Resources, Conservation & Recycling 151 (2019) 104478

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

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Full length article

Benefits of coupled green and grey infrastructure systems: Evidence based T

on analytic hierarchy process and life cycle costing
⁎
Changqing Xua, Tang Tanga,b, Haifeng Jiaa, , Ming Xuc,d, Te Xua, Zijing Liua, Ying Longe,
Rongrong Zhanga
a
School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
b
Dept. of Municipal Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
c
School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1041, United States
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2125, United States
e
School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Green infrastructure complements grey infrastructure to provide effective urban stormwater management.
Analytic hierarchy process Design of coupled green and grey infrastructure systems need a systems-based analysis considering multiple
Life cycle costing criterion. This study used analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and life cycle costing (LCC) to evaluate environ-
Urban flood mental and economic benefits of various types of coupled green and grey infrastructure systems. AHP results
Green infrastructure
showed that, based on the local conditions and characteristics, the coupled green and grey scenario with green
Grey infrastructure
space, permeable pavement, green roof, and stormwater detention cell performed better than other scenarios in
urban residential drainage and flood control. Also for the coupled green and grey scenario, the simulation results
showed that no flooding was occurred during the ten-year return period rainfall. Coupled green and grey in-
frastructure scenarios can save the life cycle cost up to 94% compared to the traditional grey infrastructure
scenario considering the design, construction, operation, and maintenance stages. Approximately 13% of
commercial loan interest (1.03 million USD) can be saved for homebuyers. In future, urban designers and de-
velopers should consider the optimization of coupled green and gray infrastructures system under multiple
criterion for the environment, economy, and safety benefits.

1. Introduction as a useful water resource, has not been properly collected and utilized
in many cities. Innovative urban stormwater management strategies
Rapid urbanization has led to increasing impervious areas and thus have been developed to better address urban floods and water resource
changing natural hydrological processes (Baek et al., 2015). As urban reuse in urban residential areas.
area expands, urban floods happen more frequently, causing great New strategies for urban runoff control can be summarized as best
economic losses and adverse impacts on urban ecosystems. Urban in- management practices (BMPs) (Schueler, 1987; Clar et al., 2004), low
frastructure of drainage and flooding control in urban residential area impact development (LID) (Prince George's County, 1999a and 1999b),
which occupies approximately 25%–40% of urban construction cost sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS) (Martin et al., 2000; Martin,
(MOHURD, 2010) has become increasingly important to improve a 2001), and water sensitive urban design (WSUD) (Whelans et al., 1994;
city’s resilience against urban floods. Traditionally, grey infrastructure, Wong, 2007). These new strategies emphasize the use of green infra-
which are mainly composed of concrete and steel (thus the grey part of structure to protect, restore, or mimic the natural water cycle to ef-
the term) and installed as part of the urban drainage system (Dong fectively and efficiently improve community resilience and quality of
et al., 2017), played an important role in urban flood control. However, life (Allen, 2013). Despite their benefits, green infrastructure cannot
rapid urbanization and more frequent extreme storm events instigated replace grey infrastructures completely considering the safety during
by climate change make traditional grey infrastructure become less extreme storm events (Xu et al., 2019). In practice, green infrastructure
effective and efficient. At the same time, water scarcity has become should be used together with grey infrastructure. However, many stu-
increasingly severe in many cities around the world. Urban rainwater, dies just made economic cost comparisons rather than the multi-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Jia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104478
Received 19 April 2019; Received in revised form 1 September 2019; Accepted 2 September 2019
Available online 09 September 2019
0921-3449/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C. Xu, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 151 (2019) 104478

criterion comparisons in life cycle perspective. In addition, most re- Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of
search papers on the coupling of green infrastructure and grey infra- China (MOHURD), 2015), which are used as general principles for
structure are qualitative descriptions (Casal-Campos et al., 2015; De developing green infrastructure in China. These six criterion can be
Sousa et al., 2012; O’Sullivan et al., 2015). The evaluation of coupled classified into two categories, one for effectiveness evaluation (i.e.,
green and grey infrastructure system is a multi-objective and multi- volume capture ratio of annual rainfall (B1), urban heat island effect
criterion problem. Accordingly, a systems-based evaluation is needed to (B2), non-point source pollution control (B3), utilization ratio of rain-
understand the cost and benefit of coupled green and grey infra- water resource (B4), and urban flood prevention and control (B5)) and
structure systems. Moreover, the configuration of the coupled green and the other for cost evaluation (i.e., economic benefit of the whole process
grey infrastructure needs to be optimized under multiple criterion of (B6)). There are four scenarios at the last level including one baseline
the environment, economy, and safety. grey-only scenario (C1) and three coupled green and grey scenarios
At present, there are several models (e.g., Principal component (C2, C3, and C4).
analysis (PCA), linear weighting model, analytic hierarchy process After the hierarchy is established, comparative judgements are
(AHP)) that can be used to conduct multi criterion problems analysis. made to determine element priorities at each level. The comparison
PCA is a multiobjective approach that aims to provide useful decision matrices are constructed to prioritize comparative judgements into
support (Petroni and Braglia, 2000; Geng et al., 2017a). However, it ratio scale measurements. A nine-point scale is used to compare two
needs the knowledge of advanced statistical technique. Linear elements (Table 1). The pairwise comparison is used to compare the
weighting model can rate the problem based on several criterion and importance of two elements. Information of these elements and weights
finally combine these ratings into a single score (Nydick and Hill, are collected from interviews with decision-makers, experts, stake-
1992). But this method can not consider qualitative evaluation criterion holders, and local residents.
very effectively. AHP is a theory of measurement by using pairwise The matrix of relative rankings for the intermediate and last levels
comparison to derive priority scales based on the judgements of experts of the hierarchy is generated in the pair-wise comparison. After de-
(Saaty, 1987, 2000; Saaty, 2008). The application of AHP is worldwide, veloping matrices, the consistency ratio can be calculated by using Eq.
such as government, business, industry, and healthcare (Saaty and (1) and Eq. (2).
Peniwati, 2013; Han et al., 2014 and 2017; Geng et al., 2017b; and
CI= (λmax − n)/(n − 1) (1)
2018). AHP results can represent the decision preference of the stake-
holders (e.g., experts, decision-makers, local residence) for the current CR= CI/RI (2)
situation of the studied residential area. Accordingly, this study used
where CI is consistency index; λmax is the maximum eigenvalue for each
AHP to conduct the best scenario selection considering multiple cri-
matrix; n is the order of matrix; CR is the consistency ratio; and RI is
terion and then used life cycle costing (LCC) to evaluate and optimize
average random index.
the coupled green and grey infrastructure system.
The acceptable CR for 3 by 3, 4 by 4, and all large matrix is 0.05,
0.08, and 0.1, respectively (Cheng and Li, 2001; Haq and Kannan,
2. Methods and materials
2006). If the calculated CR is equal to, or less than the acceptable value,
it indicated that the comparative judgements showed in that matrix had
2.1. Methods
a good consistency level. If the calculated value of CR is larger than the
acceptable value, inconsistency of judgements of the matrix have oc-
2.1.1. Methodological framework
curred and the evaluation should be reconsidered (Haq and Kannan,
As shown in Fig. 1, a set of scenarios representing different con-
2006).
figuration of the coupled grey and green infrastructure in an urban
setting are first developed. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is then
2.1.3. Storm water management model (SWMM)
used to evaluate these scenarios to identify the best suitable scenario for
SWMM is used to simulate the flood control effect of different sce-
urban flood control in the study area. There are four scenarios pre-
narios. SWMM can effectively simulate the actual situation in the
sented. C1 is the baseline grey-only scenario, C2, C3 and C4 are coupled
drainage network. It is extensively used for water quality and quantity
green and grey scenario. C2 is the combination of optimized pipelines,
simulation, worldwide researchers have proved its functions and effects
green space, permeable pavement, green roof, and stormwater deten-
(Jia et al., 2012; Rossman, 2010). Details of the SWMM model config-
tion cell. C3 is the combination of optimized pipelines, permeable pa-
uration are presented in the case study description section below.
vement, grassed swale, bioretention, and buffer strip, C4 is the balanced
scenario, which is the combination of optimized pipelines and many
2.1.4. Life cycle costing (LCC)
types of green infrastructures. The SWMM model is used next to si-
The economic cost and benefit of the selected scenario is evaluated
mulate the flood control effect of the selected scenario (Rossman, 2010;
using the LCC method (Xu et al., 2017). LCC is based on life cycle as-
Jia et al., 2012) to compare with the baseline grey infrastructure-only
sessment but considered cost rather than the environmental impacts
scenario. If the selected scenario performs the same or better in flood
(Fig. 3). The economic cost and benefit analysis can be conducted from
control compared to the baseline scenario, economic cost and benefit
two perspectives, namely, for real estate developer and purchaser. The
are then evaluated using life-cycle costing (Xu et al., 2017).
design, construction, operation, and maintenance stages of coupled
green and grey systems are all included in the economic cost and
2.1.2. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
benefit analysis. The LCC in this study is calculated by using Eq. (3):
As mentioned before, AHP method was used to select the most
suitable scenario for the studied residential area because it can solve TB = B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 = A1 × W ′ × (S1 − S2) + (C1 + C2 − C3)
complex multi-objective and multi-criterion issues and has worldwide
+ (U1 − C4 ) + U2 × 30 (3)
applications (Saaty, 2000, 2008). The objective of the decision is at the
top level of the hierarchy. The criterion that contribute to the decision Where, TB is the total benefit, RMB; B1 is the design benefit, RMB; B2 is
is showed at the intermediate level. The solutions or decision alter- the construction benefit, RMB; B3 is the operation benefit, RMB; B4 is
natives are at the last level of the hierarchy (Haq and Kannan, 2006). the maintenance benefit, RMB; A1 is the construction area, m2; W ′ is the
In this study, three levels hierarchy are constructed (Fig. 2). The top total weight coefficient of green infrastructure; S1 is the financial sub-
level is urban residential drainage and flood control. The intermediate sidy for three-star level green building per square meter, RMB; S2 is the
level includes six criterion based on the Sponge City Construction design fee for three-star level green building per square meter, RMB; C1
Performance Evaluation and Assessment Indicators (Ministry of is the construction cost of green infrastructure, RMB; C2 is the

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Fig. 1. Methodological framework.

construction cost of adjusted grey infrastructure, RMB; C3 is the con- 2.2. Case study description
struction cost of original grey infrastructure, RMB; U1 is the saved water
utilization fee annually, RMB; C4 is the construction cost of stormwater A typical residential area in Nanjing city in China is selected as the
detention cell, RMB; U2 is the annual saved maintenance fee, RMB. case study (Fig. 4) mainly because residential area is the main type of
The cost of materials and labor associated with the construction, land use of the urban areas and Nanjing is the Jiangsu provincial pilot
operation, and maintenance stages are also included. The cost data of sponge city. The related data is easy to collect. The studied residential
design, construct ion, operation, and maintenance stages are collected area is in the axial end of sponge city pilot area and has complete
from construction contract and local government files. supporting facilities, convenient transportation, and landscape. In order
to promote energy conservation and environment protection, the MO-
HURD issued the Green Building Evaluation Standard in 2014

Fig. 2. AHP structural hierarchy.

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Table 1
Scale measurement between two elements.
i compare with j aij aji

Equally important 1 1
Slightly important 3 1/3
Obviously important 5 1/5
Highly important 7 1/7
Absolutely important 9 1/9

Note: 2, 4, 6, and 8 also can be used as indicators, importance among 1, 3, 5, 7,

and 9.

Fig. 3. LCC methodology flow chart.

(MOHURD, 2014b) to classify green buildings into four levels, namely,

the basic level, one-star level, two-star level, and three-star level. The
selected residential area plans to build a three-star level green building. Fig. 4. The location of studied residential area in China.
In the SWMM model, different return period rain intensity was set
based on Nanjing rainfall intensity formula. According to actual situa-
construction of green building during sponge city construction pro-
tion of drainage network, the studied area is divided into A, B parts, 300
gram. B4 is also a binding quantitative index, but it should base on the
sub-catchments, 465 sub-sink nodes, and 387 pipelines. The largest sub-
actual hydrological situation, water resource utilization rate and
catchment area is 1300 m2 and the average area of sub-catchments is
groundwater loss in different regions to set the water resource utiliza-
approximately 300∼500 m2 (Fig. 5). The layout of LID facilities for
tion rate standard, which has certain flexibility in actual implementa-
studied residential area is shown in Fig. 6. The area of green space (i.e.,
tion. B3 belongs to the quantitative index of water environment, which
red squares) occupies 100% of the sub-catchment. The area of perme-
is set as a combination of constraint and encouragement in the re-
able pavement and green roof (i.e., yellow squares) occupies 50% of the
quirements of the index. It is the recommended standard in the drai-
sub-catchment. The volume of stormwater detention cell (i.e., the white
nage and flood prevention of green buildings. B2 is only an encouraging
area) for A, B part is 250 m3 and 400 m3, respectively. The blue and red
quantitative standard for green building of Sponge City construction
slash represents the grey and green infrastructure related drainage area,
program. The economic benefit of the whole process (B6) should be
respectively. The SWMM used in this study has been calibrated and
considered during the urban residential drainage and flood control
proved by other projects (Xue et al., 2014; Cai et al., 2017).
process. The economic benefit of the whole process of the project is a
Hydrologic parameters setting are shown in Table 2. There are 13
binding qualitative index with a high degree of importance.
parameters needed by SWMM. The first five parameters can be obtained
Finally, based on the analysis above, the weighting setting of var-
from the geological report and actual measurement of the underlying
ious green building evaluation in the Green Building Evaluation Index
soil in the early stage of the project. The other nine parameters are
and Scheme (MOHURD, 2014b) and the discussion results from inter-
according to the established SWMM by previous projects in this area
views with decision-makers, experts, stakeholders, and local residents,
(Xue et al., 2014; Cai et al., 2017).
the pair-wise comparison results of six criteria are shown in Table 3.
Results showed that the importance order of different criterion is:
3. Results and discussion
B5 > B1 > B6 > B4 > B3 > B2. This result is then used to select suitable
scenario based on each criterion (Table 4).
3.1. Scenario comparison based on AHP
The overall rating of comprehensive evaluation results was pre-
sented in Table 4 according to the weighting importance of four sce-
As mentioned earlier, the AHP has three levels. Among the six cri-
narios for six criterion in the criterion layer (Table A.1 to Table A.6).
terion at the intermediate level, the first five (i.e., B1 to B5) are quan-
Results showed that the importance order of four scenarios is:
titative control indicators and B6 is set as a qualitative control index.
C2 > C4 > C3 > C1. Accordingly, the scenario that including green
Among the five quantitative control criterion, B1 and B5 are binding
space, permeable pavement, green roof, and stormwater detention cell
quantitative indexes, which must be strictly implemented in the

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Fig. 5. Sub-catchment and pipeline layout of the studied residential area.

can achieve good performance in urban residential drainage and flood rainfall volume used in this study was presented in Fig. 7.
control. The simulated results for different scenarios were presented in
AHP results represent the decision preference of the stakeholders Figure A.1 to A.3. For original grey scenario, simulated results showed
(e.g., experts, decision-makers, local residence) for the current situation that for the two-year and ten-year return period rainfall, no flooding
of the studied residential area. The AHP also can be applied to other occurred. But for the fifty-year return period rainfall, the waterlogging
areas to make complex decisions. But the representation of AHP may area is approximately 30%, it can’t cope with the fifty-year return
vary from different problems and people based on the complexity of the period rainfall effectively (Figure A.1). The results indicated that, in
problem. some extent, the original pipe size is large and not cost-effective. What’s
more, the original pipe size doesn’t meet the requirement for minimum
thickness of 0.7 m of roadway according to the code for design of
3.2. Urban flood control performance for different scenarios based on
outdoor wastewater engineering (MOHURD, 2006). Therefore, it is
SWMM
necessary to reduce the original pipe size.
The original and adjusted length of pipe diameters are listed in
As mentioned in section 2.1, there are four scenarios considered in
Table 5. The simulated results for the adjusted grey scenario showed
this study. According to the results of section 3.1, the coupled green and
that for the two-year return period rainfall, most pipes can perform
grey scenario C2 can achieve better performance than other coupled
well, no flooding was occurred. But for the ten-year return period
scenarios. Therefore, we simulated the original grey scenario, the ad-
rainfall, the number of standing water points increased. For the fifty-
justed grey scenario, and the selected coupled green and grey scenario
year return period rainfall, the standing water points and waterlogging
C2 using SWMM. The two-year, ten-year, and fifty-year return period
area is much larger than original grey scenario (Figure A.2). Besides,
rainfall was simulated for each scenario. The rainfall process and total

Fig. 6. Layout of the LID facilities for studied residential area.

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Table 2
Parameters needed by SWMM.
Number Parameters Physical meaning Parameters setting

1 Area Catchment area According to sub-catchment division

2 Width Width of catchment area diffuse flow According to sub-catchment division
3 % Slope Slope of catchment area 0.5
4 % Imperv Impervious rate of catchment area 90
5 N-Imperv Manning coefficient of impervious area 0.015
6 N-Perv Manning coefficient of pervious area 0.4
7 Dstore-Imperv Water depth of impervious area 0.05
8 Dstore-Perv Water depth of pervious area 0.05
9 Conduit Length Length of pipe According to the distance of each rainwater well
10 Conduit Roughness Manning coefficient of pipe 0.013
11 MaxRate Maximum infiltration coefficient 3.0(mm/hr)
12 MinRate Minimum infiltration coefficient 0.5(mm/hr)
13 Decay Infiltration decay rate 4(1/hr)

the duration of many standing water points exceeded 30 min, and the Table 4
depth of standing water points could exceed 40 cm. The requirements of Overall rating of urban residential drainage flood control technology.
the code for design of outdoor wastewater engineering (MOHURD, Evaluation B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 Overall rating of
2006) for duration and depth of water is within 30 min and less than indicators comprehensive
15 cm, respectively. Although the adjusted pipe size can meet the re- evaluation
quirement for minimum thickness of 0.7 m of roadway, the simulated
Weight 0.244 0.028 0.120 0.124 0.274 0.209 –
results showed that they don’t perform well for the ten-year return C1 0.047 0.045 0.042 0.043 0.502 0.074 0.176
period rainfall. C2 0.425 0.254 0.246 0.385 0.214 0.297 0.309
The simulated results of the selected coupled green and grey sce- C3 0.168 0.386 0.457 0.198 0.121 0.419 0.252
nario showed that for the two-year and ten-year return period rainfall, C4 0.360 0.314 0.255 0.374 0.163 0.210 0.263

no flooding was occurred (Figure A.3). Besides, the duration of standing

CI = 0.017, RI = 0.900, CR = CI/RI = 0.019 < 0.1, the evaluation is accep-
water points was less than 30 min and the depth of standing water point
table.
was less than 15 cm, which can meet the requirement of code for design
of outdoor wastewater engineering (MOHURD, 2006). The simulated
results for fifty-year return period rainfall are also much better than the W1’ = 0.8 × 0.21 = 0.168
other two scenarios. The results also indicate that coupled green and
W3’ = 0.8 × 0.20 = 0.16
grey scenario can improve stormwater management and have positive
effect in restoring ecosystem services. W4’ = 0.8 × 0.4134 × 0.17 = 0.056

Where, W’ is the total weight coefficient of green infrastructure, W1’ is

3.3. Life cycle cost-benefit analysis based on LCC the green infrastructure weight coefficient of land conservation and
outdoor environment. W3’ is the green infrastructure weight coefficient
3.3.1. Economic benefit for real estate developer of water conservation and utilization. W4’ is the green infrastructure
There are five indicators for green building’s evaluation, namely, weight coefficient of material conservation and utilization, the saving
land conservation and outdoor environment, energy conservation and rate of rain pipe material is 41%.
utilization, water conservation and utilization, material conservation
and utilization, and indoor environment quality. The weight coefficient
3.3.1.1. Economic benefit of design stage. According to the notification
of these indexes are listed in Table 6.
issued by Ministry of Finance in 2014, the financial subsidy for three-
In this study, some green infrastructure was implemented in the
star level green building is 80 RMB per square meter (MOF, 2016). The
residential area, such as green space, permeable pavement, green roof,
design fee of Nanjing residential area is 20 RMB per square meter.
and stormwater detention cell. Based on the function division of the
Based on the above-mentioned total weight coefficient of green
green building evaluation index system, the implementation of green
infrastructure and the overall floorage of the studied area, the total
infrastructure in residential areas can play an important role in land
government financial subsidy can be calculated by Eq. (4).
conservation and outdoor environment, water conservation and utili-
zation, and material conservation and utilization. Accordingly, the total P= A× W'× S (4)
weight of green infrastructure can be calculated using Eq. (3) and the
Where, P is the total government financial subsidy, RMB; A is the
value is 0.384.
overall floorage of the studied area, m2; S is the financial subsidy for
W’=W1’+W3’+W4’ (3) three-star level green building per square meter, RMB.

Table 3
Pair-wise comparison matrix and relative weights of each criterion.
Urban residential drainage flood control B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 Relative Weight

Volume capture ratio of annual rainfall (B1) 1 9 2 2 1/2 2 0.244

Urban heat island effect(B2) 1/9 1 1/4 1/5 1/9 1/7 0.028
Non-point source pollution control(B3) 1/2 4 1 1 1/2 1/2 0.120
Utilization ratio of rainwater resource(B4) 1/2 5 1 1 1/2 1/2 0.124
Prevention and control of floods in urban rainstorms(B5) 2 9 2 2 1 1 0.274
Economic benefit of the whole process(B6) 1/2 7 2 2 1 1 0.209

λmax = 6.137 , CI = 0.027, RI = 1.24, CR = CI/RI = 0.022 < 0.1, the evaluation is acceptable.

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Fig. 7. Rainfall process for the two-year, ten-year, and fifty-year return period rainfall.

After calculation, the total financial subsidy of three-star level re- reduced construction time is 4.08 days and it also can save 4 days of
sidential building is 7.06 million RMB. The total design fee is 4.60 financial cost.
million RMB. So the economic benefit of the design stage is 2.46 million The construction cost of implementing green infrastructure is pre-
RMB. sented in Table 9. The price of each green infrastructure is based on
To achieve twin-win situation, the real estate developer should Sponge City Construction Technical Guide issued by MOHURD in 2014
make cooperation with design company in successful application of (MOHURD, 2014a). Total construction area of each green infrastructure
three-star level green building. Real estate developer can use the gov- is statistics from SWMM. After calculation, the final cost of im-
ernment financial subsidy to compensate for the design cost of green plementing green infrastructure is 1.7 million RMB.
infrastructure to reasonably guide the design companies to realize the Combined with these two aspects, the total cost of original pipe is
green building design goals. 1.27 million RMB. The total cost of pipe size adjustment and im-
plementation of green infrastructure is 2.66 million RMB. The results
3.3.1.2. Economic benefit of construction stage. Based on the simulated showed that implementation of green infrastructure can increase the
results of SWMM, the studied residential area can implement green construction cost. Thus, the cost department of real estate development
space, permeable pavement, green roof and reduce pipe size to meet the company will adopt the method of enlarging the diameter of drainage
requirement of Code for Design of Outdoor Wastewater Engineering pipe instead of adopting green infrastructure to meet the requirements
(MOHURD, 2006) for the ten-year return period rainfall. Accordingly, of drainage and flood control standard. However, through the whole
the economic cost-benefit analysis of the construction stage can be life cycle cost of the project (i.e., design, construction, operation,
mainly calculated from the cost of pipe size reduction and maintenance and use), the implementation of green infrastructure can
implementation of green infrastructure. bring economic benefit. Accordingly, all stages should be taken into
There are four aspects for pipe size adjustment cost, namely, pipe consideration to make comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the
material cost, pipe laying cost, pipe shaping cost, and excavation and whole project.
backfilling cost. The detailed cost is listed in Table 7. The total cost of
original and pipe size adjustment is 1.27 and 0.96 million RMB, re- 3.3.1.3. Economic benefit of operation and maintenance stage. The
spectively. The pipe size adjustment can save 24% of the original total economic benefit of operation and maintenance stages can be
pipe cost. evaluated through the comprehensive utilization of rainwater and
The pipe size adjustment not only generates economic benefit, but pipe clean and maintenance. Based on the empirical calculation of
also reduces the construction time. Table 8 shows the construction time housing households, people in the residential area, and the standard for
analysis of pipe size with and without green infrastructure. Results in- water-saving design of civil buildings (MOHURD, 2010), the
dicate that after implementing green infrastructure, the reduced fixed stormwater detention cell, 650 m3, was built. According to the unit
construction time is 375.58 man-days (Jiangsu Provincial Department price provided by Sponge City Construction Technical Guide
of Housing and Urban Rural Construction, 2014). The total construction (MOHURD, 2014a), the total construction cost is 0.65 million RMB.
area is 229,953 m2 and artificial invest is 92 persons. So the final According to the standard for water-saving design of civil buildings

Table 5
Length of different pipe diameters of original and adjusted scenarios.
Rain pipe size and length (Original grey scenario) Diameter (mm) DN300 DN400 DN600 DN1000 Total

Length (m) 2231.88 408.73 448.59 102.98 3192.18

Rain pipe size and length (Adjusted grey scenario) Diameter (mm) DN200 DN300 DN400 DN1000 Total
Length (m) 2195.39 427.73 511.58 57.48 3192.18

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Table 6
Weight of green building evaluation index.
Green building Land conservation and outdoor Energy conservation and Water conservation and Material conservation and Indoor environment
evaluation indicator environment (W1) utilization(W2) utilization (W3) utilization(W4) quality (W5)

Residential Building 0.21 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.18

Table 7 reducing the pipe size. The annual saved maintenance fee after im-
The economic cost comparison of reducing pipe size. plementing green infrastructure is 1143.09 RMB/yr.
Process Without Green With Green
Since the annual comprehensive utilization of rainwater and pipe
infrastructure (RMB) infrastructure (RMB) network clean and maintenance occur in each year of the community’s
service stage and paid by residents every year, the net present value
Pipe material cost 576,505 338,188 (NPV) must be used to compare the construction cost of stormwater
Pipe laying cost 49,251 37,254
Pipe shaping cost 296,457 257,948
detention cell. The internal rate of return is 2.75%, which is based on
Excavation and 344,752 326,940 the five-year fixed deposit interest rate of the central bank. The main-
backfilling cost tenance years of stormwater detention cell should consider the rea-
Total 1,266,965 960,330 sonable number of years of drainage pipe network use in residential
areas. In this study, based on the current longest mortgage loan years,
the maintenance years of stormwater detention cell are set as 30 years.
(MOHURD, 2010) and the climatic, economic, and water utilization The total economic benefit generated from utilization of rainwater
habits of Nanjing, three types of water utilization (i.e., grass irrigation, and pipe network clean and maintenance is 766,300 RMB, the con-
street washing, and landscape filling water) are selected to calculate the struction cost of stormwater detention cell is 650,000 RMB. After im-
total water consumption (Table 10). Based on the green space area, plementing the green infrastructure, the final economic benefit during
road area, landscape volume, and the daily water consumption, the the operation and maintenance stage is 116,300 RMB.
total annual water consumption is 13,430.68 m3.
The total amount of annual rainwater that be comprehensively
utilized needs to be summarized through the hydrology, soil condition, 3.3.2. Economic benefit for purchaser
and implementation of green infrastructure. The total amount was According to the Nanjing Municipal Housing Provident Fund
calculated by Eq. (5). Management Regulations (The Nanjing government, 2013), the housing
provident fund loan quota standard for people who buy three-stat level
W= 10 × ΨC × h y × F (5) green building can increase 20%. The original housing provident fund
loan quota standard is 600,000 RMB and now it can be reached to
Where, W is the designed rainwater runoff volume (m3); Ψc is the 720,000 RMB. The studied area has 1618 households and the average
rainwater runoff coefficient, different runoff coefficient underlying area of each household is 110.63 m2. In Nanjing, the average rate of
surfaces is presented in Table 11; hy is the designed rainfall thickness housing provident fund loan is approximately 44%. As mentioned in
(mm), the designed rainfall thickness of Nanjing city is 1116 mm; F is section 3.3.1.1, LID weight coefficient of green building evaluation
the catchment area (hm2). After calculation, the annual rainfall that be indicator is 0.384. Accordingly, the increased amount of housing pro-
collected in this studied area was 31,056.34 m3. vident fund loan is 32.8 million RMB.
The reused rainwater volume was calculated by Eq. (6). In China, two types of loan methods were applied, commercial loan
and housing provident fund loan. The commercial loan rate is 4.9% and
W’=W × α × β = 31,056.34 × 0.85 × 0.87 = 22,966.16 m3/yr (6)
the housing provident fund loan interest is 3.25%. The comparison of
Where, α is seasonal reduction factor, 0.85; β is initial runoff rejection commercial loan and housing provident fund loan is presented in
coefficient, 0.87. The total collected rainwater volume that can be re- Table 12. The increased amount of housing provident fund loan can
used is 22,966.16 m3/yr. save loan interests for homebuyers. Assuming the loan period is 20
Accordingly, combined with the total annual water consumption, years, the payment method is equality corpus and interest. The loan
the annual saving amounts of water is 13,430.68 m3. The residential interest for commercial loan and housing provident fund loan is 18.72
water price of Nanjing is laddered water price and the first-step water million RMB and 11.85 million RMB, respectively. The total saving loan
price is 3.1 RMB/m3. The operation cost of rainwater comprehensive interests for homebuyers is about 6.87 million RMB.
utilization system is 0.37 RMB/m3. This means the cost of reuse of 1 m3 The policy of increasing the housing provident fund loan can ef-
rainwater is 2.73 RMB. So after implementing Green infrastructure, the fectively alleviate the problem of insufficient funds for the advance
annual saving water fee is 36,665.76 RMB. The pipe maintenance (e.g., payment of some newly purchased houses, stimulates the sales of green
pipe cleaning and flushing) also generates economic benefit after buildings and improves the economic benefits of the whole project.

Table 8
The construction time analysis of pipe size with and without Green infrastructurea.
Pipe diameter Pipe length Unit Fixed construction time (Man-day)

Without Green infrastructure With Green infrastructure Pipe shaping Pipe laying Excavation and backfilling

DN200 – 21.95 100 m 35.672 8.292 85.1

DN300 22.32 4.28 100 m 10.536 89.1
DN400 4.09 5.12 100 m 12.389 93.2
DN600 4.49 – 100 m 60.953 20.831 101.3
DN1000 1.03 0.57 100 m 137.489 28.913 117.5
Total (without Green infrastructure) – – – 1357.39 409.15 2944.96
Total (with Green infrastructure) – – – 1196.69 307.02 2832.21

a
Jiangsu Provincial Department of Housing and Urban Rural Construction, 2014.

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C. Xu, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 151 (2019) 104478

Table 9
The construction cost of Green infrastructure.
Green infrastructure Unit Quantity Price (RMB/ m2)a Cost (RMB) Total cost (RMB)

2
Green space m 16,300 45 733.500 1,709,250
Permeable pavement m2 4775 130 620,750
Green roof m2 1775 200 355,000

a
MOHURD, 2014. Sponge City Construction Technical Guide.

Table 10
Annual water consumption of the studied area.
Type of water utilization Quantity of utilization Water consumption Average daily water consumption Annual water consumption Utilization frequency
estimation (m3/d) (m3/yr)

Grass irrigation 24051.33 m2 0.5 m3/m2.a 100.21 12025.67 120 days/yr

Street washing 26707.24 m2 0.5 l/ m2.each time 13.35 400.61 30 times/yr
Landscape filling water 74.38 m3 – 3.72 1004.40 270 days/yr
Total – – 117.28 13,430.68 –

Table 11 infrastructure can save 94% compared with original grey scenario.
Rainwater collection of different catchment types of studied area. • For purchasers, the economic benefit can generate from saving ap-
Catchment type Catchment Underlying Rainwater Rainwater
proximately 13% of commercial loan interest (6.87 million RMB).
area (m3) surface type runoff runoff volume
coefficient (m3/yr) In future sponge city management, multiple decision factors and
conditions should be considered, such as environmental effects, eco-
Building roof 13122.87 Rigid roof 0.90 13180.12
nomic effects, social benefit, ecological benefit and so on, to provide
Rigid material 12329.76 Rigid road 0.90 12383.55
Permeable 4775.00 Rigid paving 0.37 1971.69 comprehensive information. From systematic perspective, road, square,
pavement parking lot, and green space are also important composition in the city’s
Green space 16,300.00 Green space 0.15 2728.62 land use. In future research, different land use should be taken into
Green roof 1775.00 Water surface 0.40 792.36
consideration. Urban residential drainage and flood control is only part
Annual rainwater runoff volume 31,056.34
of urban flood control, a holistic analysis from watershed level should
be considered to obtain a whole optimization in the future.
Results showed that economic benefit generated from coupled green We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for
and grey scenario was noticeable. Therefore, to obtain the win-win si- the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct commu-
tuation, cooperation should be made between: nications with the office). He is responsible for communicating with the
other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final ap-
• The local government and real estate developer; proval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct
• The real estate developer, construction, and design companies; email address which is accessible by the Corresponding Author and
• The real estate developer, homebuyers, and property management which has been configured to accept email from ([email protected])
company.
Declaration of Competing Interest
4. Conclusions and suggestions
We confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated
This study made a comprehensive analysis of coupled green and with this publication.
grey infrastructure system for urban stormwater runoff control. The We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for
coupled green and grey infrastructures can improve stormwater man- the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct commu-
agement, restore ecosystem services, and generate economic benefit. nications with the office). He is responsible for communicating with the
The main conclusions can be drawn as follow: other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final ap-
proval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct
• The scenario that including green space, permeable pavement, green email address which is accessible by the Corresponding Author and
roof, and stormwater detention cell can achieve better performance which has been configured to accept email from ([email protected])
in urban residential drainage and flood control than other scenarios.
• In the coupled green and grey scenario, no flood was occurred
Acknowledgement
during the ten-year return period rainfall.
• For real estate developers, the economic benefit can generate
This work was supported by the National Water Pollution Control
through the whole life cycle of the project. The total cost of green
and Treatment Science and Technology Major Project of China (Grant

Table 12
Comparison of commercial loan and housing provident fund loan.
Loan type Loan Amount (ten Length of maturity Mode of repayment Loan rate Cumulative amount of payment Loan interest (ten
thousand yuan) (Year) (%) (ten thousand yuan) thousand yuan)

Commercial Loan 3280.53 20 Equality corpus and 4.9 5152.62 1872.09

Housing provident fund 3280.53 20 interest 3.25 4465.69 1185.16
Loan

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C. Xu, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 151 (2019) 104478

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Foundation of China (Grant No. 51778319 and 41890823), and Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. CIRIA Report No. CR086A, London, United
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