which benefits from the action or
receives something as a result.
Some important characteristics of the indirect object are:

 The indirect object only occurs in sentences which also contain a direct object.
 The indirect object (normally) precedes the direct object.
 The indirect object can also be introduced by a preposition, such as ‘for’ or ‘to’, in which case
it follows the direct object.
 The indirect object can often be the subject of a passive sentence.
 The indirect object only occurs in sentences in which the predicate contains a di-transitive
verb (e.g. bring, owe, throw, pay, promise which need two objects).
Examples:
He had lent Tim the money.
He cooked himself an omelette.
I wrote my father a letter.
Could you pass me the salt, please?
He had taught English to all the children in the village.
In cases where the indirect object can be the subject of a passive sentence, there are usually two
ways of transforming the active sentence into a passive sentence. So both the direct object and the
indirect object can be turned into the subject of corresponding passive sentences. This is unnatural
for native speakers. Only use this trick for the purpose of analysing sentences, if you are not quite sure
about the constituents and their functions.
Active sentence with IO + DO Corresponding passive ‘sentences’.
She brought me an egg. I was brought an egg by her.

An egg was brought to me by her.
She gave him a hard look. He was given a hard look by her.
A hard look was given to him by her.
My friend will send me a letter. I will be sent a letter by my friend.
A letter will be sent to me by my friend.
Another way to find out about the indirect object is replacing the main verb by the corresponding
form of ‘receive’ or ‘get’.
You can also ask the question: ‘Who or what benefits from the action?” or: ‘Who or what receives
something?’
He gave whoever came in a dark look. Whoever came in received a dark look.
The kind man offered the old lady his seat. The old lady received the seat.
The main verb in this type of sentence always represents an action from which someone will benefit or
receive something.
Sentence pattern 4: S P IO DO

2.6 Subject Complement = SC

The subject complement is another constituent that is required in a grammatically correct sentence
in which the main verb is a link verb (also called copula).
The subject complement gives more and grammatically necessary information about the subject.
The subject complement is linked to the subject by a link verb.
Her general knowledge is amazing.

The station seemed a very small one.
My brother was his best friend.
This music sounds terrific.
She may be an ideal person to look after the children.
My real trouble is I’m absolutely fabulous.
Angela was the only person I could talk to.
The fact is that a happy person makes a better worker.
The audience were in hysterics. (= hysterical)
Link verbs are more frequent in English than they are in Dutch.
(Maybe you remember the traditional link verbs in Dutch: zijn, worden, blijven, blijken, lijken, heten, schijnen, dunken en
vóórkomen.)
The English link verbs are:

 be
 become, fall (ill), get, go (mad), grow (hot), turn (red)
 remain, stay, keep (alive)
 appear, seem, prove
 feel, look, smell, sound, taste
 make (a good substitute), form, represent, comprise, constitute
 weigh (10 pounds), measure (a foot).
All of them carry more or less the same meaning as and can be replaced by either ‘(still) be’ or
‘become’.
Some verbs + prepositions function as link verb: they usually have the same basic meaning as
‘become’:
 change (in)to, develop into, grow into, turn (in)to
His fear turned into unreasoning panic.
Taylor’s fascination with bees developed into an obsession.
Some verbs only occasionally function as link verbs. In this case they basically mean ‘be(come)’ or
‘remain’:
He died insane at the age of forty.
The children always went naked.
Fortunately we all escaped unscathed.
On this occasion the guilty should go unpunished.
Sentence pattern 2: S P SC
Note the difference:

S P A S P SC
The concert is at nine. The concert is sold out.
The train is late. The train is yellow.

So the obligatory adverbial A refers to a moment in time or a specific place, whereas the subject
complement gives more information about the qualities of the person or thing that form the subject.
2.7 Object Complement = OC

Some verbs require a direct object, but then obviously need another element to make the
sentence grammatically correct and meaningful:
The noise drove me … crazy.

He called her … a traitor.
The object complement gives more grammatically necessary information about the direct object.
The object complement describes who or what the direct object is or what qualities it has. It is usually
obligatory: the sentence is not grammatically correct without the OC, or the main verb means
something different.
You may consider this sort of information superfluous.

The noise kept him awake.
He wiped the bottle dry with a dishcloth.
Then his captors had knocked him unconscious.
I regard it as one of my masterpieces.
The connection between the OC and the DO, is like the connection between the SC and the S.
You may consider this sort of information superfluous. (DO – CO)
This sort of information is superfluous. (S – SC)
If you transform these sentences to passive sentences the object complement becomes the subject
complement.
S P DO OC A S P SC A
He / wiped / the bottle / dry / with a dishcloth. -> The bottle / was wiped / dry / by him.
Sentence pattern 5: S P DO OC


Chapter 3: The five basic sentence patterns: analysis
Chapter 3: The Five Basic Sentence Patterns
1 S P (main verb=intransitive)
2 S P SC (main verb=link verb/copula)
3 S P DO (main verb=mono-transitive)
4 S P IO DO (main verb=di-transitive)
5 S P DO OC (main verb=complex-transitive)
Examples:
1 My brother lives.
2 My brother is handsome.
3 My brother hates macaroni.
4 My brother gives me a lot of attention.
5 My brother makes his wife a very happy woman.
Variations on the 5 basic sentence patterns can be made by using the constituents DO* and A
(obligatory):
My brother goes to Bruxelles. S / P / A.

My brother has some good friends. S / P / DO*
My brother puts his paint brushes in a box. S / P/ DO / A
My brother bases his opinion on a lot of information. S / P / DO / A
More variations on these patterns can be made by using optional adverbials:
My brother has lived in an apartment for many years now. S / P / A / (A)

Fortunately, my brother has some good friends. (A) / S / P / DO*
My brother always puts his paint brushes in a box. S / (A) / P/ DO / A

3.0 Basic functions in basic patterns

The basic functions in the English sentence occur in five different combinations which are called the
five basic sentence patterns.
Note that optional adverbials (A) can and do occur in addition to the other elements in all the following
patterns.
Also note that the order of the elements in the following chapter headings only applies to
declarative sentences (= statements). The order may be different in interrogative sentences of a
certain type. Elements may be left out in imperative sentences (the subject), and exclamatory
sentences (the predicate).
3.1 SP (= subject / predicate)

You are talking about an action or event which does not involve anyone or anything other than the
subject.
S P
Her whole body / ached./
My condition / deteriorated./
Statements:
The sun was shining.
I’m walking.
Father snores.
The Hendersons will dance and sing.
Adverbials added to the basic pattern:

We’ll meet again.
Then what happened?
Such people still exist.
I can see clearly now.
Elements left out:

Stop!
Don’t cry for me, Argentina.
Twist and shout.
Different order of elements:

Is your brother’s condition deteriorating?
The main verb does not require a direct object and is therefore called intransitive.
For further discussion of the predicate in other than simple sentences see chapter 5.

3.2 S P SC (= subject / predicate / subject complement)

You want to describe something or someone, for example to say what or who they are or what
qualities they have.
S P SC
That / ’s / a very difficult question./
The children / seemed / frightened./
I/ became / fond of her./
The atmosphere / turned / nasty./
Statements:
All the leaves turn brown...
…the skies are grey.
I’m a loser.
She was in a good mood. (= happy.)
All my troubles seemed so far away.
Breaking up is hard to do.
It’s been a hard day’s night.
You are the sunshine of my life.
She’s the kind of girl you want so much it makes you sorry.
Adverbials added:
He fell asleep at the table.
Elements left out:

Be quiet, please.

Are you lonesome tonight?
The main verb requires a subject complement: there is no direct object. So it is intransitive. It is
called a link verb or copula.

3.3 S P DO (= subject / predicate / direct object)
The action or event involves another person or thing which the action affects, relates to or produces.
S P DO
Gentlemen / prefer / blondes./
Her sudden death / had surprised / everybody./
I/ ‘ll follow / the sun./
You / ’ve lost / that loving feeling./
We / sent for / the doctor./
The authorities / have turned down/ my request./
Statements:
I know I’ll never love this way again. (Cf. I know this.)
I can’t get no satisfaction.
I did it my way.
Adverbials added:
How do you like your eggs in the morning?
Elements left out:

Save the last dance for me.

What can I do?
The main verb requires a direct object. So it’s transitive. We call it mono-transitive, as the
sentence contains only one object.
3.3.1 S P DO* (= subject / predicate / direct object*)

The direct object* looks like a direct object, but cannot be made the subject of a passive sentence.
You use this pattern when you want to indicate that the subject contains, fits or has someone or
something.
S P DO*
She / is having / fun. /
We / ’ve got / everything you need. /
The story / contained / some truth. /
The boots / fitted / Rudolph. /
Statements:
He could escape responsibility for some time.
This advertisement lacks any stamp of individuality.
Adverbials added:
At present the urban areas contain some 970 hundred people.
Elements left out:

Have a good time.

Does this box contain 20 tablets?

3.4 S P IO DO (=subject / predicate / indirect object / direct

object)
The action or event involves someone in addition to the people or things that are the subject and direct
object.
S P IO DO
She/ brought/ me/ a boiled egg and toast./
He/ handed/ the receptionist/his room key./
He/ was cooking/ himself/ an omelette./
Statements:
He gave me a hard look.
I give you my heart.
Adverbials added:
She offered him emotional and practical support in countless ways.
Elements left out:

Can’t buy me love.

Should I fix myself a drink?
The main verb requires both a direct object (so it is transitive) and an indirect object. There are
two objects, so the main verb is di-transitive.

3.5 S P DO OC (= subject – predicate – direct object – object

complement)
You want to describe the direct object, say who or what they are, or what quality they have.
S P DO OC
It / kept / my feet / warm./
His captor / had knocked / him / unconscious./
My father / painted / the door / green./
Statements:
The light through the curtains had kept her awake.
His captor had knocked him unconscious.
The Prime Minister has appointed a civilian as defence minister.
She made life very difficult to me.
Adverbials added:
I made myself understood with difficulty.
Finally the role of James Bond made Sean Connery a star.
Elements left out:

Make yourself scarce.

Did contact lenses turn her eyes green?
In what way did the film make Jim Garrison a hero?
What colour did he paint the door?
The main verb requires a direct object (so it’s transitive) and its complement. The main verb is
called complex-transitive in this sentence pattern. The meaning of the main verb is ‘causing
someone or something to become something (else)’.

3.6 Variations
Variations on the 5 basic sentence patterns can be made by using the constituents A (obligatory) and
DO* (see 3.3.1).
S P DO A (= subject – predicate – direct object – obligatory adverbial)
The A is necessary to make the sentence grammatically correct; it usually indicates time or place.
S P DO A
I/ positioned/ my chair/ outside the room./
He/ was shoving/ clothes/ into the drawer./
She/ dragged/ her school bag/ across the room./
The preposition is not the set one for that verb; the preposition is part of the adverbial, not of the predicate.
Statements:
He had pulled the cord through a hole in the wall.
His friend had put the children to bed.
The superintendent placed the piece of cloth in the inside pocket of his jacket.
Optional adverbials added:

The young woman (carefully) hung the clothes on the line.
Elements left out:

(To avoid damaging the tree), hammer a wooden peg into the hole.

Where did you put the photographs?
Did they move their meeting to Saturday?
S P DO* A (= subject – predicate – direct object* – obligatory adverbial )
S P DO* A
He/ based/ his decision/ on firm evidence./
They/ mistook/ me/ for my sister./
That/ reminds/ me/ that I haven’t paid./
The agency changed one foreign currency (directly) into another (on request).
Did you translate his utterances into understandable English?
More variations on these patterns can be made by using optional adverbials; see 2.3, p. 8

Chapter 4: Word classes: Parsing
Chapter 4: The word classes: parsing

Parsing is the dividing up of the sentence into so-called parts of speech. Parts of speech are also
referred to as word classes, but note that many of them consist of more than one word.
4.1 Nouns
Nouns are words which refer to people or things and abstract ideas and can be preceded by a
determiner.
(a) man, (this) Italian, (my) shoes, (the) door), (her) wish, (an) idea, (our) money.
4.1.1 Proper nouns or names
Proper nouns usually begin with a capital letter.
John, Washington Square, Amsterdam, Mummy
4.1.2 Common nouns
Count nouns
Count nouns refer to people or things that can be counted. They have a singular and a plural form.
the singular form always has a determiner in front of it.
a book – my books, his teacher – those teachers, any minute – 40 minutes
Singular nouns
Singular nouns refer to things that are normally talked about one at a time, because of their
meaning in the sentence. These nouns (or one specific meaning of some noun) have no
plural form, and they are always used with a determiner.
The sun was shining.

You have all missed the point.
There were huge cracks in the ground.
Simon allowed his pace to slacken.
Plural nouns
Plural nouns refer to things which are thought of as being plural. These nouns are followed
by a plural verb form or referred to by a plural pronoun. Most of them ‘look’ plural (I), e.g.
clothes. Some of them ‘look’ singular (II), e.g. police.
(I) Take care of your clothes. They have cost a lot of money.
The weather conditions were the same.
The foundations were shaking.
He took off his glasses so that he could clean them.
A luxury hotel was used as headquarters.
(II) The police were called.

Pensions were provided for retired clergy and their wives by a church fund.
Uncount nouns or non-count nouns (mass nouns)
Uncount nouns refer to general things such as qualities, substances, processes, and topics. They
have no plural form, and are not usually used with the, a / an in front of them.
The donkey needed food and water.

A boy or girl with intelligence
New techniques in industry and agriculture
I talked with people about religion, death, marriage, money and happiness.
Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to a group of people or things. They have only one form, (which ‘looks’
singular, but they can be followed by either a plural or a singular verb form, according to whether
they are thought of as individual parts of the group (I) or as the group as a whole (II).
(I) All our family are perfectly normal people.

The BBC are planning to use the new satellite next month.
(II) Our family is not poor anymore.

The BBC is sending him to Tuscany for the summer.

4.2 Verbs
Verbs are used with a subject to say what someone or something does or what happens to them.
There are two main groups of verbs: auxiliary verbs (4.2.1) and main verbs (4.2.2).
4.2.1 Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are used with a main verb to form the predicate of a sentence.
There are two groups of auxiliaries: A primary auxiliaries and B modal auxiliaries (or modals).
4.2.1. A primary auxiliaries (to have, to be, to do)
a auxiliary of the perfect = to have
The settlers have left the bay forever.

National productivity has been declining.
She had lost her job as a waitress.
I had been expecting some miraculous change.
b auxiliary of the continuous = to be
My head is aching.
We’re having a meeting; come and join in.
He was looking ill.
What I have been describing is not a crisis of industry.
They had been hitting our trucks regularly.
c auxiliary of the passive = to be
He was shot in the chest.

Both of these books can be obtained from the public library.
I had been told that it would be perfectly quiet.
Moisture must be drawn out first with salt.
d auxiliary of questions and negations = to do
He does not speak English very well.

I didn’t know that.
Does it hurt much?
Did you have a good flight.
He played for Ireland, didn’t he?
e auxiliary of emphasis = to do
I do feel sorry for Roger.

Do help yourselves.
f pro-verb = to do (used instead of repeating a verb phrase)
I think we want it more than they do.

Widows receive state benefit: widowers do not.
Note:
These three verbs can have different functions depending on their usage in sentences. See also chapter 4.12

4.2.1. B modal auxiliaries = modals
a can could may might

shall should must
will would ought to
Could you show me how to do this?

You may speak.
It might be true.
She ought to have been home by now.
b dare, need, used to
I daren’t ring Jeremy again.

We needn’t worry about that.
She used to get quite cross with Sally.
c be able to be bound to had better

be allowed to be going to had rather
have to
The doctor was able to spend to time with the patient.

It has to be right.
He decided that we had better meet.
The children were not allowed to stay up late.

4.2.2 Main verbs or lexical verbs

Main verbs are verbs that can form predicates by themselves, unlike auxiliaries.
Main or lexical verbs fall into two categories: intransitive verbs and transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs
feature in sentences that contain no direct object; transitive verbs require a direct object.
Intransitive verbs = no DO!

Intransitive verbs are verbs that forbid the presence of a DO in the sentence.
Intransitive verbs are: link verbs and intransitive verbs. They are never followed by a direct object and
they cannot be used in the passive.
4.2.2. A link verbs = copulas
Link verbs occur in sentence pattern 2: S P SC.
Link verbs are called koppelwerkwoorden in Dutch: they link two constituents of (almost) equal quality:
the subject and the subject complement.
be become remain feel appear make (a good substitute) weigh (10lbs)
fall (ill) stay look seem constitute measure
get keep (alive) smell prove form
go (mad) sound represent
grow (old, hot) taste comprise
turn (red)
So all these main verbs mean more or less the same as to be or to become.
Her general knowledge is amazing.
The station seemed a very small one.
Jack went red.
Note:
Some verbs + prepositions function as a link verb; they usually have the same basic meaning as to become.
change (in)to develop into grow into turn (in)to
His fear turned into unreasoning aggression.

Her fascination with grammar developed into an obsession.
Some verbs occasionally function as link verbs when they can be replaced by to be(come).
Pugin died insane at the early age of forty.
The children always went naked.
4.2.2. B intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs occur in sentence pattern 1: S P.
These intransitive verbs form a subcategory. They do not require any other constituent.
Her whole body ached.
Such people still exist.
He sighed.
Stop!

4.2.2. D, E, F Transitive verbs = + DO
Transitive verbs are verbs that require the presence of a DO in the sentence.
There are several types of transitive verbs, depending on how many different objects the sentence
contains and in how many ways the sentences (in which they are the main verb) can be transformed
into passive sentences.
4.2.2. D mono-transitive verbs
Mono-transitive verbs occur in sentence pattern 3: S P DO
There is only one object in these sentences and only one way to transform these sentences into
passive sentences: so the main verbs are called mono-transitive.
Her sudden death had surprised everybody. Everybody had been surprised by …
Gentlemen prefer blondes. Blondes are preferred by gentlemen.
We sent for the doctor. The doctor was sent for.
I break their hearts. Their hearts are broken (by me).
He hated me. I was hated by him.
4.2.2. E di-transitive verbs
Di-transitive verbs occur in sentence pattern 4: S P IO DO
These sentences contain two objects (DO and IO) and there are two ways to transform these
sentences into passive sentences: so the main verbs are called di-transitive. Both the indirect object
(IO) and the direct object (DO) can be the subject in a passive sentence.
Active sentences Corresponding passive sentences
He handed the receptionist his room key. The receptionist was handed the key.
The key was handed to the receptionist.
He was cooking himself an omelette. He was being cooked an omelette.
An omelette was being cooked.
She brought me a boiled egg and toast. I was brought …
A boiled egg and toast were brought ..
She told me to sit anywhere. I was told to sit ..
This was told …
4.2.2. F complex-transitive verbs
Complex-transitive verbs occur in sentence pattern 5: S P DO OC
These sentences are complex in that they have contain both a DO and an object complement (OC).
But only the DO can be the subject of the corresponding passive sentences. So the main verbs are
called complex-transitive.
It kept my feet warm. DO OC

Leave the door open. DO OC
He soon put this straight. DO OC

VERBS
Auxiliaries (hulpwerkwoorden) Main verbs (zelfstandige wwen)
No DO ? DO ?
modals primary auxiliaries intransitive transitive
can could perfect: have + 3rd form link/copula: intransitive mono di complex
shall should continuous: be + ing form be/ become …: on its own: only DO: IO+DO: DO+ OC:
will would passive: be + 3rd form
may might S P SC (2) SP (1) SP DO (3) SP IO DO (4) SP DO OC(5)
must
dare, need, questions &

used to, negations: ? , - , tags: do
ought to
be able to emphasis: do
be allowed to
be bound to
be going to pro-verb: do
have to
had better
had rather

4.2.3 Finite and nonfinite

Verbs can also be classified into two broad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning expressed
by the verb; finite and nonfinite. When verbs indicate tense or agreement, they are called finite. This is
the form that shows tense (present or past), person and number (singular or plural). If not, they are
nonfinite.
Finite forms:
Tense:
She works in London
She worked in London.
Can she do the twist?
He couldn’t swim.
They will be able to come tomorrow.
I wouldn’t do that if I were you.
Number and person:

He works in London.
They work in London.
Nonfinite forms:
I have asked them to leave.
He was asked to leave immediately.
All the children were playing in the school yard.

Is he playing the piano again?
He wants to see you.

Be careful, they might see.
If there is a series of verbs in the predicate, the first verb is always finite.
He works hard every day works: finite

The students were studying for their test. were: finite, studying: nonfinite
What have you been doing all morning? have: finite, been, nonfinite, doing:
nonfinite.

4.3 Adjectives
Adjectives tell you more about a person or thing; they qualify nouns or pronouns.
There are two types of adjectives according to how they qualify a noun or pronoun: attributive and
predicative adjectives. Most adjectives are gradable, i.e. you can use adverbs like quite, very, really
with it, or you can put it in the comparative or the superlative by using more or most.
Adjectives can be found in two positions:
1 Attributive adjectives are placed next to the noun they qualify in the sentence element.
2 Predicative adjectives are linked to the (pro)noun they qualify by a main verb.
Most adjectives can be used in both positions. Some are exclusively used attributively and others are
exclusively used predicatively.
4.3.1 attributive adjectives

Attributive adjectives are part of a noun phrase.
The simple pleasures of life / should be cherished.

Loiseau / went up / to his bedroom / in his usual way.
He / gave / them / a warm welcome.
All the people present / applauded / the idea.
So most of them are usually in front of the noun (simple); some of them follow the noun they qualify
(present).
4.3.2 predicative adjectives

They function as subject complement (after a linking verb I) or as an object complement (after a main
verb meaning ‘causing something or someone to become something’ II).
I (SC) Her general knowledge is amazing.

Sea water tastes nasty.
The leaves turn brown.
II (OC) They are driving me crazy.

He wiped the bottle dry with a dishcloth.
He painted the door green.

4.4 Adverbs
Adverbs give more information about when, how, where, in what circumstances etc.
The adverb is generally considered to be the most diverse of all the word classes in English grammar.
Adverbs can qualify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or whole sentences.
I quite agree.
He nodded and smiled warmly.
It works in a slightly different way.
He is a rather clumsy person.
He acted very clumsily.
The process progressed unusually rapidly.
We kept three monkeys then.
Fortunately, these monkeys did not bite.
Adverbs come in different varieties: adverbs of time, place, frequency, manner, emphasis, reason, etc.
In order to distinguish between adjectives and adverbs:
My brother is a dangerous driver. Dangerous qualifies driver (= a noun), dangerous = adjective.

My brother drives dangerously. Dangerously qualifies drives (= a verb), dangerously = adverb.
He is an extremely dangerous driver. Extremely qualifies dangerous (= adjective), extremely = adverb.
He drives extremely dangerously. Extremely qualifies dangerously (= adverb), extremely = adverb.

4.5 Numerals or Numbers

a Cardinal numerals
Cardinal numerals are used for counting and for indicating numbers.
I am going to ask you twenty questions.

Over one million pounds had been raised.
b Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals identify or describe something by indicating where it a comes in a series or

sequence.
Flora’s flat is on the fourth floor.

Smith removed the last screw.

4.6 Articles and Pronouns (determiners)

"There once was a princess (article), her (pronoun determiner) name was Gertrude. She
(pronoun) had a (article) good friend. His (pron det) name was Max."
4.6.1 Articles: definite and indefinite article (determiners)
the definite article

a / an indefinite article
I saw a man walking down the road.

Do you mean the man we saw last week?
4.6.2 Pronouns (determiners)
Pronouns are used instead of nouns or noun phrases, in general to avoid repetition, and they
function independently in a sentence. Pronouns can function as determiners (or: pronoun
determiners) when they precede a noun in a noun phrase. So determiners are used in noun phrases
together with nouns and do not function independently. The commonest determiners in a noun phrase
are the articles.
Can / you / see / that? pronoun (noun phrase = that)

Do / you / mean / that car? used as determiner (noun phrase = that car)
If you do not want to name someone or something directly (e.g. to avoid repetition) you may use a
pronoun instead:
He / does not like / me. instead of The teacher does not like me.
If you want to identify a noun you use a determiner.
Her sister / plays / the guitar. (Not my sister, or his sister, but her sister.)
Pronouns are used instead of nouns or noun phrases.

Determiners are used in noun phrases together with nouns.
Some grammarians and grammar reference books do not make any distinction between pronouns and
determiners: they call both of them pronouns.
4.6.3 Personal pronouns
a subject form
I you he she it we they one
He was taking no chances.

Where shall we meet?
It happened to be my friend.
One has to think of the practical side of things.
Nowadays we hear the subject form of the personal pronoun in combinations with a name
after a preposition, where we would expect an object form:
It’s for Harry and I.

b object form
me her him us them

(NB You, it and one have no special object form.)
These forms are used as DO, DO*, IO, SC and after prepositions.
The nurse washed me with cold water. DO

The author takes us on a journey. DO
His pyjamas did not fit him. DO*
A man gave him a car. IO
It’s me again. SC
We were all sitting in a café with her. after preposition
His novels have many characters in them. after preposition
4.6.4 Self pronouns or reflexive pronouns
myself yourself himself herself itself oneself

ourselves yourselves themselves
Here’s the money; you can go and buy yourself some decent clothes now.
We ourselves have got to build our own strength.
4.6.5 Possessive pronouns + determiners
a possessive pronouns
They are used by themselves.
mine yours his hers ours yours theirs
Is / that coffee / yours or mine?/

It / was / his fault; (it / was /) not / theirs./
b used as determiners; as part of a noun phrase.
my your his her its our your their one’s
I / took off / my shoes./

They / turned / their attention / to other things./
She / read / all his letters./
4.6.6 Demonstrative pronouns + determiners
this that these those
a demonstrative pronouns
Could / you / just / hold / that?/

Who / ’s / this?/
They cannot pay essential bills, such as those for heating
I / like / this university./

Can / I / have / one of those brochures?/
4.6.7 Interrogative pronouns + determiners
a interrogative pronouns
who whose whom what which

What are you doing?
He looked at the car. ‘ Whose is it?
Whom are you looking for?
Which is yours?
whose what which
Do / you / know / whose fault it is?/

Which page / do / you / read / first?/
Note:
There is also a class of interrogative adverbs:
when why where how
4.6.8 Quantifier (or indefinite) pronouns + determiners
a quantifier pronouns
all another any both each either enough each few less little
many much more neither none other several some everybody no one etc.
The quantifier pronouns are the same as the determiners, except every and no, which cannot be used
by themselves. In addition words like everybody, anything and no one can be added to this word
class. They are used by themselves, and therefore pronouns (and not determiners).
Both were offered jobs immediately.
Ford and Duncan each had their chances.
I saw one girl whispering to another.
b used as determiners; as part of a noun phrase:
all another any both each either enough every few less little
many much more neither no other several some etc.
Both projects had been postponed.

Check if you’re in any doubt.
There were few doctors available.
4.6.9 Relative pronouns + determiners
a relative pronouns
who whom which what that
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, a type of dependent clause or subclause which functions
as a postmodifier in a noun phrase. The same words are also used as conjunctions.
The two girls whom I met in Edinburgh later came to visit us in Hilversum.
There was ice-cream that mum had made herself.
whose which
He spent the war years in France, during which time he was very unhappy.
There was a chap there whose name I’ve forgotten.

4.7 Conjunctions
Conjunctions (voegwoorden) link words, phrases (woordgroepen), or clauses (hoofd- of bijzinnen)
together.
a co-ordinating conjunctions
and but or nor
Co-ordinating conjunctions link words, phrases or clauses of the same rank.
Jack and Jill went up the hill.

Manfred behaved perfectly, but Gertrude had little idea of what he was thinking.
Father never smoked nor drank.
Visit your local dealer or phone for a brochure.
b subordinating conjunctions
when if although because whereas so as to just as etc. etc.
Subordinating conjunctions link clauses of unequal rank.
The house was called Elm View, although there were no elms in sight.
If he had had a gun, he would have killed the man.
When an atom is split, it releases neutrons.
Sam had consented to take an overcoat in case the wind rose.
It swims above the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
Nobody said anything, except that one of them asked me if I was better.
NB Note that subordinating conjunctions may consist of more than one word.
4.8 Prepositions
Prepositions are always followed by a noun phrase or an –ing-form.
Prepositions are words such as:
in of between at from with under for on as far as etc. etc.
He was practising high jumps in the garden.

Next to it is a different sign which says simply ‘Beware’.
They dived into the water.
She rushed out of the room.
He developed central chest pain during the night.
He worked as a truck driver.
He could keep in touch with me by writing letters.

My only idea was to prevent him from speaking.
Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether a word is an adverb or a preposition.
Cf Miss Archer fell off her chair in a swoon. preposition (followed by a noun phrase)
and The pain gradually wore off. adverb (No noun phrase required.)
4.9 Interjections
Interjections (tussenwerpsels) are words like:
Ah! Oh, Ouch, Dear, dear, Heavens! Ouch! Crickey! etc. etc.
They are generally followed by an exclamation mark or a comma.
4.10 The infinitive particle

The infinitive particle is used before the infinitive form of the verb.
to
To be or not to be that is the question.
4.11 Special cases: it, there
it can be a personal pronoun (1), empty it (2), introductory (= anticipatory) it (3).
1 I didn’t buy the book. It was too expensive. personal pronoun, referring to a noun
phrase or clause. (see: 4.6.1)
In analysis it functions as S, DO or IO
2 It is cold outside. empty it, it has no meaning, refers to

It is seven o’clock. weather or time.
In analysis it functions as subject (S).
3 It has been suggested that these things are related. introductory it, referring forward to a
It seems unlikely that they will join us. clause.
The public consider it improper that he is still in office.
We cannot get it across to him that it is difficult.
In analysis it functions as either as provisional S (I) or as provisional DO (II). We analyse thus:
it P SC S
I It / seems / unlikely / that they will join us./
S P it OC DO
II The public / consider / it / improper / that he is still in office./
there can be an adverb, an adjective, or introductory there.
1 My family still live in India. I go there all the time. (A) adverb
I must get home. Bill is there on his own. A
She looked up to find Tony standing there. (A)

In analysis there functions as (A) or A.
2 We had better take the advantage while it’s there. adjective (predicative), meaning
If the techniques are there, we should use them. ‘present’
In analysis there functions as SC.
3 There was a pause. introductory there referring forward

There have been problems in the past.
In analysis there functions as a provisional subject. We analyse thus:
there P S
There / seems / little doubt that he is right./
there P S A
There / have been / problems / in the past.
4.12 Word classes and meaning

Many words belong to more than one word class, depending on the meaning that they express or the
function that they have.
E.g. reply can be a noun and a verb
No reply. noun
We always reply when we are asked a question. verb (main, intransitive)
like can be a verb, a preposition, a conjunction, an adjective and a noun.
I like him. verb (main, monotransitive)

It was like old times. preposition
He felt like he’d won the pools. conjunction (subordinating)
Like offenders should be treated in similar fashion. adjective (attributive)
Like breeds like. noun (uncount)
The following words deserve some extra attention.
to can be a preposition or the infinitive particle.
I was going to St. Ives. preposition

To be or not to be that is the question. infinitive particle
that can be a demonstrative pronoun, a demonstrative determiner, a relative pronoun or a

conjunction.
Could you just hold that for a minute? demonstrative pronoun

Where did you buy that hat? demonstrative determiner
There was ice-cream that Mum had made herself. relative pronoun
I told him that nothing would happen. conjunction

Forms of be, do or have can be auxiliary or main verb
When you come across a form of be, do or have, you always have to decide whether they are, in that
particular sentence, If they are used with a main verb to form the predicate of a sentence, i.e. if you
cannot leave the other verb out, they are auxiliary verbs:
He was shot in the chest. was: auxiliary (shot: main verb)

Did it hurt? Did: auxiliary (hurt: main verb)
The settlers have left the bay forever. have: auxiliary (left: main verb)
But they also occur as main verbs:
This is my friend Sandy. link verb +SC

The iron was in her left hand. intransitive verb + A
We did quite a lot of work yesterday. mono-transitive verb + DO
I didn’t do very well in the exams. intransitive verb
We’re having a meeting. transitive verb* + DO*
We had no regrets at all. transitive verb* + DO*
Words that end in –ING or –ED can be a verb or an adjective.
You can tell whether a word ending in –ing or –ed is a verbal form or an adjective. When it is an
adjective, it is often gradable, i.e. you can use adverbs like quite, very, really with it, or you can put it
in the comparative or the superlative by using more or most.
It was very boring. adjective (predicative)

She was quite astonished. adjective (predicative)
He became even more depressed. adjective (predicative)
But: He was boring me. mono-transitive verb + DO

His story depressed us all. mono-transitive verb + DO
It is also an adjective when it qualifies a noun.
An amazing coincident occurred. adjective (attributive)

The people involved were expected to speak. adjective (attributive)
It is also an adjective (predicative) when it forms the SC or OC in a sentence.
The film was (very) boring. adjective (predicative)

It had me (quite) worried. adjective (predicative)

Chapter 5: Categories: Phrases and Clauses
Chapter 5 Categories: Phrases and Clauses

Your intuitive knowledge of the language tells you that certain constituents (building blocks, elements)
can be substituted for others without making a sentence ungrammatical (although the meaning may
change):
The child / found / the puppy./

The puppy / found / the child./
She / found / it./
These constituents that may be substituted for each other form syntactic categories. In the example
the child, the puppy, she and it belong to the category Noun Phrase (nominale constituent, nominale
woordgroep).
5.1 Five types of phrases

There are five types of phrases. Most phrases consist at least of a head (=the most important word),
all other parts of the phrase modify or determine this head. Phrases are called after their most
important or significant element.
5.1.1 Noun Phrase (NP)
Internal structure:
head
Noun Phrase: All the twenty very rich old ladies of our village
The head of a Noun Phrase is generally speaking a noun or a pronoun.
He was known to all as Eddy. He: noun phrase, head only.

John was shouting at the top of his voice. John: noun phrase, head only.
Her old man has run off with someone else. Her old man: noun phrase; man: head.
I’m sick of being piggy in the middle all the time. piggy in the middle: noun phrase; piggy: head.
The knights were looking for the Castle Invincible. the Castle Invincible: noun phrase;
Castle: head.
This is the new gas stove I bought last month. the new gas stove I bought last month: NP
gas stove: head.
Noun Phrases (NPs) are found as S, DO/DO*, IO, SC, OC, A, (A).
5.1.2 Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
Internal structure:
head
Adjective Phrase: far too fond of ice cream
The head of an Adjective Phrase is an adjective.
He made his father very happy. very happy: AdjP, happy: head
My house is much larger than yours. much larger than yours: AdjP, larger: head.
Adjective Phrases (AdjPs) are found as SC, OC.

5.1.3 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
Internal structure:
head
Adverb Phrase: much more carefully than I had expected
The head of an Adverb Phrase is an adverb.
Is there a fellow American hereabouts? hereabouts: AdvP; head only.

Robert answered briefly. briefly: AdvP; head only.
Fortunately such occurrences are very rare. Fortunately: AdvP; head only.
I’m sorry to bring up the subject of money yet again. yet again: AdvP, again: head
He drives faster than usually. faster than usually: AdvP, faster: head.
Adverb Phrases (AdvPs) are found as: (A), A.
5.1.4 Verb Phrase (VP)
Internal structure :
head
Verb Phrase: might have been warned
The head of a Verb Phrase is a main verb.
They left the house. left: verb phrase, head only

I am leaving Henry. am leaving: noun phrase, leaving: head.
He may have left because he was bored. may have left: VP, left: head.
She was going to leave her job. was going to leave: VP, leave: head.
Did they leave you? Did + leave: VP, leave: head.
Verb Phrases (VPs) are found as: P (predicate)
5.1.5 Prepositional Phrase (PrepP or PP)
Internal structure :
Prep
Prepositional Phrase: in the garden
The first word of a PrepP is always a preposition.
The whole play is performed in a formal style. in a formal style: PrepP, in: Prep.
There were long queues at all the bus stops. at all the bus stops: PrepP, at: Prep.
His pen flowed rapidly over the paper.
From what I can gather, this was a real freak accident.
They travelled by air.
On the other hand he was an awfully good rugby player.
Prepositional Phrases are found as: (A), A and occasionally as SC.

5.2 Phrases within Phrases
Please note: phrases can contain other phrases.
 This is an example of a phrase within a phrase.
PrepP
The whole play was performed in a formal style.
a formal style is of course also a NP.
 Another example:
NP
I am sick of being piggy in the middle all the time
in the middle: prepP
the middle: NP, middle: head.

5.3 Clauses
It is also possible that a sentence element is not realised by a phrase but by a clause, which is then a
dependent clause or subordinate clause (subclause) (Dutch: bijzin). All the elements discussed in
chapter 2, except the Predicate, can be realised by a clause. Such a clause is part of a main clause
(=superordinate clause). A sentence in which one of the elements is realised by a subclause is
called a complex sentence.
5.3.1 Complex sentences

A complex sentence can be recognised from the fact
a) that there is more than one main verb in it:
If you can thread a needle, you can mend a fuse.

I’m not guaranteeing that this will work.
Whether it can be done depends on your finances.
He sat still, hugging his knees.
She hated causing inconvenience.
Hitler’s aim was to impose his ideology by force.
A complex sentence can also be recognised from the fact

b) that it has more than one sentence pattern:
If you can thread a needle, you can mend a fuse.

you / can thread / a needle S P DO
you / can mend / a fuse S P DO
I’m not guaranteeing that this will work.

I’/ m not guaranteeing / something S P DO
this / will work SP
Whether it can be done depends on your finances.

it / depends on / your finances S P DO*
whether / it / can be done ASP
One of the patterns may be incomplete in that it lacks a Subject:

He sat still, hugging his knees.
He / sat / still SPA
hugging / his knees (s) P DO
She hated causing inconvenience.

She / hated / something S P DO
causing / inconvenience (s) P DO
Hitler’s aim was to impose his ideology by force.

Hitler’s aim / was / something S P SC
to impose / his ideology / by force (s) DO A

5.3.2 Markers of subordination
In order to decide which of the two (or more) clauses in a complex sentence is the main clause, and
which the dependent clause(s), you look for markers of subordination.
It is not by any means the first clause that is the main clause.
In general, subordination is marked; there may be
a) a subordinating conjunction:
although, if, until, except that, as soon as, when etc.
Although he was late (subclause), he stopped for a sandwich.

My legs cramped up, as soon as I sat down (subclause).
b) that or a wh-word:
who(se), which, that, when, how
He could prove that he had been in Cardiff on Saturday (subclause).

There was ice-cream that Mum had made herself (subclause).
When he had finished reading (subclause) he looked up.
I will tell you the first thing which I can remember (subclause).
However we add that up (subclause), it does not make a dozen.
c) inversion of the normal order of Subject and Predicate:
Had his theories been accepted (subclause), the world might have been a better place.
d) absence of finite form (persoonsvorm). This is the form that shows tense (present or past),
person and number (singular or plural).
S P DO
She / hated / causing inconvenience /(subclause).
S P SC A
Drinking alcohol (subclause) / is /a health hazard if carried to excess (subclause with 2
markers).
5.3.3. Three types of clauses
5.3.3.1 Finite clauses
A finite clause has a finite form in it: a form inflected according to person ( I you, the teacher), number
(singular or plural), tense (present or past).
Although I need more time, they want me to hand in my essay.

(finite form: need 1st person singular (sg), present tense)
He saw that she was tired.
(finite form: was 3rd person sg, past tense)
The point is that we are leaving.
I will give whoever will be first an extra bit of pizza.
When we meet I shall explain everything.
It will depend on what we decide.
He is in what he calls his garden.

5.3.3.2 Non-finite clauses, with or without expressed subject
a) infinitive clauses (with or without ‘to’)
The best thing to do would be to tell everybody.

All I did was hit him on the head.
The story made the sweat trickle down my spine.
For John to carry the parcels was exceptional.
To be honest, the prospects are not very good.
They had to be ready to act promptly.
b) -ing participle clauses
Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.

Father being absent left me with no one to turn to.
We get more shade, with the tree growing tall.
It was difficult getting lifts on the A1.
c) -ed participle clauses (third form)
John, told of his good fortune, went to Mexico.

Angered by the policies of the union, she wrote a letter to the General Secretary.
He proceeded to light his pipe. That done, he went out.
5.3.3.3 Verbless clauses, with or without expressed subject
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor.

When ripe, these apples will be delicious.
She marched up the slope, the blanket across her shoulder.
5.3.4 Functions of dependent clauses
Dependent clauses can function as:

S, For John to carry the parcels was exceptional.
DO, He could prove that he had been in Cardiff on Saturday
IO, I will give whoever will be first an extra bit of pizza.
SC, The point is that we are leaving.
OC, He called me whatever he thought of first.
(A), We get more shade, with the tree growing tall.
post modifier in a NP, There was ice-cream that Mum had made herself
post modifier in an AdjP, Her house is much larger than you think it is.
complement in a PrepP He is in what he calls his garden.
5.4 Clauses within Phrases

As we saw in 5.2. phrases may contain other phrases. Phrases may also contain clauses.
ice-cream that mum had made herself: Noun Phrase

ice-cream: head; that … herself: postmodifier.
that … herself: dependent clause
another body which has shown a longstanding interest in this development: NP

another: determiner; body: head; which … development: postmod.
which … development: dependent clause.
in what he calls his garden:PrepP

in: prep; what … garden: Cprep
what … garden: dependent clause
the bus carrying the freedom riders: NP

the: determiner; bus: head; carrying …riders: postmod.
carrying … riders: dependent clause
5.5 Summary of grammatical categories

Summing up we may say that the seven functions in the sentence are realised by grammatical
categories as follows:
Subject: Noun Phrase or Clause

Direct Object: Noun Phrase or Clause
Indirect Object: Noun Phrase or Clause
Subject Complement: Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, (Prep. Phrase) or Clause

Object Complement: Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase or Clause
Adverbial: Noun Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Prep. Phrase or Clause
Predicate: Verb Phrase

Coursebook Grammar 2007-2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Coursebook Grammar 2007-2008

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Coursebook Grammar 2007-2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Grammar

Educatieve Hogeschool van Amsterdam

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 2

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 4

Chapter 1: Introduction: Building blocks and terminology

1.1 Constituents and functions (Analysis)

1.1.2 Patterns for analysis

2 S P SC (main verb=link verb/copula)

These five basic patterns can be extended by using adverbials.

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 5

1.1.3. Phrases for analysis

1.2 Word classes (Parsing)

The furious dogs were barking.

1.3 Internal structure of words

dog/s, bark/ing, beauti/ful, table/cloth, un/kind

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 6

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 7

Chapter 2: The functions for analysis

Many classrooms have computers.

 In statements the subject precedes the verb;

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 8

Mary likes strawberries.

Five inches of snow had fallen.

The guerrillas blew up the restaurant. = blasted the restaurant

Mary likes ….. strawberries.

These sentences are analysed:

2.3 Adverbial = (A)

The characteristics of adverbials (A) are:

He greatly admired Monet.

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 10

The road leads …. nowhere.

An A is a special case of the adverbial. It cannot be left out. So it is an obligatory element in a

Some characteristics of the obligatory adverbial A

The road leads to the Houses of Parliament.

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 11

2.4 Direct Object = DO

The referee kicked the ball.

Active sentence with DO Corresponding passive sentence

Active sentence with DO Corresponding passive sentence

Some more examples:

We put the toys in a box.

2.4.1 Direct Object* = DO*

The direct object* is usually in the company of a main verb indicating

have become resemble contain

Examples of sentences that have no grammatically correct passive equivalent:

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 13

2.5 Indirect Object = IO

Some important characteristics of the indirect object are:

Active sentence with IO + DO Corresponding passive ‘sentences’.

She brought me an egg. I was brought an egg by her.

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 14

2.6 Subject Complement = SC

Her general knowledge is amazing.

The English link verbs are:

Note the difference:

Grammar coursebook 2007-2008 15

2.7 Object Complement = OC

The noise drove me … crazy.

You may consider this sort of information superfluous.