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GEOMAGNETISM
Solid Earth and
Upper Atmosphere Perspectives
GEOMAGNETISM
Solid Earth and
Upper Atmosphere Perspectives
By
Nathani Basavaiah
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism
Navi Mumbai, India
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-94-007-0402-2 (HB)

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Printed in India.
FOREWORD
During the last century, science has taken enormous strides and tremendously
impacted every segment of society. Over the years, there has been a welcome
explosion of knowledge. However, this knowledge is increasingly becoming
over-specialized, more complex and subtle. To be well-informed and to keep
abreast with the present fast-paced scientific develop-ments, students, academics
and technological fraternity need to constantly educate themselves on a wide
variety of scientific phenomena. This book on geomagnetism is a step in that
direction.
Geomagnetism is a relatively old stream of science but at present only a
very few universities have it in their curriculum as a distinctly separate subject.
Not surprisingly, research on geomagnetism is carried out today by only a few
scientific organizations. Due to lack of exposure to this specialized area of
study, paucity of relevant reading material is keenly felt by students and
researchers alike to gain knowledge and carry out studies in the modern scientific
field of geomagnetism. Most of the available literature on this subject is limited
to research articles, which alone cannot provide the necessary background
knowledge on the techniques and interpretative skills to the beginner. Thus,
students and teachers globally find it difficult to ‘identify’ with the ‘setting’ in
which the international scientists carry out their research activity and the data
obtained on geomagnetic studies. The present book attempts to fill this gap.
Anyone who has used a magnetic compass utilizes at least one geomagnetic
element, the declination, although the person may not be aware of it.
Geomagnetism affects every individual in a myriad of ways and so the major
aim of this book is to explain the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of it. The author guides the
readers lucidly through the intricate maze of the world of geomagnetism as the
tale of its progression is told in a fascinatingly interesting manner. The
development of any scientific stream is never along one linear path. A lot of
tributaries and sub-tributaries join together quite imperceptibly and seamlessly
to take the form of a giant ‘mainstream’. Geomagnetism too is not an exception
in this regard. Right from the rudimentary declination measurements to the
sophisticated ones carried out far off in space, the author takes the readers
through its evolution. The processes of geomagnetism touch us all in one form
vi Foreword
or the other, and it should be of great interest to all. Hence it is a welcome

addition to the literature on geomagnetism.
The book is unique in another way. It addresses many important applications
of the techniques of geomagnetism, which is quite invaluable. To explain recent
occurrences of the strong earthquakes world-wide, delineation of conductive
bodies substantially adds authenticity and reliability to the overall research
output in this field. It also deals with the interesting geophysical features relating
to hotspot traces, conductive blocks beneath the Earth, the continental collision
and subduction zones, the climatic vagaries discerned through magnetic mineral
changes, ancient migratory path of the various subcontinents traced through
changing position of apparent magnetic poles in space and time, the crustal
deformations revealed by global positioning system (GPS), and the real-time
monitoring of magnetic field by magnetic observatories, all of which makes
reading this book a truly enlightening experience.
Thus, the book is meant for both teachers and students who have long
been starved of good quality geoscientific literature incorporating holistic
examples from their own regions. The students in particular have long been
faced with difficulty of finding the right up-to-date material in a consolidated
manner at one place to carry out geomagnetic studies employing the scintillating
examples from their own cultural and geotectonic settings. This book amply
bridges that gap and, hopefully, stimulates the minds of scientists and the
teachers alike to take up geomagnetic studies.
It is also our firm belief that non-specialists also will gain some seminal
‘insights’ into the subject from this book. The book will actually prove more
useful to those research scholars actively pursuing advance research in
geophysics in university departments, institutes of higher learning and other
centres of excellence. It will also benefit scientists and technologists engaged
in geophysical research, and development of specialized applications at the
leading professional organizations in the country and abroad. The author,
Nathani Basavaiah, deserves to be complimented for his commendable effort
in bringing out such a textbook on geomagnetism.
Prof. Erwin Appel

University of Tübingen
72076 Tübingen, Germany
Dr. S.K. Arora
Ex-Head, Seismology Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai, India
PREFACE
The need to write this book on ‘geomagnetism’ stems from the fact that the
book caters to the needs of specialists and students alike. The present effort is
an attempt to combine the interests of both these segments by bringing forth a
book that includes most of the fascinating phases in the evolution of
geomagnetism and also highlights the practical applications that this stream
offers to the geoscientific community at large.
The world of geomagnetism encompasses within it many strands of
scientific thought that have applications in the realm of solid Earth and upper
atmosphere. The progression of solid Earth geomagnetism (SEG) and upper
atmosphere magnetic studies (UAS) were not coeval. The different streams
that now apparently appear as part of the grand ‘geomagnetic’ thought were, at
some point of time, isolated and segregated with their own unique qualities.
The journey that these seemingly diverse branches went through and the
conditions that forced them to coalesce and fuse with each other present an
interesting scenario. An attempt has been made to catch a few remarkable and
defining moments from the historical evolution of geomagnetism in a
scintillating manner.
The contents of the book cover two broad aspects of geomagnetism:
evolution and development, and research and practical applications. The first
aspect is dealt within Chapters 1 to 4, which are dedicated to capturing the
essence, evolution and rise of the science of geomagnetism. The second aspect
of the book reflected through Chapters 5 to 8 deals mainly with research
activities in the field from different parts of the world, which have a practical
bearing on the academic and technological expectations. Any attempt to compile
the results embedded in a large number of research papers published by all the
scientists would not only be a herculean task but might even prove futile. This
book tries to conceptualize the subject by taking examples from some selected,
yet important, research findings relevant to the context that are seamlessly
knitted together.
Geomagnetic research, like any other branch of research in a scientific
discipline, has an academic as well as a practical dimension. Purely academic
investigations, more often than not, provide an impetus to the practical
applicability. In this sense as well, the field of geomagnetism is no different.
viii Preface
Extensive geomagnetic studies have been carried out generating large amount
of data through a network of magnetic and other geophysical observatories
spread across the world. The significance of this achievement constantly
enhances the database and knowledge in this field of specialization since
geomagnetic observations are not actually static but often changing from time
to time.
The scientific and technological fraternity, be it researchers or teachers, is
confronted today with lack of adequate study material in a consolidated single
volume. This book has essentially initiated efforts to present as many geotectonic
features from the subcontinents as possible. It provides in-depth coverage to
research carried out using modern instrumentation and techniques such as
magnetotellurics (MT), geomagnetic deep sounding (GDS), ocean bottom
magnetometers (OBM), global positioning system (GPS), tectonomagnetic,
palaeomagnetic and environmental magnetic studies. Studies in the area of the
solid Earth geomagnetism have described many tectonic and environmental
regimes across South Asia in general and the Indian subcontinent in particular.
There is not a single investigation of geological or geomagnetic relevance where
surveys or probes have not been launched using geomagnetic techniques.
It may appear from this book, quite erroneously though, that only SEG
research is being carried out in India. This is not at all true. A few tomes have
already been published, authored and edited by Indian scientists, chronicling
the exploits of observatory and data analysis (ODA) and UAS studies. This
textbook is a humble attempt to accord SEG its rightful place in the pantheon
of geomagnetism studies.
Electromagnetic studies taken up world-wide recently have already been
proved useful beyond expectations. The results obtained in the rugged terrains
in northwest and northeast parts of the Himalayas have been very encouraging
in particular. It is proved beyond doubt that geomagnetics can be gainfully
employed to decipher and understand past climatic and environmental changes.
The selected bibliography provided at the end of the book is not only
exhaustive, but truly reflective of the sequential and progressive developments
in the field of modern geomagnetism. Since this field is fast emerging, the
students and teachers are required to keep abreast of the latest trends and
advances.
My innate desire is also to reach out to those who have an urge to acquire
knowledge about the natural processes that define this Cosmos. Instead of just
loading with geomagnetic concepts indiscriminately and leaving the readers to
fend for themselves through a labyrinth of geomagnetic jargons, an attempt is
made to guide them systematically by an extended tour of geomagnetic
evolution. This, it is hoped, will help them to understand how the different
concepts in geomagnetism developed over time and made the subject to gain
an exalted status it now occupies in the realm of science.
While bringing out the book, special care has been taken to address the
demands and requirements of the teachers and students and, at the same time,
Preface ix
satisfy the needs of those who are actively engaged in research and advanced
studies in geophysics. Above all, the book serves as a ready reckoner for the
scientists working in leading geophysical research institutes and academic
institutions. I earnestly hope that the book would satisfy the geoscientific
curiosity of both specialists and non-specialists alike in the subjects of
geophysics, physics and geology.
I wish to gratefully acknowledge the help and assistance rendered to me
by some eminent geophysicists in quintessentially consolidating the material
that has eventually led to the production of this book. Amongst them are G.S.
Lakhina, G.K. Rangarajan, R. Rajaram, B.P. Singh, Erwin Appel, S.K. Arora,
K. Nageswara Rao and G. Karunakar. I also enjoyed substantial support from
P.B. Gawali, K. Deenadayalan and staff members of three major divisions
(ODA, SEG and UAS) of IIG. All figures and diagrams were redone and
improved by Ramesh Borwanker.
November, 2010 Nathani Basavaiah

CONTENTS
Foreword v
Preface vii
Abbreviations xv
1. The Historical Development of (Geo)Magnetism 1

1.1 Global Scene 1
1.2 Fundamental Similarity between Electricity and Magnetism 10
1.3 Historical Perspective: National Scene against Global
Backdrop 14
1.4 Geomagnetic Field Elements and Their Measurements 16
2. Internal Magnetic Field 24
2.1 Interior of the Earth and Physical Properties 25
2.2 Earth Structure and Its Major Divisions 31
2.3 Magnetism in Matter and Magnetic Properties 37
2.4 Curie and Neel Temperature 42
2.5 Rock Forming Magnetic Minerals and Rock Magnetism 43
2.6 Hysteresis Loop 58
2.7 Magnetic Materials, Domain States and Grain Sizes 59
2.8 Genesis of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Its Dynamo Effect 66
2.9 Wegener and Continental Drift 69
2.10 Palaeomagnetism: An Indirect Measurement of Past
Geomagnetic Field 71
2.11 Mechanism of Magnetic Banding 76
2.12 Plate Tectonics and Seismotectonics 79
3. Magnetic Field that Extends into Space 87
3.1 Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere: Traditional View 89
3.2 Structure of the Sun: Association of Sunspots with
Terrestrial Phenomena 94
3.3 Structure of Magnetosphere 105
3.4 Sources of Electric Fields 107
3.5 Radio Waves: Scintillation 110
xii Contents
4. Technique of Magnetic Measurements 115

4.1 Magnetometery for Geomagnetic Observatories 117
4.2 Magnetic Survey Instruments: Fluxgate and
Induction Magnetometers 125
4.3 Laboratory Magnetic Instruments 131
5. Magnetic Observatories and Data Analysis 142
5.1 Measurement and Data 146
5.2 Geomagnetism and Secular Variation 150
5.3 Causes of Geomagnetic Field Variation: External Origin 154
5.4 Equatorial Enhancement and Geomagnetic Field Variations 159
5.5 Geomagnetic Storms and the Magnetosphere 167
6. Solid Earth Geomagnetism 174
6.1 Geopotential Field Anomaly Studies 177
6.2 Satellite Measurements of Earth’s Gravity Field 179
6.3 Satellite Measurements of the Earth’s Magnetic Field 187
6.4 Air-borne Magnetic Surveys 199
6.5 National Ground Magnetic Surveys 208
6.6 Ground Magnetic Surveys 210
6.7 Electromagnetic (EM) Induction Methods 222
6.8 Basic Method of EM Induction 223
6.9 Geomagnetic Depth Sounding (GDS) 226
6.10 Methodology, Objectives of GDS Technique 226
6.11 Acquisition, Analysis and Presentation of GDS Data 227
6.12 Data Processing Techniques 228
6.13 GDS Field Surveys 230
6.14 Magnetic Variation Mapping Examples 231
6.15 Ocean Bottom Magnetometer Studies 235
6.16 OBM Field Examples 235
6.17 Magnetotelluric Surveys 236
6.18 Methodology, Data Acquisition and Time Series Processing 237
6.19 Principle of MT Method and Its Utility 241
6.20 Applications of MT in Geophysical Prospecting 242
6.21 Earthquakes: Causatives and Measurements 249
6.22 Major Earthquakes of the World and India 252
6.23 Himalayan Tectonics and Its Effect on Peninsula 254
6.24 Seismic Zonation Maps and Seimic Hazards 259
6.25 Geophysical Studies in Seismically Active Regions 261
6.26 Co-Seismic Investigations—Magnetic and Electrical
Rock Properties 264
6.27 Predicting Earthquakes 265
6.28 Earthquake Precursory Changes 266
6.29 Earthquake Precursory Case Histories 268
Contents xiii
6.30 Palaeosiesmology: Quasi-Empirical Earthquake

Prediction Technique 274
6.31 GPS Measurements and Geodynamics 277
6.32 Observational Procedure 279
6.33 Methodology, Data Acquisition and Analysis 280
6.34 GPS: Repeat Campaigns, Permanent Sites and
Case Studies 282
7. Experimental Geomagnetism 291
7.1 Palaeomagnetism and Geomagnetic Field in Geological Past 292
7.2 Palaeolatitude, Pole Position, Apparent Polar Wander Path 304
7.3 Magnetochronology 309
7.4 Implications of Palaeomagnetic Results 316
7.5 Environmental Geomagnetism 321
7.6 Environmental Geomagnetism vs. Palaeomagnetism 322
7.7 Environmental Magnetism: Objectives and Evolution 323
7.8 Primary Magnetic Measurements—Magnetic Properties 334
7.9 Secondary Magnetic Parameters: Interparametric Ratios 348
7.10 Magnetic Studies, Complex Issues 351
7.11 Environmental Magnetism—Its Application to the
Indian Depositional Settings 354
7.12 Magnetic Susceptibility and Depositional Environments 356
7.13 Magnetomineralogical S-ratio and Palaeoclimate in
Sediments 373
7.14 Future Studies 376
8. Upper Atmosphere Studies 387
8.1 Space Weather Effects 398
8.2 Ionospheric Electrodynamics: Short Period Fluctuations 406
8.3 Equatorial-Latitude Electrodynamical Coupling and
Atmospheric Structure 414
8.4 Antarctic Magnetic Data 419
9. Usefulness of Geomagnetic Research 423
9.1 Observatories and Data Analysis 424
9.2 Solid Earth Geomagnetism 427
9.3 Upper Atmospheric Studies 437
10. Perspective 449
10.1 Solid Earth Geomagnetism 452
10.2 Current Trends/Geomagnetism 458
Select Bibliography 460

Index 477
ABBREVIATIONS
AF Alternating Field
AFMAG Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
AMOs Automatic Magnetic Observatories
AMPTE Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers
AMS Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility
AMT Audio-Frequency Magnetotellurics
APW Apparent Polar Wander
APWP Apparent Polar Wander Path
ARM Anhysteretic Remanent Magnetization
BEXT External Magnetic Field
BMZ Balance Magnetique Zero
CA Crack-Avalanche
Cal Yrs BP Calibrated Years Before Present
CEJ Counter Electrojet
ChRM Characteristic Remanent Magnetization
CMB Core Mantle Boundary
D Declination
DC Direct Current
DCC Deep Crustal Conductor
DD Dilatancy-Diffusion
DIM D and I Magnetometer
DoD Department of Defence
DRM Detrital Remanent Magnetization
DST Department of Science and Technology
EEJ Equatorial Electrojet
EGO Eastern Ghats Orogeny
EM Electromagnetic
EMF Earth’s Magnetic Field
EPS Equivalent Point Source
ESF Equatorial Spread F
EUV Extreme Ultraviolet
F Total Field
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
xvi Abbreviations
GDS Geomagnetic Depth Sounding

GGT Granite Greenstone Terrain
GIC Geomagnetically Induced Current
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPS Global Positioning System
GPTS Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale
GSI Geological Survey of India
HCL Mantle High Conductivity Layer
HGPG Horizontal Gradient Pseudogravity
I Inclination
ICM Induction Coil Magnetometer
IEEY International Equatorial Electrojet Year
IGRF International Geomagnetic Reference Field
IGY International Geophysical Year
IIG Indian Institute of Geomagnetism
IMD Indian Meteorological Department
IMF Interplanetary Magnetic Field
IMO Inter Magnet Observatory
IMS International Magnetic Study
IOL Indian Ocean Low
IRM Isothermal Remanent Magnetization
IRSL Infrared Stimulated Luminescence
ISEE International Sun-Earth Explorer
IST Indian Standard Time
ITS Indo-Tsangpo Suture
LGM Last Glacial Maximum
LIA Last Ice Age
LLBL Low-Latitude Boundary Layer
LTO Low Temperature Oxidation
M Magnitude (Earthquake)
Ma Million Years
MAGSAT Magnetic Field Satellite
MBT Main Boundary Thrust
MCT Main Central Thrust
MD Multi Domain
MF Medium Frequencies
MHD Magnetohydrodynamics
MM Modified Mercalli Scale
MO Magnetic Observatory
MPS Magnetic Polarity Scale
MPTS Magnetic Polarity Time Scale
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MST Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere
MT Magnetotelluric
Abbreviations xvii
N Normal Polarity
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NRM Natural Remanent Magnetization
NSL Narmada-Sone Lineament
OBE Ocean Bottom Electrometer
OBM Ocean Bottom Magnetometer
PCBL Polar Cap Boundary Layer
PDRM Post Depositional Remanent Magnetization
POGO Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory
PPM Proton Precession Magnetometer
PR Partial Radar
PREM Preliminary Reference Earth Model
PRR Partial Reflection Radar
PSD Pseudo-Single Domain
QHM Quartz Horizontal Magnetometer
R Reversed Polarity
Re Earth’s Radius
RIS Reservoir Induced Seismicity
RM Remanent Magnetization
RS Richter Scale
RT Room Temperature
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SC Sudden Commencement
SCR Stable Continental Region
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
SEP Solar Energetic Particle
SGT Southern Granulite Terrain
SIGT South Indian Granulite Terrain
SIOCA South Indian Offshore Conductivity Anomaly
SIRM Saturation Isothermal Remanent Magnetization
SOI Survey of India
SP Superparamagnetic
SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device
SSC Storm Sudden Commencement
SSD Stable Single Domain
Tb Unblocking Temperature
TC Curie Temperature
TEC Total Electron Counts
TEM Transmission Electron Microscope
THC Trans-Himalayan Conductor
TRM Thermoremanent Magnetization
TV Verwey Transition
xviii Abbreviations
UFK Ultra Fast Kelvin

ULF Ultra-Low Frequency
VGP Virtual Geomagnetic Pole
VHF Very High Frequency
VLBI Very Long Baseline Interferometry
VPPM Vector Proton Precession Magnetometer
VRM Viscous Remanent Magnetization
WDC World Data Center
YD Younger Dryas
The Historical Development of (Geo)Magnetism 1
1
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
(GEO)MAGNETISM
1.1 GLOBAL SCENE

Magnetism and gravity are two fundamental properties of the Earth and are
innate to our planet’s existence. But, the discovery of magnetism was not as
dramatic as that of gravity. By deciphering the reason responsible for the fall
of an apple, Newton opened the gates to understanding many of the basic
principles governing the Universe. The circumstances leading to understanding
of magnetism, and in essence geomagnetism, however, were slow and gradual.
A naturally occurring magnet attracts objects of iron. This knowledge was
prevalent in the ancients, although it cannot be claimed with certainty that
everybody was aware about this property. However, many myths and legends
are associated with magnetism. According to one legend, the magnet was first
discovered by a Cretan shepherd, Magnes, while he was tending to his flock.
The iron nails on his sandals and iron tip of his staff got attracted to the Earth
and after some digging he discovered a rock that stuck to his sandals. This was
the natural magnet or lodestone, which is now known as iron ore or magnetite
(Fig.1.1b). The ancient Greeks knew for certain about the lodestone and since
such rocks were found near the city of Magnesia, the term magnetism must
have originated. Magnesia is in Asia Minor in Turkey.
The history of magnetism started with the Greeks, but in the earliest phases
it is more intimately connected with the Chinese. The Chinese were the first to
crack the code of directional property of a freely suspended magnet that aligns
itself in N-S direction. Here too, many myths and legends abound. One story,
out of many, tells us that in 2634 BC there was a Chinese emperor who had a
chariot fitted with a revolving figure of a man with one of its arms always
pointing towards the north (Fig. 1.1a). This enabled the emperor to defeat his
enemy by manoeuvering his way even out of a dense fog—the ancient equivalent
2 Geomagnetism
Figure 1.1. (a) The chariot of Chinese Emperor with a figure that always pointed north
(Jacobs, v1, 1987). (b) A natural magnetic lodestone in the hall of Gems of the
Smithsonian Museum, USA.
of the modern smokescreen. However, the firm footing on which the Chinese
understanding of direction was placed can be gauged from the ancient walls of
Beijing (Peking). These walls are aligned along magnetic N-S indicating the
use of compass by masons, who built those walls.
The historical account, however, starts from the year 1000 BC. It was
around this year that an anonymous Chinese scholar is supposed to have placed
a lodestone on a boat floating into a bowl of water, and whatever its original
position, it always turned south. This phenomenon was seen every time and at
all places the experiment was performed. The Chinese also knew of the art of
permanently magnetizing steel needles by rubbing the needle point with a
lodestone.
The knowledge of magnetism and its association with the direction-
specifying property was transmitted from China to Europe via the Arab world,
possibly through trade links. The compass was then basically a pathfinder utility,
hence became an integral part of long voyage ships. However, the phenomenon
of magnetism and the reasons for the same remained shrouded in mystery. The
users hadn’t a clue to why compass needles pointed to a particular direction
because of which the crew members were forbidden to eat garlic. They believed
the pungent odour destroyed the magnetic power of a compass! The great sea
voyages of Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan
were made possible by the discovery of compass, aside from other factors.
I. Problem of Latitude and Longitude

Columbus sailed across the Atlantic ocean in 1492 in search of a ‘short-cut’
and on a voyage of exploration to the Indies. Indies in those days included
India, China, the East Indies and Japan or in general any region east of the
Indus river. However, during this voyage he did not reach, where he had intended
to go but landed in what is now known as the West Indies or the Caribbean
islands. Navigation in those days, the fifteenth century, was not as smooth and
infallible as it is today. Global positioning system (GPS) does not allow us to
‘get lost’. GPS has now made redundant the compass, maps, charts, astrolabes
(ancient astronomical instruments), hourglasses and such other objects that
were available as navigational tools to the ancient mariners and land travellers.
The urge to go far beyond into the horizon, away from the sight of land,
necessitated the mariners of the olden days to find a way to determine their
location resulting into the development of pilotage and dead reckoning. Pilotage
is a method whereby known landmarks are used to determine one’s position.
In dead reckoning, on the other hand, a mariner recorded his course and speed
every hour or every day to enable him to make a guess about his location. For
this method to be of use and effective, it was necessary that the mariners never
lost sight of land. Also dead reckoning could not be used at night time.
But things changed with the advent of a method designating latitude and
longitude. Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) calculated the circumference of Earth
and Hipparchus (160-125 BC) invented trigonometry and used it to calculate
latitude and longitude with the help of north pole star, also called the polaris.
The polaris is so high above the surface of the Earth that all sight lines to the
star are essentially parallel. Hipparchus used this logic to determine the angle
between the horizontal surface of the Earth and the polaris, which gave the
precise degree of latitude. Thus, if the polaris was exactly on top of the observer,
then that observer was at the north pole, i.e. at 90°N. If the angle to the polaris
was zero, then the observer was at the equator at 0°. However, this method had
some inherent shortcomings—the polaris cannot be sighted in a haze, bright
lights of Moon can obscure it, and it is not visible from the southern hemisphere.
To circumvent these problems, the ancients decided to use the Sun, although
it too had its share of lacunae. To determine the latitude, the angle to the Sun
had to be taken at noon when the Sun was at zenith. But the Sun is not a fixed
star (relative to Earth) and also because of the tilt of the Earth, the angle to the
Sun at noon is different for each day. Thus, this method, though accurate, was
a bit complicated. Improvements in deciphering latitudinal position in an easier
way were made possible by the Arabs sometime between 810 and 850 AD
when they developed algebra and used the system to establish the accurate
position of Sun at zenith. The problem of quantification of latitude was
permanently solved after 850 AD with the development of astrolabe, though
later on there have been many developments in the art of knowing the positions
(Fig. 1.2).
The problem of longitude was solved after a very long time. The world
had to wait till 1761 because there were two very significant hurdles to cross.
One was geographical and the other was the lack of an accurate timepiece.
Latitude is measured with respect to equator. The latitude at equator is zero
and it keeps on increasing toward either of the poles where it becomes 90°. For
quantifying longitude, there wasn’t any agreed reference line. The zero
meridians were different for different sets of people. Ptolemy placed zero
4 Geomagnetism
Figure 1.2. Based on the properties of changes in magnetic field, the world is
divided into different latitude zones like the equatorial, mid-latitude or auroral zone
(Regan et al., 1975).
meridian off the west coast of Africa, while Christian scholars placed it at
Jerusalem as they considered it to be the centre of the world. In later ages, the
zero meridian was calculated from Paris, Berlin, London, etc. It was only in
1884 that Greenwich, south of London was chosen as the zero (or prime)
meridian for all subsequent calculations for according uniformity in maps and
charts.
The ancient mariners had different methods to calculate longitude. They
knew that Earth was divided into 360° of longitude and Eratosthenes had already
calculated the circumference of the Earth to be 25,000 miles. Thus, if two
points spaced far away observe the same event at the same time, then the
difference in local time at the instant of that event can be converted into
longitude. For this, they needed an accurate timepiece. John Harrison, an
unschooled church clockmaker, put together the first marine chronometer in
1761.
II. Magnetic Compass—Declination and Inclination

At this juncture, it needs to ponder on why Columbus ‘discovered’ the West
Indies and not India as was his stated purpose. His inability to reach India
brings us face to face with one of Earth’s (geo)magnetic elements, the
‘declination (D)’.
The discovery of magnetic compass is over 1000 years old. A magnetic

compass needle always aligns itself in the N-S direction and points in the
direction of magnetic north. By orientation of the magnetic needle, a person
can tell E or W relative to N or S. But like many matters of life that are beset
with duality, direction too has its share of duality. There are two norths (or
souths or easts or wests). The first is the geographic north, defined with respect
to a celestial body like the Sun or pole star or planets. The other is the magnetic
north. Thus, there is geographic (considered fixed) as well as magnetic north,
which is variable. The angle between the two is the declination (Fig. 1.3a, b).
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3. (a) The angle ‘D’ is declination. It is considered positive when measured
‘east’ of the geographic north and negative when ‘west’. Angle ‘I’ is the inclination.
(b) Viewed from the surface of the Earth, this is how D and I will ‘look’ (Robinson, 1982).
Declination varies from place to place. It ranges over several degrees

depending upon whether the angle measured is E or W of geographic north.
Declination is considered positive when the angle measured is east of the true
north and negative when west. In India, D ranges from -2° to +3°. The earliest
record of D comes from Columbus, who in 1492 noted its change. This magnetic
property is of immense use to trading ships and to adventurous seafarers, the
knowledge of which keeps them on ‘track’.
The first reference of magnetic needles mounted on pivots allowing free
rotation in a horizontal direction came from Alexander Neckam in 1187. The
design of such a compass was also referred to in a letter written in 1269 by
Petrus Peregrinus. The Europeans, like Chinese, knew that steel needles could
be permanently magnetized by rubbing it with a lodestone. Their traditional
way of making a compass was to take a steel needle, mount it on a pivot,
balance it horizontally and then magnetize it by stroking with a lodestone.
However, at the end of this entire ritual, they observed a strange thing. Right
after magnetizing the needle its north pointing end slanted down, as if it had
6 Geomagnetism
suddenly gained weight and buckled under

pressure just like a seesaw. This strange
behaviour was first noted and recognized by
George Hartmann in 1544.
However, for many, this was a practical
nuisance and to maintain balance, the end was
cut-off or a counter weight attached at the other
end (the same is done even now). The
phenomenon of ‘slanting needle’ was explained
by Norman in 1580-81. He measured I with
the ‘dip circle’ that he invented (Fig. 1.4). The
second (geo)magnetic element, the dip or I is
the angle between the magnetic north and the
total magnetic force (Fig. 1.3a). The north
seeking end of the needle will slant upward
when the measurements are carried southward
of the equator.
For a long period of time people knew only
about declination and inclination. Out of the Figure 1.4. Robert Norman’s
two, D had higher utility value and it acquired dip-circle (Jacobs, v1, 1987).
an aura of indispensability in all navigational
practices. Inclination, on the other hand, was considered a bit of nuisance on
account of its ‘dip’ though it had its fleeting moments of glory by way of being
used as a surrogate for magnetic latitude. However, on account of inclination
measurements being more difficult and complicated, and also the idea of
magnetic latitude taking a back seat, the I-measurements attracted scant attention
from the mariners. Nevertheless, during the great sea voyages of exploration
and conquest, unleashed by the English, Dutch, French, Spanish and Portuguese
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, mention of both D and I in their
navigational log books can be found, though the bias is clearly in favour of
declination.
III. Advent of William Gilbert

The above was the first phase that saw the seeds of geomagnetism been sown,
inadvertently, by the seafarers and people like Norman. The second and the
most decisive phase started with Gilbert. He was (probably) born in 1544 and
became a distinguished doctor. He was the president of the Royal College of
Physicians and was appointed physician to Queen Elizabeth I in 1601. By
1581, he became intensely fascinated by the phenomenon of magnetism and
started collecting its information from books and all other available sources.
He conducted his own experiments and much of what is now known about
permanent magnetism was either enunciated or confirmed by him, though he
is primarily remembered for asserting that Earth is a giant magnet which he
announced to the world in his book ‘De Magnete’ published in the year 1600.
To arrive at this assertion, Gilbert

conducted a simple experiment (he also
used Norman’s observations). He
constructed a small replica of the Earth, a
magnetized sphere, and named it terrella
(Fig. 1.5), meaning ‘little Earth’. He then
placed a compass around the sphere and
observed not just the northward pointing
properties but also the dip angle.
Gilbert experimentally concluded that
declination would be absent if the Earth
were a perfect sphere because the magnetic
as well as the geomagnetic norths would Figure 1.5. The ‘Sphere of influence’
of Gilbert. Note the compass needle
then coincide. But, the Earth is not a perfect
is vertical at the poles and horizontal
sphere. It has large irregularities on its at the equator (Stern, 2002).
surface. There are steep elevations
(mountains) and deep depressions (oceans). Gilbert attributed magnetic
attraction to the mass of Earth. Hence, he proposed that the elevated portions
added to the pull while the depression decreased it. He asserted that the compass
needle near the eastern and western edges of the Atlantic ocean would be
deflected towards the nearby continents. This indeed was observed at the time.
Gilbert had already verified the effect on his terrella on which he had cut a
gash to resemble the Atlantic ocean. However, Gilbert erred on one count. He
felt that the continents and oceans do not shift over the historical timescales
(the theory of continental drift came much later) and so magnetic D would not
change with time.
IV. Ordeal of Edmund Halley and Atlantic Declination Map

The advancement of science has necessarily been one of learning from others’
mistakes. Gilbert was convinced of ‘perpetual immutability’ of declination. In
1634, however, Henry Gellibrand showed that the magnetic D observed near
London had undergone certain changes. Later on, these changes were observed
not just at London but also all over the globe without exhibiting a clear-cut
pattern baffling the savants. Halley, the one who predicted the return of Halley’s
comet, proposed the solution that the interior of the Earth consisted of concentric
spherical shells each magnetized differently and that some rotated at different
rate from others.
Halley does not have just the honour of a comet named after him, but is
also known for the ‘Halleyan lines’. He compiled the first magnetic map of the
Atlantic in 1700. In this map, the points of equal D are connected together by
contour lines which came to be known as ‘Halleyan lines’ (Fig. 1.6a).
The longitude problem solved by Harrison and his accurate clock and
Halley’s plans to fix position more accurately by using the departures of
magnetic north from geographic north were getting attracted by new and talented
8
Geomagnetism
a)
Figure 1.6. (a) Halley’s map of declination, prepared in 1701, for the Atlantic (Jacobs, v1, 1987). (b) The declination map or the Halleyan lines
for India. (c) India’s magnetic chart of inclination angle I (IGRF11 model calculated for 2010).
minds to comprehend and decipher this geomagnetic phenomenon theoretically

as well as experimentally. One such person was George Graham. In 1722, he
showed that the direction of the magnetic force in London underwent a 24
hour cycle, called diurnal variation. He gauged this change by careful
observation of position of the tip of a compass needle. This phenomenon was
barely observable and to make it easily noticeable advanced instruments were
set to be designed (details in Chapter 4 on instrumentation). Euler in 1757
used magnetic angle D to propose a theory for the EMF based on a dipole
approximation. He, however, revised his theory in 1766 that enabled him with
the help of polynomial expansion to calculate the D at any place on the Earth
by using small number of observations.
V. Geomagnetic Field Intensity

To better understand EMF, it is not enough to have information about angles D
and I alone, but the field intensity is also of immense importance. It was known
that D and I changed from place to place. But doubts lingered about the true
nature of intensity and whether it changed spatially. Hansteen could lay his
hands on some observations of the total intensity obtained by Rossel, who
participated in the 1791-1794 circumnavigation of the globe that showed the
intensity increased towards the poles and away from the equator. There are
also reports of scattered and sparse intensity observations even prior to Rossel’s
expedition. However, all these measurements were of relative magnetic
intensity. It was Gauss who invented a method in 1832 for the determination
of H-component intensity. The first measurements of the total field intensity
(F) were obtained by timing the oscillations of a vertical dip needle disturbed
Figure 1.7. (a) Drawing of the magnetic dip needle used by Rossel (Lilley and Day,
1993). (b) India’s magnetic chart of total field intensity F (IGRF11 model calculated
for 2010).
10 Geomagnetism
from rest at different places on the globe (Fig. 1.7a). The total field intensity
values based on IGRF2010 model over Indian region are shown in Fig. 1.7b.
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL SIMILARITY BETWEEN

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
The next phase of development was a turning point in the history of
geomagnetism that opened floodgates to the fundamental understanding of the
Universe that linked magnetism to electricity and vice versa. The year 1820 is
of extreme importance.
At this stage, however, we have been deliberately quiet on the events that
took place between 1722 (Graham’s discovery of diurnal variation) and 1820.
During this period, a lot of developments did indeed occur. But, they all
pertained to development of instruments (Chapter 4). To put point across, one
event is picked from the timeframe between 1722 and 1820, which is
inextricably associated with magnetism and electricity. Coulomb designed in
1777 an instrument known as ‘torsion balance’ (see Fig. 4.2). With this
instrument, he showed that the magnetic repulsion between magnetic poles as
also their attraction varied inversely with the square of the distance. At around
1785, he got the same relation with electric forces as well. Newton had earlier
demonstrated that gravity adheres to the inverse law. The savants, capable of
discerning signs of nature, almost instantly recognized the symmetry and the
harmony among three of the nature’s most fundamental forces – gravity,
electricity and magnetism. But, there is only one point of difference with respect
to gravity. Gravity always attracts, it never repels like magnetism or electricity.
To know the whys and hows of these phenomena, the works of three great
scientists – Oersted, Ampere and Faraday need to be combined.
I. Serendipity of Hans Christian Oersted

In hindsight, Faraday seemed to be attracted to magnetism primarily because
of the observation Oersted made in 1820 of an electric current flowing in a
wire deflecting a nearby compass. Oersted gave a lecture to his friends and
students on electricity and magnetism in the spring of 1820. While performing
the demonstration, Oersted noticed a strange thing. He saw that whenever the
metallic wire was connected to the battery and a current flowed, the nearby
magnetic needle moved. When the current stopped, the magnetic needle moved
back to its original position. Oersted performed this experiment many times
over to understand the cause of deflection.
The more he thought about it, the more was he excited and the more was
he puzzled! He could see that whenever the current was passed, the magnetic
needle tried to turn at right angles to the electric current. But he could not tell
the reason. However, this was the first unambiguous and verifiable evidence
connecting electricity and magnetism. Oersted announced these results to the
world in a four-page report written in Latin on 21 July 1820.
II. Andre Marie Ampere Solves the Puzzle

The fallout of Oersted’s announcement was that it reached out to a wider cross
section of populace, and the experiment being simple, was repeated by many.
Rive confirmed Oersted’s results. A report of Oersted’s magnificent discovery
and the subsequent confirmation by Rive found its way to Paris. On 11 Sept
1820, the report was discussed at a meeting where Ampere was present. He
went through the contents tooth and nail and ruminated over it. What followed
was astounding because he solved the puzzle within a week. Ampere conducted
a series of elegant experiments that proved the basic ingredient of magnetism
to be the electric current and that magnetism could exist even without permanent
magnets.
Ampere published his famous treatise on magnetism and electricity in 1823
and gave an explanation for this phenomenon. He declared that magnetism in
a permanent magnet was due to molecular electricity.
III. Genius of Michael Faraday

In 1822, Faraday made the following entry in his notebook ‘convert magnetism
into electricity’ in response to Oersted’s experimental outcome.
He reasoned that if electricity can generate magnetism, then magnetism
should also be able to produce electricity, which he demonstrated by expounding
the principle of electric induction. But before looking into the experiment that
converted magnetism into electricity, let us first go back again to 1820. Faraday
had performed a simple experiment, first described by Peregrinus. The
experiment involves sprinkling of iron filings on a piece of paper held over
and above a magnet. When the paper is tapped gently the shaken filings tend to
line up along arcs from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet. Faraday
named these arcs as the ‘magnetic lines of force’ that formed a ‘magnetic field’.
The incisive nature of Faraday’s insight can be gauged from his understanding
Figure 1.8. Faraday made visible the magnetic lines of force.

12 Geomagnetism
of the magnetic lines of force and the magnetic field. Although Gilbert had
already shown on his ‘terrella’ that D and I displayed a certain ‘direction’, it
was Faraday who made visible the complete picture by connecting those
directions with continuous lines (Fig. 1.8).
IV. Faraday’s Experiment

The knowledge of ‘lines of force’ is absolutely necessary to understand
Faraday’s experiment. On 17 Oct 1831, Faraday found a solution to converting
magnetism to electricity. This is how: Faraday took a cardboard cylinder and
wound around it a copper wire of 220 ft length. He also wound a twine (strong
thread or cord) and placed calico cloth between the layers. He then connected
the ends of the copper wire to a galvanometer. Faraday then thrust a bar magnet
into the cylinder. At that instant, the galvanometer showed the presence of an
electric current. He then pulled the magnet out. This time again the galvanometer
moved, but in opposite direction (Fig. 1.9). Thus, Faraday showed for the first
time that electric current could be produced with magnetism alone.
Figure 1.9. Faraday showed with this simple experiment that electricity
could be produced with magnetism alone.
But this plain and simple experiment was used by Faraday to demonstrate
the phenomenon to the lay and uninitiated audience. The actual experiment,
where he got the ‘enlightenment’ and also involved a subtle thought process,
was both simple and complicated. That particular experiment during which
Faraday deciphered and decoded the relationship was performed thus: Faraday
wound a coil of copper wire round one segment of an iron ring. He then again
wound another coil of copper wire round another segment of the ring. Then he
connected the first coil to a battery.
Faraday had proceeded ahead with the present experiment on an assumption
and reasoning that when he sent a current through the first coil, it would create
magnetic lines of force concentrated in the iron ring. This induced magnetism
would then produce a current in the second coil. To detect that current, he
connected the second coil to a galvanometer. But the experiment did not go
according to his expectation. The flow of current in the first coil did not influence
the second coil. But Faraday had made a very significant observation. He noticed
that when he turned on the current, the galvanometer needle kicked over briefly.
And when he switched off the current the galvanometer needle again kicked.
But this time it did in the opposite direction. Faraday guessed in an instant that
it was the movement of magnetic lines of force across that wire that set up the
current. It was not the magnetism per se that was responsible for generating
electricity. When the current begins to flow in the first coil, it initiates a magnetic
field. This magnetic field spreads out and in the process cuts across the second
coil creating a momentary electric
current. Conversely, when the current
from the battery is cut off, the
collapsing lines of magnetic force
again cut across the wire of the second
coil causing the electricity to flow, but
in the opposite direction (Fig. 1.10).
With the discovery of the
principle of electrical induction,
Faraday was able not only to create
the first ‘transformer’ but led directly
to the creation of dynamo (generators
of today) for producing electricity. It
also led to Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory and comes in handy to
understand the generation of EMF.
Faraday described his discovery of Figure 1.10. The original magnetic ‘spark’
electrical induction before the royal apparatus. Faraday produced a spark when
society of London in Nov 1831. the handles pulled the coiled wire sharply
away from the magnet (Hamilton, 1991).
V. Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell was a great admirer of Faraday and knew that Faraday had no
mathematical background, although blessed with great intuition and marvellous
insight. So, Maxwell, a great mathematician himself, set about in 1864 to supply
mathematical analysis for Faraday’s concept of lines of force.
This endeavour yielded Maxwell a set of four fundamental equations most
commonly referred to as Maxwell’s equations/laws (Appendix 6.1). The
equations describe the nature of static and moving electrical and magnetic
charges and the interrelationship that exists between them. They further suggest
that electricity and magnetism are inseparable. If there is an electric field, there
has to be a magnetic field at right angles to it. He found out that the magnetic
and electric fields were a package of a single ‘electromagnetic field’ and also
found that a changing electric field induced a changing magnetic field, which
in turn induced a changing electric field and so on by virtue of which they
flowed out together progressing outwards in all directions. Maxwell thus
predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation, possessing the properties
of a waveform. This theoretical idea helped Marconi to invent radio (Chapter
14 Geomagnetism
3). Thus, the modern electromagnetic theory rests heavily on the work of
Maxwell.
VI. Contributions of Humboldt, Gauss and Weber

Another set of scientists who have done yeomen service to the development of
geomagnetism are Humboldt and Gauss. Gauss was also inspired by the work
of Oersted and Ampere and was immensely impressed by their stupendous
achievements. In 1828, Gauss attended a conference in Berlin and stayed as a
guest with Humboldt. He was interested in magnetism and had great many
collection of magnetic instruments, which he showed to Gauss and implored
him to take up studying magnetism.
Gauss readily set about this task with his young assistant Weber who
between them contributed a lot in understanding the EMF, through designing
instruments and by formulating a mathematical method called the spherical
harmonic analysis to represent the global magnetic field of the Earth. This
method combines the magnetic observations at a number of diverse locations
to describe the field to any desired accuracy and showed for the first time that
~90% of the total magnetic field was caused by sources inside the Earth. This
led to the urge to conduct surveys on a global scale resulting in establishing
permanent observatories all around the world. Gauss and Weber inspired by
Humboldt’s persuasion took the lead in setting up a chain of observatories by
forming the ‘Gottingen magnetic union’ (Goettingen magnetischer verein),
GMU, in 1834, which gives us a chance to introduce the Indian stream of
geomagnetic thought that joined the international mainstream.
1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: NATIONAL SCENE

AGAINST GLOBAL BACKDROP
The aim of GMU was to establish a global network of MOs. Europe had
adequate number of observatories, but the rest of the world remained poorly
covered. Humboldt could not ignore this shortcoming and approached the
British authorities with a request to set right the situation, since the British had
subjugated quite a few countries in the African and Asian continents. He also
convinced the Russian Czar to facilitate setting up of observatories at Siberia,
and even at Alaska.
I. First Few Magnetic Observatories in India

An MO, in the strict sense of the word, was for the very first time operated at
Greenwich, England for a limited time period from June 1818 to Dec 1820,
where the readings of D were regularly taken three times a day. Declination
readings were also taken in Paris from 1820 to 1835. Humboldt constructed
the first nonmagnetic iron-free MO in Berlin (1828). It was again Humboldt,
who encouraged Gauss and Weber to form the GMU under the auspices of
which 50 magnetic stations sprang up generating copious D data facilitating

drawing of worldwide magnetic charts.
For any thought to take roots and to grow into a healthy and viable
intellectual stream, needs institutionalization. Institutions act as catalysts to
research. The setting up of MOs helped to grow and flourish the discipline of
geomagnetism into an independent branch of science.
The East India Company brought in the first set of observatories to India.
They set it up at Chennai in 1792, although regular observations were recorded
only from 1822 onwards till they were discontinued in 1881. Shimla also had
an observatory for the limited time period from 1841 to 1845 as part of the
GMU. Thiruvananthapuram, on the other hand, although an affiliate of the
union, owed its presence to the king of Travancore, Rama Verma, who
constructed the building in 1837. However, the actual observations started in
1841 and continued till 1870 with a brief hiatus between 1860 and 1863. The
significance of the observatory at Thiruvananthapuram is: (1) an Indian had
taken the initiative to establish it, and (2) it is on a unique geomagnetic (not
geographic) location. The magnetic equator (a place of zero angle I) passed
through this place.
The data generated at this observatory helped understand daily and seasonal
magnetic variations and over different time scales effected by activities
occurring on the Sun. It also revealed atmospheric currents generated in the
northern and southern hemispheres impinged into each other’s territories. This
became possible because an array of four observatories had operated in tandem.
With respect to Travancore, the first observatory was built 144 km away to the
north, the second was to the south by 64 km, and the third was at Agastya
Malai peak situated at a distance of 35 km towards ENE away from Travancore.
II. Colaba-Alibag Observatory

Although the earliest magnetic observations were recorded at Chennai, the
history of Indian geomagnetism starts, for all practical purposes, with the
establishment of the observatory at Colaba (in Mumbai).
In 1840, there was a proposal to establish MO at Aden at the entrance
from the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea. However, the arrangements at Aden were
found incomplete and unworthy for setting up the geomagnetic instruments.
Consequently, the instruments were diverted to Colaba where an astronomical
and time determination observatory was already functioning. This put Colaba
and later Alibag into a profoundly honourable and respectable ‘Top 4’ slot.
Apart from Colaba-Alibag observatories, there are just three more observatories
around the world, which have been continuously and uninterruptedly (except
during World War II) operational for the last 160 years. They are Greenwich-
Abinger-Hartland in UK, Melbourne-Toolangi-Canberra in Australia, and
Sverdlovsk in Russia.
The commencement of magnetic measurements at Colaba started in 1841,
which continued till 1904. The rise in population and ‘noise’ generating devices
16 Geomagnetism
in and around Colaba made it imperative to either shift the observatory or to

close it down. The first option was acted upon and an alternative site similar in
all geomagnetic features to Colaba was identified at Alibag ~35 km SE of
Mumbai, which became operational in April 1904. The observations at Colaba
were permanently discontinued on 31 March 1906. Alibag is still functional
and is acknowledged to be a prime magnetic observatory.
1.4 GEOMAGNETIC FIELD ELEMENTS AND THEIR

MEASUREMENTS
I. Existence of Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth behaves as if there is a big bar magnet placed inside the Earth, whose south
pole is towards the Earth’s north pole and north pole is towards the Earth’s south
pole. This fact is supported by following experimental observations.
(i) A freely suspended magnetic needle is always in N-S direction: Two
observations can be made if a freely suspended magnetic needle is placed
at any point on the Earth’s surface. It aligns itself with one of the ends
pointing towards north pole and it does not stand horizontal but tilted
upward or downward. The end pointing towards north is called north or
north seeking pole and the other the south seeking pole. In case of
magnets, like poles repel and the unlike poles attract. Therefore, the
directive property of the magnetic needle implies that there is a giant
bar magnet at the centre of the Earth and so the major magnetic influence
comes from within.
(ii) A piece of iron placed inside Earth becomes a magnet: If an iron rod
is placed inside the Earth in N-S direction, then it gets magnetized after
some time.
(iii) Existence of neutral points: If the magnetic lines of force due to bar
magnet are drawn, then neutral points are always obtained either in end-
on-position or broad-on-position, where magnetic field due to bar magnet
is exactly cancelled by EMF. If there is no EMF, neutral points cannot
be obtained.
The Earth’s main magnetic field is seen to vary in magnitude and direction
on the Earth’s surface. Unlike in gravity, these changes are less systematic and
depend both on latitude and longitude. The variation in the Earth’s main
magnetic field between the two poles along a given magnetic longitude can be
understood from Fig. 1.11a. The figure shows the magnetic field of a large bar
magnet placed at the Earth’s centre. The length of this magnet is about one-
third the size of Earth’s diameter (~4250 km) and is canted somewhat from the
Earth’s spin axis. A tangent to a field line of force cutting the ground surface
indicates the direction of magnetic field. The density of the field lines represents
the strength of magnetic field. Near the poles, the lines are close together giving
a relatively strong field, pointing ‘in’ near the north geographic pole, pointing
‘out’ near the south geographic pole. Near the equator, the field has about half its
intensity at the poles, is parallel to the surface and points north. The increase of
dip and increase of strength both contribute to a pronounced increase in the
vertical (Z) component of the EMF as one goes north or south from the magnetic
equator, where its value is zero. In magnetic surveys of regional nature, a correction
is always made for normal northward increase in the vertical component.
The EMF, therefore, can be approximated by a magnet (dipole) placed at
its centre with its north pole pointing southward. Approximately, such a dipole
can account for 90% of the observed field. The remaining 10% is of higher
multipole in nature. The dipole axis is tilted at ~11.5° with respect to rotation
axis of the Earth. The centre of the dipole is not coincident with Earth’s centre;
it is displaced by ~436 km towards ~15.6°N, ~150.9°E.
The direction and strength of EMF can be quantified with the help of
instruments like the magnetometers. The earliest form of geomagnetic
instrument was possibly a piece of lodestone, shaped into a cylinder and freely
suspended at its centre. The direction it came to rest in would have depended
on the location of the observation point on the globe. Later, around the eleventh
century, the lodestone may have been replaced by a bar of magnetized iron or
steel suspended from a fibre. The first generation of geomagnetic instruments,
in use till the 1950s (when nuclear resonance instruments came into use), were
improved versions of this simple system (Chapter 4).
II. Units of Measurement

Just as the gravitational force in a given direction is the derivative (rate of
change) in that direction of gravity potential, so also the magnetic force in a
given direction is the derivative in that direction of the magnetic potential.
While the gravitational effect of a body is the sum of the effects of the mass
particles constituting the body, the magnetic effect of a body is the sum of the
effects of the magnetic particles or poles that give the body its magnetic state.
In the magnetic case, it is further complicated because of two kinds of poles of
opposite sign, resulting in a vector that may be in any direction. Therefore,
unlike gravity, the magnetic case has both magnitude as well as direction
(Chapter 6).
The SI units are cumbersome and inconvenient for magnetostatics as they
are based on magnetic effect of current flow. The CGS and SI units of some
commonly used quantities are reported in Table 1.1. The field at any point on
the Earth’s surface has a direction pertinent to the location and is measured in
terms of the unit of nanoTesla (nT). One nT, also called gamma (J), equals one
billionth of a Tesla (T) (1 nT = 10-9 T). Also the force of a magnetic field line
is known as the magnetic flux, which is measured in Weber (Wb) or in older
units of maxwell (maxwell is the unit of magnetic flux in the cgs (emu) system
and 1 maxwell = 10-8 Wb). The magnetic flux density is the number of magnetic
field lines passing through unit area and is measured in Tesla (1 T = 1 Wb/m2).
It is also common to use the unit gauss (G), where 104G = 1 T. For a very small
18 Geomagnetism
Table 1.1 The SI and CGS symbols, units and conversion formulas for quantities
most frequently used in geomagnetism
Parameter MKS (SI) CGS (emu) CGS to SI

conversion
factor, C
Magnetic pole strength Weber (Wb) cgs pole 4S × 10-8
Magnetic field, H A/m Oersted (Oe) 1000/4S Oe
Magnetic flux, ) Wb maxwell (Mx) 10-8 Mx
Magnetic flux density, Tesla (T) gauss (G) 10-4 G
Magnetic induction, B Wb/m2
Magnetic susceptibility Wb/Am emu/cm3 (4S)2 × 10-7
(volume), N
Magnetic susceptibility m3/kg cm3/g 4S/1000
(mass), F
Magnetic moment, m Am2 emu 1/1000
Magnetization (volume), M A/m emu/cm3 1000
Magnetization (mass), M/V Am2/kg emu/g 1
Magnetization intensity, I/J T emu/cm3 4S/104
Permeability of free space 4S×10-7 Hm-1 1
a. Internationally accepted unit of magnetic field intensity is the T. This is too large
for practical purposes and the nanotesla (nT) is used in the literature and on maps.
The nT has only recently been accepted to replace the previously used ‘gamma’ (J).
The EMF, depending on location on the globe, lies between 25,000 and 65,000 nT;
this may also be written as 25 and 65 microteslas (T).
b. Gaussian units and cgs emu units are the same for magnetic properties. The defining
relation is B = H + 4SM.
c. Multiply a number in Gaussian units by C to convert it to SI (e.g. 1G × 10-4T/G =
10-4 T)
magnitude of the magnetic field, the unit often used is nT or J. It follows
therefore that 105 nT = 1 Oe or G. The EMF intensity ranges between 25,000
nT at the equator and 65,000 nT near the poles. In terms of Oe (G), it ranges
from 0.25 to 0.65 Oe (G).
III. Geomagnetic Elements and Earth’s Magnetic Field

The geomagnetic field at any point on the Earth’s surface is represented by a
vector or arrow parallel to the direction of the field, pointing in the direction of
the force on a positive pole and having a length proportional to the strength of
the field at that point. This vector is referred to a set of mutually perpendicular
axes directed astronomically north and east and vertically downward. The vector
is considered as passing diagonally from the origin to the far corner of a
rectangular box (Fig. 1.11b) oriented with its edges parallel to the coordinate
axes. The various magnetic elements then correspond to certain sides and angles
of the parallelepiped as follows.
Figure 1.11. (a) A simplified model of the Earth’s magnetic field. Lines of forces of
eccentric dipole situated at the centre of the Earth. (b) Vector representation of the
Earth’s magnetic field in the northern hemisphere.
A freely-suspended magnet at a typical mid-latitude location in the northern

hemisphere sets itself along the line OD (Fig. 1.11b) with its north magnetic
pole dipping downwards. The plane in which it sets itself is called the magnetic
meridian and this in many places makes an angle D east or west of the
geographic meridian, i.e. the plane containing ON. The magnetic field, which
sets the magnet at an angle inclined to the horizontal, is the total field vector F.
The vector can be resolved into two vectors, OA in the horizontal plane with
an intensity H, and OV in the vertical plane with value Z. The angle I made by
OD with OA is called the dip or inclination. This is so named for a freely
suspended magnetic needle will rest inclined at this angle from the horizontal
direction. At the equator, the total field is wholly horizontal (H), i.e. I = 0° and
at the two poles wholly vertical (Z), i.e. I = 90°. A suspended needle will thus
rest horizontal at equator and vertical at the poles with intermediate values in
between. OA in turn can be resolved in two directions, ON pointing northwards
with the value X and OE pointing eastwards with magnitude Y. Each of these
vectors and angles is called a geomagnetic element, and the following
trigonometric relationships exist between different magnetic elements.
X = H cos D cos D = X/H
Y = H sin D sin D = Y/H
Z = F sin I sin I = Z/F
H = F cos I cos I = H/F
Angle of declination, tan D = Y/X
Angle of dip, tan I = Z/H
H2 = X2 + Y2
F2 = H2 + Z2 = X2 + Y2 + Z2
20 Geomagnetism
Figure 1.12. (a) India’s magnetic chart of horizontal field component of magnetic field
H in nT. (b) India’s magnetic chart of vertical field component of magnetic field Z in
nT (IGRF11 model calculated for 2010).
Thus, to completely define the geomagnetic field vector, any three

independent elements out of these seven have to be measured. The vectors X,
Y, Z or H, D and Z thus determine all parameters of the geomagnetic field and
accurate measurement of these on a regular basis is the work of a ground-
based geomagnetic observatory. Surveyers, navigators and explorers prefer to
measure the quantities D, I and F for fixing direction. In magnetic prospecting,
importance is accorded to Z and to a lesser extent D and H. The manner in
which these components change with geographical locations encompassing
the Indian region can be appreciated from Figs 1.6, 1.7 and 1.12.
IV. What is a Magnetic Observatory Setup?

The magnetic observatory is a carefully selected site, which has previously
been surveyed to eliminate strong field gradients, proximity to heavy vehicular
movement, industrial activity and electric traction, and where regular and
continuous monitoring of the EMF is carried out. Also, the material used for
constructing the observatory should be non-magnetic and immune to
temperature and humidity changes in the atmosphere. Magnetic observatories
are in operation worldwide with the primary objective to acquire knowledge
of geomagnetic variation patterns over different latitudes and longitudes and
to arrive at the cause of these variations (Chapters 3 and 5). At the observatory,
two kinds of observations are carried out: (i) to measure the instantaneous
values of the components of the magnetic field, and (ii) to record the continuous
changes that take place on a recorder or digitally. Commonly, the first type are
referred to as ‘absolute measurements’, and the latter as ‘variations records’
(Chapter 5), recording the variations with respect to a reference base value.
The impression of these variations, recorded continuously for 24-hours day
after day, is captured on a photographic paper called magnetogram (Fig. 1.13).
Figure 1.13. A typical quiet day magnetogram recorded at Nagpur magnetic observatory.
V. Earth’s External Field

If accurate determinations of the EMF are made continuously at a fixed point,
it is found that the intensity changes over short time intervals. These changes
have a more or less regular daily cycle, which is approximately at the same
solar time at different points but differs materially in detail from place to place
and from day to day. The tidal circulation of the upper air induced by the
gravitational attraction of the Sun and the Moon provides a satisfactory
explanation of the daily magnetic variations. The amplitude of the daily change
is greater in summer than in the winter. The range of the daily variation in
vertical intensity may be as great as 100 nT.
Depending upon the nature of fluctuations recorded on a magnetogram,
the days are classified as magnetically quiet or disturbed. On magnetically
quiet days, geomagnetic elements undergo smooth and regular variation (Fig.
1.13). In cases of very violent magnetic activity, the disturbance field is
superimposed over the average regular daily variation to be found on quiet
days. The continuous magnetic records show that the average quiet day variation
in the magnetic elements depends respectively on the solar (S) and lunar (L)
times. The S (actual notion Sq) variation depends on the local time and is greater
in magnitude during the daylight hours than those of darkness. Its amplitude
varies with sunspot activity as well. The magnitude of L, on the other hand, is
usually small and cannot be recognized directly on the magnetic charts. It is
semi-diurnal in character and lunar tides in the atmosphere are responsible for
this variation. Chapters 3 and 8 discuss aspects of magnetism that comes from
outside the Earth. The S, L and magnetic storms, unlike the secular variations
produce no large and long enduring changes in the EMF and hence they are
called ‘transient variations’ or also ‘diurnal variation’ (Chapter 5).
In earlier days, a typical magnetogram used to be 50 cm in length having
photographic traces of variations in D, H and Z (X, Y and Z at high latitudes).
Nowadays all the observatories are shifting to digital recording (Chapter 5).
Magnetic surveys are also carried out at many desired regions from time to
22 Geomagnetism
Figure 1.14. Network of geomagnetic and related observatories operated across the
Indian subcontinent.
time (Chapter 6). There are 15 permanent observatories currently in operation,

of which IIG maintains ten observatories (Fig. 1.14) and the remaining ones
by NGRI and SOI. This Indian network of magnetic stations has latitude and
longitude coverage for continuous monitoring of the ionospheric and magneto-
spheric phenomena. Geomagnetic data of many of these observatories are
annually published in a single volume entitled ‘Indian magnetic data’.
APPENDIX 1.1
Tesla
The tesla (T) is the compound-derived SI unit of magnetic flux density or
magnetic inductivity. At the Conference General des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)
in Paris in 1960, the unit was named in honour of the Serbian-American inventor
and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla, who made several important contributions
to the field of electromagnetism.
1 T = 1 V×s/m2 = 1 kg/s2A = 1 N/A m = 1 Wb/m2
where V – Volt, s – second, m – metre, N – Newton, kg – kilogram and Wb –
Weber.
A smaller derived unit, the Gauss = 10-4 T was once used.
The magnetic flux density is:
in outer space it varies between 10-10 T and 10-8 T,
in the Earth’s magnetic field at latitude of 50°, it is 2×10-5 T and on the
equator at a latitude of 0° is 3.1×10-5 T,
in the magnetic field of a huge horseshoe magnet 0.001 T,
in a sunspot 10 T,
on a neutron star 106 T to 108 T,
on a magnetar (a neutron star with a super-strong magnetic field than Earth’s),
it varies from 108 to 1011 T, and
maximum theoretical field strength for a neutron star and therefore for any
known phenomenon 1013 T.
Geophysics uses a unit of 1 J = 10-9 T (http://www.wacklepedia.com/t/te/
tesla.html)
24 Geomagnetism
2
INTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD
Earth is innately magnetic and owes this property to its dynamic internal
physicochemical processes. The assertion that Earth is a giant magnet should
be taken figuratively. The geomagnetic field is not produced by any bar magnet
situated within the Earth, though the shape of the field is identical to a magnetic
dipole with the south pole actually placed in the northern hemisphere.
Visualising the Earth as a uniformly magnetized sphere, the lines of force near
the poles are close together providing a relatively stronger field, while near the
equator the field has about half the poles intensity. The farther one goes north
or south from equator, the angle with the surface (magnetic dip) increases and
it becomes vertical near the poles. The points on the surface of the Earth, where
the continuation of the dipole axis cuts the Earth’s surface, are called magnetic
poles. The south magnetic pole is located in the northern part of Greenland
near Thule MO (74°N and 100°W), and the north magnetic pole is at the Victoria
land in Antarctica (65°S and 145°E). The magnetic axis of the Earth’s
geomagnetic field is situated ~436 km away from the Earth’s centre, and so is
referred to as the eccentric dipole field. The position of the magnetic poles
varies with the passage of time known as polar wandering. Taking into
consideration the Earth’s magnetic field (EMF) or main field at one of the
latitudes and the field intensity it produces, the magnetic moment of the Earth
is estimated to be 8.1×1025 CGS units (~7.4×1022 Am2, average over 7 ka). To
know where and how EMF is produced requires delving deep into the interior
of the Earth.
The cause of EMF and its impermanence are the two unsolved mysteries
of geophysics. The Curie temperatures drop with increasing pressure because
of which the presence of high pressure and temperature in the Earth’s interior
precludes magnetization. Recent studies, however, suggest that the liquid outer
core of the Earth acts as a self-exciting dynamo accounting for EMF. This is
because the material in the outer core is of high electrical conductivity capable
of internal movement, thereby creating the main field. Also, some relation
Internal Magnetic Field 25
between the rotation of the Earth and its magnetization seems probable because
of approximate coincidence of magnetic axis with the axis of the Earth’s rotation.
Since magnetic measurements are made on the ground surface in the presence
of EMF, some knowledge of the magnetic properties and conditions of the
Earth are necessary to understand the contribution of the Earth to the measured
magnetic effects, which decrease as the inverse cube of the distance from the
observational site.
2.1 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH AND PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES
The Earth is a complex body with pervasive 3D structure in its solid portions,
where dominant variation in properties occurs with depth. The figure of the
Earth is close to an oblate spheroid with a flattening of 0.003356. The radius to
the pole is 6357 km, and the equatorial radius is 6378 km. For modelling
purposes, a spheroidal Earth with a mean radius of 6371 km is considered
adequate. In fact, reference models for categorizing internal structure use
physical properties that depend on radius. 3D variations are normally described
by deviations from a suitable reference model. In terms of planetary interiors,
the Earth occupies a special position. It is the only planet, which has verifiable
information on its interior, mainly from seismology, unavailable for other
Cosmic entities. Also, a great deal about the Earth’s interior can be inferred
from surface and subsurface observations or from its gaseous envelope, e.g.
elemental atmospheric compositions, chemical compositions/mineralogy of
surface materials, surface geology and subsurface geophysical prospecting.
The following sections discuss how ephemeral properties of temperature,
pressure, density, elastic wave velocity, and electrical conductivity are used to
learn about the Earth’s interior.
I. Temperatures
The big bang is said to have spawned Earth (and other celestial bodies), which
is yet to cool down completely. The temperature that exists at the center of the
Earth is comparable with that near the Sun’s surface (Fig. 2.1). The temperature
of the Earth’s interior is constrained through high-pressure experiments
combined with geophysical and geodynamic modelling. Temperature
measurements made in the deepest mine and the longest borehole drilled indicate
that it rises with depth at a rate of ~30°C/km. This heat and pressure inside
Earth cause rock at depths of 100–150 km to be soft, forming the asthenosphere.
Here the temperature varies between 1400 and 1600°C, which is equal to the
melting point of rock material. Taking into consideration of seismological
evidence and the material constituents of the Earth’s layers, the temperature at
6370 km is ~5000°C, ~4500°C at the outer-inner core boundary (5100 km
depth) and at outer core-mantle boundary (commonly referred to as CMB at
2900 km), it is around 3527°C.
26 Geomagnetism
II. Pressures
The pressure like temperature increases with depth at the rate of 250 atmospheres
for every km. At 50 km, it is nearly 200,000 psi (pounds/sq inch). For
comparison, a typical pressure in automobile and tyre is ~35 psi. The pressure
at a depth of 150 km is 5×104 atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 106 dynes/cm2, the
average pressure of atmosphere at msl); it is found to be of the order of 1.4×1012
dynes/cm2 at the CMB, while it increases to 3.92×1012 dynes/cm2 in the centre
of the core. Thus, a large difference exists between the temperatures and
pressures observed on the Earth’s surface and its interior (Fig. 2.1), leading to
many natural phenomena. The slow temperature dissipation and density
(pressure) differences within diverse constituents of the Earth have given it a
layered disposition in the form of crust, mantle and core (Fig. 2.2).
Figure 2.1. Pressure and temperature variations with depth in the Earth. Pressure
increases from 1 bar (1 bar = 1 atmosphere, i.e. 106 dynes/cm2) at the Earth’s
surface to 3.6 million bars at its centre. The temperature increases from approxi-
mately 25°C to about 4500°C and more (Hancock and Skinner, 2000).
III. Density and Gravity

Many characteristics of the Earth’s interior can be delineated through density
studies by understanding the ratio of mass to volume. Density also increases
with depth because of increase in pressure. The extreme pressures experienced
deep within the Earth (Fig. 2.1) compress rock to make it denser. Extraordinary
pressures can even rearrange the minerals of the rock to create denser phases.
The tendency of pressure to increase density at depth occurs in spite of the
effect of enhanced temperature deep within the Earth. Most materials including
rocks decrease in density with increasing temperature. Pressure overwhelms
temperature as far as density is concerned.
Figure 2.2. Internal structure of the Earth with the blow up of the upper
mantle and crust (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1994).
The average density (kg/m3) close to the surface of the Earth is ~2800
kg/m3 while at 1600 km depth it is 5000. At 2880 km, it is nearly 6000, at
mantle-outer core boundary, it increases to 9400 and at the outer-inner core
boundary it drops to 1150 kg/m3. Then, there is a sudden increase to 1300 kg/m3
in the inner core (a representative value for combined Fe and Ni at high pressure
and temperature). Based on the seismically determined density of the Earth’s
core and the measured density of Fe at high pressure and temperature, it is certain
that light elements such as S or O are in the Earth’s core in addition to Fe and Ni.
The mean value of density of the Earth is estimated at 5517±0.004 kg/m3.
The profile of variation of density with depth (Fig. 2.3) for a generally accepted
reference Earth model was developed by Dziewonski and Anderson. This widely
used Earth model is known by its acronym, PREM (preliminary reference Earth
model) and gives the low-pressure densities of cooled material with allowance
for thermal expansion. Some typical measures of density (kg/m 3) of
representative materials are—magnetite: 5200; hematite: 5100; pyrite: 5000;
pyrrhotite: 4500–4600; galena: 7400–7600; chromite: 4800; limonite: 3600 to
4000 and siderite: 3000–3900 kg/m3.
28 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.3. Density profile of PREM (solid line) with theoretical extrapolation
to zero pressure and low temperature (broken line). Major boundaries show up
as discontinuities or as abnormally rapid increases in velocity with depth (Hancock
and Skinner, 2000).
Also, the gravity (g) and pressure, which are uniquely determined from
the density profile of Fig. 2.3, are illustrated in Fig. 2.4. At any point in the
Earth, the gravitational acceleration (g) results from the attraction of the mass
Figure 2.4. Variations in gravity (g) and pressure (P) with radius (depth) for the
density profile in Fig. 2.3. Gravity (g) reaches its maximum at the mantle-core
boundary (2900 km depth).
(m) contained in the sphere of radius (r) and it is expressed as g = G×m/r2 (G is

the universal constant of gravitation, m is total mass of the Earth (= 5.977×1024
kg)). So, the maximum value of g is at 2900 km depth, after which, there is
rapid drop to zero at the centre of Earth.
IV. Elastic Wave Velocities

The demarcation of internal units of the Earth is based essentially on probings
carried out and inferred from the speed of ‘P’ and ‘S’ seismic waves, which
interact differently with rocks under different pressure and temperature
conditions. Generally, the wave speeds increase with depth. A ‘P’ or primary
wave at the base of the Earth’s crust (average continental crust has a thick-
ness of ~40 km marked by Mohorovicic discontinuity) travels at a speed of
8 km/sec and at 1600 km depth, its speed is inferred to be 13 km/sec. The
maximum P-wave velocity recorded in the lower mantle drops from 13.3 to 8
km/sec at the CMB. At 5120 km depth, a jump in P-wave velocity to 11.4
km/sec indicates the boundary between the outer-inner cores. The ‘S’ or
secondary waves, on the other hand, are comparatively slower and have a
velocity of 5 km/sec near the surface, increasing to 6 km/sec at 1600 km depth.
As the S-waves are not transmitted through fluids, it is inferred that the outer
core is fluid in behaviour, while its velocity of 3.8 km/sec approaching the
centre of the Earth indicates that the inner core is a solid. Some typical measures
of P-wave velocities (km/sec) of different crustal constituents are—alluvium:
0.3 to 0.6; clay and sandy clay: 2.0 to 2.6; shale: 2.0; sandstone: 2.6–4.0;
limestone: 4.0–4.6; granite: 4.5–6.0; metamorphic rock: 4.0–7.0 and rock salt:
5 to 6. Thus, seismic wave speed turns out to be intimately related to material
density. The more the speed of P and S, the more is the inferred compactness
of the material through which these seismic waves travel.
Apart from density, the propagation of P and S waves also depends on the
well-known elastic constants of the medium. For example, the velocity of P-
waves is also a function of the modulus of rigidity () and bulk modulus (K) of
the medium, whereas S-wave velocity is influenced by the rigidity of the
medium. From the familiar expression ¸(K + 4/3 )/U, for P-wave speed, one
expects heavy rocks with high density values to have low speeds. Nevertheless,
with increasing depth, not only U increases generally, but there is also a
corresponding increase in the elastic constants K and . In fact, the increase in
K and is much faster (sharper) as compared to that in U with the result that
the overall control imposed by the elastic parameters outweighs that by the
density alone. Hence, both P and S velocities tend to generally increase with
depth even though the material density is relatively large at those depths. In
case of P wave, the transmission is essentially through particle motion governed
by compression and dilatation in the matter (Fig. 2.5). This behaviour is basically
similar to the travel of sound waves in air.
The S wave, on the other hand, is transmitted through a transverse type of
particle motion in the material (Fig. 2.6), because of which S waves cannot
travel through liquids, since liquids are incapable of sustaining shear.
30 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.5. The dilatation and compression in the propagation of

P wave having longitudinal type particle motion.
Figure 2.6. The propagation pattern of S wave through transverse

type of particle motion.
V. Electrical Conductivities and Mineralogy

Observations of time-varying EMF and the associated electric currents within
the Earth have led to delinate several large conductive structures in the crust
and the upper mantle. Specifically, the electrical conductivity profile in Earth’s
interior can be obtained by EM induction methods of magnetotelluric and
geomagnetic deep sounding methods. Global studies reveal that conductivity
in the upper mantle is relatively low, i.e. 10-4 to 10-2 S/m. It increases with
increasing depth to the top of the lower mantle. At the top of the lower mantle
at 400 km, conductivity is ~1 S/m. Conductivity does not increase significantly
in the lower mantle. Some studies (Fig. 2.7) have shown that the electrical
conductivity of the uppermost mantle to 100 km depth is ~10-2–10-1 S/m known
as the mantle high conductivity layer (HCL). Local variations of electrical
conductivity are large at shallow depths and become smaller with increasing
depth. The increase in electrical conductivity in the mantle is explained in
terms of the effect of temperature and phase transition of olivine and other
minerals. Some typical measures of electrical conductivity (S/m) are—sea
water: 4.0; molten basalt: 1.0; water saturated sedimentary rocks: 10-3; igneous
rocks: 10-4 and dry continental rocks: 10-6 to 10-3. In general, all minerals are
divided into the following three categories:
(i) High conductors are Au, Cu, Ag, PbS, graphite, etc. The general range
of electrical resistivity of this particular group is 10-6–10 ohm-m. All
sulphides are very good conductors except sphalerite, cinnabar and
stibnite (Sb2S3), which are typical examples of very poor conductors.
The resistivity of sulphur is 1011 ohm-m. Certain oxides, magnetite,
pyrolusite, ilmenite and specularite (Fe2O3) are very good conductors.

Specularite and hematite have the same chemical composition, but the
former is a good conductor, and the latter a poor conductor. In all these
cases, the flow of electricity is controlled by electromagnetic conductivity.
(ii) Intermediate conductors: The range of resistivity for these conductors
is 102–109 ohm-m. Examples include most rocks containing anthracite
having some degree of moisture (electrolytic conductivity) and all oxide
minerals, except magnetite, ilmenite, pyrolusite and specularite.
(iii) Poor conductors (1010–1015 ohm-m): Examples are all rock forming
minerals in addition to phosphates, borates, carbonates, etc. Rock salt
actually lies in this class of poor conductor and that is why high resistivity
is obtained instead of low above a salt dome.
Figure 2.7. The electrical conductivity of the upper part of the mantle. Long dashed
curve: north Pacific region, dotted curve: NE China, short dashed curve: Canadian
shield, one-dotted dashed curve: SW USA, two-dotted dashed curve: Hawaii and thick
solid curve: laboratory electrical conductivity model of Xu et al. (2000)
(courtesy: Katsura, 2007).
2.2 EARTH STRUCTURE AND ITS MAJOR DIVISIONS

Seismology has revealed the metallic core and rocky mantle around it, but has
also shown that the core consists of a solid inner part and a liquid outer shell.
Beneath the thin crustal shell lies the silicate mantle, which extends to a depth
of 2890 km.
I. Crust of the Earth

The crust is formed by differentiation and assimilation of primordial rock
material of mantle rocks, via separation of the melt from the unmelted residuum
(the present mantle rocks). Separation is achieved by the gradual upward
32 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.8. Cross-section of crust and a part of upper mantle (Tarbuck and
Lutgens, 1994).
migration of the lighter magma that later solidifies to form the crust. This
process can be seen even now at the mid-ocean ridges, where seafloor spreading
takes place.
The crust is a thin surface layer, whose base is defined by a distinct boundary
known as Mohorovii discontinuity or Moho (Fig. 2.8). Aluminium is the
most abundant metal in the Earths crust. It is thin compared to the other two
layers (mantle and core) with its thickness ranging from 8 to 16 km below the
oceans and 60-80 km under mountains. The thickness of the continental crust
varies more widely between 20 and 80 km with its average ranging between
30 and 40 km (Fig. 2.8). This is basically because of density differences between
oceanic and continental landmass. The rock material making up the continental
landmass (solidified from granitic magma) is less dense than the one observed
at the oceanic landmass (solidified from basaltic magma). Thus, the thickness
of the crust varies according to the principle of isostatic balance to maintain
the equilibrium of mass. The concept that continents are less dense than the
mantle and float on it to attain gravitational equilibrium is the well known
principle of isostasy. The closest analogy to this concept can be the growth of
trees. Generally, the taller trees have deeper roots, and the smaller ones have
shallow roots. This is the isostatic principle of Airys compensation.
According to this principle, the masses of material columns above a certain
depth of compensation are balanced; the crust is thicker beneath elevated
topography compared to average crust so that extra mass of the crust is
compensated by an equal mass deficit associated with the replacement of heavy
mantle rock by lighter thickened crust. Similarly, the crust is thinned beneath
topographic depressions, so that the mass deficit of negative topography is
balanced by an equal mass excess associated with the replacement of thinned
crust by heavier mantle rock. The principle of Airy compensation is well
established, where it can be tested against seismic measurements of crustal
thickness. The thickest crust on Earth lies below its mountainous regions (Fig.
2.8).
Conrad and Moho discontinuities: The seismic waves do not travel from the
crust towards the centre of the Earth at a monotonous (constantly increasing)
speed. Near the ground surface, P- and S-wave velocities are ~5.0 km/sec and
3.0 km/sec, respectively. A relative increase in P-wave velocity from 6.1 to
~6.6 km/sec occurs at contact of granitic and basaltic layers. Conrad
discontinuity is the boundary between upper continental crust rich in felsic
rocks such as granite (SiAl, for silica and aluminium) and lower crust madeup
of magnesium-rich mafic rocks such as basalt (SiMa). During the study of
seismic wave pattern of Balkan earthquake of 1909, Andrija Mohorovii, a
Croation (Yugoslav) geologist, inferred a sharp increase in seismic wave speed
at a depth of ~32 km beneath the Earths surface. This interface is named after
him and called Moho discontinuity, which is considered to be the base of the
crust, below which lies the mantle. As this analysis is based on only a limited
number of records from permanent seismic stations, knowledge of crustal
structure from seismic methods has developed substantially through the use of
controlled sources, i.e. explosions. Indeed most of the information on oceanic
crust comes from such work. The depth of Moho varies from 20 km in rift
zones to 70 km under young fold mountain ranges or the Tibetan plateau.
Typical values are close to 35 km. Under the ocean basalt pile ~7 km, the
Moho depth is thinner. The Moho represents either a phase change or
compositional transition from gabbro to eclogite.
Continental and oceanic crust, lithosphere: The lithosphere continues from
the crust into the mantle and also shows significant differences between the
oceanic and continental regimes. According to plate tectonic theory, most of
the lithospheric plates constituting the outer shell are composed of lighter
continental and denser oceanic crust. The continental crust is located above
the oceanic crust and rides on it in piggyback style. Continental and oceanic
crusts differ in their layering, thickness, age, tectonic activity and igneous
activity. Rocks as old as 4000 Ma are known in platform and shield areas in the
continental crust, but oceanic crust is not older than 200 Ma. Evidences for
folding and faulting abound in the continental crust, whereas deformation in
the oceanic crust is confined just to plate margins. Oceanic environment is
well known for its igneous activity (the mid-ocean ridges and island arcs), but
such activity is limited across the continental crust (mountain belts like the
Himalayas and Andes).
The entire oceanic lithosphere is generated by the spreading processes at
mid-ocean ridges and the increase in thickness with age to at least 85 Ma is
consistent with thermal cooling. Precambrian shield components of continents
have a very thick, but lower density lithosphere extending to 200 km (or possibly
more in some places). The lithosphere beneath Phanerozoic regions tends to
be thinner, ~120 km with considerable complications in the neighbourhood of
active tectonic belts.
34 Geomagnetism
II. Mantle of the Earth

The mantle is composed of more than 90% Fe, Si and Mg in that order. It is the
region between the core and crust and is subdivided into two parts, upper and
lower. The upper mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of ~650
km. The lower mantle continues from 650 km down to the core-mantle
boundary, located at ~2900 km depth. The part of the Earth’s interior that
comprises the tectonic plates is referred to as the lithosphere. The rocks below
the lithosphere are sufficiently hot facilitating solid-state creep. These rocks
flow like a fluid comprising viscous, somewhat plastic material of a low velocity
layer (asthenosphere) in the region of ~100 to 150 km within the upper mantle.
The lithosphere slides over the asthenosphere with relatively little resistence.
Between 400 and 650 km lies the transition zone, a region of the upper mantle,
where seismic velocities tend to increase sharply. The lower mantle is known
to be composed of perovskite-rich material, while the upper mantle is basically
of ‘olivine’ type, which is rich in magnesium and iron but poor in aluminium
Figure 2.9. Mineralogical composition of mantle (Allegre and Schneider, 1994).
(Fig. 2.9). Assuming the mantle to be of homogeneous composition, a picture

of the mineralogical distribution is given in Fig. 2.10. Geochemical and
petrological studies suggest that with an increasing pressure, olivine transforms
to its high-pressure polymorph, wadseleyite at 410 km depth (olivine-
wadseleyite transition). Wadseleyite transforms to a further high-pressure
polymorph, ringwoodite at ~520 km depth (wadseleyite-ringwoodite transition).
Ringwoodite dissociates perovskite and ferropericlase at 660 km depth. These
minerals form a network in each region and hence the electrical conductivity
of these minerals is primarily responsible for that of the mantle itself.
Figure 2.10. Sketch of mineralogical composition of a homogeneous mantle

(Hancock and Skinner, 2000).
Additionally, some minor phases such as silicate melt that have high
conductivity may also have important roles.
Gutenberg discontinuity: This boundary named in 1914 after the American
geologist, Beno Gutenberg, is located at ~2900 km depth between mantle and
outer core. The boundary is recognized as a discontinuity zone in seismic wave
velocities, possibly caused by a distinct change in density (Figs 2.3 and 2.12).
This change is interpreted to be due to a compositional change from silicate to
iron-nickel. Recent evidence suggests a boundary layer represented by structural
change in the perovskite mineralogy of the deep mantle. Seismic tomography
studies have shown significant irregularities within the boundary zone, which
are suggestive of a possible organized structure in relation to deep mantle
plumes.
III. Core of the Earth

The nature, material and characteristics of the Earth’s core, which is a sphere
of approximately half the diameter of the whole Earth and one third of its
mass, are of great geomagnetic importance. It may be recalled that the EMF is
internally generated, more specifically within the liquid outer core. It was earlier
conjectured that the material of the core needs to be a very common element
and not a rare one since it has to occupy such a large space. The only heavy
element that is very common is iron. It has the density of 7860 kg/m3 on the
36 Geomagnetism
Earth’s surface. But, under the enormous pressure and temperature conditions
of the core, its density goes up in the range of 9000 to 12,000 kg/m3 and is
liquid in nature. Apart from iron, traces of nickel and other impurities are also
conjectured to be present in the material of the core. From the propagation
pattern of seismic waves, it is seen that at a depth of 2880 km, at nearly the
lowermost boundary of the mantle, S waves abruptly stop, whereas P waves
change their direction (Fig. 2.12). In 1906, a British geologist, Oldham,
interpreted this zone to be ‘liquid’ in nature.
The P-wave velocity suddenly decreases at CMB, thus P-waves are
refracted inward at 2900 km (Fig. 2.11). In addition, the complete absence of
direct P-waves is manifested in the zone on either side of the Earth between
105° and 140° from the source of the event. This zone is called P-wave shadow
(also known as core shadow) zone (Fig. 2.11), which was first recognized in
1900 by Oldham of GSI from the Indian experience.
The core is not one monotonous and continuous sphere. In 1936, Danish
geologist, Inge Lehmann, proposed a discontinuity within the core at about
1280 km from the centre of the Earth that clearly distinguished between an
‘inner’ and ‘outer’ core. It is firmly established that the outer core is liquid,
whereas the inner core is solid (Fig. 2.12).
Figure 2.11. Physical properties of core and mantle inferred from the passage of seismic
waves. P-waves travel through liquid and solid. S-waves travel only through solid. The
abrupt change in physical properties at the mantle-core boundary causes the wave paths
to bend sharply. This abrupt change in wave direction results in a shadow zone for
P-waves between about 105° and 140° (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1994).
Figure 2.12. The relationship of the P- and S-waves with different layers of the Earth.
The velocity of both these waves increases abruptly at the ‘Moho’ and then increases
steadily through the mantle. At the core-mantle boundary, the Gutenberg discontinuity,
S-wave velocity drops to zero and P-wave velocity is greatly retarded. Through the
core, however, P-wave velocity increases steadily (Press and Siever, 2002).
2.3 MAGNETISM IN MATTER AND MAGNETIC

PROPERTIES
It is now turn to direct attention from the macro to micro level by scaling down
vision from the dimensions of the Earth to the tiny particles like atoms and
molecules. At an atomic scale, electrons are responsible for the generation of
magnetism. The fundamental law of electromagnetism states that ‘a moving
electrical charge creates a magnetic field’. Negatively charged electrons spin
and orbit around the nucleus of an atom (Fig. 2.13), generating a magnetic
field. Thus, it can be said that each electron has a magnetic moment, i.e. it
behaves like a tiny magnet. Magnetic moment acts in either of the two opposing
38 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.13. (a) Simplified model of an atom, which consists of a central nucleus,
composed of protons and neutrons that are encircled by electrons (Tarbuck and Lutgens,
1994). (b) A helium atom shows two electrons spinning and orbiting around the protons
and neutrons of the nucleus. The two electrons are paired, meaning that they spin and
orbit in opposite directions. Since the magnetic fields produced by the motion of the
electrons are in opposite directions, they add up to zero. Thus, the overall magnetic
field strength of atoms with all paired electrons is zero.
directions, depending upon which properties like diamagnetism, paramagnetism

and ferromagnetism arise.
I. Diamagnetic Materials
These are the ones which do not exhibit magnetism until they are placed in
external magnetic fields Bext. When a substance is placed in Bext, a force is
exerted on the electrons in orbit tending to modify the orbit in a small measure.
This slows down the electrons, leading to slight changes in magnetic property.
Since the effect tends to oppose the applied Bext, they develop a magnetic
dipole moment directed opposite to Bext. If the field is nonuniform, the
diamagnetic material is repelled from regions of greater magnetic field and the
property is called diamagnetism.
In case of diamagnetic substances, the magnetization acquired per unit
field applied, also called volume magnetic susceptibility (N) is negative typically
–10-5 SI. Many common natural materials including quartz, feldspar, calcite,
organic matter, water, diamond, graphite, anhydrite, air, hydrogen, antimony,
gold, mercury, bismuth and non-Fe containing minerals are diamagnetic.
II. Paramagnetic Materials

Materials with a weak attraction to magnets are called paramagnetic. There are
many substances which do not have ‘pairing’ of all the electrons. Materials
with one or more unpaired electrons are magnetic or slightly magnetic. This
behaviour arises when magnetic dipoles align themselves parallel to the direction
of applied Bext to cause weak positive magnetization (Fig. 2.14). If Bext is
nonuniform, the paramagnetic material is attracted to regions of greater magnetic
field and is called paramagnetism.
Figure 2.14. Alignment of ‘paramagnetic’ minerals.
The magnetic susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances are low and

positive, typically in the range from 10-5 to 10-3 SI. Paramagnetic materials
include lepidocrocite, ferrihydrite, ilmenite, biotite, muscovite, olivine, garnet,
Fe-silicates (amphiboles, pyroxenes), aluminium, platinum, manganese and
clay minerals. Carbonates of iron and manganese, pegmatites, gneisses, syenites
and dolomites are also paramagnetic.
III. Ferromagnetic Materials

The basic difference between paramagnetism and ferromagnetism lies in the
order of their magnetic intensity. It can be said that ferromagnetism is just an
alternate name for strong paramagnetism and is characterized by large
susceptibilities and spontaneous magnetization. Hence, ferromagnetic materials
are used to understand the history of EMF.
Just like paramagnetic substances, atoms of ferromagnetic substances also
possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment before the application of external
magnetic field Bext, and behave like small bar magnets. But in ferromagnetic
substances, these atomic magnets due to certain mutual interaction form a large
number of small effective regions known as ‘domains’. Each domain has on
the average 1017 to 1021 atoms or atomic magnets, whose magnetic axes are
aligned in the same direction, but this direction is different from the direction
of atoms of the neighbouring domains. As a result, each domain, even before
the application of Bext, is in the state of magnetic saturation, i.e. each domain
behaves as a magnet.
In the normal state of substance, it shows no magnetism before application
of Bext because different domains are distributed randomly so that their resultant
magnetic dipole moment in any direction is zero. This is the reason why every
piece of iron is not a magnet. Figure 2.15a shows the probable directions of the
magnetic dipole moments of four domains of iron. Now, if the substance is
subjected to Bext, magnetism or magnetic dipole moment of the substance is
increased due to the following reasons—(1) due to displacement of the
boundaries of domains, i.e. size of domains having magnetic dipole moment
along the direction of applied Bext gets increased, while those other domains
gets decreased (Fig. 2.15b), (2) due to rotation of domains, i.e. domains rotate
until their magnetic dipole moments are aligned up to a large extent along the
direction of the Bext, and (3) when Bext is weak, the substance is magnetized
mostly due to shifting of domains, but in strong magnetic field, the
40 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.15. (a) The probable directions of the magnetic dipole moments of four
domains. (b) The atomic dipoles within some domains suddenly swing around to line
up with the direction of external field. (c) A final stage when the magnetic moments of
all the domains get aligned with the direction of the external field. (d) In ferromagnetic
substance like iron, all the minute magnets share a common alignment.
magnetization is due to rotation of domains. Finally, a stage is reached, when

the magnetic moments of all the domains get aligned with the direction of the
Bext (Fig. 2.15c). When Bext is removed, the substance is not demagnetized
and some magnetism is left in the sample. This behaviour is called ‘spontaneous
magnetization’ (Fig. 2.15d). If Bext is nonuniform, the ferromagnetic material
is attracted to regions of greater magnetic field.
Ferromagnetism is most commonly associated with Fe, but metals such as
cobalt, nickel and Rare Earth elements (samarium, dysprosium and gadolinium)
are also ferromagnets. These minerals normally are not found in the environment
(although they are present in meteorites) nor are they always metallic and so
are not of interest within the realm of geophysical exploration. Many non-
metallic ferromagnets also exist, which include ferrites (mixtures of iron and
other metal oxides).
Effect of heat on a ferromagnetic substance: A ferromagnetic substance
retains its domain structure only up to a certain temperature called the Curie
point or Curie temperature (TC). At temperatures above the TC, the thermal
agitation causes the spontaneous alignment of the various domains to be
destroyed or demagnetized so that the material beomes paramagnetic. If cooled
below TC, it again becomes ferromagnetic. For iron, TC is 770°C, for nickel
(360°C), and cobalt (1150°C). Some metals like gadolinium have their TC close
to room temperature (RT) making them ferromagnetic when cold and
paramagnetic when hot. TC is always less than the melting point as a
consequence of which there are no ferromagnetic liquids.
The term Curie point is named after the French scientist Pierre Curie, who
discovered that ferromagnetic substances lose their ferromagnetic properties
above this critical temperature. This discovery has had great utility in providing
information about the deep crust of the Earth.
Effect of heavy hammering on magnet: Magnetism can be removed by heavy
hammering or by subjecting a magnetized material to an opposing magnetic
field. Hitting produces heat energy, which increases the mobility of atoms and
the randomness of orientation of magnetic moments. Macroscopic net
magnetism is due to predominant orientation of magnetic moments along a
certain direction. Destruction of macroscopic net magnetism does not mean
that individual atoms do not have a magnetic moment, but that the orientation
of atomic magnetic moments is random.
IV. Ferrimagnetism and Antiferromagnetism

Ferrimagnetism and antiferromagnetism are the basic variants of
ferromagnetism. Ferrimagnets have antiparallel magnetic moments of different
magnitudes such that the sum of the moments pointing in one direction exceeds
that in the opposite direction (Fig. 2.16). Materials of this type are the ferrites
(e.g. magnetite is a natural ferrite) and are commonly used in industrial
applications. Ferrimagnetic minerals include the ‘cubic’ and ‘spinel’ oxides of
iron Fe3O4 (magnetite) and J-Fe2O3 (maghemite) as well as sulphides of iron,
greigite (Fe3S4) and pyrrhotite (~Fe7S8). It is often convenient to refer to natural
ferrimagnets as ‘magnetite’, although positive identification is not always
possible. Magnetites exist in various degrees of impurity including titano-
magnetites (oxides of Fe and Ti), in which substitution of Ti for Fe has occurred
and which are quite common in basalts.
Antiferromagnets too have antiparallel magnetic moments, but of same
magnitude such that they exhibit zero bulk spontaneous magnetization (Fig.
2.16). Such a material behaves like a paramagnetic substance above the Neel
temperature (TN), at which thermal energy disrupts the magnetic ordering. Slight
modification from the basic antiferromagnetism can exist, if the antiparallelism
is not exact. If neighbouring spins are slightly tilted (<1°) or canted, a very
small net magnetization can be produced. This is called canted or imperfect
antiferromagnetism. Hematite (D-Fe2O3) and goethite (FeOOH) are well known
examples of antiferromagnetic materials.
Figure 2.16. Antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic minerals are magnetized in

favoured direction.
V. Superparamagnetism
It occurs when ferro(i)magnetic material is composed of very small crystallites
(0.001 to 0.01 m) (1 micrometre = 10–6 m). When particles are extremely
small, they can undergo thermal vibrations, which have energies of the same
order of magnitude as the interaction energy. The result is that these particles do
42 Geomagnetism
not have a stable magnetization, even though larger particles of the same material
do. These effects were described by Neel, who asserted super-paramagnetism to
be dependent upon volume and temperature of the material. The term
superparamagnetic alludes to the similarity to ‘paramagnetism’, whereby the
magnetization is field dependent with no remanence. The modifier ‘super’ takes
note of the fact that it is the magnetization of the whole superparamagnetic particle,
which is behaving in this way, not the magnetic moment of a single atom or
molecule. Instead of each individual atom, the magnetic moment of the entire
crystallite tends to align with the magnetic field resulting in greater magnetic
susceptibility than that for simple paramagnetism. Also, superparamagnetic grains
show higher frequency dependence of magnetic susceptibility.
2.4 CURIE AND NEEL TEMPERATURE

One of the most useful parameters for distinguishing the magnetic mineral(s)
present in a sample is the TC. In ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic substances,
this temperature is called the Curie temperature, while in antiferromagnetic
substances, it is the Neel temperature. The TC/TN of some naturally occurring
minerals are distinctive enough to be diagnostic, i.e. magnetite, hematite, and
goethite. Other minerals have TCs that fall in a similar range, e.g. pyrrhotite,
greigite, and titanomagnetites (Appendix 2.1). Materials having relatively high
proportion of magnetite or hematite produce well defined thermomagnetic
curves (Fig. 2.17a). The curves show only a small loss of magnetization at low
temperatures, but as the temperature approaches the TC, the curve steepens as
the magnetization is destroyed. The Curie law (F1/T) governing the
temperature dependent magnetization of paramagnetic minerals results in
concave thermomagnetic curves (Fig. 2.17b).
Figure 2.17. (a) Saturation magnetization curves against temperature for magnetite and
hematite (Pullaiah et al., 1975). (b) The variation of paramagnetism with temperature.
Utility, depth to Curie temperature: The interior of the Earth is considerably

hotter than the surface. Depth to the Curie/Neel temperature is the depth at
which crustal rocks reach their Curie temperature. Supporting evidence for
understanding inherent uncertainties of these Curie temperature depths comes
from the magnetic properties of rocks measured in connection with palaeo,
rock and environmental magnetic studies, geological mapping and mineral
prospecting. Magnetomineralogical studies reveal that the dominant carriers
of magnetism in rocks are Fe-Ti oxide and Fe sulphides, e.g. magnetic source
mineral of Precambrian shield areas is magnetite. Indirect evidence from the
study of rock magnetism on Curie temperature of rocks (or Curie/Neel
temperature depth estimates from magnetic anomaly data) is important to
specify the temperature of the lithosphere. The lithosphere must be relatively
colder than the Curie temperature of its magnetic minerals.
2.5 ROCK FORMING MAGNETIC MINERALS AND ROCK

MAGNETISM
Consider magma in a molten form at an initial temperature of 1000°C, where
it slowly cools underground. While cooling, magma doesn’t turn from being
totally liquid to totally solid at a single temperature. Instead, different minerals
crystallize over a range of temperatures (e.g. over 100° or 200°C). Thus, when
the temperature falls by a small amount, a few minerals crystallize out. On
further cooling, these crystals grow larger, while simultaneously forming new
mineral crystals, eventually forming an interlocking network. With complete
solidification, the rock displays a crystalline texture. In contrast, rapid cooling
allows crystallization to occur by the nucleation of many small crystals, which
ultimately form a fine-grained igneous rock. Rapid cooling is more likely at
the surface, since magma comes here in contact with air or water, rather than
in the hot interior of the Earth. In an extreme case, crystallization is totally
inhibited and the starting liquid is quenched to form volcanic glass. Mineral
crystals with Fe as a constituent tend to align with the EMF. The production of
large, multi-domain (MD) magnetite grains is facilitated with slow cooling,
whereas smaller, stable-single-domain (SSD) or pseudo-single-domain (PSD)
grains result from rapid cooling of magma. The latter is also formed from
surficial processes such as erosion, weathering, and chemical alteration.
Fe oxides are the first to be formed from molten magma having solid-
solution temperatures of the order of 1400 to 1600°C. At 1000°C, Fe oxides
contain Ti. The composition of Fe-Ti oxides can conveniently be displayed on
TiO2-FeO-Fe2O3 ternary diagram (Fig. 2.18). The lines of oxidation (increasing
the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio) are parallel to the base of the diagram. Some oxidation
also takes place during erosion, deposition or subsequent burial with consequent
formation of hematite as the major magnetic constituent in most consolidated
sedimentary rocks. However, in such sedimentological environments, many
intermediate oxidation products may occur. Of these magnetic minerals,
44 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.18. Ternary diagram representing the compositions of important Fe-Ti oxides.
Positions from left to right indicate increasing ratios of ferri (Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+)
iron, while positions from bottom to top indicate increasing Ti content (Ti4+ : total Fe).
Using ½Fe2O3 as the parameter for the Fe3+ corner normalizes the diagram to one
cation, producing the convenient effect that lines of oxidation (increasing the Fe3+:Fe2+
ratio), according to the ‘addition of oxygen’ mechanism, are parallel to the base of the
diagram (Butler, 1992).
maghemite is important because it has a similar high intensity of magnetization

as that of magnetite itself. The presence of oxygen and water also result in the
formation of a number of hydroxides, of which goethite is magnetic at RT.
Also, reduction of hydroxides later may lead to the production of hematite,
while metamorphic processes can reverse the oxidation processes.
The use of magnetic measurements for characterizing magnetic mineralogy
of rocks was initiated in the early 1960s, when it was realized that several
minerals can carry natural remanent magnetization (NRM). The ferro(i)magnetic
or antiferromagnetic minerals are often of a diagnostic value by themselves
being the signature of various rock forming processes. In this sense, magnetite,
titanomagnetite, maghemite, hematite, etc. are the chief rock forming magnetic
minerals. The basic and ultrabasic rocks have minerals belonging to the
titanomagnetite series, whereas acidic rocks contain minerals of ilmenohematite
series. Normal cooling results in high temperature magmatic liquid, exsolving
to form intergrowths between the titanomagnetite (cubic) series and the
ilmenohematite (rhombohedral) series. This deuteric exsolution tends to result
in the preferential formation of two end members of each series, i.e. magnetite
and ilmenite. When such igneous rocks oxidize at low temperatures (<200°–
250°C), the composition of titanomagnetites moves towards that of the
ilmenohematites. But these titanomagnetites are metastable, and gradually invert
to ilmenohematite, especially if heated to 300°C. Oxidation of magnetites,
titanomagnetites and ilmenohematites leads to the formation of hematite with
varying amounts of anatase (TiO2) and pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5). Of all the
Fe-Ti oxides formed by normal cooling, it is only the fairly pure forms of
magnetite and hematite that have magnetic properties at RT.
I. Iron Oxides and Magnetic Properties

In the Earth’s crust, Fe is the fourth most abundant element (5% by weight)
after oxygen (47%), silicon (28%) and aluminium (8%). It combines with
oxygen, silicon and aluminium to build up many of the commonly occurring
rock-forming minerals (Fig. 2.19a-f). The composition of ferro(i)magnetic iron
oxides varies from pure oxides of magnetite and maghemite to impure oxides
such as titanomagnetite and titanomaghemite, in which the Fe atoms are partly
substituted by atoms of Ti. There are continuous solid solutions between these
two sets, which have varying Ti contents. Ti substitution reduces the Fe content
and magnetic moment of the mineral; hence lowers the magnetic susceptibility.
Where Ti substitution has progressed beyond a certain point, the minerals lose
ferromagnetic status and become transformed into the paramagnetic titanium
oxides, ilmenite and ulvospinel.
Iron oxides are the ionic crystals consisting of oxygen framework with
cations in the interstices. In this group, magnetic minerals crystallize with two
different ionic structures of spinel and corundum. Magnetite, ulvospinel
(paramagnetic at RT), titanomagnetites, maghemite and titanomaghemites have
spinel structure. On the other hand, hematite and hemoilmenites are associated
with corundum structure. Other Fe oxide minerals like cassiterite (tin oxide)
and zircon are magnetic due to minor impurities of ferro(i)magnetic minerals,
but are quite rare, whereas manganese oxide jacobsite (MnFe 2 O 4 ) is
ferromagnetic at RT and carries a significant remanence.
Magnetite (Fe3O4): This iron ferrite is the most ubiquitous natural magnetic
material and probably also the most extensively studied, since it imparts
magnetic properties to rocks and produces magnetic anomalies. It occurs in
most volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and forms economically
significant iron ore deposits.
(i) Origin: The challenge lies in identifying its origin from the range of
possibilities including primary bed rock, tephra, secondary soil derived
magnetite (difficult to distinguish from maghemite), bacterial magnetite,
and industrial particulate arising from solid fuel combustion (fly ash),
metal smelting or iron/steel manufacture. Rock magnetic evidence as to
origin provides indications of its magnetic grain size and domain state
46 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.19. (a) Refolded iron formations, Chitradurga schist belt, SW of Tekalvatti.
These are about 2.5 billion years old and are possibly formed by microbial activity
(GSI memoir, 24). (b) Iron oxide ooids in a silty matrix from an iron oolite, as seen
in thin section (Cornell and Schwertmann, 2003). (c) Banded iron formation found
in many parts of southern India. (d) Iron oxide formation by atmospheric weathering
of a pyrite vein in a limestone belt (Cornell and Schwertmann, 2003). (e) Field
photograph showing black sand (mostly magnetic minerals) deposit at the mid
foreshore section of a Harwada beach, Karnataka. The sand particles range in size
from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. Below the range of sand particle is the silt and clay fractions.
Silt ranges in diameter from 0.0039 mm to 0.0625 mm, whereas anything less than
0.0039 mm is categorized as clay. (f) Field photograph showing alternating bands of
light and heavy (magnetic) mineral layers in a vertical section of Harwada, Karnataka,
beach scarp. This ‘banding’ is caused by the process of ‘hydraulic equivalence’ (Photo:
Hanamgond).
(chapter 7). Magnetite is also formed biogenically by a wide variety of

organisms like bacteria, algae, insects, birds, mammals and humans.
Some of the magnetotactic bacteria synthesize magnetite and greigite
particles from soluble Fe (Fig. 2.20).
(ii) Identification: Two of the most distinguishing and diagnostic properties
are its TC (580°C) and the Verwey transition, TV (–150°C), which marks
the change in crystallographic distribution of Fe cations (Fig. 2.21).
Figure 2.20. Transmission electron micrograph of bacterial magnetosome chains,

formed intracelluraly by magnetotactic bacteria (Han et al., 2007).
Figure 2.21. Different types of low-temperature magnetic susceptibility behaviour.

Paramagnetic minerals, cation-deficient magnetite, Fe oxide grains with ilmenite
lamellae, and SP hematite show a decrease in susceptibility on warming from liquid
nitrogen temperatures, SSD magnetite and maghemite have an almost constant
relationship with temperature, MD magnetite shows a peak associated with Verwey
transition at 120 K (–150°C), and SP/SSD and Ti-rich (MD) magnetite all show an
increase on warming (Radhakrishnamurty, 1993).
48 Geomagnetism
During this change, the previously cubic crystallographic framework

gets slightly distorted to monoclinic symmetry. This is quite a subtle
effect, but it alters the crystalline anisotropy resulting into many changes
in magnetic as well as some of its other properties. It has a higher
saturation magnetization 92 to 93 Am2/kg (Appendix 2.1).
The coercive force of bulk samples is quite low and hence is generally not
considered to be a magnetically stable material. However, when it is very fine,
in terms of particle size, it has a high magnetic stability making it an important
carrier of stable remanence. Also, its coercivity is dependent on grain size with
maximum coercivity of 0.2 T.
It is a common component of igneous rocks (its amount increases with
basicity) and of metamorphites (preferred occurrence in the katazone); skarns
contain a high proportion of magnetite. It frequently occurs as a detrital mineral
in sedimentary rocks. The metamorphism of magnetite generates lepidocrocite,
limonite, hematite or maghemite. It is black in colour, of semi-metallic gloss
and has a characteristic brown colour when viewed in reflected light. Magnetites
of different forms and shapes are shown in Fig. 2.22a-e.
Maghemite (JJ-Fe2O3): It is an oxidized (low temperature oxidation, LTO at
<200°C) analog of magnetite and is common constituent of soils and deep sea
sediments. In the basaltic rocks, it commonly forms at low temperatures of 200
to 300°C. In the sedimentary environment, and in soils, it forms by LTO of
smaller particles of magnetite in the presence of moisture. It can also be formed
in laboratory by heating various minerals such as pyrite to 400°C or lepidocrocite
to 250°C. Maghemite is also known to be the source of some of the remanent
magnetism found in fine-grained sediments. It is chemically unstable and on
heating to ~300°C or more converts to hematite. Hematite has the same chemical
composition, but has the spinel structure of magnetite. Hence, to avoid confusion,
hematite is designated as D-Fe2O3, and maghemite as J-Fe2O3.
Identification: It is ferrimagnetic and has a saturation magnetization of 83.5
Am2/kg. It frequently forms a component, e.g. of oxivulcanites or laterite soils.
The clear identification of magnetite and maghemite is difficult in many rocks
because of similar magnetic properties and structure. It does not show phase
transitions below RT unlike magnetite, and remanence at a given low
temperature decreases monotonously on warming. Pure maghemite has a
distinctive breakdown of magnetization on heating. But, after heating between
500 and 600°C, it appears to be completely destroyed as can be clearly seen
from the difference between the heating and cooling curves depicted in Fig.
2.23. Maghemite, however, does not always convert to hematite on heating.
The presence of certain impurities helps to stabilize the maghemite structure.
Its TC is not possible to measure directly because of its thermal instability. It is
reported that its TC lies somewhere between 545° and 675°C. It can be
recognized under the microscope in reflected light at high magnification by its
blue colour.
Figure 2.22. (a) Magnetite is magnetic, hence the name. Its crystal structure is
octahedrons, eight sided or dodecahedrons, twelve sided. It also occurs in massive
form and does not have cleavages, though it has octahedral pentin. (b) Magnetite crystals
in the octahedral form. They crystallize in the cubic system and are iron-black in colour
(http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/class.htm). (c) Magnetite crystals
embedded in a host rock (http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/magnetit/
magnetit.htm). (d) Magnetite in talc-chlorite schist. The octahedral shape of crystals is
distinct (Milovsky, 1982). (e) Micro photograph of magnetite mineral grains taken
under polarised light (Magnification100).
50 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.23. Saturation magnetisation-temperature curve for maghemite showing

decrease of magnetisation on heating and cooling (Strangway, 1970).
Titanomagnetites: Titanomagnetite is the most common terrestrial natural

magnetic mineral. The titanomagnetites (Fe3-xTixO4 for 0 x 1) are cubic
(spinel) iron-titanium oxides at room temperature. Titanomagnetites tend to
form a solid-solution series at higher temperatures (>800°C) during rapid rather
than slow cooling of the magma. In practice, however, naturally occurring
solid-solutions have TC <200°C, so that any thermal remanence is likely to
have low stability as the maximum associated relaxation times are only some
102 to 105 years. Figure 2.24 shows variation of TC with compositional changes
for titanomagnetites, while Fig. 2.25 illustrates their alteration mechanisms.
Figure 2.24. Variation of Curie points with composition for titanomagnetites

(Radhakrishnamurty, 1993). Notice how the Curie temperature falls with increasing
Ti content.
Figure 2.25. Schematic diagram showing the evolution and alteration of primary
titanomagnetite from mid-ocean ridge basalt. Here the magnetite is formed by two
different processes. The first stage of oxidation (paths 1 and 2) would give rise to
titanomagnetite slightly depleted in Ti with a very low Curie temperature. (a) to (b)
Primary titanomagnetite was first subjected to oxidation-exsolution during initial
cooling. (b) to (c) The depleted titanomagnetite host in ulvöspinel then experienced (1)
true exsolution of ulvöspinel (TM~87) lamellae or (2) another stage of oxidation-
exsolution with formation of fine ilmenite lamellae. In path 1, ulvöspinel also formed
within the ilmenite as a result of reduction reaction. (c) to (d) With the onset of
hydrothermal alteration, the Ti-bearing magnetite recrystallized to end-member
magnetite with loss of Ti (Shau et al., 2000).
Titanomagnetite and the proportion of Ti tend to be higher in basic rather

than in acidic rocks. Oxidation at higher temperatures (>600°C) during cooling
results in conversion of magnetite, whilst at lower temperatures (<400°C),
oxidation produces titanomaghemite. Stable single-phase oxides exist for the
composition parameter x between 0 (magnetite) and 0.96 (Fig. 2.18). The TC
falls almost linearly with increasing x (Fig. 2.24). A TC of ~150–200°C is
characteristic of stoichiometric Fe2.6Ti0.6O4 or TM60 (x~0.6), which is the
primary titanomagnetite in rapidly cooled basaltic lavas. TM60 is the dominant
magnetic mineral in submarine basalts and in subaerial basalts. Unoxidized
titanomagnetites typically have compositions TM60-TM70. Ti-rich titano-
magnetites have only a local significance in sediments, where the eroded
material from volcanic rocks is readily available. Titanomagnetites of
intermediate compositions are found relatively less frequently in nature than
those close to magnetite and TM60, respectively.
Ulvöspinel (Fe2TiO4): It occurs in volcanic rocks, whose magnetic minerals
are often rich in Ti. The structure is similar to that of magnetite, except that one
of the Fe ions is replaced by Ti. The result is that it no longer behaves as a
ferrimagnet, but becomes antiferromagnetic because there are an equal number
52 Geomagnetism
of Fe ions in the two sublattices. It has a TN estimated at 120 K (–153°C). The

important feature is that it forms a solid-solution series with magnetite, so that
intermediate members have properties between those of magnetite and
ulvospinel. If Ti is present in magnetite, then the TC is reduced and the saturation
magnetization also decreases. In many volcanics, Fe-oxides with TC <580°C
are present and their exact Ti content can be studied by measuring the TC.
Hematite (D D-Fe2O3): It belongs to the trigonal system. It has a rhombohedral
structure and is basically antiferromagnetic, but can carry superimposed weak
ferromagnetism, often referred to as ‘parasitic ferromagnetism’. Its slight
departure from antiparallelism (spin canting) turns hematite into a weakly
ferromagnetic mineral with a spontaneous magnetization 2.5 kA/m. Its small
net saturation moment of ~0.4 Am2/kg results primarily from a spin canting.
Another mechanism that can produce a magnetic moment is presence of defects
or impurity atoms in the hematite crystalline lattice. Since hematite is much
less strongly magnetic than magnetite or maghemite, the two latter minerals
dominate the NRM in the case when concentration of these minerals is
compared.
(i) Origin: Hematite is the most stable Fe oxide in oxidizing conditions. It
occurs in large amounts in sediments, e.g. in Permo-Carboniferous
sandstones, in red beds and in some highly oxidized volcanic rocks.
When present as fine grains (<~1 m), it has a distinctive blood-red
colour giving red beds their distinctive colour or large grains (usually
>10 m) of detrital origin referred to as specularite. It is black, dark red
in colour and semi-metallic gloss (Fig. 2.26a-c) and shows a characteristic
streak (Fig. 2.26d), which is its diagnostic property. It is formed as the
end product of prolonged oxidation of magnetite, inversion of maghemite,
dehydration of weathering products like goethite, and precipitation of
ultra-fine-grained hematite cement or red pigments from Fe-rich solutions
in pore spaces of clastic sediments.
(ii) Identification: It displays a low volume susceptibility of ~250×10-5
(SI), but a high coercive force. Hematite is more thermally stable than
magnetite. The TC of ~675°C (Fig. 2.27) coincides with the TN at which
the antiferromagnetism disappears. However, TC 725°C is occasionally
observed, which is generally attributed to defect ferromagnetism. At
–15°C, it undergoes a structural transition, Morin transition, wherein
the directions of preferred spin orientation changes leading to a loss of
spin canting. As a consequence, its intrinsic weak ferromagnetism
disappears. As in the case of the Verwey transition in magnetite, this
property can be useful as a means of detecting hematite in rocks. The
magnetic coercivity is strongly dependent on grain size with peak values
of 3.5 to 6.5 T, for SSD sized particles (grains ~1 to 3 m in dia). But it
is virtually non-magnetic, when in particle sizes of <0.2 m. Under
supergeneous conditions, it changes to goethite, limonite and siderite
and at a temperature of 1390°C into magnetite.
Figure 2.26. (a) Well-developed rhombohedral crystals of hematite. (b) Name hematite
comes from the Greek, ‘hema’ meaning blood. It comes in two forms: red and gray
(http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/hematite.htm). (c) Hematite is an
important ore of iron and comes in many forms like hematite rose, tiger iron, kidney
ore, oolitic hematite and specularite. (d) The colour of hematite may be black, red or
brown, but it always leaves a reddish streak when scratched along a ceramic plate.
Streak is the colour of a mineral’s powder (Press and Siever, 2002).
Figure 2.27. The thermomagnetic curves for hematite are somewhat variable, mainly
because the fields applied are not capable of saturation magnetization of the specimen.
The curves tend to be flatter for higher applied fields. Such increases can be diagnostic of
the presence of hematite, although such curves also indicate the growth of new magnetic
minerals. The intensity of magnetization is conventionally in arbitrary units, because the
actual concentration of ferromagnetic minerals is usually not known (Tarling, 1983).
54 Geomagnetism
Titanohematites: Minerals intermediate in composition between hematite

(Fe2O3) and ilmenite (FeTiO3) give rise to a second solid-solution series called
the titanohematites (D-Fe2-yTiyO3) (Fig. 2.18). The rhombohedral titnohematites
are often referred to as hemoilmenites. Compositions close to both hematite
and ilmenite are quite common in igneous rocks, while truly single-phase
titanohematites of intermediate composition (y~0.5–0.7) can be preserved by
rapid cooling of pyroclastic rocks and have the property of acquiring self
reversed TRM. With an increase in substitution of Fe by Ti, there is linear
decrease in TC, often leading to TC below RT (Fig. 2.24).
Ilmenite (FeTiO3): Ilmenite (Fig. 2.28a-b) is the other common rhombohedral
mineral that occurs in nature. It is not magnetic at RT, but becomes
antiferromagnetic at –216°C. Though ilmenite is very common in igneous rocks,
it cannot be used to determine the natural magnetization. In many volcanic
rocks, the content of Ti is high, and the Fe-Ti minerals formed are a mixture of
magnetite and ulvöspinel. As cooling proceeds, the ulvöspinel becomes
mineralogically unstable and tends to oxidize to form ilmenite and magnetite.
Figure 2.28. (a) Ilmenite crystallizes in the trigonal system. Crystals are thick, tabular
or lamellar, commonly as embedded irregular grains. The name is derived from Ilmen
mountains in the Urals (http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/ilmenite/
ilmenite.htm). (b) Micro photograph of ilmenite grains taken under polarized light.
Note the presence of well developed crystals (Magnification×100).
II. Iron Sulphides and Magnetic Properties

Iron and sulphur combine in various ratios to form a number of distinct minerals.
Iron sulphides can vary in composition from troilite (FeS) to pyrite (FeS2), but
troilite is very rare in terrestrial rocks, although common in meteorites and
lunar rocks. Pyrite (Fig. 2.29) is common in sedimentary rocks, affected by
diagenesis. Pyrite has a cubic structure and is paramagnetic at RT. Troilite has
a monoclinic (pseudohexagonal) structure and is a perfect antiferromagnetic
material with TN of 320°C. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) may be antiferromagnetic
or even slightly ferrimagnetic in a high temperature cubic phase. Other Fe-S
minerals (mackinawite, smythite) are often considered metastable in ambient
conditions.
Figure 2.29. Iron pyrite, also known as ‘fools gold’ because of its brassy yellow colour.
It tends to form in cubes. Pyrite is derived from the Greek word, pyr, meaning ‘fire’
(http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sulfides/pyrite/pyrite2.jpg).
In the Fe reduction conditions, fine-grained magnetite and other oxides

tend to dissolve and reform as sulfides, especially pyrite. As a result, anoxic
sediments are often basically nonmagnetic. But, under sulphate reducing
conditions in muds and rapidly deposited sediments, greigite and pyrrhotite
may be preserved. In this sense, authigenic iron sulphides, viz. greigite, are
more common in saline than in freshwater environments (Fig. 2.30). However,
iron sulphides may be produced in freshwater sediments in an eventuality of
oxygen deficient regime. But, they exist in metamorphic and magmatic rocks
as well. Of a variety of iron sulphides occurring in nature, only greigite and
pyrrhotite received lot of attention in rock magnetism.
Greigite: The Fe sulfide greigite (Fe3S4) is the ferrimagnetic cubic mineral.
Its crystal structure is comparable to magnetite in which sulfur replaces oxygen
atoms. It was thought to be rare in nature, but now is known to occur widely in
both freshwater and brackish/marine environments as well as in organic, gleyed
soils developed as a result of water logging and lack of oxygen and even peat.
It also occurs as magnetosomes originating from magnetotactic bacteria living
in sulphur-rich environment.
Greigite is unstable during heating to temperature >200°C, precluding direct
determination of its TC. On initial heating, a major drop in magnetization and
magnetic susceptibility is generally observed between ~250°C and 350°C,
which forms often diagnostic of the presence of greigite. Typical properties of
greigite are: (i) a TC close to 330°C, (ii) no evidence of a reversible Curie
56 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.30. Stability fields of iron sulphides in anaerobic acqueous solutions

representing average marine conditions, depicted by concentration of sulphide ions
(pS–) versus oxidation state. The placement of ferrimagnetic iron sulphides, greigite
and pyrrhotite, in the centre of the stability diagram illustrates that their stability fields
are limited with respect to pyrite, siderite and iron oxides. The formation of pyrrhotite
and greigite would be favoured at intermediate pH’s in the presence of lower dissolved
sulphur activity (Snowball and Torii, 1999).
Figure 2.31. Pyrrhotite crystallizes in the hexagonal system. The name comes from
the Greek ‘pyrrhos’, meaning fire coloured, reddish (http://mineral.galleries.com/
minerals/sulfides/pyrrhoti/pyrrhoti.jpg).
temperature, (iii) maximum unblocking temperatures in the range 270–380°C

and (iv) presence of distinct stable SD properties and coercivity values ranging
from 13 to 67 mT.
Pyrrhotite: It crystallizes in many forms (Fig. 2.31) and is a common accessory
mineral in basic deep-seated igneous rocks, amphibolites and contact-
metamorphosed sediments. Its high susceptibility can produce large magnetic
anomalies, helpful in mineral prospecting. Natural pyrrhotite is actually a
mixture of Fe-deficient monoclinic Fe7S8, which is ferrimagnetic and Fe-rich
antiferromagnetic hexagonal phases such as Fe 9S10, Fe10S11 and Fe11S12.
Monoclinic Fe7S8 has a few missing Fe2+ ions in its lattice structure, giving
rise to a cation-deficient ferrimagnetic like maghemite. It has spontaneous
magnetization of ~17 Am2/kg and TC of 320°C. It is magnetically highly
anisotropic and its volume susceptibility amounts to values of the order of 10-1
(SI). Pyrrhotites richer in iron than Fe7S8 undergo crystallographic O transition
or J transition at temperatures between ~180 and 220°C, above which they
exhibit ferrimagnetism having TC ~265°C. The Curie temperature for different
compositions of hexagonal pyrrhotites varies between 210 and 270°C. The O
transition is diagnostic of hexagonal (Fe-rich) pyrrhotites. Monoclinic Fe-poor
Fe9S10 has no O transition, but does have a low-temperature transition in
remanence and coercivity at 30–35 K.
III. Iron Hydroxides, Oxyhydroxides and Their Magnetic

Properties
Hydrous iron oxides are produced commonly by weathering of iron-bearing
rocks in ambient conditions. They are ubiquitous in marine sediments. Iron
oxyhydroxides are often collectively called limonite. This group contains
goethite, akaganeite and lepidocrocite (respectively D, E and J-FeOOH).
Goethite: Orthorhombic goethite (D-FeOOH) is yellowish brown to red in
colour (Fig. 2.32). It is typically formed as a weathering product and is the
stable Fe oxide in soils and sediments of humid climates. Most goethite is
antiferromagnetic with a TN of ~120°C. Below its TN of 120°C, goethite is
extremely magnetically hard, requiring fields in excess of 10 T to reach the
magnetic saturation. When it is heated >120°C, it acquires a weak, but very
stable TRM on cooling in a magnetic field. On heating, goethite dehydrates at
~300 to 400°C and forms hematite.
Akaganeite (E E-FeOOH): It is not so common in nature and has a TN between
–163 and 22°C (110 and 295 K) below RT. Hence, is of very little importance
in the study of natural remanence. On heating, it dehydrates to form hematite
at 450°C.
Lepidocrocite (JJ-FeOOH): It is brownish in colour and orthorhombic in
structure. It is less common than goethite. It has a TN of –196°C and so cannot
carry remanence on its own at normal temperatures. On heating, it breaks down
58 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.32. Stalactitic goethite, named after German poet and philosopher I.W. Goethe.
It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. Crystals are small, tabular, acicular, and
compact in stalactitic masses (http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/goethite/
goethite.htm).
to form maghemite at 250 to 300°C. The maghemite so formed is unstable and

this in turn breaks down to hematite at ~400°C. Soil scientists prefer the term
ferrihydrite.
Magnetic mineralogy defines the geological and climatological setting of
its formation because of which its study is important in palaeomagnetism and
environmental geomagnetism. The instability of minerals also provides clues
to magnetic decay products obtained at certain temperatures. Magnetic
properties can further be studied through a few diagnostic parameters defined
by a hysteresis loop.
2.6 HYSTERESIS LOOP

Apart from temperature, magnetization of magnetic substances also depends
upon the magnetic field induced, which is best displayed by a hysteresis loop
(Fig. 2.33a).
The hysteresis loop is used as a diagnostic tool to identify certain magnetic
minerals in their purest form, or in combinations. When a piece of Fe is
magnetized, its magnetization increases on application of the field, and the
magnetization returns close to zero on removal of the field. On applying a
stronger field, beyond a critical field called the coercive force, the magnetization
is no longer reversible. It retains some remanent magnetization. On subjecting
Figure 2.33. (a) A general hysteresis curve showing different parameters. (b) Hysteresis
loop for SSD (dashed line) and MD (solid lines) magnetite grains. (c) Hysteresis
loop for hematite (dashed line) and mixture of hard and soft minerals (solid lines).
to extreme applied field in one direction, and then in the opposite direction,
and back again, a loop is formed called hysteresis loop. This loop is different
for different grain sizes of the SSD or MD type (Fig. 2.33b), and for different
magnetic minerals, e.g. soft magnetite and hard hematite as shown in Fig.
2.33c.
The hysteresis loop defines some of the most important magnetic
parameters such as saturation magnetization, saturation remanence, coercivity
and coercivity of remanence. After application of sufficiently high magnetic
field, the sample acquires saturation magnetization. Removal of this field
leaves the sample with its saturation remanence. But, if the original field is
insufficient to achieve saturation, then the representation is just in terms of
remanence. Application of a reversed field to saturation remanence eventually
leads to a point, where the overall magnetization equals zero. The field
necessary to achieve this is called the coercive force. However, to arrive at a
point where the sample has zero remanence after the removal of magnetic
field, a somewhat stronger reverse field is required. This is called the
coercivity of remanence. Thus, these four key elements are used as diagnostic
tools to identify the magnetic minerals, their grain size and concentration. It
is important to note that paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals do not exhibit
hysteresis loops.
2.7 MAGNETIC MATERIALS, DOMAIN STATES AND

GRAIN SIZES
Hysteresis properties are closely related to the arrangement of magnetic domains
and spin moments. The concept of domains was invoked by Peter Weiss to
explain the magnetized and demagnetized states of a ferromagnetic body, the
process of magnetization in low fields, and the hysteresis phenomenon. Such
material exists by splitting itself into many domains, each spontaneously
60 Geomagnetism
magnetized in easy directions (Fig. 2.34), ultimately rendering the domain

magnetization to be overall zero. Felix Bloch, 1952 Nobel Prize winner, further
suggested that zones of finite thickness separated the magnetic domains called
the domain (Bloch) walls.
I. Domain Formation
Magnetic domains form to reduce the energy of the system. Consider a large
uniformly magnetized single crystal (Fig. 2.34) of a ferromagnetic material
with its spontaneous magnetization along an easy axis coinciding along its
length rather than its width. Due to the free surface poles, a demagnetized field
arises as indicated by the extraneous lines to the crystal. The demagnetization
energy (magnetostatic energy), which is proportional to the square of the
magnetization, can be approximately halved if the magnetization splits into
two domains magnetized in opposite directions. This brings (+) and (-) charges
closer together, decreasing the spatial extent of the demagnetizing field (Fig.
2.34). However, the boundary region between two oppositely (or at 45°)
polarized domains, is called domain wall, and some energy is associated with
its formation. The minimum energy state for the crystal is an equilibrium state
of domains and domain walls.
Figure 2.34. Schematic illustration of the break up of magnetization into domains: (a)
single domain, (b) two domains (PSD), (c) four domains (MD), and (d) closure domains
(http://www.magnets.bham.ac.uk/ magneticmaterials/domains.shtml).
This subdivision into more and more domains cannot continue indefinitely
because the transition region between domains (domain wall) requires energy to
be produced and maintained. Eventually, an equilibrium with number of domains
is reached for a given particle size. It is very difficult to experimentally determine
the dimensions of the domain and Bloch walls, but theoretical and observational
factors indicate that these walls in magnetite are some 0.1 m thick, and the
domains themselves are ~0.1 to 0.05 m thick. They may possibly be even >1.5
m thick in hematite. However, individual domains in natural substances are
likely to be very variable. This variability could be the result of the presence of
impurities, and defects in the crystal lattices and other such factors.
II. Domain Status and Critical Grain Sizes

Magnetic domains are otherwise called as magnetic grains. Another control on
domain status is the volume of the magnetic grain. Ferro(i)magnetic grains
which can subdivide into many domains with walls between them are called
MD. When the grain size is of the order of wall thickness, it cannot support a
wall and will be a SD grain. The SSD size range is from <1000 Å (or wall
thickness) down to a diameter equal to a few times the lattice constant of the
material, and these grains are referred to as fine particles. However, thermal
energy has a special effect on the fine particles, which were first investigated
theoretically by Neel in 1948 in connection with magnetization process of
rocks. The transition from SD to MD status is not sharply defined; it is marked
by grains with intermediate domain configurations but which exhibit SD-like
properties, hence are termed pseudo SD (PSD). The response to magnetization
(and demagnetization) is greatly influenced by the domain status. Large MD
grains respond to relatively low magnetic fields, while SD grains require high
fields. SD grains have thus greater magnetic stability or are magnetically harder
than MD grains.
III. Relaxation Time

Domain structure is fundamentally linked with the relaxation times and magnetic
properties of a mineral. When a magnetic field is applied to an SSD particle,
there is usually a component of the field that lies along one of the easy directions
of the domain. The direction of magnetization within the domain tries to ‘flip’
into the direction of this easy axis. This flip, however, is possible only if the
internal energy barriers of the domain particle are exceeded. The energy required
for this flip comes from the applied magnetic field. In strong fields, the flip
occurs almost immediately on application of an external field. In weak fields,
the magnetic energy may be insufficient to cause a flip until thermal vibrations
allow the internal barrier to be exceeded. Temperature can be taken as a statistical
measure of thermal vibrations. Hence, a few electrons, at any one time, have
sufficient energy to exceed the energy barrier. If the domain is then kept at the
same temperature, all electrons eventually exceed the internal energy barriers,
and the domain takes up an alignment along the easy direction that has a
component in the direction of the applied field. The time taken by a domain to
acquire magnetization with a component in the direction of the external field is
the relaxation time. Each domain thus has a specific relaxation time.
The size and concentration factors of four magnetic domains are explained
by magnetic properties such as frequency dependent susceptibility, coercivity,
and remanence, which are illustrated below.
Stable single domain: The theoretical range of SSD size in magnetite is narrow
(0.03 to 0.1 m), whereas it is larger for hematite (0.03 to 15 m). An SSD
grain is characterized by (i) strong magnetization because all its spin moments
are parallel, (ii) high coercivity, because Bext must cause all the spontaneous
62 Geomagnetism
magnetization to rotate away from easy direction, and (iii) relatively low
susceptibility. The magnetization of a SSD particle is very stable, and has
relaxation time of more than 1000 Ma (Fig. 2.37). SSD grains can be very
efficient carriers of remanent magnetization, and thus play an important role in
palaeomagnetism.
Pseudo-single domain (PSD): When the grain size is larger (0.1 to 20 m)
than SSD with more than one domain (<2 or 3 domains), it is referred to as
PSD. Grains in this range can have substantial magnetic moment. These grains
can be important carriers of palaeomagnetic records in deep sea sediments.
Multidomain: Magnetic grains larger than a few m (>20 m) in diameter
with more than two domains are the MD particles. The domains are separated
from one another by ~0.1 m thick region called the domain wall. They are
magnetically soft and easy to impart a remanent magnetization. These grains
exhibit anisotropy in magnetism, and used in studies determining anisotropy
of magnetic susceptibility (AMS). An MD grain has: (i) smaller coercivity,
since Bext gradually aligns various domains in its direction, and (ii) relatively
high susceptibility.
Superparamagnetic: SP grains, discovered by Neel in 1955, are extremely
fine-grained magnetic particles (<0.03 m). SP behaviour strongly depends on
temperature, and is paramagnetic at RT. They exhibit ferro and ferrimagnetic
properties of SSD grains at lower temperature. The magnetization of SP particles
can align very quickly with an external magnetic field, giving them a high
susceptibility (at low frequency) than SSD and PSD grains. For magnetite, the
smallest grains <0.03 m (for spherical shape) with short relaxation times
of <150 sec are SP. At RT, the SP to SSD transition for magnetite occurs at
0.03 m.
IV. Magnetic Grains of Magnetite

However, the actual size of magnetic grains that make up the MD, PSD, SSD
and SP is very much a function of the mineral in question. In magnetite, direct
microscopic observations indicate that two-domain patterns, in particular PSD,
persist up to ~10-6 m, whereas to accommodate ~10 domains, a grain of some
10-4 m may be required. It must be borne in mind that the distance between
atoms in solid Fe is ~3×10 -10 m, and the wavelength of visible light is
~5×10-7 m. Domain behaviour can be illustrated by mapping out the various
fields on a plot of grain size versus grain shape (Fig. 2.35).
V. Bulk Magnetic Properties

Magnetic properties of materials in bulk are studied to understand the domain
states of magnetic grains. A pictorial summary of the basic bulk magnetic
properties such as hysteresis and thermal variation of magnetization and
susceptibility is given for different domain states in Fig. 2.36. The basic point
to remember is that both MS-T and F-T curves of a sample containing SP
Figure 2.35. Size-shape regions for various domain states in magnetite. The lowermost
curve represents a relaxation time of 100 sec. The lower dashed curve (short dashes) is
similar to the curve below it but is calculated for a relaxation time of 4.5 billion years.
The upper dashed curve (long dashes) was calculated from a simple energy balance
model, whereas the solid line with the open circles results from a full 3D micromagnetic
calculation. The SP, SSD and PSD fields are indicated (Evans and Heller, 2003).
Figure 2.36. Theoretical assumed (or expected) magnetization curves with magnetic
field (a, b, c), and with temperature (d, e, f) for samples containing large multidomain
(MD), small superparamagnetic (SP), and optimum single domain (SD) particles
distributed in a nonmagnetic matrix. Intensity of magnetization (M), saturation intensity
of magnetization (MS), uniaxial anisotropy (UA), crystalline (or cubic) anisotropy (CA),
magnetic susceptibility (F), and Curie temperature (TC) (Radhakrishnamurty, 1993).
64 Geomagnetism
particles can show a concave curve rather than the convex type usually shown
by ferro(i)magnetic materials (Fig. 2.36d-f).
VI. Remanence Acquisition and Temporal Scales

A magnetic mineral can acquire remanence by various means pertaining to
thermal and chemical activity. An SSD particle of constant diameter, on cooling,
shows an exponential increase in relaxation time as it cools from a temperature
at or below its TC. Similarly, a tiny particle, as it grows at a constant temperature,
shows an exponential increase in its relaxation time. Just below the TC, the
larger SSD particles have relaxation time of the order of a few minutes (Fig.
2.37), enabling to measure their remanence. However, the smaller particles,
since they have shorter relaxation times, become rapidly randomized by thermal
fluctuations. On cooling to RT, the larger SSD particles have relaxation times
of the order of many thousands or millions of years. The smaller particles,
however, show a range of relaxation time, some of which may be of the order
of a few seconds. Such fine-grained particles behave paramagnetically. It means
that they have a high susceptibility in an applied magnetic field, which decays
rapidly on removal of the Bext. The temperature at which a relaxation time
rapidly increases to geological times is called the blocking temperature (Fig.
2.37).
Figure 2.37. The relationship between temperature, volume and relaxation time of a
titanomagnetite. The behaviour as the grain size changes from SSD to MD is very
strongly controlled by the presence of imperfections in the crystal lattice and makes
actual physical determinations difficult to measure. The estimated values are thus shown
dashed. The onset of such MD behaviour may also take place at smaller grain sizes
than indicated here (Tarling, 1983).
Figure 2.38. Illustrative of the relationship between blocking temperature and coercivity
for magnetite and hematite. Magnetite generally has a lower coercivity and blocking
temperature range than hematite. These properties are strongly influenced by grain
sizes and specific composition, defects, etc. in the titanomagnetites and ilmenohematites,
so that the ranges of both properties can overlap each other (Tarling, 1983).
Remanence can also be acquired during the phase of crystal growth that
takes place at a constant temperature. As the crystal grows after nucleation, it
behaves initially in an SP manner. On further growth of the crystal, an
exponential increase is seen in its relaxation time until it reaches its blocking
volume, the size at which the relaxation time is 500 seconds. Further growth
sees an exponential increase in its relaxation time until it reaches dimensions,
where MD behaviour commences. In hematite, the blocking volume at RT is
of the order of 0.03 m, but it is not so well defined in titanomagnetites and
titanomaghemites (Fig. 2.38). They probably have a blocking volume of 0.015
to 0.04 m. The transition from SSD to MD behaviour is even less well defined,
but probably occurs well >1 m in both the cases.
VII. Alternating Field (AF) Demagnetization

There are various types of remanent magnetizations that are strong functions
of grain size. Of these, thermal remanence (TRM) and isothermal remanence
66 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.39. Distinguishing properties of (a) stable single domain (SSD) and
(b) multidomain (MD) particles (Tarling, 1983).
(IRM) are commonly used in determining effective magnetic grain sizes. The
grain size of SSD and MD particles can be determined, and identified by quite
a few distinguishing factors. The first distinguishing factor is that the SSD
grains that have acquired thermal remanence in a field of <1 mT show a greater
stability to AF demagnetization. But, if they had saturated by a large magnetic
field at RT, then they exhibit less stability to AF demagnetization (Fig. 2.39).
The second distinguishing factor is that on comparison of the SSD and MD
composition, it is seen that SSD particles exhibit greater stability to
demagnetization after being thermally magnetized in a weak magnetic field,
while MD particles show a lesser stability if the field in which they are cooled
is decreased.
2.8 GENESIS OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD AND ITS

DYNAMO EFFECT
EMF is produced by convective motions of the highly electrical conducting
core metallic fluid, i.e. by a core dynamo. Dynamo action requires a core to be
at least partly fluid. Earth metallic core is partially solidified as a result of the
cooling of the core over geologic time, according to seismic exploration of the
Earth. Dynamo action occurs in the molten outer core, causing it to be in a
state of perpetual dynamic ferment. A dynamo is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The dynamo of the Earth is self-
sustaining and self-perpetuating.
The factors responsible for the generation of EMF, the causes behind its
changing nature, the subsurface zones that sustain the field, and the trail of
anomalies that have been left behind, are issues of great scientific interest.
Geomagnetists reckon high temperatures, pressures, and the rotational
differences between various layers of Earth make it work eternally. The molten
Fe of the outer core under intense temperature and pressure gets churned up
under the rotational influence of the Earth, setting off into motion the electrical
currents. The pre-condition for the emergence of these electrical currents is the
presence of innate magnetic field. The electrical currents thus produced then
continuously reinforce the already existing magnetic field, and will keep on
producing as long as the Earth has a searingly hot belly and its rotation around
itself continues. This active geodynamo is responsible for generating almost
90–95% of the total EMF, and the magnetization of the uppermost lithosphere.
Since electricity and magnetism are commonly generated by means of
dynamo, the mechanism by which EMF is created, is known as geodynamo.
Permanent magnetism does occur in the crustal EMF, and contributes a small
and relatively static contribution to the main internally generated magnetic
field, the core field. There are also external components of the magnetic field
measured at the Earth’s surface. They can be distinguished from the internal
core field partly because they vary on a much shorter timescale. The origin of
these external fields is in the Earth’s ionosphere, where charged particles in
the solar wind interact with the upper atmosphere. Since solar magnetic activity
changes on a timescale of a few days, short bursts of activity known as magnetic
storms and substorms can be detected in magnetic observatories (Chapter 5).
As the external components of the EMF are not part of geodynamo, they are
not discussed further here.
I. Geodynamo: Models and Mechanisms

Many geodynamo theories have been formulated to explain magnetic field
creation. Faraday proposed his ‘Faraday disk’ (Fig. 2.40a), while Walter
Elsasser, Arthur Schuster, and Patrick Blackett tried to find mathematical
solutions to the dynamo problem. Recently, Gary Glatzmaier and Paul Roberts
proposed a 3D, self-consistent numerical model of the geodynamo (Fig. 2.40b).
Earlier, Stanislaw Braginsky provided a mechanism, which was also endorsed
by Edward Bullard. Dynamo experiments have been performed in laboratories
as well. Lowes and Wilkinson performed an interesting experiment, wherein
they spun two Fe cylinders, each representing an eddy, inside a container of
mercury, at right angles to each other. At a certain point when the angular
velocity reached an exceedingly high value, the magnetic field jumped to a
higher plane. They considered this point to be the initiation of dynamo action.
Along with such laboratory experiments, mathematical simulations using high-
speed computers have also been used to understand the dynamo process (Fig.
2.40c).
Although the dynamo theories and experimental outcomes partially help
to understand the genesis of EMF, there are still some aspects about it that
cannot be satisfactorily explained. For example, it is found that the field
weakens on a decadal scale by ~1%, and in some places its pattern rotates
~1° relative to the Earth’s surface. Also, these models fail to account for the
magnetic reversals. This backdrop suggests for a couple more mechanisms,
apart from the dipole component (Fig. 2.41a), that contribute towards
generating the EMF. It is conjectured that the quadrupole (Fig. 2.41b) and
octupole (Fig. 2.41c) units add to the EMF. However, the nondipole input
68 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.40. (a) Faraday’s original apparatus of disk dynamo that produced electrical
current by moving a magnet (Hamilton, 1991). (b) Three-dimensional magnetic field
structure portrayed through lines of force plotted out to the surface of the modelled
Earth (Glatzmaier and Roberts, 1995). (c) Magnetic field is generated by the action of
a ‘dynamo’. It is assumed that an electrically conducting metallic liquid of the core
flows in screw-like rollers. The lines of force in the magnetic field thread through these
rollers. A single such line (green colour line) is depicted which goes from the north to
the south (http://geomag.usgs.gov/intro.html).
Figure 2.41. (a) The dipole component of the magnetic field. It has one ‘positive’ and
one ‘negative’ pole. (b) The quadrupole has two ‘positive’ and two ‘negative’ poles.
(c) The octupole has four ‘positive’ and four ‘negative’ poles.
turns out to be very sparse, and probably responsible for the secular variation
of the magnetic field.
II. Magnetic Fields in Extraterrestrial Bodies

With an active dynamo, magnetic fields in planetary bodies like Earth and
Mercury arise from magnetic material because of induced magnetism in the
ambient field, and their earlier acquired remanent magnetism. Magnetic fields
observed on the Moon and Mars in the absence of an active dynamo must be
due to remanent magnetism only. These fields due to remanent magnetization
or palaeomagnetic fields have been investigated with satellite-based surveys.
In addition, samples brought to Earth by the Apollo missions from the Moon,
and those that have come to Earth from the Moon, Mars, and asteroids in the
form of meteorites provide additional palaeomagnetic data.
2.9 WEGENER AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT

The foregoing sections dealt with changing magnetic field at the equator, poles
and so on leading to certain queries such as whether these changes are real or
perceived or have they been changing for long or have they started to change
now. To know more, the theory of continental drift, proposed by Alfred Wegener,
needs to be understood. He published this radically new idea in 1915 in a
German book titled ‘the origin of continents and oceans’. Wegener, possibly
by serendipity (like Plachet, Francis Bacon and du Toit before him), noted that
the coastlines bordering the Atlantic ocean ‘fit’ together rather well (Fig. 2.42a).
It was later shown by Carrey and Bullard that the edges of the continental
shelf (Fig. 2.42b) fitted even better. Wegener proved the ‘unity’ of continents
by fossil and geological evidences to declare all continents to be closer together
in remote past, but are far apart now because of ‘migration’. Wegener’s theory
was not accepted readily and met with stiff opposition, especially from the
geophysicists, most notably Jeffreys. It was argued that the continents cannot
drift, since they floated on a viscous material, which offered stiff resistance for
any perceived movement. In fact, Wegener was considered something of a
70 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.42. (a) The close ‘fit’ of eastern coastline of South America with the western
coast of Africa (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1994). (b) Schematic of different geomorpho-
logical oceanic features.
crank, who failed to secure a university position anywhere in Germany. It was

in Graz, Austria, that he ended up as a Professor. Wegener died in Nov 1930, at
the age of 50, on a polar expedition, where he was struck by inclement weather.
Continental drift theory, however, created a dichotomy in the geomagnetic
world on whether the landmasses or magnetic poles wandered. It also put a
doubt on whether the pole reversals were a fantasy or a reality. Scientists
reconciled to the idea of magnetic polarity reversals through an important
‘event’. Wegener’s idea had not died out with him as some of his ardent
supporters like du Toit kept the legacy alive, and by 1950 the scientific
community had come around to accept his idea. This trick was done by the
unravelling of magnetic banding (a reflection of magnetic polarity reversals)
Figure 2.43. Magnetic banding, a reflection of polarity reversals, observed across

the mid-Atlantic ridge. Note the increase in age towards the flanks from the centre of
the ridge.
encountered across the mid-ocean ridge in the Atlantic ocean (Fig. 2.43), which
opened up the field of palaeomagnetism.
2.10 PALAEOMAGNETISM: AN INDIRECT

MEASUREMENT OF PAST GEOMAGNETIC FIELD
Because of EMF, magnetic particles in rocks or sediments orientate themselves
relative to the ambient magnetic field. Based on magnetic properties, rocks are
distinguished as highly magnetic, weakly magnetic and nonmagnetic. Generally,
weakening of magnetic properties takes place with a decrease in the basicity of
rocks in the order: ultrabasic, basic, acidic, terrigenous and biogenic.
Geomagnetically, all these types are of immense practical importance, since
the EMF influences various magnetic constituents in them. Consequently, they
are magnetized by induction in the main field becoming sources of anomalous
magnetic field (crustal magnetic anomalies in Chapter 6). Majority of crustal
rocks possess natural remanent magnetization (NRM), which substantially
differs in magnitude and direction from the induced magnetism. Studies of
NRM directions of rocks help in recovering the history of EMF, essentially
forming the subject matter of palaeomagnetism. NRM is a marked feature of
basic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro and peridotite, and red coloured
continental sandstones.
Volcanoes of cone or fissure type are the conduits through which the magma
(molten rock) pours out on the surface of the Earth. For example, the Deccan
trap basalts that cover the entire Maharashtra, and some parts of Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, and Karnataka are the products of volcanic activity that
occurred about 40–60 Ma ago. The lava that solidifies, and cools below the TC
gets magnetized in the prevailing magnetic field direction. This direction then
Figure 2.44. (a) In igneous rocks, the magnetic grains ‘freeze’ the direction of
magnetization during their solidification below the Curie point as shown by a big arrow
representing the ambient Earth’s field direction. Remanent magnetization can be preserved
in sedimentary rocks. (b) Magnetic grains that settle through water get deposited on the
floor, such that their internal magnets become aligned in the direction of the prevailing
magnetic field. (c) Magnetic material is being precipitated in the pore spaces between
detrital grains, which get aligned in the prevalent magnetic field direction.
72 Geomagnetism
gets ‘locked’ or ‘frozen’ in the solidified rock, which it retains for ages (Fig.
2.44a).
In case of sedimentary rocks, individual magnetic minerals torn off from
the parent rock are transported to depressions and basinal areas. When these
magnetic minerals settle at the bottom of the basin, they preferentially get
oriented in the prevailing EMF direction (Fig. 2.44b, c).
The same picture holds true for metamorphic rocks as well. However,
some metamorphic rocks like the granulites, charnockites and gneisses of
southern India have undergone quite a few episodes of metamorphism by virtue
of repeated tectonic events. Consequently, the magnetic minerals portray the
ambient field of the last phase of metamorphism, if at all any coherent signatures
are obtained. The palaeomagnetic signatures are usually chaotic in the higher
metamorphic rocks. One can, of course, obtain stable directions from low grade
metamorphic rocks, like the metamorphic carbonates of the Tethyan Himalayas.
The ferrimagnetic minerals in a rock acquire a stable magnetization. By
measuring the inclination of these particles, the latitude of rock formation can
be deduced (Chapter 7). The magnetic directions thus obtained make sense as
a whole, only if continents have moved relative to each other over the past 200
Ma, helping to reconstruct the original configuration of continents. The
palaeomagnetic results supported the hypothesis of continental drift, and paved
way for modern concepts such as seafloor spreading, and plate tectonics.
I. First Reports of Magnetic Reversals: An Unexpected Bonus

Magnetic signatures are chaotic and confusing in some rock types, but are still
the only property of the Earth that stays put for a very long time. Delesse in
1849 carried out the first elaborate studies of magnetic properties frozen in
volcanic rocks, and later by Melloni in 1853. They concluded that volcanic
rocks acquire magnetization on cooling. Further, Folgerhaiter by the end of
nineteenth century declared that volcanic rocks did not just acquire
magnetization on cooling, but they acquire it parallel to the EMF. At this time,
some magnetic reversals were also reported. A magnetic reversal is a
phenomenon, whereby the north magnetic pole turns to a south magnetic pole,
and vice versa. It does not mean that the Earth turns upside down, but only
means that the alleged magnet, the dipole, ‘reverses’ its direction of polarity
inside the Earth (Fig. 2.45).
However, the acceptance quotient, at least for reversals, was absolutely
zero during the close of nineteenth century. Since the majority of the then
scientific community found it difficult to visualize continents moving across a
rigid mantle; palaeomagnetic studies in those days were carried out exclusively
for geomagnetic configuration of the field, and not for confirmation of
continental drift.
II. Fisher’s Statistics, Approximation of Geocentric Axial Dipole

The palaeomagnetic confirmation of continental drift came much later, with
Hospers, who in 1949 joined the Cambridge University to work on his doctoral
Figure 2.45. Computer simulation of a magnetic reversal. At top, blue field lines are
directed towards the north pole, over a period of time reversal sets in (centre), and on
complete magnetic reversal (bottom), blue field lines are directed toward south pole
(http://www.windows.ucar.edu /tour/link=/glossary/ mag_field_ reversals.html).
thesis. Initially he worked on measuring the magnetic signatures of basaltic

rocks of Iceland with the help of spinner magnetometer, an instrument designed
by Vincenz (Chapter 4), and found two significant directions that were exactly
180° apart. These results were then shown to Runcorn, who in turn took Hospers
to Fisher, the professor of genetics at Cambridge, also the progenitor of
universally used statistics on spheres.
Fisher had formulated his famous ‘Fisher’s statistics’ in 1928, but the
methodology had been kept in cold storage (he published it in 1953). Fisher
revived this model exclusively for Hospers data that enabled Hospers and many
others after him, to consolidate their extensive data into a compact form. Hospers
on applying the Fisher’s statistics got an amazing result: no matter what the
sign of the directions of the magnetic field were, when averaged over tens of
thousands of years, it approximated closely to that of a geocentric axial dipole.
This result meant that the palaeopoles which Hospers derived were of
geomagnetic field that resembled the one generated by a dipole situated at the
centre of the Earth (which coincided with the geographic poles).
74 Geomagnetism
III. Apparent Polar Wander Path and Confirmation of

Continental Drift
The course of above developments intrigued many regarding what these
palaeopoles represented. Did they mirror the movement of the poles or the
movement of continents? What moved them? Drawing up the apparent polar
wander (APW) path devised by Creer in 1954 solved this puzzle.
The magnetic directions deciphered in a rock of known age give the pole
position. Rocks formed at about the same time will have the same pole position
while those formed later have another pole point. Connecting these points
together defines a curve that actually describes the APW. The Earth is made up
of many tectonic (lithospheric) plates in a state of constant motion relative to
each other. This factor puts a powerful constraint on delineating the pole
position. If all the continents had the same APW path, then they had not moved
at all relative to one another. This was the theory of ‘fixism’, which was in
vogue those days. But, if each continent had its separate and distinct path, then
it would be taken as an evidence of movement of continents relative to one
another.
Earl Irving got interested into this problem and decided to use the situation
of India to test palaeomagnetically the veracity of continental drift. Irving chose
India because the movement of Indian plate has been essentially along a
longitudinal path (Fig. 2.46a). Wegener had predicted that the Indian plate
moved from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere, which Irving
most easily confirmed by calculating the palaeopoles. Thus, this method gave
Figure 2.46. (a) The northward migration of Indian plate. (b) Northward drift of India
as inferred from pole positions from different formations found at TAL (Talchir), KMW
(Kamthi near Wardha), PCH (Panchet), MNG (Mangli), PMR (Panchmarhi), RT
(Rajmahal trap), TRP (Tirupati), DT (Deccan trap), DSDP (Deep sea drilling project
cores), SIW (Siwalik). The major northward drift of India really started after the onset
of Rajmahal trap activity, about 100 Ma ago. Till that time, it was mostly latitudinal
(Verma, 1989).
a physical basis of calculating large continental displacements. Further, it was

observed and confirmed that the fossils and palaeomagnetic records within a
single continent agreed well with each other. Consequently, by 1950, continental
drift was shown to be a reality by employing the palaeomagnetic technique.
The northward (N–NE) drift of India as inferred from pole positions is illustrated
in Fig. 2.46b.
IV. Polarity Reversals and Mechanism of Self-Reversal

In a polarity reversal, there is an exchange of poles. Lawrence Morley of Canada
developed interest in magnetic prospecting in 1939, and was well versed in
aeromagnetic and remanent magnetism of rocks. During his time, Runcorn
dealt with magnetic reversals on altering the directions by 180° to derive the
pole positions. Balsley and Buddington, on the other hand, opposed the idea of
periodically reversing EMF. Instead, they rooted for a mechanism that triggered
‘self-reversals’, i.e. magnetization in a direction opposite to EMF within the
rock. Balsley opined that the self-reversing rocks had two main forms of
ferromagnetic minerals with two differing TCs. When the magma having these
two ferromagnetic minerals solidified, the minerals with a lower TC trapped in
the demagnetizing field of the other ferromagnetic mineral. On complete
cooling, if the ferromagnetic mineral with a lower TC has a stronger magnetic
moment than the other, it leads to reverse magnetization. In June 1954, a
palaeomagnetic conference was arranged in Idyllwild, Los Angeles, to which
Morley was invited. This meeting was arranged ostensibly to deliberate on
whether the reversely magnetized rocks portrayed the actual reversal of the
EMF or was it just a manifestation of a self-reversing process. However, nothing
concrete came out of the meeting as many held on to their known traditional
positions.
In 1958, Morley came in contact with Larochelle, who demonstrated that
the mount Yamaska volcanic plug near Montreal was negatively polarized. At
about the same time, the oceanic floor was also being actively explored
magnetically and many, like Mason and Raff, had found out magnetic banding
to be an obvious and regular feature of the ocean floor. These disclosures aroused
indefatigable curiosity in the mind of Morley, who became obsessed with finding
an explanation to the regular banding pattern (Fig. 2.43). Deep down he knew
that there was some fundamental property or character that related the origin
as well as the geological structure of ocean basins. Remember, Morley was
accustomed to chaotic magnetic signatures obtained over the continents which
hardly display any clear-cut pattern. Combining his expertise gained through
diverse disciplines, it did not take him long to realize that the positive and
negative banding were the result of remanence. However, the generators and
accumulators of this magnetic data, like Raff and Mason, had not indulged in
any speculation nor was any explanation for this banding offered.
Morley was frantically searching for an explanation, and once while
perusing through the literature on ocean basins, an idea hit him out of the blue.
76 Geomagnetism
It occurred to him that somehow, in one way or the other, this banding was
related to the east Pacific ridge, because the banding was unmistakably parallel
to the ridge. For more information, Morley referred to Dietz’s paper on ocean
floor spreading. While going through the paper, Morley was struck with the
explanation. In the very own words of Morley, ‘I reckoned, if the rocks at the
mid-ocean ridges were rising from depth, they would become thermoremanently
magnetized in the direction of the Earth’s field prevailing at that time. They
would then spread laterally in both the directions towards the continents,
according to Dietz’s theory. A million or so years later, the Earth’s field would
reverse, and in this way, a positive and negative banding pattern would
gradually be built up. From this moment (December 1962), I never had any
doubts about the concept. It locked three theories together in a mutually
supporting way: the theories of continental drift, ocean floor spreading, and
the periodic reversing of the Earth’s field’. Morley, in one fortuitous stroke of
serendipity, cracked one of the long held mysteries of nature. However, the
real credit for explaining magnetic banding has gone to Vine and Mathews,
since they published their results before Morley could.
2.11 MECHANISM OF MAGNETIC BANDING

To understand the phenomenon of magnetic banding, the concept of seafloor
spreading together with the continental drift needs to be brought in. Hess and
Deitz proposed the hypothesis of seafloor spreading in 1960. According to
them, a new seafloor formed at mid-oceanic ridges by the lava that came out,
and the older seafloor went down the trenches. In simplest form, one can
visualize a part of seafloor with a huge opening. This crack developed because
it is right up on the surface below which the convection current is in full swing
(Fig. 2.47, the top Gilbert reversal epoch).
At this opening, the convection current brings up magma from the mantle
and oozes it out. On reaching the surface, this magma solidifies into a basaltic
rock. While it cools, the magnetic minerals automatically align in the prevailing
EMF. Since the process of convection is still operating, it breaks the solidified
basaltic rock formed over the opening into two and spills out yet another dose
of magma. When this hot magma cools, it ‘freezes’ into it the magnetic minerals
that have aligned in the then existing EMF (Gauss normal epoch in Fig. 2.47).
This process of the magma coming out of the opening, and breaking the pre-
existing basaltic rock into two, and also pushing the broken parts away from
each other continued for thousands and millions of years. When looked at this
opening after those many years, an incredible symmetry is found on either side
of the opening. Close to the opening, on both the sides, the age of the basaltic
rock is the youngest because it formed last. At the farthest end from the opening
are the oldest rocks, since they formed first, at the very beginning, giving rise
to a symmetrical pattern of magnetic polarities—normal and reverse on either
side of the opening.
Figure 2.47. When magma comes to the surface and solidifies, magnetic minerals
align in the prevailing direction of the Earth’s magnetic field. The solidified material
then breaks into two and moves away on either side of the crack. The ejected material
containing magnetic minerals, align in the then existing magnetic field, during the
course of cooling, giving rise to alternate ‘normal’ and ‘reverse’ magnetic stripes (Press
and Siever, 2002).
Seafloor spreading, magnetic reversals: The interconnected concepts of

magnetic reversal and sea-floor spreading share an intimate relationship to
understand which, it would be wise to start again with Wegener’s hypothesis
of continental drift that tells present-day separated landmasses were once a
single landmass, a ‘supercontinent’ (Fig. 2.48).
Wegener named this supercontinent Pangaea meaning ‘all Earth’, which
broke into two—the Gondwanaland and Laurasia. India, together with Africa,
South America, Antarctica and Australia was a part of Gondwanaland (Fig.
2.48). Incidentally, Gondwanaland is named after the tribe ‘Gonds’ found in
central India. Asia and Europe formed the Laurasia (Fig. 2.48). Gondwanaland
then again broke into a couple of more fragments. Wegener said that the
continents broke because of the centrifugal forces arising from the rotation of
78 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.48. The reconstructed position of continental outlines giving a view of the
postulated movements of the continental plates. The names Pangaea for the
supercontinent and Laurasia and Gondwanaland for the stage after breakup date back
to the time of Wegener (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html).
the Earth as well as the lunar and solar gravitational forces that forced the
movement of the continents towards the equator. This was not the case and the
reason attributed by Wegener was incorrect as was proved by his opponents.
The then prevailing notion was that the formation of mountains and valleys as
well as the folding and faulting of the crust was because of the contraction of
the Earth. The Earth to them was contracting because it was cooling. But in
reality, it is neither contracting nor expanding. However, the contribution of
both the opponents and proponents of Wegener’s hypothesis needs to be
Figure 2.49. Profile of convection currents active in the mantle. When two convection
currents come towards each other, they give rise to a subduction zone. When they
move away from each other, a mid-ocean ridge is formed.
appreciated. None of them had access to the global tectonic and deformation
processes that work within and outside the Earth.
This understanding came much later when the scientists of yore realized
that the progressive increase in pressure and temperature, which occurs down
the Earth, were quick to deduce the possibility that the conditions in mantle
made the rocks ductile—like a soft plastic. These intense conditions, they
reasoned, set in convection currents such that the warmer and hence lighter
material rose up and the colder denser material consequently dropped down at
the bottom (Fig. 2.49). One of the first to propose this convection model was
Arthur Holmes, the English geologist, who proclaimed continental drift is caused
by the convection currents operating inside the Earth.
2.12 PLATE TECTONICS AND SEISMOTECTONICS

It can be seen from Fig. 2.49 that because of convection currents, new crust is
formed at the mid-ocean ridge and the older crust is destroyed at the subduction
zone. Incidentally, the regions, where the crust is formed and destroyed, are
the lithospheric plate margins. There are three types of plate margins. The first
is the consuming/convergent/a destructive plate margin, where two plates collide
80 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.50. (a) Convergence between two continental blocks occurring between the
Indian plate and the Eurasian plate (http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/
understanding.html). (b) The Eurasian plate overriding the Indian-Australian plate has
created multiple thrusting and folding and double thickening of the continental crust
giving rise to the Himalayan mountain chain. (c) Off the coast of South America along
the Peru-Chile trench, the oceanic Nazca plate is pushing into and being subducted
under the continental part of the South American plate. In turn, the overriding South
American Plate is being lifted up, creating the towering Andes mountains. At this plate
boundary shallow and deep focus earthquakes occur. (d) Subduction of an ocean plate
beneath another ocean plate forms a volcanic island arc (Press and Siever, 2002).
(Fig.2.50 a-d) driven by convection currents in the upper mantle. The location
of destructive plate margins is marked by volcanic arc on the overriding plate,
which forms above the point at which partial melting commences. This type of
margin is characterized by subduction, whereby one plate is thrust under the
other due to collision of the plates. In this case, the crust either disappears or
gets tapered. An example is when the Indian plate collided with the Asian
(Eurasian) plate, the sediments in the Tethys sea lying between the plates
eventually crushed into lofty mountain ranges to form the Himalayas (Fig.
2.50). Earthquakes produced in the subduction zones worldwide have
hypocentral depths going to deeper levels to a few hundred kilometres.
The second type of constructive plate margin is the accreting divergent
plate margin formed due to the plates moving away from each other (Fig.
2.51a, b) in more or less opposite directions. As the plates are pulled apart,
the buoyant magmatic material from the mantle rises upward, thus constantly
adding a new material to the existing one. Mid-ocean ridges or the mountains
under the seas are formed at such margins. Mid-Atlantic ridge, Indian ocean
ridge, Carlsberg ridge, etc. are some of the well known examples of this type
of tectonic activity. Earthquake sources under the regions of such ridges have
shallow focal depths within ~50 km.
The third kind of plate margin is of the translational type (Fig. 2.52a, b)
and is commonly referred to as a conservative plate margin. This is so because
Figure 2.51. (a) Rifting and seafloor spreading along the mid-Atlantic ridge have created
a mid-ocean volcanic mountain chain and a coincident earthquake belt. (b) Initiation of
rifting and plate separation within a continent. Characteristic features are rift valleys,
with multiple normal faults, volcanism and earthquakes (Press and Siever, 2002).
82 Geomagnetism
Figure 2.52. (a) A conservative plate margin, which in this case has a transform fault
offsetting a constructive plate margin. (b) A section of the San Andreas translational
fault (http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html).
here two plates glide or graze past each other without creating or destroying
crustal material. Since no new crust is produced at this type of continental
margin, it can be described as amagmatic. Conservative plate boundaries
typically are formed in oceanic settings, and cause constructive plate margins
to be offset by tens to hundreds of kilometres along strike-slip (transform)
faults (Fig. 2.52a). The San Andreas fault in the western USA, which causes
frequent earthquakes, is a prominent example of this phenomenon. It is at this
kind of plate margin, and at the consuming (convergent) plate margins, that
earthquakes occur more in number and magnitude. At the convergent plate
margin, two huge blocks bump into each other in a head-on collision. The
brute force with which they collide generates shock waves all round; somewhat
similar is the case at the translational plate margin.
When two plates slide past each other, a lot of energy is generated because
of friction. The enormous sliding frictional force locks up the plates temporarily
in their position, thereby building up large elastic strain at the contact area.
Eventually, the competence of the plate material gets exceeded by the
progressively increasing stress, which results in the snapping or rupture of the
faulted segments releasing the accumulated strain energy in the form of
earthquake. After the stress drop (earthquake occurrence), the sliding plates
resume their normal motion and prepare for the next cycle of seismotectonics.
There is also some evidence on vertical thermal plumes originating in the mantle,
which may impinge vertical force on lithospheric plates giving rise to hot spot
activity, rifting and fragmentation of plates.
Thus, the interior of the Earth as well as its surface houses a plethora of
mysteries. The information of what lies far off in space is ample, but are quite
unaware about the happenings beneath us. The knowledge of what actually
goes on in the depths of the core and mantle that causes earthquakes and
magnetic field changes, is still eluding us. Why does the EMF change directions
from normal or reverse? As of today, nobody has a perfect clue to these
processes, although it is generally agreed that magnetic reversals are the results
of changing patterns of convection motions in the Earth’s outer core (Fig. 2.49).
Hence, the least known is that the CMB dynamics are somehow responsible
for changes in EMF. This field is not just confined to the surface of the Earth,
but extends far into space. How far and in what way is discussed in the next
chapter.
84 Geomagnetism
APPENDIX 2.1
Magnetic Properties of Minerals

Metals and Alloys
Mineral Composition Magnetic type Curie temper- Vs (Am2/kg)

ature TC (°C)
Iron Fe Ferromagnetic 770 218
Nickel Ni Ferromagnetic 358 55
Cobalt Co Ferromagnetic 1131 161
Awaruite Ni3Fe Ferromagnetic 620 120
Wairauite CoFe Ferromagnetic 986 235
Oxides

ature TC (°C)
Magnetite Fe3O4 Ferrimagnetic 575-585 90-92
Ulvospinel Fe2TiO2 Anti Ferromagnetic -153
Hematite -Fe2 O3 Canted 675 0.4
Antiferromagnetic
Ilmenite FeTi O2 Antiferromagnetic -233
Maghemite -Fe2 O3 Ferrimagnetic ~600 ~80
Jacobsite Mn Fe2 O4 Ferrimagnetic 300 77
Trevorite Ni Fe2 O4 Ferrimagnetic 585 51
Magnesioferrite Mg Fe2 O4 Ferrimagnetic 440 21
Sulphides
ature TC (°C)
Pyrrhotite Fe7S8 Ferrimagnetic 320 ~20
Greigite Fe3S4 Ferrimagnetic ~333 ~25
Troilite FeS Anti Ferromagnetic 305
Oxyhydroxides

ature TC (°C)
Goethite -FeOOH Antiferromagnetic, ~120 <1
Weak ferromagnetic
Lepidocrocite J-FeOOH Antiferromagnetic -196
Feroxyhyte G-FeOOH Ferrimagnetic ~180 <10
Vs = Saturation magnetization at room temperature
(http://www.irm.umn.edu/hg2m_index.html)
APPENDIX 2.2
Time Line of Reversals
(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/magnetic/timeline.html)
86 Geomagnetism
APPENDIX 2.3
Migration of Pole and Its Anticipated Position in 2050

Magnetic Field that Extends into Space 87
3
MAGNETIC FIELD THAT EXTENDS
INTO SPACE
The advent of balloons, rockets, satellites and space probes is of great help in
exploring external magnetic field and aeronomic changes. This study requires
sophistication achieved by USA, Russia, and European community. The
contribution by India is limited to the analyses and studies of these procured
satellite and space data. The geomagnetic surface data alone provide no clue,
unless the process of solar wind and solar plasma stream interactions with the
geomagnetic field are better understood and modelled. The cause in the form
of solar wind interaction produces various effects such as ring current, charged
particle diffusion, scattering and final precipitation in the auroral zone. Simple
Ohm’s law and Ampere’s law are at work in the production of various currents
and geomagnetic field changes on the global scale. The morphological changes
in the geomagnetic field play an important role in generating micropulsations
and accelerating charged particles by annihilating magnetic field at the X-type
neutral point in the geomagnetic tail.
Significant insight into the nature of changing geomagnetic field has been
obtained only during the course of the early twentieth century, after the advent
of the satellite era. While the major part of EMF emanates from within (the
main field), a small but potentially significant fraction (~1 to 2 per cent) has its
origin external to the Earth (the variation field), with the Sun as the main source.
Even as one is separated by ~150 million kilometres from it, continuous changes
in the thermal and magnetic state of the Sun are manifested in the EMF variations
down to fluctuations of even very small magnitude. At the same time, observed
variations of the surface magnetic field serve as a very useful diagnostic tool
for deciphering the transformation processes that occur in the vast open space
‘between the Sun and Earth’. Currents flowing in the ionospheric E-layer result
in transient variations of magnetic field that are fairly smooth. In contrast,
rapid and irregular variations are usually produced by charged particles of
88 Geomagnetism
solar origin. Geomagnetic field variations covering a wide range of frequencies

are also very useful in understanding the physical and chemical properties of
the interior of the Earth at different depths and provide clues to the locations of
nonrenewable resources (chapters 2 and 6).
Figure 3.1. (a) Ideally the magnetic field of the Earth defines symmetry. (b) Earth’s
magnetic field is roughly that of a bar magnet but the solar wind tends to contract from
one side (http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/Imagnet.html).
The lines of force of the dipole (main field) component of EMF leave the
Earth from its southern end to rejoin the globe at the northern defining symmetry
(Fig. 3.1). This sphere along with the magnetic lines of force can be cut along
its axial plane into two identical halves. However, in reality, this is not the
case. The magnetic field lines are contracted from one side (Fig. 3.2) and the
opposite side is stretched. The symmetry is lost because of the Sun. Of all the
celestial bodies, Sun is the sole source of light and energy that supports and
sustains life on Earth. However, if the EMF was not in its place, the Sun and
other celestial bodies would (probably) have extinguished the flames of life.
Sun emits visible and ultraviolet light, X-rays and charged particles, which
have deleterious effects on life. Magnetic field lines that flank the Earth deflect
the charged particles. This chapter focuses on the historical note of rocket-
borne–balloon experiments, aeronomy, ionospheric-magnetospheric interaction,
equatorial magnetic field and its solar-lunar characters, solar-interplanetary
parameters and their association with low latitude geomagnetic field variations,
electrojet-counter electrojet studies and low latitude scintillations/micro-
pulsations/airglow.
3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE:

TRADITIONAL VIEW
The invention of mercury barometer (Fig. 3.2) by Torricelli and Viviani led to
the discovery of finite weight of air, which was fourteen and seven tenths
pound/sq inch. It also later became known that temperature changes with height.
Figure 3.2. The mercury barometer (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1994).

90 Geomagnetism
But there isn’t any definite boundary to the atmosphere. It is transient, which
fades off gradually into far-off space.
To reach physically to a height of more than few kilometres is impossible.
In 1749, Wilson used a kite attached with thermometers to measure atmospheric
temperatures at different altitudes. The first balloon was launched in 1782 by
two French brothers Michel and Montgolfier. Three men reached an elevation
of 10 km, but only one, Tissandier survived. By 1892, however, unmanned
balloons with instruments went higher and came back with the data on pressure
and temperature conditions which revealed temperature dropped in the first
few miles in the sky. It was –55°C at 11 km, above which the temperature
increased slightly.
Traditionally, the Earth’s atmosphere has been studied by dividing it into
various regions based on temperature profiles, conductivity or electron density
(Fig. 3.3a). Each region is studied in isolation as far as the electrodynamical
processes are concerned. In initial years, it was thought that atmosphere had
two layers. Bort in 1908 named these two layers as troposphere and stratosphere
(Fig. 3.3b).
Troposphere: In Greek, troposphere means ‘the sphere of change’, and is the
most turbulent. It extends from the Earth’s surface to ~10 km. Stratosphere
means ‘sphere of layers’ and contains sublayers of lighter gases such as helium
Figure 3.3. (a) Different layers of atmosphere, with their temperature and density
profile (Asimov, 1979). 1 mile = 1.6 km. (b) Different layers of atmosphere with their
temperature profile.
and hydrogen. Sandwiched between troposphere and stratosphere is ‘tropopause’

meaning ‘end of change’. This was so-named because here the temperature
drops from an average of 20°C on the Earth’s surface to –60°C at the tropopause,
whose height varies from ~16 km above msl at the equator to just ~8 km over
the poles.
Stratosphere: It starts from above the tropopause (~10 km) and extends up to
stratopause (~50 km), where the temperature profile attains the maximum value
(Fig. 3.3b). Galactic cosmic rays are the prime source of ionization in this
region. The conductivity, which is roughly of the order of 10-14 S/m at the
Earth’s surface, increases exponentially with altitude in the troposphere-
stratosphere region; the main charge carriers being the small positive and
negative ions.
Ten kilometres is the upper limit beyond which man cannot survive without
oxygen. Hence, sealed cabins were designed, in which pressure and temperature
at the Earth’s surface was maintained, helping to touch the stratosphere. In
1931, Auguste and Felix reached a height of 18 km with the help of sealed
cabins. Later, lighter and plastic balloons enabled man to go even higher and
helped prolong his stay up there. A balloon named Explorer I went up to 21 km
in 1938. By 1960, however, manned balloons had gone as high as 34 km and
unmanned balloons almost to 46 km.
Rockets utility in space research: With the scaling of newer and higher
altitudes, the impermanency of constant temperature established itself. The
atmosphere above stratosphere was penetrated by rockets. The primitive form
of rocket was used by Chinese in the thirteenth century as a means to frighten
away the enemy. But, it was Tipu Sultan, who was the first to design and
develop rockets in Srirangapatna (Karnataka) for their use during the Mysore
wars waged against the British.
The World War II witnessed American ‘Bazooka’ and the Soviet ‘Katusha’,
which were basically rocket-propelled packets of explosives. But, the use of
rockets was not meant for just destructive purposes. At the fag end of the
twentieth century, an idea occurred independently to Tsiolkovsky and Goddard,
wherein they proposed the use of rockets to explore upper atmosphere and
space. The publications of these two launched an era of space research.
Telemetering was also a great help in this endeavour.
Telemetering: Telemetering measures a particular component like temperature
or pressure from a ‘distance’. For instance, it measures temperature in an
electrical impulse, which is transmitted back to the Earth’s surface, where it is
‘translated’ and then quantified. Molchanoff was the first to send the telemeter
to atmosphere enclosed in a balloon.
Mesosphere: By the potent combination of rockets and telemetering, it was
seen for the first time that above stratosphere at a height of ~48 km, the
temperature rose to a maximum of –10°C. It then again dropped to a low of
–90°C at 80 km height. Sydney Chapman coined the term ‘mesosphere’ in
92 Geomagnetism
1950 for this region, which witnessed the rise and fall in temperature. The
major sources of ionization in the mesosphere are the solar Layman-alpha
radiation, X-ray radiation and the intense auroral particle precipitation. The
conductivity increases sharply in this region. The main charge carriers are
electrons, positive ions (e.g. N2+, O2+, NO+) and the negative ions (e.g. O2-).
Thermosphere: This is the outermost region of the Earth’s atmosphere. It
extends from a height of 80 km to the outer edge of the atmosphere at ~400 km
above the Earth’s surface. Since it receives energy directly from the Sun, the
temperature in it rises from –95°C to ~400°C. Although the air is very thin, the
scattering of air atoms steadily increases in temperature to ~1000°C at 480 km
and above. Hence, this region is called ‘thermosphere’, i.e. ‘the sphere of heat’.
Above 480 km lies ‘exosphere’ which extends to as high as 1600 km and
gradually merges into interplanetary space. Spitzer coined the term ‘exosphere’
in 1949.
Ionosphere: On account of low air pressure, the UV rays and X-rays coming
from the Sun cause heavy ionization in this region. In other words, the
ionosphere, which starts from the top layers of mesosphere, overlaps the
thermosphere from 60 to ~500 km above the Earth’s surface. The D-region of
the ionosphere extends from ~60 to 90 km. The ionosphere proper (e.g. E and
F regions) starts from above the mesosphere, and extends to ~500 km. The
major sources of ionization in the ionosphere are EUV and X-ray radiation
from the Sun and energetic particle precipitation from the magnetosphere into
the auroral ionosphere. The current carriers are electrons and positive ions like
NO+, O+2 and O+. Electrical conductivity becomes anisotropic in this region
with parallel conductivity (with respect to geomagnetic field) exceeding the
transverse conductivities by several orders of magnitude.
Svante August Arrhenius’s genius: Arrhenius suggested that ‘ions’ were
charged atoms to explain the behaviour of certain solutions that conducted
electric current. He advanced this notion through his doctoral thesis in 1884.
But his idea of charged atoms was revolutionary since many were unaware of
charged particles residing within an atom. The electron was discovered in 1890,
which made phenomenal sense of Arrhenius’s doctoral thesis and was awarded
the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1903.
The discovery of ions in atmosphere came much later, made possible mainly
by experimental endeavours carried by Marconi with the wireless. Marconi on
12 Dec 1901 sent signals (Morse code) from Cornwall, England to
Newfoundland, Canada across the Atlantic ocean covering a distance of ~2900
km. The passage of the signal across the two cities baffled those who know
that radio waves travel only in a straight line. But the distance from Cornwall
and Newfoundland formed a curvature. The travel of radio waves in a curved
manner became an enigma for all scientists of the day. Just a year after the
Marconi’s experiment, in 1902, Heaviside and Kennelly suggested a layer of
charged particles situated high up in the atmosphere reflected the radio waves.
This layer was located in 1920, which has since been called the ‘Kennelly-
Heaviside layer’.
Discovery of Kennelly-Heaviside layer: Appleton discovered the Kennelly-
Heaviside layer, which reflected back radio waves. Appleton wondered on the
fading of the signal. Musing over it, he decided the fading occurred because of
interference of two versions of the same signal. He reckoned that if the fading
was to occur, there has to be a signal, which directly hit the receiver that was
released from a transmitter and the other reached the receiver via a circuitous
route by reflection from upper atmosphere. This second wave was a delayed
one and so was out of phase with the first one. They thus interfere with each
other partly canceling each other out causing the fading out of the signal.
Appleton located this reflecting layer by sending signals of a particular
wavelength, and found to be at 104 km. Appleton also noticed the radio signals
generally faded during night. He reckoned that shortly before dawn, radio waves
are not reflected by the Kennelly-Heaviside layer but are reflected back from
still higher layers, which begin at 224 km height. These are called the ‘Appleton
layers’, an honour as magnificent as the Noble Prize (physics) awarded to
Appleton in 1947 for these stupendous discoveries.
Ionospheric layers and space communication: Watson-Watt introduced the
term ‘ionosphere’ in 1930 (Fig. 3.3a). The electron density in the ionosphere is
especially very high in the region extending from 90 to 150 km. It is called the
Kennelly-Heaviside layer (D-layer) and above which at a height of 224 km is
the E-region. Another region in which electron density is very high extends
from ~250 to 350 km and is called Appleton layers (F-layers) – the F1 layer at
224 km and F2 layer at 320 km. F1-layer is the richest in ions, while F2-layer is
significantly stronger only during the daytime. The ionosphere reflects radio
waves ranging in frequency from 2 to 30 MHz. Hence, it plays an important
role in space communication. Electromagnetic waves of frequencies higher
than 30 MHz penetrate through the ionosphere.
Ionosondes: Most of the data on space communication have come from
ionosondes. For each concentration of electron densities, there is a plasma
frequency below which all radio signals are refracted back to Earth regardless
of the angle of incidence used. If the plasma frequency of the ionosphere is 5
MHz, then all radio signals transmitted vertically to the ionosphere that are <5
MHz return back to the Earth and all frequencies >5 MHz pass through the
ionosphere into space. It is this characteristic of the ionosphere that is exploited
to probe its properties through the ionosonde. An ionosonde is a device which
combines a radio transmitter and receiver capable of transmitting pulses toward
and above the ionosphere and receiving the same signal pulse as it returns
back to the receiver. The pulsed ionosonde works by transmitting a series of
pulses vertically upwards into the ionosphere, whereas the digisonde is highly
sophisticated pulse amplitude sounder. The ionosphere is also studied through
the chirp and oblique sounding methods.
94 Geomagnetism
3.2 STRUCTURE OF THE SUN: ASSOCIATION OF

SUNSPOTS WITH TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA
The Sun (Fig. 3.4) is the brightest star visible from Earth having surface
temperatures close to 6000°C with a magnetic field strength of 0.1 to 0.2 nT. The
Sun is entirely gaseous—a glowing ball of mainly incandescent hydrogen. Other
elements all in gaseous state are ~10 part hydrogen to 1 part helium with a pinch
of other elements like oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium and iron. The mass
of the Sun is ~2×1030 kg. The density of the Sun at photosphere is ~140 kg/m3,
the density increases as one goes inwards to the core or the centre of the Sun,
where the density is ~16000 kg/m3 or 10 times that of ordinary metal.
Sunspot formation and magnetic fields: Magnetic fields play a great role on
the Sun’s photosphere. When solar material over a small area gets highly
magnetized, a significant part of its thermal energy is converted into
magnetic field energy and its temperature falls to ~4000 K from its initial
value of ~6000 K. That is a sunspot (Fig. 3.4), an area of intense magnetic
field, less bright than the surrounding area and therefore relatively dark.
Sunspots greatly influence the electromagnetic state of the Earth.
The first features observed on Sun’s surface are credited to Galileo, Scheiner
and Fabricius. They observed the sunspots, which were first reported in 1609.
The observation of the sunspots was aided by the invention of telescope designed
Figure 3.4. Different features associated with the Sun.

by Galileo. Scheiner later invented a safe method to project the Sun’s image on
a screen, so that it did not pose any threat to health. However, large sunspots
are seen even with a naked eye. The initial enthusiasm for observing sunspots
waned after 1645 because the sunspots disappeared completely for almost 70
years when Sun-gazers lost interest and went on to explore other phenomena.
Heinrich Schwabe perseverance: Schwabe was interested in spotting an
unknown planet of the Sun. He tracked the planet that could be detected as a
dark spot while passing against the bright background of the Sun. He maintained
a strict vigil and kept a record of all the dark patches on the Sun. He observed
the Sun for 17 years. Although he did not find the elusive planet, with the
compiled observations that were at his disposal, he discerned a regular pattern
in the appearance and disappearance of sunspots.
He published his findings in an article entitled ‘solar observations during
1843’. Schwabe, however, found very few takers and none shared his excitement
except Wolf, who was greatly impressed by his systematic observations. Some
of Schwabe’s excitement rubbed off on Wolf, who himself started looking out
for sunspots. He collected all available sunspot data to devise the ‘Zurich sunspot
number’ a statistical measure that gave the 11-year sunspot cycle.
The turning point came when Humboldt laid his eyes on Schwabe’s article
and included an updated version of the same writeup in his ‘Kosmos’. This
proved to be a great impetus. It acted as a catalyst and inspired many researchers
to revive their interest in this neglected phenomenon. One such celebrated
researcher was Carrington. His book ‘observation of the spots of the Sun’
published in 1863 contained observations from 1853 to 1861. Carrington on
1 Sept 1859 saw two patches of intensely bright and white light break out on
the Sun. The patches grew in brightness that later faded out completely. What
Carrington had seen was a solar flare, which are the great bursts of flaming
hydrogen and these affect the Earth, the first inclination of which came to
Carrington himself. After no more than 17 hours from the solar flare of 1 Sept
1859, Earth was bathed in a magnetic storm. ‘This magnetic storm was recorded
at all the Indian magnetic observatories that were in operation and the data
are now used by national and international scientists to arrive at the intensity
of the solar flare of 1 Sept 1859’. The aurora produced by this storm was seen
as far away as Cuba. Generally the aurora is only visible in the nearby polar
region. Sabine also found an association between the sunspot cycle and
occurrence of large magnetic storms. Sabine identified the source of magnetic
storms with activity on the Sun.
Sunspot spectrum: Hale discovered the most prominent feature from the point
of view of studies on magnetism in 1908. He deduced that the sunspots were
greatly magnetic.
Newton in 1666 showed that light can be separated into a ‘spectrum’ of
colours by passing a beam of light through a triangular-shaped prism of glass
(Fig. 3.5), wherein it spreads out into a band made up of red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet light.
96 Geomagnetism
Figure 3.5. Newton showed that white light, on passing through a prism, split into
‘rainbow’ colours.
He also noticed that each colour faded gently into the other. By this
experiment, Newton showed that sunlight (white light) is a mixture of many
specific radiations. A prism separates (disperses) the colours because on passing
from air into glass and from glass into air, light is bent or refracted, wherein
each wavelength undergoes a different amount of refraction. The shorter the
wavelength, the greater is the refraction. The short wavelengths of violet light
are refracted the most, while the long wavelength of red light is refracted the
least.
Utility of spectral lines: Angstrom identified hydrogen in the Sun in 1862 by
the presence of spectral line characteristics of that element. Later, in 1868,
Janssen while observing a total eclipse of the Sun in India sighted a spectral
line that he could not identify with any known element. The line represented a
new element, and so Lockyer named it helium from the Greek word for ‘Sun’.
Using this principle of spectral lines, a spectrograph was designed by Deslandres
that produced photographic image of the Sun in a single spectral colour.
However, in white light the Sun presented a dull appearance (Fig. 3.6a).
Spectroheliograph, an improvement over the spectrograph, invented by
Hale, isolated light from higher layers in Sun’s atmosphere and revealed many
new features like the mottling of the surface, dark linear features and bright
areas near sunspot (Fig. 3.6a-c).
Zeeman effect and sunspot magnetism: Hale and his collaborators found the
first evidence of solar magnetic oscillation in their measurements of sunspot
spectra. During these spectral studies, they discovered certain absorption lines
in the spectra broadened and polarized. A strong similarity with absorption
lines obtained in laboratory spectra of magnetized gases was also revealed.
Zeeman, who in 1896 had discovered the ‘Zeeman effect’, studied such
magnetized spectra. The Zeeman effect is one, where the spectral lines
Figure 3.6. (a) A visible light photograph shows sunspots and bright areas called faculae,
on the Sun’s surface (http://www.eaas.co.uk/news/solar_features.html). (b) Sunspots
seen over the surface of the Sun (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1994). (c) Closer view of the
‘sunspot’ and the surrounding region. The fact that a magnetic field can occur in a hot,
molten or gaseous body is a powerful argument in favour of the dynamo theory (Tarbuck
and Lutgens, 1994).
98 Geomagnetism
(characteristic colours) of elements when emitted by a gas located in a magnetic

field, split into two or more components of slightly different wavelengths.
This separation is dependent on the intensity of the field as well. By analyzing
this effect, Hale and his associates determined the strength of the magnetic
field around sunspots to be between 100 and 400 nT, and also that these spots
occurred in pairs that resembled giant magnetic dipoles oriented roughly parallel
to solar equator. Hale’s further studies enabled him to discern the so-called 11-
year cycle to be actually the half of a 22-year solar magnetic cycle. During this
22-year cycle, sunspot groups reverse their polarity, wherein the switch occurred
at minimum activity.
Hale’s method of studying the magnetic field of sunspots and its adjoining
areas were greatly refined by others like Babcock and Leighton, who used
polarization of Zeeman lines and constructed a solar magnetograph. This
enabled them to delineate an approximate dipole field of the Sun, which is of
the order of 0.5 nT. Nevertheless, it was the confirmation of a long held view
that the Sun has a magnetic field akin to that of the Earth. The Sun’s magnetism
is identified to extend to a substantial depth into its interior.
Variation in sunspot number and solar activity: The number of spots on the
solar surface varies with time. Continuous observations for two centuries
established sunspots reach a maximum number every 11.2 years on the average
(Fig. 3.7a). Between, times of maxima, their number falls to a well defined
minimum. During maximum of the sunspot cycle, more than 100 spots are
seen on the Sun at a time. During sunspot cycle minima, very few spots are
seen on the Sun. At the beginning, a few spots or group of spots appear at
latitude of ±30° on the Sun. As the cycle progresses, the successive spots
originate closer to the equator and by the end of the cycle they are ±5° away
from the equator.
The sunspot number variation over the years 1601 to 1960 AD are computed
by Waldmeier in 1961 (Fig. 3.7b). Notable highs in sunspot numbers are seen
around 1725, 1780, 1840 and 1957. Since then, the highest activity seems to
have occurred in 1990, in the current phase of high activity. In contrast to these
notable highs in solar activity are extreme lows in activity. It was first pointed
out by Spörer, Maunder and Clerke in 1890, 1894 and 1894 respectively (Table
3.1). This was confirmed by Eddy and Stuiver and Quay in 1976 and 1980
Table 3.1 Solar activity events and approximate period
Event Start End

Oort minimum 1040 1080
Medieval maximum 1100 1250
Wolf minimum 1280 1350
Spörer minimum 1450 1550
Maunder minimum 1645 1715
Dalton minimum 1790 1820
Modern maximum 1950 Ongoing
Figure 3.7. (a) Variation of the annual mean sunspot number from 1610 to 1700. The
sunspots come and go on the Sun in an irregular cycle of ~11 years. (b) The Carbon-14
content in tree-rings is used to estimate the sunspot number of past centuries. The
graphs for the period 1700-1900 AD show that the value calculated from 14C content
tally quite well with the actual values observed. This graph suggests three defined
periods of very low solar activity ~1300, 1500 and 1700 AD, which are called
respectively the Wolf minimum, Sporer minimum, and the Maunder minimum (Stuiver
and Quay, 1980).
100 Geomagnetism
respectively from the examination of Carbon-14 abundances in tree rings.

The work of Stuvier and Quay shows clear periods of almost zero sunspot at
~1040, 1300, 1480 and 1680 (Fig. 3.7b). Eddy in 1977 using Carbon-14
technique extended the sunspot number back to over 7000 years. It is tentatively
attributed that these epochs of low solar activity coincided with ice ages on the
Earth.
Sun’s magnetic field: A magnetohydrodynamic dynamo operating in the Sun
is most likely responsible for producing solar magnetic cycle. This dynamo is
of the flux-transport type, which involves processes pertaining to generation
of toroidal fields by differential rotation called the :-effect, regeneration of
poloidal fields called the D-effect, and flux transport by meridional circulation.
Thus, they have two separate components, the poloidal and toroidal field.
Poloidal is a dipole field, which permeates the entire Sun and is closely aligned
with the rotational axis. At the surface, it is concealed by much stronger elements
of the toroidal field. The toroidal field, on the other hand, is wound from the
poloidal field by differential rotation at latitudes below ~35°, where they emerge
from the solar surface and are then carried polewards. An important feature of
solar magnetic field is that all flux is concentrated into flux tubes and that
these flux tubes are helically twisted into flux ropes. These concepts are helpful
in satisfactorily explaining the equatorward migrating sunspot belt and the
poleward migrating diffused fields. Lennard Fisk published a new model of
the Sun’s magnetic field and is quite different from other models. He suggested
the magnetic field lines look like a wild tornado (Fig. 3.8), wherein in the older
models they look like the path water takes while coming from a lawn sprinkler.
Fisk’s model takes into account the fact that the gases at the Sun’s equator
rotate faster than the gas at the poles and the Sun’s magnetic field is constantly
expanding. However, many knotty issues still remain unresolved with regard
to genesis of solar magnetic field.
Figure 3.8. Comparison of Fisk’s model to an older model (http://www.windows.

ucar.edu/tour/link=/headline_universe/fisk.html).
Plasma is an ionized gas (deuterium or tritium which are isotopes of hydrogen)

consisting of ions and electrons moving freely. It is found between stars and
planets, where it takes the form of the solar wind. The Sun’s atmosphere is
overwhelmingly composed of such plasma. High temperatures reside at the
surface of the Sun and its interior and because the gas is hotter at the Sun, its
atoms get converted to ion. When this ion recombines with an electron, it
reverts back again to being an atom. At lower temperatures, especially at Earth’s
atmospheric levels, this recombining phenomenon is possible because of which
there are changes in ionospheric heights. However, the chances for an ion to
revert back to its atomic state are slim in solar environment.
The plasma temperature in different layers of solar atmosphere like the
chromosphere, corona and solar wind (Fig. 3.4) is above millions of degrees
wherein the temperatures are even more than that observed at photosphere—
the layer that forms the Sun’s visible surface. These hot layers of the Sun are
responsible for its highly variable emissions of X-rays and of extreme ultraviolet
radiation (EUV) or the wavelengths between ~100 and 1000 Angstrom units
(1 Å=10-10 m). The chromosphere also emits a substantial fraction of the Sun’s
UV radiation at wavelengths between ~1600 and 3200 Å. The solar wind seems
to originate from areas of corona.
Auroras: High energy particles and intense electromagnetic radiations
from the Sun impinge on the Earth’s upper atmosphere and produce beautiful
optical displays known as aurora, which are recorded at MOs by significant
changes in the geomagnetic field components. The auroras observed at northern
(aurora borealis) as well as southern (aurora australis) polar regions are an
absolutely magnificent display of light with brightness and incredible splendour.
Figure 3.9 shows the aurora observed over Indian Antarctic station Maitri.
Auroral displays are reported as far back as 1759 and credited to Canton. The
aurora, however, does not occur exactly over the magnetic pole, but tends to
maintain a constant distance of ~2000 to 3000 km from the respective magnetic
pole.
The connection of auroral displays with the EMF was first noted by Celsius
in 1741. The light that descended down from atmosphere seemed to follow the
EMF. Birkeland in 1896 thought these auroras emanated by fast moving
electrons that hit the higher altitudes of atmosphere. He resolved to have an
experimental evidence for his reasoning. So he constructed a ‘terrella’, a
miniature model of the Earth. He kept this terrella inside a glass vacuum chamber
and directed an electron beam towards it. It travelled along the magnetic field
lines right up to the poles of the terrella. By the close of nineteenth century,
realization had dawned on the cognoscenti that auroral lights were associated
with solar activity. Birkeland guessed that they originated in beams of electrons
emitted from the Sun. In practical terms, he seemed to mean magnetic storms
occurred when there was a solar flare. The flare spewed out charged particles
and sent them hurtling towards the Earth. Birkeland, however, was wrong on
this count. Later research proved it is not just the beams of electrons that are
emitted from Sun, but there is something ‘more and continuous’ that is being
given out, which Chapman showed are the charged particles.
102 Geomagnetism
Figure 3.9. Pictures of (a) bright and (b) curtain auroras observed at Indian station
Maitri at Antarctica on 19 June 2003 (photo: Hanchinal).
Detection of solar wind and realisation of magnetosphere: Chapman

in 1931, while studying the Sun’s corona was greatly impressed by its
geographical extent. He tended to consider the charged particles that swarmed
over the Earth were in fact part of the corona. He visualized either the Earth
was moving around the Sun in very close proximity of its atmosphere or that
the corona expanded outwards continually. If the corona expanded incessantly
then it had to be perpetually renewed and rejuvenated at the surface of the Sun.
Thus, there would be continuous outflow of charged particles that streamed out
of the Sun in all directions. They then disturbed the EMF as they passed close
to it.
The veracity of the above supposition was reinforced by work carried out
in 1950s by Biermann. It was felt that the cometary tails were formed by the
pressure of light from Sun. The cometary tails, however, always point away
from Sun and increase in length as they approach the Sun. Biermann showed
that the light pressure alone was not responsible for producing cometary tails.
There was something else which had to be stronger and of the nature such that
it gave a ‘push’ to the cometary material to turn it into a tail. These were the
charged particles emitted out from the Sun. Parker went a step further and
announced his proclivity for a steady outflow of particles, with additional bursts
at the time of solar flares. It was Parker himself who coined the term ‘solar
wind’ in 1958 to explain this phenomenon (Fig. 3.10).
The world did not have to wait long for the confirmation of the solar wind.
The Soviet satellites Lunik I and Lunik II demonstrated their presence in 1959
and 1960, respectively. The American planetary probe Mariner II also confirmed
Figure 3.10. Solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field (Sagdeev and Kennel,
April 1991).
104 Geomagnetism
the presence of solar wind. This wind flows with a speed of as low as 260 km/sec
and as fast as 750 km/sec, but typically its speed lies about 400 km/sec, whereas
its density is more variable than the velocity, ranging from ~100 to 105 kg/m3.
Actually, it is the density fluctuations in the solar wind, which control the size of
the magnetosphere. The solar wind carries magnetic field of ~5 nT that lies near
the ecliptic plane in an Archimedean spiral pattern. The escape velocity of the
solar wind is 625 km/sec from the surface of the Sun and because the pressure
gradient falls off with radial distance more slowly than the gravitational force,
the solar wind is accelerated to supersonic velocities. The solar wind is not
confined to a small area, but fans out to a considerable extent in space. How far
was the task given to man-made satellites to probe the levels of radiation in the
topmost atmospheric layers and nearby space. They were also given the job of
grading the intensity of cosmic rays beyond the atmospheric domain.
To probe the existence of charged particles, the satellites were fitted with
Geiger counters, designed by Geiger in 1907, but later vastly improved and
provided by Van Allen and his team. The instrument, in essence, counts the
particles or the flux of radiation.
Van Allen radiation belts: The IGY was an exercise unparalleled in the history
of scientific cooperation, where more than 70 nations joined the endeavour to
study Earth— from within and outside. The IGY marked an 18-month period
from July 1959 through Dec 1958 spanning the period of maximum sunspot
activity.
The Soviets put Sputnik I that weighed 184 pounds into orbit on 4 Oct
1957. It carried with it instruments to determine and relay back to Earth, the
data on pressure and temperature conditions prevalent in the atmosphere. They
again sent another satellite Sputnik II into orbit on 3 Nov 1957. The US hastened
its efforts and put its first satellite, Explorer I into orbit on 31 Jan 1958.
Sputnik I did not carry any Geiger counter, but Sputnik II did. It rose to a
height of 1680 km. Vernov reported an increase in radiation rate between 500
and 700 km. This, as it turned out later, marked the fringes of radiation belt.
However, the significance of this finding was lost on Vernov. Explorer I took
to skies with a Geiger counter provided by Van Allen’s team. According to
Stoermer’s theory, cosmic ray intensity was expected to increase with magnetic
latitude. Its predicted counting rate was ~30 counts/sec. The counter detected
almost the same concentrations of particles as predicted for heights below 600
km. But, at higher altitudes the count dropped. At certain heights, the count
became almost zero. Explorer I had gone as high as 2520 km. The count reducing
to zero would have been dismissed as an aberration with either the counter or
the atmosphere, had the same pattern not been observed with Explorer III as
well (Explorer II had failed to orbit). Sputnik III had also experienced the
same phenomenon.
However Explorer III had carried with it a special tape recorder. Carl
McIlwain, an associate of Van Allen had shown experimentally that very high
particle fluxes would overwhelm the counter and consequently produce zero
counts. Van Allen and his colleagues reasoned that the count fell virtually to
zero not because there was little or no radiation, but because there was too
much. Hence, they fortified their old counters to handle heavy loads and
launched them again into space with Explorer IV on 26 July 1958. This satellite
reached the height of 2189 km and disclosed radiation intensity to be much
higher than what the scientists had expected. Further, the ‘Moon probes’
Pioneer I and Pioneer III reached 112,000 km and 104,000 km respectively
and showed two main bands of radiation. These radiation bands were named
‘Van Allen radiation belts’. However, they were later renamed ‘magnetosphere’
by Tom Gold in line with the names given to other sections of space.
Christofilos effect: Explorer IV was launched on 26 July 1958 to know how
far the magnetosphere extended, configuration of its structure, dynamical
processes operative in the region and to explore the newly discovered radiation
belt in greater detail. Also, under the project ‘Argus’, it was proposed to observe
an artificial radiation belt produced by exploding nuclear bombs in the Van
Allen region to release charged particles. This project was initiated to check
the ‘Christofilos effect’ and to know whether the effect really occurs.
Christofilos studied independently the motion of charged particles in
magnetic fields. He had predicted in 1957 the entrapment of charged particles
along the magnetic lines of force and sent his calculations to ‘experts’. However,
nobody paid much heed to his erudition. It was only when they themselves
arrived at the same results, they welcomed Christofilos into the California
University. His idea about particle entrapment is now called ‘Christofilos effect’.
To check out this effect, the USA fired three rockets in Aug and Sept 1958 with
nuclear bombs that were exploded into space at 480 km height.
After the explosions, the released charged particles spread out and were
trapped along magnetic lines of force. The charged particles took a joy ride
along the field lines and eventually ended up at polar regions to give rise to
feeble auroral displays. They also had disrupted the radar for a short while.
3.3 STRUCTURE OF MAGNETOSPHERE

Gilbert proclaimed Earth to be a giant magnet and the notion of field lines
forming symmetry was prevalent for a long time. This erroneous notion was
abandoned once the satellite data started pouring down to Earth, especially the
one sent by Explorer XIV and IMP I (interplanetary monitoring platform).
Unlike the atmosphere, the magnetosphere has a very sharp boundary (Fig.
3.11), which is called the magnetopause. The magnetosphere itself is caused
by interaction of solar wind and the geomagnetic field. The solar wind is
obstructed by EMF and finds it difficult to pierce through. But it is able to
‘squash’ it (Fig. 3.11). Thus, the observable result is the geomagnetic field on
dayside compressed to a distance of 10 RE. The opposite side of dayside, the
nightside extends to ~1000 RE and more, owing to pressure exerted by the
solar wind.
106 Geomagnetism
Magnetosheath: The solar wind defines a direct link between Earth and Sun.
The wind travels unhindered for millions of km and meets its first obstacle at
the EMF, which deflects most of the tiny particles that make up its constituents.
These deflected particles continue on their odyssey in a curved path called the
‘bow shock’ (Fig. 3.11). The particles cling along the field lines and gyrate
Figure 3.11. The expansive magnetosphere (http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/

earth/images/earth_magneto_gif_image.html&cdp)=/windows3.html&frp=/windows3.
html).
Figure 3.12. Trajectory of trapped particles through the magnetosheath

(http://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/traprad/motion.gif).
about it and also push the magnetic field in a long tail. However, some sneaky
particles leak through the magnetic barrier and are trapped inside. Some of the
solar particles also rush through funnel-like openings, called cusps, at the north
and south poles, releasing tremendous energy when they enter the atmosphere
leading to the magnificent play of auroral lights. The particles then follow a
trajectory path that goes round the Earth in a sort of cover or sheath called the
‘magnetosheath’ (Figs 3.11 and 3.12).
3.4 SOURCES OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

Thunderstorms are considered as the main source of electric fields in the lower
atmosphere comprising troposphere-stratosphere and mesosphere. The
thunderstorm activity produces vertical electric fields on a global scale. In the
ionosphere, the electric fields are produced by dynamo action. Atmospheric
winds and tides pull the weakly ionized ionospheric plasma across the
geomagnetic field. This movement produces electromotive force and generates
electric currents and fields. This is the ionospheric wind or Sq (for solar quiet)
dynamo. Solar wind/magnetosphere dynamo is the major generator of electric
fields in the magnetosphere.
Magnetospheric currents: The geomagnetists are sure now about the presence
of number of magnetospheric and ionospheric electrical current systems. Of
the magnetospheric currents, the first is the magnetopause current and the second
is the ring current which is closely associated with magnetic storms. During a
geomagnetic disturbance, the ring current has a global expanse, which flows
in the westward direction and encircles the Earth’s atmosphere over the
equatorial region (Fig. 3.12). Ring current particles are identified through
satellite-borne particle detectors in 1967. However, their signatures manifest
on the magnetographs and magnetometers stationed at MOs across the globe
in the form of magnetic storms. The third is the neutral sheet current, which
divides the magnetospheric tail into two lobes of oppositely directed fields.
The drifting plasma sheet particles provide energy and material for the initiation
and sustenance of this current.
Geomagnetic storms: A geomagnetic storm is caused by sunspots and eruption
of flares on Sun. The EMF that is continuously monitored at the MOs records
the dynamical processes occurring at Sun, Earth and the intervening space
between the two. For an event to be characterized as a magnetic storm, it should
clearly have three phases: the initial phase (also referred to as the sudden storm
commencement, SSC), the main phase and the recovery phase (Fig. 3.13).
Ionospheric currents: Some currents are also generated in the ionospheric
regions. In 1839, Gauss while interpreting the fluctuations that occurred in a
magnetic compass envisioned the fluctuations to be the handiwork of electric
currents in atmosphere. Later, Stewart in 1882 talked of a ‘great dynamo in the
sky’ in an article written for Encyclopedia Britannica. It was proposed that the
108 Geomagnetism
Figure 3.13. Magnetic storm recorded at Nagpur on 26-27 August 1998. Note the
sudden storm commencement (SSC), the initial rise in ‘H’ and then the steep decline.
currents were generated in the atmosphere by the dynamo action of airflow

across the geomagnetic field. Later research proved this to be correct. These
ionospheric currents mainly flow in E-layers and are generated by tidal
movements of ionized matter aided by solar heating (Fig. 3.14). This horizontal
current sheet lies at an altitude between 100 km and 150 km in a concentric
pattern over the Earth’s surface. These currents are a regular feature of
ionosphere irrespective of whether the solar wind is of quiet (Sq) or disturbed
type.
Focus of Sq current: The Sq current system consists of two loops. The first
hovers over the northern hemisphere and the second hangs in space of the
southern. These currents are confined to sunlit hours. The northern hemisphere
currents that define a loop, flow in an anti-clockwise direction while those in
the southern flow in a clockwise manner (Fig. 3.14). The centre of each of the
Figure 3.14. Solar daily magnetic variation on quiet days, over the day-time
hemisphere (left) and the night hemisphere (right) (Jacobs, v3, 1989).
loops is called Sq focus and is situated (at 35° latitude) on either side of the
equator. Sq focus and its strength change considerably from day to day or over
the seasons. The current intensity between consecutive field lines is ~104 Å.
Since these currents are tied with the Sun’s energy, they are absent during the
night time hours.
Equator to poles D, H and Z pattern: When variations in D, H and Z
components are examined at different stations from equator to either of the
poles, then a systematic variation is observed. D increases from equator to
high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, a reverse
trend is observed. This happens because in the northern hemisphere, the positive
D variation reflects the eastward magnetic field generated by southward current
that forms during forenoon hours. The negative D variation in the same
hemisphere reflects the westward directed magnetic field formed due to
northward current in afternoon hours. The H component increases systematically
in the positive direction from equator to Sq focus (35° latitude) and it decreases
from the Sq focus towards the pole in the northern hemisphere. The same trend
can be observed in the variation of H in the southern hemisphere as well.
In terms of the current system, the variation in H in positive direction
(northward) reflects the effect of the eastward flowing electric current formed
during forenoon hours above MOs located between the equator and the Sq
focus. Conversely, the variation in H in negative direction (southward) reveals
the effect of westward flowing electric current formed during afternoon hours
above MOs located between the Sq focus and poles (Fig. 3.14).
Equatorial electrojet: India occupies a unique location on the world atlas as
far as geomagnetism is concerned. It is the only political entity in the world
which encompasses the magnetic equator as well as the Sq focus within its
boundary. The observatories situated along the magnetic equator, not just in
India but everywhere else in the world, record various features in their H. It
was observed that the range of daily variation in H at equator was larger by a
factor of 2 to 2.5 compared to other stations several degrees beyond the equator
(Fig. 3.15). This enhancement is due to a strong jet of current flowing mainly
in the E-region of ionosphere during day light hours on either side of dip equator.
This phenomenon was first noticed at Hunacayo in Peru soon after the
establishment of MO in 1922. The same phenomenon was also observed at
Trivandrum, Annamalainagar and Tirunelveli in India, which are situated along
or very close to the magnetic equator. The circulating electric currents of
opposite symmetry join at the equator to form a strong flow from west to east
at about 11:00 hr LT. This enhanced current flowing eastward was first identified
by Egedal and the name equatorial electrojet (EEJ) was given by Chapman in
1951. Curiously, this electrojet has been discovered to reverse its direction,
westward, during certain hours of the day and is known as the counter electrojet
(CEJ). There is also the auroral electrojet, which is caused by field aligned
currents, also known as Birkeland currents.
110 Geomagnetism
Figure 3.15. The EEJ. Note the pronounced effect seen at TRD (Trivandrum) and
ANN (Annamalainagar) and lack of it at ABG (Alibag) and GUL (Gulmarg), which
are located far away from the equator (Campbell et al., 1993).
3.5 RADIO WAVES: SCINTILLATION

The ionospheric irregularities are monitored with the help of radio beacons
carried onboard satellites through yet another technique called scintillation.
Scintillation is a rapid change in the phase or amplitude or both of a radio
signal as it passes through small-scale plasma density irregularities in the
ionosphere. This technique is ground based, inexpensive and highly economical.
It yields information about the strength, spectrum and dynamical behaviour of
metre to sub-km scale wavelength of ionospheric irregularities.
The radio waves were produced and detected by Hertz in 1887. He was
generating an oscillating current from the spark of an induction coil when he
detected radiation of extremely long wavelengths. These came to be called the
radio waves and served a purpose by providing indirect evidences that the
Earth is flooded with charged particles. It was found that a part of the radio
waves generated by lightning travelled along Earth’s magnetic lines of force.
These waves are called ‘whistlers’ and was discovered by Barkhausen. The
radio waves cannot follow the magnetic lines of force unless charged particles
are present.
The discovery of radio waves opened a window to the far off galaxies,
which later gave birth to radio astronomy. Radio astronomy has made many
exciting discoveries of far off space and galaxies, the matter of which is beyond
the purview of this book. However, scintillation studies, based on rapid changes
encountered in phase and/or amplitude changes of a radio signal, provide useful
information and clues to small-scale plasma density irregularities in the
ionosphere.
The upper regions of the Earth’s atmosphere (namely the mesosphere and
thermosphere) and ionosphere are strongly coupled to the lower and middle
atmosphere by means of chemical, dynamic and electro-dynamic processes.
The observed influence of the upward propagating gravity and planetary scale
waves and atmospheric tides on the thermosphere and the ionosphere is an
example of dynamical coupling. The giant global electrical circuit linking the
lower atmosphere to the ionosphere and the magnetosphere provides an
adequate link for the electrodynamic coupling, which warrants the studies into
space weather conditions.
Night airglow: The ionospheric region and beyond is composed of plasma,
but below into our very own atmosphere are the gases. What might those gases
be and of what composition, none had a clue before the 1930s. It was believed
that hydrogen and helium may be floating over the heavier gases in the
stratosphere. This was the belief of Bort. However, he was proved wrong by
air samples that were brought down by Soviet balloonists in the middle of the
1930s. The upper stratosphere was found to contain oxygen and nitrogen.
Troposphere, too, had these gases. But there was reason to believe that there
existed some unusual gases that gave off ‘airglow’. Night airglow is the feeble
illumination of night sky even in the absence of moonlight.
What caused the feeble light that thinly illuminates the sky remained
a mystery for quite a while. Then in 1928 came a breakthrough. Slipher,
while analyzing the spectral lines obtained for the airglow of the nebulae in
1864 by Huggins, considered it to be an unfamiliar element ‘nebulium’. In
1927, several experiments were carried out in the laboratory where the same
kind of spectral lines as that considered to be of nebulium were generated. Ira
Bowen showed it to be coming from the ‘atomic oxygen’. Atomic oxygen is a
single atom and not a combined two-atom molecule that is normally
encountered. During the same period, research was going on over the spectral
lines emanating from aurora. These spectral lines turned out to be the handiwork
of ‘atomic nitrogen’. The two, atomic oxygen and nitrogen, are produced by
energetic radiation of the Sun, which breaks down the molecules into single
atoms. This suggestion came in 1931 from Chapman and is one mechanism out
of many others by which nature absorbs or weakens the harmful radiation before
reaching the Earth.
Chapman further elaborated that the airglow was caused by the
recombination at night of atoms that are split apart by solar energy during the
112 Geomagnetism
day. During the recombination process, atoms give up some of the energy they
absorbed in splitting. Thus, the airglow is some kind of a delayed and very
feeble return of sunlight in a new and specialized form.
Direct evidences of airglow were found by rocket experiments carried out
in the 1950s. Spectroscopes carried by rockets recorded the green lines of
atomic oxygen most strongly at a height of 96 km. The red light of atomic
nitrogen was prominent at a height of 250 km. Slipher also found spectral lines
in the airglow emitted by sodium. But the idea of sodium existing high up in
the atmosphere was so embarrassing that it was rejected immediately. The
reason, sodium is not a gas. It is a reactive metal and is always combined with
other elements. In 1938, French scientists were emphatic in their suggestion of
existence of sodium, based on the characteristics of spectral lines. The rocket
experiments again gave concrete evidence. Their spectroscopes recorded the
yellow light of sodium. Lithium was also found, in 1958, to be contributing to
the airglow.
Creation of artificial airglow: Murray Zelikoff and his team created artificial
airglow in 1956. They carried nitric oxide gas on a rocket and released it in the
atmosphere at an altitude of 96 km. This gas accelerated the process of
recombination of oxygen atoms. The observers on land easily sighted this glow.
A similar experiment was also carried out with sodium vapour. It too created a
clearly visible yellow glow.
Like night-time, there is also a daytime airglow, but because of the presence
of strong solar background brightness, its contribution cannot be easily
deciphered. There have been only a few ground and satellite-based
measurements of visible airglow emissions during the daytime. The daytime
airglow emissions are obtained by comparing blue-sky spectrum with solar
spectrum, since the former is different from the latter in terms of atmospheric
emissions, atmospheric scattering, and depth of the telluric absorption lines.
Space weather: The importance of research dealing with solar-terrestrial
physics carried out through geomagnetic studies has helped understand the
more distant universe, the intricate web of plasma phenomena, magnetic fields
and particle acceleration. But there also exists a practical angle to this research.
In a world increasingly dependent on electricity and electronics, the ‘space
weather’ outside the atmosphere can have serious effects, in particular on human
communications (Chapter 8).
APPENDIX 3.1
Plasmas in the Earth’s Magnetosphere

Electron Proton Electron Proton Magnetic Comments
Density velocity velocity temperature temperature field
N Ve Vp Te Tp
Solar wind 1-10 cm-3 200-600 200-600 6×104 to 2×104 to 2-15 nT • High speed streams
km/sec km/sec 3×105 °K 2×105 °K associated with
coronal hole
• Low speed streams
near sector boundaries
Magnetosheath 2-50 cm-3 200-500 200-500 105 to 106 °K 5×105 to 2-15 nT • Turbulent solar wind
km/sec km/sec 5×106 °K plasma and magnetic
fields
High latitude 0.5-50 cm-3 No reported 100-300 105 to 106 °K 5×105 to 10-30 nT • Entry layer into the
boundary layer measurements km/sec 8×106 °K magnetosphere of
magnetosheath plasma
Plasma sheet 0.1-1.0 cm-3 500-5000 100-1500 2×106 to 107 to 20-50 nT at • Region which maps to
boundary layer km/sec km/sec 107 °K 5×107 °K 20 Re auroral zone producing
discrete auroral arcs
Plasma sheet 0.1-1.0 cm-3 10-50 km/sec 10-1000 2×106 to Always hotter 9 nT in • Thickness of 4 to 6 Re
km/sec 2×107 °K by a factor of 3 to deep tail
5 such that Tp/Te>1 • Forms into the ring
current at 5-6 Re from
Earth
Lobe 10-3 to No reported No reported <106 °K <107 °K Increases • Lowest densities found
10-2 cm-3 measurements measurements with southward in the magnetospheric
IMF cavity
(http://ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/lectures/magnetosphere/Table_1.jpg)
APPENDIX 3.2
114
Classification of Geomagnetic Variation with Typical Periods, Amplitudes and Penetration Depths
Type of variation Symbol Typical period Typical amplitude Typical penetration depth
Solar cycle variations 11 yrs 10-20 nT >2000 km
Geomagnetism
Annual variation 12 months 5 nT 1500–2000 km

Semi-annual variation 6 months 5 nT
Short-time variation Dst Hours to weeks 50–500 nT 300–1000 km
Regular daily variation 24 hrs and harmonics
at mid-latitudes Sq 20-50 nT 300–600 km
at low latitudes EEJ 50–100 nT
Substorms DP 10 minutes to 2 hrs 100 nT 100–300 km
(1000 nT at p.l.)
Pulsations ULF 0.2–600 sec 20–100 km
(=Ultra low frequency waves)
regular pc 150–600 sec (pc5) 10 nT (100 nT at p.l.)
continuous 45–150 sec (pc4) 2 nT
pulsations 5–45 sec (pc2,3) 0.5 nT
0.2–5 sec (pc1) 0.1 nT
Irregular transient pulsations Pi 1-150 sec 1 nT
Extreme low frequency waves ELF 1/5–1/1000 sec <0.1 nT Tens of metres – kilometres
sferics
Schumann resonance oscillations 1/8 sec <0.1 nT
Very low frequency waves, whistlers VLF 10-5–10-3 sec Few metres – tens of kilometres
Note: If amplitude depends significantly on latitude, values are also given for polar latitudes (p.l., dipole latitude>65°)
(courtesy: Olsen, 2007 and Schmucker, 1985).
Technique of Magnetic Measurements 115
4
TECHNIQUE OF MAGNETIC
MEASUREMENTS
Any form of data whether acquired at an observatory or through experiments

concerning studies of space and solid Earth described in this book, need
instruments. These instruments, essentially magnetometers, are distinguished
not only by the component of the field they measure, but also by the principle
of their working. The principles employed in magnetometers range from the
elementary laws of forces acting on a magnetic needle, to the technique of
optical pumping. There are different types of magnetometers, which include
theodolite magnetometers, torsion magnetometers, variometers, Lloyd’s and
Schmidt’s balances and Earth inductors. The recent additions are the nuclear
magnetic resonance magnetometers, saturable-core magnetometers (fluxgate
magnetometers), induction magnetometers and more. The magnetometers
introduced in the late twentieth century include proton precession
magnetometers (PPM), optical pumped sensors, super quantum interference
devices (Squids) and others. The most important change in instrumentation in
the last half-century, however, is the automation of observation and the direct
connection of sensors to data storage and computational facilities. This chapter
outlines the importance and use of three categories of instruments in magnetic
measurements: magnetic observatories, ground and marine magnetic surveys
and laboratory magnetometers. Some ‘current’ instruments are also included
in these three categories of magnetic measurements.
I. Instruments in Early Navigation and Science

The directional property of a lodestone was well known by the year 1000 and
the Chinese mounted it on a boat for N-S direction. The year 1187 marked the
first recorded feature of magnetic needles mounted on a pivot, which were free
to rotate in a horizontal plane, much like modern day compass needles. Such
116 Geomagnetism
design was also mentioned by Peregrinus

in 1269. The slant of the magnetized
pivoted needle was noted by Hartmann in
1544. Norman explained this to be
inclination in 1580–81 (Fig. 4.1).
These aforementioned luminaries
represent an ethos of mixing of the
practical goals of navigators and more
esoteric goals of improving instruments
and studying the phenomena revealed by
them. Nunes and Castro developed an
improved ‘variation compass’ and
mentioned magnetic D in the 1530s.
Norman focussed on the dipping needle,
conceived the dip circle (first described in
print in 1581) and concluded that the seat Figure 4.1. Norman’s experiment
of magnetism is within the Earth. Borough for determining inclination.
concentrated on improving instruments for
measuring declination and Gilbert assembled the most complete resume of
magnetic experiments. No fundamental changes in instrument design occurred
until 1800. Nevertheless, two fundamental discoveries were made using
improved instruments: Gellibrand (in 1634) discovered that declination varies
over time and Graham (in 1722) showed that declination varies daily according
to a set pattern. During the eighteenth century, artisans modified the variation
compass with lighter needles, a box to enclose the needle and the addition of
reading microscopes and vernier scales. Another eighteenth century innovation
was the tall azimuth visor, which allowed mariners to sight celestial objects
high above the horizon.
II. Torsion Balance

The Paris Academy of Sciences, in 1773,
offered a prize money for the best manner
of ‘constructing magnetic needles, of
suspending them, of making sure that they
are in the true magnetic meridian and
finally of accounting for their regular
diurnal variations’. Coulomb pocketed the
prize in 1777 by designing the torsion
balance (Fig. 4.2). In fact, his instrument
was so good that for a few centuries, it
served as a model for designing magnetic
instruments.
In his torsion balance, Coulomb Figure 4.2. Coulomb’s torsion
suspended a magnetic needle from a long balance.
and thin wire that could be twisted around such that even a small torque produced
a notable twist. To measure the twist, he attached a small mirror just above the
needle and observed the shifts of spot of light reflected from it. This instrument
was so sensitive that Coulomb had to place it inside a glass enclosure to shield
it from air currents. Sometimes, he also found the static electric charges to be
interfering with its working. Coulomb, equipped with his torsion balance,
showed that the magnetic repulsion (and attraction) between magnetic poles
varied inversely with the square of their distance.
The art of instrumentation took a big leap forward after the meeting of
Gauss with Humboldt in 1828. Gauss pursued (geo)magnetic studies along
with his young assistant Weber, who together set up a magnetic laboratory of
their own, wherein they constructed their own magnetic telegraph and devised
a new suspension for observatory magnets. In 1832, they also devised a method
of using an auxiliary magnet to measure not only the direction of the Earth’s
magnetic force, but also its intensity. This ingenious method revolutionized
the concept of instrumentation in the magnetic world and made possible the
establishement of global MO network (Chapter 5).
III. Magnetometers
Magnetometers were developed by Schmidt around 1915, which became quite
popular in mining and petroleum industries. They are also known as magnetic
balances and magnetic variometers because they measure the variations in the
Z and H components rather than their absolute values. But in these variometers,
the magnetic system is brought to the null position by applying a twist to the
torsion fibre supporting the magnetic system (Fig. 4.2). The additional twist
thus applied is the measure of the change in the magnetic field. Such an
instrument was also developed by Haalck in 1956, which was easier and quicker
to operate and capable of large station coverage. Even then, they have not ever
been able to replace the Schmidt’s balances.
The magnetometers that do not utilise a moving magnet are the fluxgate,
PPM, electron beam and optical pumping magnetometers. Fluxgate
magnetometers measure either the Z or H or the F, and are essentially
variometers. The others are absolute instruments and measure only the total
field. Magnetometers are classified as scalar, when they give only the value of
the field without its direction and vector when they are organized to record the
field value with a definite direction. These instruments are definitely superior
to the mechanical magnetometers because they are not only extremely sensitive
but can also be used in space.
4.1 MAGNETOMETERY FOR GEOMAGNETIC

OBSERVATORIES
Measurement of EMF variations is usually made in MOs. In abolsute
measurements, the total vector of the magnetic field is obtained by measuring
118 Geomagnetism
atleast three magnetic elements such as F, D and H. Instruments like magnetic

theodolite, quartz horizontal magnetometer (QHM), balance magnetique zero
(BMZ) and magnetic variaometers have automatic recording.
I. Classic Semi-absolute Instruments

The ultimate instruments along traditional lines were devised by La Cour of
Denmark in 1933. His QHM and BMZ were ‘semi-absolute’ instruments. The
QHM’s high standard of accuracy with one nT kept it into use even into
the 1980s. The QHM provides quick and accurate observations of H and D
(Fig. 4.3). BMZ is a portable balance, which measures Z by the zero method.
The QHM and BMZ, though they form the class of absolute instruments, are
treated as a ‘secondary standard’ because they need to be calibrated periodically
to check that their instrumental constants specified by the manufacturers have
not changed.
Figure 4.3. La Cour variometers D, H and Z.
II. Classic Variometers

It is almost impossible to continuously carry out absolute measurements and,
therefore, it becomes essential to automatically record the variations. The
changes in the amplitude and phase of each magnetic element are continuously
recorded using instruments called variometers. They can then be combined
with a few absolute observations during the day to provide absolute data for
any instant of time. Figure 4.4 shows the functioning of a variometer.
Figure 4.4. Schematic representation of a variometer (Campbell, 1997).
Essentially, the variometer consists of a magnet with a mirror attached

and is oriented suitably (along N-S for recording D, along E-W for H and
pivoted to oscillate in a vertical plane for Z). A beam of light from a straight
filament lamp gets reflected from the mirror and passes through a long focal
length lens, at the focus of which is placed a rotating drum with photographic
paper. A short focal length cylindrical lens in front of the recorder enables to
focus the filament image to a point on the photopaper. With the change in time,
the variation in the form of angular deviation of the magnet gets registered on
the photographic paper. A mirror fixed in the variometer not connected to the
moving magnet will leave a straight line trace serving as a reference level.
Time marks on the magnetogram are generated at definite time intervals of
1-hour each. The photographic paper fixed on the drum gets exposed by two
spots of light, one of which leads to a straight line called the baseline and the
second is the variable trace. When the photopaper is removed from the drum,
developed and dried, a day’s magnetogram distinctly depicts the subtle changes
in the three components (e.g. Fig. 1.13).
The photographic paper recorder appeared in nineteenth century. The
invention of the fluxgate in the early 1900s permitted the development of the
triaxial electronic variometer and the DI-flux, which are in use today in most
of the MOs (Fig. 4.10). Observatory fluxgate variometers include three fluxgate
sensors arranged orthogonally on a stable support made of marble or quartz.
This trihedron is then oriented by the variometer frame according to the three
components set one wishes to observe (Fig. 4.10).
III. Vector Proton Precession Magnetometer (VPPM)

The PPM can serve as a variometer by measuring the vector components of
the magnetic field by cancelling out one of the components by means of a
Helmholtz coil, and is called a VPPM (Fig. 4.5).
120 Geomagnetism
Figure 4.5. Vector coil and PPM used for absolute measurements at an observatory.
IV. Helmholtz Coil System

The torsion type variometers were first replaced by the nuclear resonance
magnetometer to which the PPM belongs. Several standard designs of coil
systems are available in literature to produce uniform magnetic field at the
centre directed along the axis of the coil system to selectively cancel or add to
one component of the ambient field. Well known among these are the Helmholtz
coil system, where the two circular coils are separated by a distance equal to
the radius or its variant of square coils separated by a distance 0.5445 times the
Figure 4.6. ‘Helmholtz’ biasing coil system for determination of absolute H using
proton magnetometer.
length of one side (Fig. 4.6). The field at the centre of these two coils are given
by A = 89.92 NI/R for circular coil, A = 88.68 NI/d for square coil, where N is
number of coil turns in each coil, I is the current in mA, R is the radius (spacing)
of the coil in cm and d spacing of the coil in cm [d = 0.5445 × side length]. In
Nelson’s method, one intensity component (H or Z) is measured using a PPM
at the coil centre by compensating for the other component.
V. Proton Precesssion Magnetometer

The measurement of magnetic field intensity by the method of free precession
of protons in a hydrogen-rich sample (e.g. water, alcohol, kerosene) can be
considered as one of the most important developments in the Earth field
magnetometry. Because of the simplicity of operation, its reliance only on a
fundamental constant—‘the proton gyromagnetic ratio’ and the higher level of
accuracy, PPM has almost totally replaced the classical equipment in
observatory practice. The PPM could be successfully used in geomagnetic
surveys by land, sea and air and on board rockets and satellites.
Protons within a hydrogen-rich sample, which possess magnetic moment
due to their spin, align themselves parallel or anti-parallel to the ambient
magnetic field. Due to the angular momentum, they do not move in line with
the ambient field but tend to precess about the field direction with random
phase like a spinning top subject to the torque imposed by gravity and the
reaction of the support on the point (Fig. 4.7).
The sensor consists of a container of proton-rich fluid and is surrounded
by a coil, serving the dual purpose of applying periodically a polarizing field
to the liquid and picking up the signal from the precessing protons after cutting
off the polarizing field. When an external magnetic field is applied, the protons,
which are normally in random orientation, tend to align or group themselves
either in a parallel or antiparallel direction with reference to direction of the
external field. The group of nuclei, which takes up the anti-parallel position,
has a higher level of energy than that of the other group. If a strong magnetic
field is applied in a direction approximately perpendicular to the EMF, all
protons align themselves parallel to the applied field. When the current is
suddenly switched off, the protons begin to relax into their previous orientation
under the EMF by ‘precessing’ around that field at a certain frequency. The
precession of the protons under the influence of the EMF produces an emf in
the coil. The signal induced in the coil is the Larmor precession frequency Z of
the proton given by: F = (2S/Jp)Z = 23.4874Z, where F is expressed in units
of nT and Jp is the gyromagnetic ratio (magnetic moment/angular momentum)
of the proton, given by q/(2mc). An electronic console amplifies the precession
signal and performs a frequency measurement of it with the required accuracy.
This measurement is then scaled using Jp, which is directly proportional to the
intensity of the EMF in Tesla.
122 Geomagnetism
Figure 4.7. The precession (reorientation) path of proton (Rangarajan, 1992).
Modern PPMs are quite compact and have high resolution and sampling
rate (typically 0.01 nT and 3 Hz, respectively). However, there are two
disadvantages amongst many advantages of PPM: Firstly, measurement of fields
<15,000 nT is difficult because of a low signal-to-noise ratio. Secondly, the
readings of the PPM are discrete, not continuous. This is because the field
produced in the coil for polarising the protons has to be on for typically 2 to 3
sec, and no readings can be taken within this time. The simplest way to make
the readings continuous is to use two PPMs functioning at alternate intervals.
Other methods use physical principles to achieve continuity. As the measurement
is made in a sequential form, the PPM cannot give continuous output of the
scalar magnetic field. One method by Overhauser uses coupling between the
spin energy of protons and electrons. The other method is optical pumping,
which is used in another popular type of instrument namely the metastable
helium, rubidium and cesium magnetometers. All these magnetometers make
use of optically pumping technique. They are highly sensitive and also enable
the measurement of the vertical gradient of the EMF employing two
magnetometers kept separated vertically apart from each other.
The optically pumped magnetometer depends on the Zeeman splitting of
the atomic energy levels into sublevels in the presence of a magnetic field. The
separation between the energy sublevels depends on: (1) the intensity of the
magnetic field and (2) the alignment of the magnetic moment of the atoms
relative to this field. The transition frequency generated is proportional to the
energy separation levels and it is this which is monitored.
VI. Fluxgate Magnetometer

This magnetometer was the first airborne geophysical instrument successfully
used to detect submarines during the World War II. It is used for measuring the
component of the magnetic field vector along its sensor’s axis. The fluxgate
principle uses the nonlinear field and induction relationship of easily saturable
ferromagnetic core. The sensor or the main element of a fluxgate magnetometer,
usually a rod or a ring, is subjected to both DC field to be measured and the
auxiliary AC field produced by a coil and an electronic oscillator. This offset
sinusoidal excitation creates a distorted AC signal in a pickup coil surrounding
the core. The detection of its even harmonics provides a DC signal proportional
to the field to be measured.
Fluxgate sensors consist of a pair of identical strips of mumetal. Mumetal
is a heat-treated alloy of iron and nickel, having a narrow hysteresis loop and
high initial permeability of about 10,000 cgs units. It can be saturated in a
relatively weak field of ~3 Oe, equivalent to EMF intensity. Two identical
primary coils (E1 and E2), kept in N-S direction and connected to a common
source of AC current, are wound one on each core so that the magnetization
produced in one of the cores is exactly opposite to the one in the other. Thus, in
the absence of any external field, no voltages are produced across the terminals
of a secondary winding surrounding the primary (Fig. 4.8a). The situation is,
however, different in the presence of the EMF, because Earth’s field aids the
magnetizing field of one of the cores and opposes the field of the other. This
Figure 4.8. (a) Sketch illustrating the principle of fluxgate magnetometer.

(b) Principle of working of peak voltage fluxgate magnetometer (Rao and
Murthy, 1978).
124 Geomagnetism
causes a dissimilarity of the induction curves B1 and B2 (Fig. 4.8b) of the

individual cores and the total flux B1+B2 of the system fluctuates with a
frequency 2f. According to the rate of change of the total flux, a secondary
voltage is developed in the secondary coil, which is in the form of steep pulses,
reccurring 2f times/sec and having a height proportional to the EMF. By suitable
phase sensitive detector circuits, the signal and hence the magnetic field can
be detected.
VII. Indian Scenario

In India, the stream of instrumentation dedicated to designing, fabricating and
maintaining geomagnetic equipment was started in 1972. Developmental work
in India includes the fabrication of timers, electronic crystal clocks, constant
current sources, calibrating coils, DC/AC inverters, battery chargers and remote
control panels. PPM (VPPM) is fabricated and redesigned to operate on
minimum power (Fig. 4.9). Since 1980s, microprocessor-based instruments
are developed; amongst these are a cassette datalogger, a numeric printer for
automatic printing of data and PC-based data logger, which is developed as
part of AMOS (automatic magnetic observatory system).
Figure 4.9. Proton precession magnetometer fabricated by IIG.
With the advent of computers and easy programmability of micro-

controllers, the Indian scientists are able to incorporate DSP technique for signal
processing. The use of this technique has improved the sensitivity ten-fold, i.e.
from the existing 1 to 0.1 nT, culminating into fabrication of a computer-based
VPPM prototype. The system has an interface and the software to give a 0.1
nT output and a digitally programmable current source controlled by the
computer. The PPM designed and fabricated by IIG is used in a number of
campaigns and observatories, which are updated regularly. A portable micro-
controller-based PPM with 0.1 nT sensitivity is also developed for its use in
survey work.
Indian observatories, an upgrade: Since 1990s, classical magnetometers are

being gradually replaced by the fluxgate triaxial tilt compensated variometer
(model FGE) plus scalar magnetometers of indigenous PPM type in a bid to
reorganize and modernize MOs in India. The observatories are upgraded with
contemporary instruments such as Danish fluxgate magnetometers (DFM) with
appropriate data loggers (Fig. 4.10), and D and I magnetometer (DIM) with
indigenously fabricated VPPM as the principal means of calibrating the
observatory variometers. The modernized digital acquisition systems are
installed to provide high resolution digital geomagnetic data with more stable
baselines.
Figure 4.10. Danish triaxial fluxgate magnetometers: (a) delta inclination (dI)
and (b) delta declination (dD) systems.
4.2 MAGNETIC SURVEY INSTRUMENTS: FLUXGATE

AND INDUCTION MAGNETOMETERS
In ground magnetic surveys, the relative value of vertical or horizontal
components or the total magnetic field with respect to some base stations, is
regarded as the first step in magnetic prospecting. Different magnetometers
are available for conducting magnetic and EM surveys, which may be classified
under the following types. Different types of magnetic instruments and their
operational principles are shown chronologically in Table 4.1.
126 Geomagnetism
Table 4.1 Different types of magnetic instruments
Magnetometer Principle of Quantity Sensitivity Status Remarks

operation measured
Dip needle Balancing magnetic Z 100 Currently For land use
force against not used
gravity
Needle Balancing magnetic Z and H 10 -do- -do-
magnetometer force against
(Schmidt balance) gravity
Fluxgate Saturable core H, Z and F 0.1 Currently For land and
magnetometer used airborne use
Torsion Balancing magnetic Z and H 1 -do- For land use
magnetometer force against twist
Proton precession Free precession of F 0.05 -do- For land,
magnetometer protons marine and
airborne use
Alkali vapour Zeeman effect F 0.01 -do- For land and
magnetometer airborne use
Super conductor Josephson effect Z and H 0.001 -do- -do-
quantum
interference device
I. Geomagnetic Depth Sounding (GDS) Measurement

In addition to the permanent MOs, there are also some temporary observatories
involving close-spaced ground magnetometer arrays. These short-term
magnetometer arrays are planned for mapping of subsurface conductivity
structures or for exploratory purposes. In such cases, the delicate and sensitive
instruments of the MOs are of very little practical use.
The instruments required for such purposes should be portable, free from
interaction of sensors and have good thermal compensation and also easily
installable. Exploring the anomalies in lateral extent with the use of an array of
three component (H, D and Z) magnetometers is termed as GDS or
magnetometer array studies (Chapter 6). The array study involves a number of
magnetic variometers recording simultaneously across a single dimension
(linear) or two dimensions area. The instruments record all the three components
of EMF temporal variations. In actual practice, generally minimum 5-10
instruments are used. The station spacing and number of stations largely depend
on the objective of the study. The recording period in GDS over an area is for
a limited period of, say, a couple of months. The selected magnetometers need
to respond to short period variation events, i.e. for a period of the length of a
day to a couple of minutes (SSC). Together with the PPM, the rugged and
portable fluxgate type of magnetometers (Fig. 4.11 a-c) are the most widely
used magnetometers in surveys and arrays.
Figure 4.11. (a) Rugged and portable variants of magnetometer used in land
surveys. (b) Scientrex fluxgate magnetometer used in ground magnetic
surveys. It measures the vertical field Z. Also seen are the battery and GPS unit.
(c) Geometrix proton precession magnetometer used in ground magnetic surveys. It
measures the total field F. At the extreme right is the hand-held GPS unit.
II. Magnetotelluric (MT) Surveys

Unlike controlled source methods, the MT method uses the natural variations
of the EMF. The conventional MT stations consist of sensors for the horizontal
components of the electric field (E) and of the magnetic field (B), selective
amplifiers and a data logger or a real-time processing system. The so-called
apparent resistivity curve is obtained as a function of frequency from the field
data. The MT method is used as a powerful tool for reconnaissance surveys of
sedimentary basins for target exploration in hydrothermal areas. This is achieved
through the integration of MT data with that obtained from GDS.
128 Geomagnetism
In this method, time-varying horizontal components of B and E fields at

the Earth’s surface are measured. The most common types of instruments used
in exploring the Earth through this technique are the fluxgates for longer periods
(100 sec) and induction coils for relatively shorter periods (Fig. 4.12). This
technique involves recording of E, which is generated by inserting two
electrodes in the ground separated by a distance from 25 to 1000 m. The
difference in potential is then recorded with a high-impedance voltmeter.
Figure 4.12. Advanced magnetotelluric system that uses 24-bit

analog-to-digital converter.
III. Ocean Bottom Magnetometer (OBM) Surveys

The aforementioned are all land-based instruments. Efforts are on to generate
geomagnetic data along the ocean floor in which the magnetometers are towed
behind the ship to record the signatures given out by the ocean floor. The
knowledge of sea floor spreading as well as the magnetic reversals became
apparent because of this ‘towing’. But, there is another set of equipment, the
magnetometer, which can be sent to the ocean floor, allowed to stay under-
water for a month or so and then commanded back to the surface. In the
intervening period, the magnetometer sits down on the ocean floor and records
the changes that occur in the geomagnetic field at the surface of the ocean
floor. Such a magnetometer is termed the ocean bottom magnetometer (OBM)
(Fig. 4.13).
The OBM is a similar kind of magnetometer used on land. It encompasses
a fluxgate type of magnetometer and records three elements of EMF, viz. X, Y
and Z. The sensor is suspended whereby it records Z rather accurately. As for
the other two components, they are in two random directions in horizontal
plane because the OBM settles down in any random direction. It records the
three components at an interval of one minute for an entire month and stores it
Figure 4.13. Ocean bottom magnetometer.
in a memory card. The OBM is powered by a Ni-Cd battery and the entire
system is then enclosed in a pressure tight glass sphere which can withstand
hydrostatic pressures at depths up to 6000 m.
The OBMs are taken to the area in oceans singled out for detailed study
and are lowered down at pre-selected sites, whose exact position is noted with
the help of a GPS unit aboard a ship. No rope or lifeline is attached to it,
although a strong lead-weight is tied to the OBM so that it sinks down under
its own weight. This unit can be sent down without a contraption to pull it back
up because a sonar device is fixed to it to help track the instrument as it goes
down. After the OBM settles on the sea floor, recording starts automatically at
a pre-fixed time. To bring up the OBM, signals are sent through a sonar unit to
initiate electrolytic reactions into the salty sea-water which corrodes and
dissolves the wire to which the lead-weight is attached. On detachment of the
lead-weight, the OBM rises up due to buoyancy and ascends to the sea surface.
When it reaches the surface, it beams out high frequency radio signals to help
scientists aboard the ship to track them down. The flasher attached to the OBM
also comes in handy if the unit surfaces up during dark hours or night.
Ocean bottom electromagnetometer (OBE): Recently a new form of OBM
has been developed which is called OBE (Fig. 4.14), and whose principle
remains the same as that of OBM. However, in the case of OBE, it is not
130 Geomagnetism
required to be brought back to the surface to

retrieve the data. The OBE is lowered to the
bottom of the ocean, where it sits comfortably
and starts recording the magnetic field variation.
Then, after some time, the ship is taken over
the site, where the OBE has been lowered and
sonar signals are sent. At the receipt of the
signal, the OBE starts transmitting the data,
which is collected by a receiver aboard the ship.
In this way, it is not required to pop the device
up from the seafloor. A new version of OBE Figure 4.14. Ocean bottom
equipment has been developed that can be kept electromagnetometer before
at the sea bottom on a permanent basis. It is deployment into the sea.
powered by a long-life battery, whereby it works
for an extended period of time. The electric field and magnetic field data are
collected and stored in memory. The ship is taken to the site at regular intervals
(say once in three months) to retrieve the data. The data are transferred from
the equipment to the ship through sonar signals.
IV. Induction Coil Magnetometer

The induction coil (or search-coil) magnetometer’s (ICM) operation principle
is based on the Maxwell equation, which can be written in integral form as:
e = – dM/dt, where e is the emf, M is the magnetic flux and t is the time. In its
simplest form, an ICM contains a coil with many turns of copper wire connected
to the input of a voltage amplifier. It utilizes the fact that, when the magnetic
flux across a circuit changes, an induced emf is generated in the circuit, whose
magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of the flux density and the
effective ‘area turns’ (NA). The coils are presumed to have a large number of
turns (N) with a small loop area (A). An ICM can be used only for the
measurement of a time-varying magnetic flux. Its component collinear with
the coil’s axis intercepts the coil loops and generates an emf at the coil’s
terminals, which is further amplified to an easily measurable level.
To increase the ICM sensitivity, a high permeability ferromagnetic material
is used as a core inside the multiturn winding. Due to their relative simplicity,
ICMs are widely used for many applications, mainly in geophysics. In MOs,
they are used for the study of EMF pulsations, where the fluxgate magnetometer
is not a suitable instrument to record the variation of short-range pulsations.
Their operational frequency band covers a range from about 10-4 to 107 Hz,
and the dynamic range of measurement covers from fractions of femotesla to
tens of tesla. In spite of an apparent simplicity, the creation of a high-class
ICM needs complicated calculations to establish an optimal matching of the
sensor coil with the amplifier. Modern ICMs are quite compact; the electronics
are configured to have flat passbands over the frequency range of interest and
the output can be easily logged on a standard data logging system for further
analysis.
4.3 LABORATORY MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS

The classic astatic/spinner/Squid magnetometers and AF/thermal demagnetizers
are used to measure remanent magnetization (RM) directions and intensities
of oriented rock samples. Rock magnetic instruments are used for the
discrimination of magnetic minerals and their magnetic properties. For
palaeomagnetism, the main consideration is to measure the stable RM vector
in a rock, whereas for environmental magnetism, the requirement is to identify
sample’s magnetic mineralogy and grain size distribution. In either case, the
magnetometers employed operate either by the use of magnetization of the
sample to induce a current in a sensing coil, or the magnetization can create a
force, which is measured by a variety of methods.
I. Sampling
Standard palaeomagnetic samples are 2.5-cm dia cores, ~2.2 cm in length, and
most palaeomagnetic magnetometers are designed for this sample size. For
measurement purpose, rock specimen is considered
to be a homogeneously magnetized sphere. Hence,
they are cut in cylindrical and cubical forms using
laboratory rock-cutting instruments (Fig. 4.15). The
major exception of this is whole core sections
commonly collected from lake and deep-sea
sediments used in environmental studies. These
cores are typically 10 cm in dia and can be several
metres in length.
It is also necessary to take precautions for
possible contamination during drilling and slicing
of samples, which at times leave metallic particles.
Use of phosphor-bronze cutting surfaces as well as
nonmagnetic grinding powder such as bauxilite Figure 4.15. Rock coring
(Al2O3) eliminates some of these contaminations. (right) and rock cutting
(left) equipments.
II. Astatic Magnetometer
These magnetometers were the most common type of instrument in
palaeomagnetic laboratories in the 1950s and 1960s. They are force-type
magnetometers, where the sample’s magnetization is used to exert a force on a
pair of identical suspended magnets. Two bar magnets of the same magnetic
moment but antiparallel in polarity are set one above the other with their axis
horizontal and are suspended vertically by a torsion wire (Fig. 4.16). The RM
component is isolated by measuring the antiparallel deflections along three
132 Geomagnetism
orthogonal axes, and combining them to give the resultant vector. Their typical
sensitivities are <10-8 Am2.
Figure 4.16. Astatic magnetometer (Campbell, 1997).
III. Spinner Magnetometer

This instrument is used for laboratory measurements of the direction and
magnitude of remanent magnetization of the rock specimen. Remanent
magnetization Jr is a vector: the measurement must therefore provide magnitude
and direction, defined with angles D and I. The three components of Jr are
obtained in the specimen reference system (x, y, z), and then transformed to
the geographic system using the field orientation of the sample. Magnetometers
do not measure Jr directly, but the magnetic field B the specimen generates in
the surrounding space. Assuming that the field is that of a dipole, the magnetic
moment M is derived and from it, assumed to be homogeneous within the
specimen, Jr is computed. To satisfy the first hypothesis, the shape of the
specimens must approximate the sphere as closely as possible: standard shapes
are the cube and the cylinder with height/diameter ratio h/T = 0.9. The lack of
homogeneity of M, and hence that of Jr in the rock, is often limited and the
related errors can be reduced by repeating the measurements in different
specimen/sensor relative positions. Sensor and specimen are appropriately
shielded against external magnetic fields, to prevent the presence of induced
magnetization Ji (EMF) and minimize noise (artificial fields).
Typical spinner magnetometer applications are: (1) Palaeomagnetism:
palaeomagnetic dating of rocks, solving some tectonic problems in particular
terrains and dating the development of mineralization of ore deposits;
(2) Archaeomagnetism: changes of EMF in human history. These investigations
are mostly applicable to dating archaeological materials; (3) Mineralogy:
impurities of ferro (i) magnetic grains in para or diamagnetic materials can be
investigated; (4) Magnetic fabric studies: measurements of the anisotropy of
IRM can help in the separation of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic fraction of
a rock, and (5) Magnetometry: in the interpretation of ground or airborne

magnetic measurements, it is useful to know whether the rock’s magnetization
is due to its induced or remanent component. Investigation of RM can help to
solve this problem.
Measuring principle: The principle is very simple and is based on Faraday’s
EM induction law. Rock specimen fixed in a specimen holder, rotates at a
constant angular speed in the surrounding two orthogonal coils, which are
shielded with a multilayer permalloy shield. A rotating magnetized specimen
produces an alternating emf in coils. The signal frequency is equal to revolution
rate, and its amplitude is proportional to the component of the magnetic moment
perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The spinning system generates a ref-
erence signal whose phase allows to split the signal to two orthogonal
components proportional to the two components of the magnetic moment.
Repeating measurements in different mutually orthogonal positions of x, y
and z marked on the sample, the three components are obtained.
The simplest sensor is an induction coil placed around the sample chamber.
The signal output increases with sample size (limited by the induction coil
size) and with rotation frequency. The highest sensitivities for such instruments
approach 10-10 Am2. Fluxgate sensors may be used instead of induction coils,
or increased sensitivity can be obtained using Squid detector. The Agico’s
spinner magnetometers of the JR series, which have a high sensitivity of the
order of 10-6 A/m (for cubic specimens with sides 2 cm) and Molspin’s minispin
fluxgate magnetometer (sensitivity 10-3 A/m), are shown in Figs 4.17 and 4.18.
With these popular commercial instruments, the practical lower limit of NRM
Figure 4.17. Laboratory induced remanent magnetization called anhysteretic remanent

magnetization (ARM) and isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) is imparted and
measured by highly sensitive JR-6 spinner magnetometer. Rock and sedimentary
samples of defined shape and size rotate at a constant angular speed in the pick-up unit
inside a pair of coils. An AC voltage is induced in the coils whose amplitude and phase
depend on the magnitude and direction of the magnetic remanence vector of the
specimen. By Fourier analysis the computer calculates two rectangular components of
the projection of remanence vector into the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
134 Geomagnetism
Table 4.2 Measurement specifications of Molspin Minispin and

AGICO JR6 spinner magnetometers
Specifications Molspin Minispin AGICO JR6

Speed of rotation (rev/sec) 5 (Long) or 4 (Short) 87.7 (High) or 16.7 (Low)
Measuring range (A/m) 0.1 to 2500 0 to 12500
Noise/Sensitivity (PA/m) 35 2.4
Figure 4.18. Laboratory induced remanent magnetization of ARMs and IRMs measured
by Minispin spinner magnetometer of Molspin. It is a portable and low speed spinner
magnetometer. Rock and sedimentary samples are spun at 6 Hz about a vertical axis
inside an annulus-shaped fluxgate surrounded by a triple layer cylindrical mumetal
shield. The output signal is integrated over either 6 sec or 24 sec and is then displayed
as two orthogonal horizontal components of magnetization of the specimen on a
6-digit liquid crystal panel. To obtain complete vector results, it is necessary to perform
a sequence of measurements with the specimen in different orientations.
for routine measurements is 5×10-6 Am2/kg, with a measurement time of ~5

minute/sample and an accuracy of direction of 2–4°.
IV. Cryogenic Squid Magnetometer

This type of magnetometer is mainly associated with super-conductivity. Its
sensor is called Squid. The magnetometer is contained within an insulated
vacuum space cooled by helium. A metal ring of superconductor material is
maintained below the critical temperature. When a magnetized specimen is
moved close to it, the magnetic flux M linked to the ring changes, and the
change 'I induces in the ring an electrical current whose intensity depends on
the component of the field B of the specimen parallel to the axis of the ring.
The sensors are installed inside a Dewar vessel, shaped in such a way so as to
enable the specimen kept at ambient temperature to be moved close to it. Having
three mutually orthogonal Squids, the three components of B can be measured

all in one go.
Modern instruments provide reliable measurements of magnetic moments
M=10-10 Am2, and useful for specimens with weak magnetization (Jr =10-5
A/m), as for example carbonate rocks. Basic effusive rocks can exhibit values
up to Jr=10 A/m; higher values are observed in particular cases (mineralizations,
lightning strikes).
V. Alternating Field and Thermal Demagnetizers

The NRM can consist of more than one component, each with a different
geological and chronological meaning. The measured vector (JNRM) is the result-
ant of the various components; so the problem of identifying them needs to be
confronted. This is mathematically impossible because a vector can be resolved
into components in infinite different ways. Resolution can instead be possible
through physics, based on a simple principle. If a rock has multiple magnet-
ization components, each of them involves a different population of
ferromagnetic grains: if they have different magnetic properties, for example
different Tb or Hc, the components can be cancelled out one at a time, and this
allows to isolate them (Fig. 4.19).
Figure 4.19. Stepwise demagnetization of a NRM consisting of two components with

different blocking temperature or coercivity spectra. As the less stable component J2 is
erased, the direction of the measured remanence varies (steps 1 to 4); when J2 is
completely erased, only the more stable component J1 survives; direction does not
change any more, intensity progressively decreases (steps 4 to 6).
To cancel a magnetization, thermal or magnetic energy must be provided.

Thermal demagnetization is performed with an oven shielded from all external
magnetic fields and built in such a way that the magnetic fields caused by the
heating current cancel each other out (Fig. 4.20). The magnetic domains with
Tb<T1 lose their magnetization, which they reacquire when the specimen cool
136 Geomagnetism
down to ambient temperature, always within the magnetic shield. Since there
is no field, there is no preferential direction. So each domain is magnetized in
its easy direction and the resultant of the domains with Tb = T1 is zero. The
process is repeated step by step until J(Tn) = 0, i.e. when the maximum value
of Tb has been attained.
Figure 4.20. MMTD 80 sample thermal demagnetizer isolates the primary component
which carries the remanence acquired at the time of formation of the rock. A sample is
heated and cooled in zero field for a series of increasing temperatures. After each step
the remaining remanence is measured at room temperature. Only those grains with
blocking temperatures below the demagnetization temperature will be demagnetized.
Demagnetization in AF is wholly similar to thermal, and is based on the

magnetic hysteresis principle. Instead of the oven, a solenoid shielded from
external magnetic fields is used (Fig. 4.21). It carries an alternating current,
Figure 4.21. Molspin alternating field demagnetizer with ARM attachment removes
the secondary components having low coercivities. A sample is subjected to alternating
field that is smoothly reduced to zero from some peak value. The AF demagnetization
curve is measured by exposing the sample to a series of increasing AF peak values
(5, 10, 15, 20, …100 mT). After each demagnetizing step the remaining remanence is
measured. Remanences in grains with low coercivities are eased out first while grains
with higher coercivities remain unaltered.
which generates an AF that is parallel to the axis of the solenoid and has a peak
value of H1. Domains with Hc H1 follow the oscillations of the field; when it
is made to decrease (Fig. 4.22), each domain is remagnetized as the field passes
its Hc value. The two opposite senses of the AF are two preferential directions,
and when H=0, domain magnetization is statistically distributed half in one
sense, half in the opposite, thereby yielding a zero resultant. A second step is
done with H2 and so on as in thermal procedure.
Figure 4.22. Alternating field (AF) demagnetization. The intensity of the

field increases up to and for a few seconds remains at maximum value,
Hpeak; then linearly decays to zero.
VI. Rock- and Environmental-magnetic Instrument Kit

Many instruments founded on various principles serve to determine the
fundamental magnetic properties of complex natural samples. Many of the
instruments of palaeomagnetism are also used for environmental magnetic
measurements. The basic environmental magnetism laboratory comprises a
susceptibility kappabridge/meter (and suitable sensors), a magnetometer, a pulse
magnetizer, and AF demagnetizer with an apparatus for imparting anhysteretic
remanent magnetization to samples.
For environmental work using mineral magnetic measurements, the
remanent magnetizations are induced into the samples within the laboratory
by the use of artificial, as opposed to natural, magnetic fields. The remanence
induced can be measured in a single orientation by the spinner magnetometer.
Artificial magnetic fields suitable for inducing remanence in geological samples
for mineral magnetic work can be generated by the use of electromagnets. The
pulse magnetizer (Fig. 4.23) generates fields between 0 and 9 T. The remanence
induced in a sample in this way is known as IRM, and the remanence acquired
at a particular field size is referred to as IRM20mT, IRM40mT, etc. The pulse
magnetizer operates using a capacitor system in which electrical charge is built
up to the necessary level and required magnetic field is then generated as a
short duration pulse. Measurement of full hysteresis loops is done using
equipment such as Molspin vibrating sample magnetometer (Fig. 4.26). Low
and high temperature dependence (–196° to 700°C) of magnetic susceptibility
provide useful additional information on the Curie temperature using AGICO’s
KLY4S Kappabridge/Bartington thermal susceptibility system (Figs 4.24 and
4.25).
138 Geomagnetism
Figure 4.23. The pulse magnetizer. The IRM of a sample is the magnetization retained
by that sample when a known field is imparted to the sample. Imparting IRM to a rock
or sedimentary sample in a laboratory is achieved by subjecting it to increasing fields,
in stages from 1 mT to 9 T by using the pulse magnetizer. The saturation IRM or SIRM
is the maximum remanence that a sample can acquire, indicating the type of magnetic
mineral present.
Figure 4.24. Bartington temperature variation of magnetic susceptibility meter, operating

over the temperature range -200° C to +900° C, is used to investigate magnetic
mineralogy, grain size and for the determination of Curie transition temperatures.
Figure 4.25. Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility kappabridge (KLY-4S) and

temperature variation apparatus (CS-3). The kappabridge is used to measure magnetic
susceptibility of rock and sedimentary samples, as also its anisotropy. Its operation is
based on measurements of inductivity changes in coil due to a rock/sedimentary
specimen. This instrument is attached with high and low temperature apparatus CS-3/
CS-L to monitor temperature variations of magnetic susceptibility.
(i) Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM): This magnetometer is used

for discrimination of magnetic minerals. The VSM is generally used for high-
field measurements, such as hysteresis properties. The sample is mounted at
one end of a vertical cantilever, the other end of which is attached to the bottom
of a resonator unit. The sample is mechanically vibrated at a fixed frequency
(Fig. 4.26). The sensing coils have an emf induced within them due to the
changing flux produced by the vibrating sample. For a sample magnetization
M, the induced voltage V in the sensing coils is given by V = P0GMZA sin Zt,
where Z is the angular frequency of the vibration, A is the vibration amplitude
and G is a factor relating to the geometry of the sensing coils. A uniform
magnetic field in the region of the sample is provided by an electromagnet or
superconducting solenoid if fields >3 T are required. A heater or cryostat can
be suitably fitted for variable temperature measurement.
Figure 4.26. A schematic of a vibrating sample magnetometer. The sample is vibrated

mechanically, and the induced signal in the sensing coils will be proportional to its
magnetization (courtesy: Williams).
(ii) Susceptibility meter/Kappabridge: Magnetic susceptibility is a

measure of the concentration of ferrimagnetic minerals by rapid and non-
destructive means. It can be measured both in the laboratory and directly in the
field. There are three field versions (MS2D, MS2F and KT Kappameter) and
two laboratory (MS2B and Kappabridges of KLY and MFK1 series), commonly
used to measure magnetic susceptibility (Figs 4.25 and 4.27).
140 Geomagnetism
The MS2 magnetic susceptibility system consists of a MS2 meter with

interchangeable field probes, MS2D and MS2F, and the laboratory probe MS2B
(Figs 4.27 and 4.28a). The field sensors are used in conjunction with a MS2
probe handle. It is submersible to a depth of the handle length. The MS2 meter
allows data acquisition with a 4-digit display (range: 10-1–10-6 SI). The other
sensor is a portable KT-6 Kappameter of almost pocket size (66 mm dia) with
a data range of 10-4–10-9 SI (Fig. 4.28b). Generally, the laboratory MS2B and
KLY-2 Kappabridge probes give true susceptibility values. As these sensors
do not work at the same frequency and induction field (Table 4.3), measurement
differences are to be expected for materials with a possible frequency and AC
dependence of susceptibility (Figs 4.25 and 4.27).
Table 4.3 Measurement specifications of Bartington MS2B and AGICO

Kappabridges
Specifications Bartington AGICO

MS2B KLY-4S MFK1-FA
Frequency (Hz) 470 & 4700 875 976, 3904 & 15616
Alternating field (A/m) 80 3 to 450 2 to 700
-6 -8
Sensitivity (SI) 2×10 3×10 2×10-8
Measuring range (SI) 0-0.1 0-0.2 0-0.9
Figure 4.27. MS2 Bartington susceptibility meter attached with a dual frequency MS2B
sensor can rapidly measure low field or initial susceptibility. The sensor subjects the
sample to a non-saturating field that has the advantage of measuring initial susceptibility
without destroying magnetic remanence of the sample.
Figure 4.28. (a) A set of Bartington susceptibility meters and sensors. (b) The
Kappameter used for in situ susceptibility measurements and hand held GPS unit for
getting the exact location.
142 Geomagnetism
5
MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES AND
DATA ANALYSIS
The geophysical discipline of geomagnetism carries out scientific study of the

Earth’s external and internal field comprising secular change, and magnetic
reversals. This is a multidisciplinary science and magnetic observatories (MOs)
provide data to those institutes, whose interests range from geology, subsurface
structural mapping, geophysics (including seismology and earthquake
prediction), meteorology, solar-terrestrial physics, and astronomy. Most of the
surface magnetic phenomena exhibit strong dependence on both latitude and
longitude. A worldwide network of magnetic stations is, therefore, absolutely
essential for continuous monitoring of the ionospheric and magnetospheric
phenomenon. Much depends on the accuracy and stability of the input magnetic
data from magnetic observatories.
Global distribution of ground-based MOs (Fig. 5.1) support these pursuits
by providing accurate records of the magnetic field direction and intensity at
fixed locations over long periods of time. First few MOs began operation in
the early nineteenth century in response to the influence of Humboldt and
Gauss. Establishment of MOs recognizes geomagnetic field to be a continuum
(though transient and fleeting), which connects Earth to itself and to space.
The earliest known regular measurements of declination were carried out at
Greenwich from 1816 to calibrate ship’s compasses. The practical use of MO
includes help in space, ground navigation systems and monitoring earthquake
activity. The data generated at the observatory is passed through a series of
quality control measures that involves data processing.
To support scientific research in geomagnetism, Colaba-Alibag Observatory
(CAO) was separated from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) in
1971. It was also done because major gains were being made in the arena of
space exploration, which had a direct bearing on studies related to space
magnetism. The CAO and the then existing equatorial observatories were
Magnetic Observatories and Data Analysis 143
reconstituted as Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG). It is an autonomous

organization, working directly under the Department of Science and Technology
(DST). Till 2003, it was located at Colaba, but now the head-quarter has been
moved over to a new campus in Navi Mumbai. The growth and development
of geomagnetism in India is interminably associated with IIG, which continues
to make single largest contribution to studies in geomagnetism.
I. Overview and Observatory Characteristics

Monitoring the strength and direction of EMF accurately and continuously
over many years with a time resolution of at least a minute is carried out at
MOs. Their data reveal field changes on a wide range of timescales from seconds
to centuries, which are important for understanding processes both inside and
outside the Earth.
A network of ~180 observatories is currently operating around the world
(Fig. 5.1), although their distribution is mainly determined by the location of
habitable land and availability of local expertise. This has resulted in its scarce
presence in some regions. Consequently, vast tracts of ocean and southern
hemisphere have poor coverage (Fig. 5.1). International scientific campaigns
such as international polar years 1882–1883 and 1932–1933, and the
international geophysical year (IGY) 1957–1958 saw the establishment of many
observatories around the world.
Figure 5.1. Location of currently operating magnetic

observatories around the world.
The variometer and absolute are the two main categories of instruments at
an observatory. They make continuous measurements of elements of the
geomagnetic field vector in arbitrary units on photographic paper variographs
and electrical voltage for fluxgates (Chapter 4). The resulting data from analog
144 Geomagnetism
and digital variometers are, however, not absolute. But the PPM (measuring
total field intensity) and fluxgate theodolites (measuring D and I) can make
measurements of the magnetic field in terms of absolute physical basic units
or universal physical constants (Chapter 4). This data is subjected to application
of baseline so that it closely fits the absolute data after which it is ready for use
in data analysis. Many instrumental effects of long-term drifts in the variometer
data, scaling factors, offsets, sensor alignments, temperature responses and
timing events, have been removed with modern digital variometers. Once a
continuous time series of data reduced to the observatory reference location is
obtained, final observatory products are produced and disseminated. These
include 1-min means, hourly means, daily means, annual means, k-indices and
some more.
InterMagnet (international magnetic observatory network) was created in
late 1980s to establish a worldwide network of cooperating digital magnetic
observatories. These observatories agreed to adopt global standards in the
measurement, recording and near real time dissemination. There are now ~100
observatories operating to InterMagnet standards. Besides this, the combination
of observatory data with magnetic survey satellites such as Magsat, Oersted,
CHAMP and SAC-C provides a rich research resource into understanding
diverse topics ranging from core processes to effects of space weather on
technological systems during magnetic storms and many others. The ongoing
programmes to replace analog systems with digital systems will undoubtedly
increase the utility of observatory data.
II. Magnetic Observatories in India

Magnetic observatories in India are in operation for well over 180 years.
Geomagnetism started in India with observations at Chennai (Madras) (1822–
1881), Shimla (1841–1845), and Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) observ-
atory (1841–1871). The first geomagnetic observations were carried out in
1823 at Colaba, Mumbai (Bombay), but the magnetic observatory (MO) was
formally established in 1841, after which readings were regularly taken. Values
of magnetic elements from 1845 onwards exist as printed volumes. Because of
the magnetic perturbations due to the introduction of a DC electric tram system
in Mumbai in 1900, the Colaba observatory was moved to Alibag in 1904, a
low-latitude station outside the equatorial electrojet domain. A standard Alibag
magnetic observatory (ABO) was established in April 1904, and the
observations are still continuing. The measurements were overlapped with
Colaba records for a period of two years (1904-1906) after which recordings
at Colaba were stopped. Thus, at present, CAO data form a long series of >180
years.
In 1993, a digital MO under InterMagnet (IMO) was commissioned at
Alibag and since then 1-min data are being regularly transferred to the
geomagnetic information nodes (GINs), which are the collection and
dissemination points for near real-time data within the InterMagnet. These
nodes are connected to the IMOs by satellite, computer and telephone networks.
A magnetic observatory functioned at Kodaikanal between 1902 and 1923,
and again from 1949 to date. The Sabhawala observatory carried out
observations during 1902–1943, and from 1964 to date. The IGY years of
1957–1959 saw the establishment of two new MOs at Thiruvananthapuram
and Annamalainagar to study the equatorial electrojet (EEJ). The decade of
1960 saw the operation of MOs at places like Kodaikanal, Sabhawala (near
Dehradun) and Hyderabad. Geoelectric observatories were setup at Choutuppal
near Hyderabad and at Etaiyapuram near Kodaikanal.
A collaborative programme was established by IIG with the Institute of
Ionosphere and Terrestrial Magnetism (IZMIRAN) from the erstwhile Soviet
Union to set up ‘project geomagnetic meridian’, whose emphasis was on 145
meridian. Under this project, geomagnetic observatories were set up at Ujjain
and Jaipur in 1975. These places were selected to have a control station outside
the influence but having practically similar kind of variations to decipher the
complexities and intricacies of EEJ. Shillong MO (1975) was commissioned
to bridge a large gap in the distribution of MOs and also to study the ionospheric
current systems. The Gulmarg MO, which is close to the latitude of focus of
quiet time ionospheric current system, became operational in 1977. This gave
rise to a unique chain of observatories right from the dip equator, Trivandrum
to the north pole, if the chain of observatories operated by the erstwhile Soviet
Union is also considered as a continuous chain along a single longitudinal belt
(~79E).
Trivandrum MO was shifted to Tirunelveli in 1996 and Annamalainagar
to Pondicherry in 1993. New observatories became operational at Nagpur,
Visakhapatnam, Silchar, Rajkot and Port Blair. They were commissioned in
1991, 1994, 1998, 2007, and 2007, respectively. Data from Alibag and Ujjain
(closed in 2004) MOs highlighted certain EEJ features. However, Alibag being
a coastal station, its magnetic recordings are influenced by the induced currents
from the Arabian Sea. Also, in the literature of palaeomagnetism, the ancient
poles were all reduced to the latitude and longitude of a central place in the
country, because of which Nagpur was chosen for the installation of a permanent
observatory. The choice of Visakhapatnam was dictated by the presence of
Alibag observatory. A need was felt to have another station, on the same
geographic latitude as that of Alibag, on the eastern coast of India, to unravel
the hitherto unknown oceanic effects between the two coasts. The station at
Visakhapatnam is also expected to serve as a base station for marine magnetic
measurements carried out off Bay of Bengal.
The MOs at Alibag, Jaipur, Rajkot, Nagpur, Visakhapatnam and Allahabad
ensure proper regional coverage. Rajkot is the first modern observatory
monitoring geomagnetic variations at 1 Hz sampling rate. The locations of
Shillong and Silchar MOs are ideally suited to monitor tectonic and geomagnetic
changes occurring across the Dauki fault. They are located respectively to the
146 Geomagnetism
north and south of the Dauki fault. Port Blair was chosen to ascertain the
geomagnetic changes caused by the tectonics of the arc region, leading to
increased seismic activity in Andaman and adjoining areas.
Table 5.1 gives geographic coordinates and geomagnetic (IGRF models
1990 and 2010) coordinates of the 17 Indian magnetic observatories. Locations
of the Indian permanent observatories are such that they cover a wide range of
latitudes extending from the dip equator up to the focus of the Sq current system.
Thus, the magnetic data recorded continuously at these observatories provide
a unique opportunity to study the associated phenomena of ionospheric Sq
current system as well as the EEJ and counter EEJ. The establishment of the
equatorial geophysical research laboratory (EGRL) at Tirunelveli near the
latitude of the dip equator is expected in providing the basic infrastructure
required for the study of EEJ and other upper atmosphere features.
III. Indian Observatories: Automation

The modernized digital acquisition systems at the Indian MOs are installed to
provide high resolution digital geomagnetic data with more stable baselines
(Chapter 4). The digital MOs are in the process of being linked to a centralized
station, so that the data are readily accessible to scientists, who can do quality
check and pass appropriate instructions for corrective measures, if the data are
found incompatible. Acquisition and transmission of 1-sec digital data of the
three magnetic components recorded from the InterMagnet system at Alibag
and computation and publishing of EEJ index are being done in an exceptionally
expeditious way. The calibration of Indian navy, airforce, SOI, NGRI and GSI
compasses is also extensively modernized.
IV. Observatory Data: Services

Descriptions of the observatories, their results, instruments and methods are
found in the magnetic year-book. In today’s world, dissemination of magnetic
data by internet for instant access and analyses has become important, and this
is done through InterMagnet (WDC) as well as through IIG’s website
(iigs.iigm.res.in/world.htm). One-sec data are useful for research into external
magnetic fields. Data at this time resolution are also required for modelling
geomagnetically induced currents, which are of interest to the electricity
distribution industry, especially those at high latitudes. A further modern-day
application, important to hydrocarbon production around India, is the use of
accurate magnetic reference data to correct well-logging survey measurements.
Observatory data are also used in the analysis of records gained by ground and
aeromagnetic surveys (see Chapter 9).
5.1 MEASUREMENT AND DATA

The modern MOs have a fluxgate magnetometer, which gives vectorial data,
conventionally expressed in terms of either the Cartesian components X, Y,
Table 5.1 The geographic and geomagnetic latitudes of the 21 geomagnetic observatories operated by India
Station Geographic co-ordinates Geomagnetic co-ordinates (In degrees)

(In degrees) 1990 model 2010 model
Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Trivandrum (TRD) 8.48 N 76.95 E - 0.77 S 148.45 E - 0.11 S 149.54 E
Tirunelveli (TIR) 8.70 N 77.80 E - 0.64 S 149.30 E 0.03 N 150.40 E
Eitaiyapuram (ETT) 9.17 N 78.00 E - 0.19 S 149.55 E 0.48 N 150.64 E
Kodaikanal (KOD) 10.23 N 77.47 E 0.92 N 149.13 E 1.59 N 150.21 E
Annamalainagar(ANN) 11.37 N 79.68 E 1.85 N 151.40 E 2.54 N 152.47 E
Port Blair 11.68 N 92.72 E 1.23 N 164.17 E 2.03 N 165.25 E
Pondicherry (PON) 11.92 N 79.92 E 2.37 N 151.69 E 3.07 N 152.75 E
Hyderabad (HYB) 17.42 N 78.55 E 7.97 N 150.88 E 8.66 N 151.88 E
Visakhapatnam (VSK) 17.68 N 83.32 E 7.83 N 155.47 E 8.56 N 156.49 E
Alibag (ABG) 18.62 N 72.87 E 9.73 N 145.57 E 10.36 N 146.54 E
Nagpur (NGP) 21.15 N 79.08 E 11.64 N 151.75 E 12.33 N 152.71 E
Rajkot (RJK) 22.30 N 70.93 E 13.60 N 144.16 E 14.21 N 145.08 E
Ujjain (UJJ) 23.18 N 75.78 E 13.97 N 148.84 E 14.63 N 149.77 E
Silchar (SIL) 24.93 N 92.82 E 14.46 N 164.98 E 15.27 N 165.96 E
Allahabad (ALH) 25.28 N 81.54 E 15.54 N 154.46 E 16.26 N 155.39 E
Shillong (SHI) 25.92 N 91.88 E 15.49 N 164.16 E 16.30 N 165.12 E
Jaipur (JAI) 26.92 N 75.80 E 17.68 N 149.27 E 18.35 N 150.16 E
Sabhawala (SAB) 30.37 N 77.80 E 20.93 N 151.51 E 21.62 N 152.37 E
Hanle (HAN) 32.76 N 78.95 E 23.20 N 152.83 E 23.91 N 153.67 E
Gulmarg (GUL) 34.08 N 74.40 E 24.93 N 148.85 E 25.60 N 149.65 E
Magnetic Observatories and Data Analysis
Maitri (MAl) - 70.75 S 11.75 E -66.84 S 56.29 E -67.49 S 58.91 E

147
The Antarctic observatory at Maitri operates all the year round. The geomagnetic coordinates are based on the IGRF models 1990 and 2010.
148 Geomagnetism
and Z or the horizontal-polar components (H = [X2 + Y2]1/2, D = arctan[Y/X],

and Z). A PPM measures the total absolute field intensity, F = (X2 + Y2 + Z2)1/2.
A series of measurements using the theodolite at the observatory provides D
and I = arctan(Z/H). This absolute magnetic direction data are then used to
calibrate the fluxgate data, so as to compensate for long-term drift in the fluxgate
magnetometer. Production of definitive observatory data involves processing.
The resulting data have an absolute accuracy of better than 5 nT. Low and mid
latitude Indian MOs record magnetic variations in D, H and Z. However, at
Maitri in Antarctica, X, Y and Z are measured. This is because the field aligned
currents cause very rapid fluctuations in D at higher north and south latitudes
of >75°.
I. Solar Terrestrial Effects from Observatory

An invisible force, the magnetic field, envelopes the Earth, which originates
deep within the Earth and extends many thousands of km into geospace. The
geospace comprises the atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere. On the
basis of the solar-terrestrial interaction process, the Earth is broadly divided
into four regions (Fig. 5.2a) with distinct and clearly demarcated characteristics.
The network of global MOs to which the Indian chain of 17 stations belong,
provide an invaluable source of data to understand these intricacies. The advent
of space age since 1957 catapulted man to physically and instrumentally observe
the interplanetary space, helping confirm the earlier hypotheses of solar sources
of magnetic storms and auroras. As the Earth rotates under overhead current
system in the upper atmosphere, a smoothly varying magnetic field is produced
whose magnitude and shape depend upon the station location, time of day and
the season of the year. They thus offer clues to the vagaries of the upper
atmosphere, particularly its electrical state. Close to the equator, this current is
enhanced abnormally called EEJ. The observations that catch up this anomalous
current lie close to the tip of the peninsula.
Figure 5.2. (a) Broad latitudinal categorization of the Earth, on the basis of geophysical
phenomena occurring as a consequence of the solar-terrestrial energy coupling (Rajaram
and Pisharoty, 1998). (b) Schematic of geomagnetic variations on different timescales.
Magnetic charts are an inexpensive tool to monitor signatures of temporal

and spatial characteristics of the large-scale over-head currents and the
geomagnetic field (Fig. 5.2b). The morphological and geographical location
of India in the global scenario is ideal for monitoring the equatorial and low
latitude dynamics and its associated effect in the global Sq current system,
equatorial ionization anomaly and low latitude ionospheric irregularities.
Interestingly, Indian observatory network from dip equator to Sq focus
complements the magnetometer chain along a single longitudinal belt (~79°E)
through Russia to the North Pole. The magnetic measurements from the Indian
longitudinal chain form a unique database in investigating the ionosphere-
magnetosphere coupling processes, as the entire network can cover the locations
spanning from equator to the North Pole in the Indo-Russian longitude.
II. Observatory Data Based Investigation

Observatory data on its own or coupled with satellite observations are used to
launch investigations into an array of diverse topics from the realm of solid
Earth to atmosphere to interplanetary space. This is done by applying a range
of mathematical and statistical techniques to qualify and quantify the field
variations. Numerous numerical models are built to decipher the quiet and
disturbed time dynamics of the ionosphere and magnetosphere. The processes
of energetic reconnection and vigorous coupling of atmosphere-ionosphere-
magnetosphere are a hot topic for investigation (Chapters 3 and 8). Since the
equatorial and polar electric current systems are genetically different, the data
from low latitude observatories are used to standardize the EEJ indices.
Geomagnetic storm processes impact low latitudes in quite different way
compared to high latitudes and hence these changes are examined in association
with the interplanetary features. The disturbance fields indicative of space
weather conditions, are characterized by various geomagnetic activity indices.
The correlations between selective features on the Sun and the surface magnetic
field changes enable to predict the possibility of the occurrence of violent
geomagnetic disturbances. Repeat measurements of the magnetic field aid in
preparing regional magnetic field model and monitoring secular acceleration
towards tectonic change interpretation. The surveys in the vicinity of equatorial
locations are carried out periodically to update or monitor information on the
location and movement of the dip equator. The variations in geomagnetic field
recorded on the ground or in the magnetosphere cavity, when interpreted
skillfully can yield clues to physical processes at work in (1) the entire
magnetospheric cavity, (2) in interplanetary space, (3) on the Sun, and
(4) within the Earth.
III. Temporal Variation of Geomagnetism Spectrum

The painstaking measurements carried out by astronomers, clockmakers, and
the like revealed some novel features. To them, there were slow changes in the
strength and direction of the magnetic field spanning several years, regular
150 Geomagnetism
smooth daily variations and occasional violent outbursts of short duration, which
they linked to the Sun. These discoveries stimulated the curiosity to unravel
the causative agents and look for the inter-relationships between all the cosmic
entities to use this knowledge for predictive purposes. Hence, the intricacies
and vagaries of the geomagnetic field are studied since the variations encompass
several types of information. This knowledge is gained out from a few important
frequency bands, the details of which follow in the next paragraph.
Variations are normally studied by analyzing how changes in the
geomagnetic field are distributed as a function of frequency. This is done by
estimating the spectrum of geomagnetic variations. The power spectral density
S(f) is a measure of the power in geomagnetic field variations at frequency f.
When integrated over all frequencies, it measures the total variance in the
geomagnetic field. Figure 5.3a shows a schematic of the various processes that
contribute to the geomagnetic field, and these can be roughly divided according
to the frequency range in which they operate.
The bulk of EMF is generated at the liquid outer core, where fluid flow
produces secular variation in the magnetic field, which propagates upward
through mantle and crust. Short-term changes in the core field are attenuated
by their passage through the mantle so that at periods less than a few months
most of the changes are of external origin. The electrically conductive
ionosphere supports Sq currents with a diurnal variation as a result of dayside
solar heating. Lightning generates high-frequency Schuman resonances in the
Earth/ionosphere cavity. Outside the Earth, the magnetosphere, the
manifestation of core dynamo, is deformed and modulated by the solar wind,
compressed on the dayside and elongated on the night-side. At a distance of
~3RE, the magnetospheric ring current acts to oppose the main field, and is
modulated by solar activity. A recent composite spectrum by Constable and
Constable (Fig. 5.3b) uses spectral estimates from palaeointensity variations
at long periods. Between 10-10 and 1 Hz, the spectrum is from Filloux and for
above 1 Hz, the results of Nichols and his coworkers are included.
5.2 GEOMAGNETISM AND SECULAR VARIATION

The observed temporal variations of the EMF are due to two distinct (external
and internal) source regions with respect to the Earth’s surface. The short-
period variations of the EMF have an external origin, while long-period
variations have an internal one. However, the boundary between these two
domains, if it exists, is not known accurately. Fluctuations of the external field
range from millisec to a few decades, whereas the longer periods are related to
variations of the solar magnetic field (22 and 11 years). The magnetic field is
not a pure dipole. It has substantial quadrupole and higher order polarity
components adding to its complexity, which is unravelled only by examining
various components of its behaviour. The SV of the geomagnetic field is one
such aspect.
Figure 5.3. (a) Schematic illustration of the physical processes, contribute to the
geomagnetic field (courtesy: Constable and Constable, 2004). (b) Composite amplitude
spectrum of geomagnetic variations as a function of frequency. Annotations indicate
the predominant physical processes at various scales (Constable, 2007). Note this is an
amplitude rather than power spectrum, i.e. the square root of power spectral density.
I. Long-period Variations of Internal Geomagnetic Field

Changes of the internal field range from a few million years (reversals of the
internal dipole) through a few hundreds of years for changes in intensity of the
dipole to a few years for phenomena like the magnetic jerk (Chapters 2 and 7).
The more recent historical past is covered under archaeomagnetism. Slow
changes in the geomagnetic field in the time frame of hundreds of years form
the secular variation. Earth’s magnetic moment has so far varied with a
152 Geomagnetism
periodicity of ~7000 year, with values ranging from 6.5 to 11.5106 (Fig. 5.4).
This interlude is attributed to be stable natural period of the Earth’s internal
dynamo. There exists another SV of 300 to 100 years, ascribed to originate
in convective motions within the geodynamo. Other periodicities observed are
of 600 and 60 years. These are attributed to inhomogeneous processes at the
core-mantle boundary.
Archaeomagnetic data indicate that the total field intensity has over the
past 2000 years dropped from a value of 4.2 to ~3.2 nT, but that over the
preceding 3000 years, it had increased by practically the same value. For the
last 150 years, the geomagnetic field intensity has been dropping at a yearly
rate of 15 nT, with the jump accelerating to 22 nT/year in the 1960s and to
29 nT/year in the 1980s (Fig. 5.4). If this fall is linearly extrapolated, the dipole
field may disappear in 1000 years! Palaeomagnetic studies, however, show
situations in the past, where the dipole attained zero, and then recovered rapidly
with either the same or reversed polarity. Hence, it is difficult to predict just
how this field intensity changes in future.
Figure 5.4. Archaeomagnetic data show the change in the magnetic dipole moment of
the Earth since 10,000 BC to date. Note a sharp rise in dipole moment since 2000 BC
before a sharp drop at ~800 AD till the present (Cain, 1987).
Other notable SV features are: (1) the non-dipole part of the field, which
is currently drifting westward (WD) with an average angular velocity of
~0.3°/year, and is growing or decaying at ~10 nT/year. Halley was the first to
observe the WD in the Atlantic ocean, where lines of zero D moved steadily
westward during the past few centuries (Fig. 1.6a), and (2) the magnetic moment
of the dipole which over the past century is decaying at an average rate of
~0.4%/year.
Secular trends at the Indian observatories: The plots of the annual mean
values of D, H and Z for quiet days during 1958-1990 at six stations are shown
in Fig. 5.5a-c together with their best-fitting curves: a parabola for D, a quadratic
for H and a cubic for Z. Secular trends show a region of demarcation between
equatorial and low latitude stations. The secular jerk around 1960-70 is not
seen in D but is noted in H and Z components. A comparison between the
observed annual means and IGRF models indicates very low SV anomaly in
the Indian region.
At Alibag, H component attained a maximum by 1965, and is decreasing
presently at the rate of 20 nT/year. The diurnal variation in the Z component
close to the dip equator will be small, but analysis shows a significant internal
contribution due to channelling of induced currents in the Palk Strait between
India and Sri Lanka. Another notable feature of the region is the location of
one of the foci of H, and H maximum close to the Andaman islands. The
parallelism in the secular trend of Alibag, Hyderabad and Sabhawala indicate
that the feature has a regional coverage, whose southern latitudinal extent is
just above the edge of the EEJ belt. The secular trend for D is a smooth parabola
with the broad maximum near the same epoch as for H. Z component, on the
other hand, shows a near-sinusoidal secular trend with ~80 years periodicity,
the so-called Gleissberg cycle. In the Indian sector, the dip equator shifted
northward from 1928 to 1967 at 2 to 3/year, after which it started drifting
southward.
Figure 5.5. Observed annual mean values for quiet days at six Indian stations
from 1958-1990, together with their best-fitting curves of (a) D, westerly-increasing D
is plotted downwards, (b) H-component and (c) Z-component (Bhardwaj and
Rangarajan, 1997).
154 Geomagnetism
II. Short-period Variations of External Geomagnetic Field

The external field variations originate in space around the Earth, generally
have shorter time-periods of a few years (22 years solar magnetic reversal
cycle and 11-year solar sunspot cycle), through a few days (magnetic storms)
to a few sec (ULF pulsations). A periodicity of one year may be linked to
variable distances during the Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun, and a semi-
annual periodicity is understood to be associated with the differing tilt of the
Earth’s axis of rotation with respect to the plane of the ecliptic.
At the faster end of the spectra is: (1) 27-day variation connected with
solar active regions rotating with the Sun’s period of rotation, (2) 24-hour
variation and its sub-harmonics connected with Sunrise and Sunset (referred
to as Sq variation), (3) variations of lunar origin with period 50.5-min longer
than the Sq, (4) 2 to 4-day variation associated with the main phase and decay
of geomagnetic storms, (5) 1 to 3-hour variation connected with the growth
and decay of sub-storms, (6) periodicities of a few min to an hour which are
set due to (i) X-rays from solar flares, (ii) decreased currents in the ionosphere
caused by rapid recombination of ionization during a solar eclipse, and finally
(7) pulsations with periods ranging from 0.3 sec to 30 min, which originate in
the distant magnetosphere. Atmospheric lightning too leaves an oscillatory
signature with periods of <0.1 sec.
5.3 CAUSES OF GEOMAGNETIC FIELD VARIATION:

EXTERNAL ORIGIN
The maximum contribution to the geomagnetic field (97–99%) comes from
the main internal field. The remaining 1% originates directly in currents flowing
in the Earth’s space environment of ionosphere, magnetotail and magnetopause
(Chapter 8). This tiny component of the geomagnetic field exhibits marked
variations of both regular and irregular kind, and it can be as small as 100 nT in
a background total field of ~40,000 nT (Figure 5.6 showing variations at Alibag).
The variation field is mainly caused by: (1) thermal tidal forces in the atmosphere
caused by solar heating, (2) interaction of the Earth’s gaseous and plasma
environment with charged particles and wave radiation intermittently emitted
by the Sun, and (3) gravitational tidal pulls exerted on the Earth’s gaseous
environment, predominantly by Moon or to a lesser extent by the Sun.
I. Quiet Time Variation and the Ionosphere

Variations in the geomagnetic field are strongly affected by solar phenomena.
Annual variation of the geomagnetic field caused by magnetic effects associated
with solar activity is examined by expanding the annual mean values of the D,
H and Z components at selected observatories into spherical harmonic series.
At most places on the Earth, the measured geomagnetic field starts rising in
value at ~06 hr LT, reaches a peak at 11-12 LT, and regains low levels at 17-18
Figure 5.6. Records of the D, H and Z components of the geomagnetic field recorded
at Alibag observatory, on 14 Nov 1990 (quiet day) and 10 July 1990 (disturbed day)
(Rajaram and Pisharoty, 1998).
LT. Thereafter, it remains at almost the same level all night. This is the Sq
(solar quiet) variation (e.g. Fig. 5.7b). It is caused by the fact that as Earth
rotates, its gaseous atmosphere on the dawn side starts coming under the
influence of solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation. This EUV radiation is
selectively absorbed at different altitudes above 60–80 km by the gases, which
comprise the Earth’s upper atmosphere causing ionization of gases. Thus, a
conducting medium of free electrons and ions (mainly positive at altitudes >90
km, negative at altitudes <90 km) is formed leading to electric current flow.
This is the ionosphere, and the vertical profile of the observed electron density
classifies it into the D, E and F (F1 and F2 by daytime) regions (Chapter 3).
The Sq variation reflects the currents set-up in the conducting ionosphere and
thermal tides rather than the gravitation tides caused by Moon. The Sq is
assumed to have zero value near local mid-night, since the conductivity falls
to nearly zero at this time. However, the mean Sq is not zero because of which
daily mean differs from the midnight (baseline).
II. Lunar (L) Variations and Magnetic Field

These variations are brought about in the upper atmosphere by the tidal pull of
the Moon caused by its gravitational attraction. This causes motion of the solar
156 Geomagnetism
EUV-ionized atmosphere across magnetic field lines, which sets up dynamo

currents in the E region. The magnetic variations associated with currents of
lunar tidal origin (L) differ from those of Sq origin in features of: (1) the
amplitude of L variations is smaller than that of the Sq variations (hardly 0.1)
because tidal forces caused by the Moon are far less powerful than the solar
thermal tidal pulls, (2) period of L variation is found to be predominantly
semidiurnal in contrast to the thermal solar diurnal variation, and (3) the lunar
day exceeds the solar day by 50.5 min.
The dependence of lunar tides on the solar cycle, enhanced geomagnetic
activity, lunar orbital distance (apogee and perigee) and polarity of the IMF are
quantified using long series of Alibag data. The solar cycle influence on the
lunar tides far exceeds the solar component in the summer. Enhanced geomagnetic
activity modifies the amplitude of the phase-law tides depending on the station
location in relation to the times of magnetospheric compression or expansion.
Quiet time variations of the EMF are associated with the equivalent Sq
currents in the highly conducting E region of the ionosphere. Sq current system
has an anti-clockwise current vortex in the northern hemisphere, and a clockwise
current vortex in the southern hemisphere. Few examples of seasonal and solar
cycle dependence of geomagnetic H and D variations demonstrate the influence
of varying current systems even under quiet magnetic conditions. Dependence
on longitude and month to month difference in the position and strength of Sq
currents, are also seen.
III. Sq Day Variation near Focus of Current System

Magnetic variations associated with solar cycle have shown the latter depicts
maximum events twice in the course of its length of ~22 years. During the first
maximum, sunspot activity has its largest magnitude. Solar flares and sporadic
magnetic activity are also largest during this period. The second maximum
occurs 2 to 3 years after the first and the period is characterized by gradual
commencement of storms and recurrent magnetic activity on Earth.
Figure 5.7b depicts hourly values of D, H and Z components from thirteen
MOs (Fig. 5.7a), whose data are available in common with Gulmarg
observatory. The mean pattern of daily variation in each of the components is
obtained by averaging the hourly field values over all the international quiet
(IQ) days of the year 1978. The mean Sq variation in D, H and Z for each of
the stations is plotted as a function of 75°E meridian time (EMT) (Fig. 5.7b).
Results reveal latitudinal difference pattern of daily variation. For example, D
and Z variations in their latitudinal progression attain maximum close to
Gulmarg, whereas H-variations diminish in magnitude. The diurnal as well as
semidiurnal term phase shift in H is seen between Gulmarg and Tashkent
approximating a reversal. This feature indicates Sq-focus being located close
to the latitude of Gulmarg. Interestingly, as one moves northward from Ujjain,
the near noon maximum of H-variation progressively shifts to a later hour
until a reversed diurnal variation pattern registers at Tashkent.
Figure 5.7. (a) Location of the magnetic observatories (named filled circle) in India
and Russia. (b) Solar quiet-day variations in geomagnetic field components, D, H and
Z at magnetic observatories along Indian longitudinal belt for the year 1978 plotted as
a function of 75°E meridian time (EMT) (Patil et al., 1983). TRD – Trivandrum, KOD
– Kodaikanal, ANN – Annamalainagar, HYB – Hyderabad, ABG – Alibag, UJJ – Ujjain,
JAI – Jaipur, SAB – Sabhawala, GUL – Gulmarg, TKT – Tashkent, AAA – Alma-ata,
KGD – Karaganda, NVS – Novosibirsk.
IV. Sq (H) Variation and Seasonal Parameters

Separate study of Sq variations at Gulmarg for the three seasons shows that
daily variation of H during d-months
(winter months of Jan, Feb, Nov and Dec)
is predominantly diurnal in character with
the maximum before noon (Fig. 5.8).
During e-months (equinox months of
March, April, Sept and Oct), and more so
in j-months (summer months of May, June,
July and Aug), daily variation of H-field
is predominantly semi-diurnal in character
with consistently minimum around 08-09
hr LT during 1978-1980. These features
of Sq are suggested to be due to the
deformation of current loops caused by the
changing latitude of focus during the Figure 5.8. Mean seasonal quiet-
course of the day. day variations in D, H and Z at
Sabhawala, Gulmarg and Tashkent
for the year 1978 (Patil et al., 1983).
158 Geomagnetism
V. Sq (D) Variation and Seasonal Parameters

Seasonal and solar cycle dependence on the diurnal variations of 'D (departure
from the respective local night base), are examined for the period 1984 to
1989. Data sets are divided into three seasonal groups of three months, viz.
winter d, equinox e, and summer j months. Dominant features of seasonal
changes are positive (upward) variation over the night level indicative of an
eastward directed field, and negative (downward) variation indicative of a
westward field of the D component (Fig. 5.9). The focal meridian can be
determined by the time at which Y or D changes sign (positive to negative, i.e.
eastward to westward directed field in the northern hemisphere).
The abnormal seasonal characteristics of D when examined show that the
diurnal variation for e and j months is on the expected pattern of a prominent
eastward directed field in the morning hours and a westward field in the
afternoon hours (Fig. 5.9). In contrast, the anticipated 'D pattern in d-months
of 1987 is systematically departed from the regular diurnal trend (Fig. 5.10).
Dominance of a westward directed field is obvious during most of day hours at
equatorial and low latitude stations. Prominent diurnal pattern compared to the
semidiurnal variation at equatorial latitudes is a special feature observed during
Feb 1987, with minimum occurring around 12 hr LT, unlike the normal
d-seasonal minimum time between ~6 and 7 hr LT. This pronounced effect of
the westward field is seen farther away from equatorial latitudes. The complex
features seen in the d-months of 1987 could be due to the modification of the
entire northern Sq current system, either by penetration of southern Sq system
or by the prevailing wind conditions.
Figure 5.9. Average solar quiet daily variations of the declination component, D, at the
equatorial station Trivandrum and the two non-equatorial stations Alibag and Shillong
for the three (d, e, j) seasons (Alex et al., 1992a, b). Solar activity Rz value for each
year is indicated below the year marking.
Figure 5.10. Complex variation of DD at 14 locations in the Indo-USSR longitude belt

for February 1987 plotted as a function of 75°E Meridian Time (MT). Curves for 1986
and 1988 are also shown for comparison (Alex et al., 1992a,b). TRD – Trivandrum,
KOD – Kodaikanal, ANN – Annamalainagar, HYB – Hyderabad, ABG – Alibag, UJJ
– Ujjain, SHL – Shillong, JAI – Jaipur, SAB – Sabhawala, GUL – Gulmarg, TKT –
Tashkent, AAA – Alma-ata, NKK – Novokazalinsk, KGD – Karaganda.
5.4 EQUATORIAL ENHANCEMENT AND GEOMAGNETIC

FIELD VARIATIONS
Electrodynamics in the vicinity of the dip equator is more complex and
enigmatic than in the middle latitudes. At auroral regions between ~65° and
75° latitudes in both the hemispheres, the dawn-to-dusk electric field maps
into ionosphere to interact with Z component, and gives rise to strong E-W
directed auroral electrojet currents. The mere horizontality of the highly
conducting geomagnetic field lines generates large vertical polarization electric
fields within ±5° of the dip equator (Fig. 5.11a, where the Z component and I
are zero), and this produces a rather dramatic increase in the ionospheric currents
resulting in the EEJ phenomenon. The electric fields associated with EEJ not
only produce surface magnetic signatures but also drive the F-region fountain,
which takes the plasma from the equatorial regions to the anomaly crest. The
coupling between the plasma and neutral species transfers the momentum to
the neutrals, forming the neutral anomaly. Good quality scalar and vector data
are needed to yield vertical extent of the 3D current loop associated with EEJ.
I. Equatorial Electrojet
EEJ is the high concentration of ionospheric current flowing from west to east
in a narrow belt flanking the dip equator in the Sunward hemisphere (Chapter
160 Geomagnetism
3). In the region of dip equator, magnetic lines of force are horizontal, as a
consequence of which a large vertical polarization electric field called the Hall
electric field (responsible for the enhanced eastward currents) is set up. Part of
it is due to the highly enhanced electrical conductivity in the E region of lower
ionosphere over the 100 to 130 km altitude range. This is the Cowling
conductivity. The latitudinal position of the electrojet axis is dictated by
the position of the dip equator at that longitude, while the Hall conductivity
is sensitive to the magnitude of the magnetic field. These features are fairly
well brought out by equatorial magnetograms in the form of highly enhanced
H, which falls off rapidly with latitude (Fig. 5.11b). The difference in daily
range in H between an equatorial and non-equatorial location can be as much
as 80-100 nT. The EEJ is basically a daytime phenomenon which grows with
the daytime Sq current, reaches a peak around noon, and decays towards
evening. The understanding of the EEJ is very essential if it has to be used as
diagnostic tool for the systematic study of upper atmospheric motions and
currents.
Figure 5.11. (a) World map showing the dip equator (- - - -) and the geographic equator
(——). Jicamarca, Peru (J), Sarh-Fort Archambault, Chad (S) and Arta-Djibuti (A).
(b) Variation of the daily range in the H-component of the geomagnetic field as a
function of latitude. Note the highly amplified range within ±5° dip, which is due to
the E-W flowing equatorial electrojet current (Rajaram and Pisharoty, 1998).
II. Counter Electrojet

On certain days, magnetograms recorded at equatorial regions show a noticeable
dip in the H component for 2–3 hrs in the forenoon or afternoon hours. The
minimum of the dip, occasionally, has a value below night values. This
phenomenon is called the counter electrojet (CEJ). It often occurs on days
which are classified as magnetically quiet, and at such times is not related to a
magnetospheric disturbance. The CEJ is ascribed to a weakening of the eastward
directed Cowling current which flows in the equatorial latitudes.
III. Equatorial Electrojet and Induced Effects

Variations in the EMF are caused by electric currents which flow at ~100 km
altitude in the Earth’s conducting upper atmosphere, mainly in the location of
E region of the ionosphere. A small portion of the currents flows in the higher
ionospheric and magnetospheric regions. While these atmospheric currents
contribute to ~2/3 of the observed magnetic variations, the remaining 1/3 is
caused by electric currents, which are induced by the ionospheric currents in
the conducting upper layers of the Earth’s crust.
Equatorial electrojet provides a strong non-uniform field for studying the
electromagnetic induction in Earth. So far opinion differed even on the presence
of currents induced by EEJ, but satellite data now strongly confirm the presence
of EEJ induced currents. Indian MO data analysis shows that EEJ in the Indian
region has an associated internal current. The induction effects are local features
dependent on subsurface geology. Hence, they are spatially variable and
therefore needed to be studied in great detail. The induction studies have
implications on the modelling of global subsurface conductivity features.
IV. Equatorial Electrojet and Seasonal Parameters

The data generated at Travancore MO displayed a pattern strongly dependent
on the time of the day, seasons and solar cycle. The declination between Nov
and Feb was found to be exactly opposite to that observed between May and
Sept. This kind of feature results because the boundary between northern and
southern systems of the magnetic field crosses over the magnetic equator.
The geomagnetic data recorded by a network of MOs (Table 5.2) was
examined to investigate the spatial structures of the EEJ compared to global
Sq. Sq (H) variations, for each month of 1992, were derived using hourly
values of selected quiet days with Ap 7, where no single 3-hr Kp index exceeded
3+. The monthly mean Sq variations are subjected to harmonic analysis to
obtain amplitude and phase corresponding to periods of 24, 12, 8 and 6 hrs,
respectively. Figure 5.12 shows the latitudinal profiles of the amplitude
normalized with respect to the amplitude at Alibag. The amplitude-latitude
profiles are shown for winter (Feb), spring (March), summer (July), and fall
(Sept) seasons (Fig. 5.12). Consistent with the intense flow of eastward directed
162 Geomagnetism
EEJ currents, amplitude of all harmonics of Sq (H) are enhanced in the vicinity
of the dip equator in relation to the amplitudes at low latitudes. The dip equator
enhancement is confined to a narrow latitude range of 4 dip latitude (Fig.
5.12), and does not show any systematic dependence on the period of fluctuating
fields.
Spatial behaviour of variations from equator towards polar region reveal
that magnetic fluctuations in equatorial region have bimodal origin related to
ionospheric dynamo and magnetospheric process, wherein the latter results
from almost instantaneous transmission of polar electric field to equatorial
region (Fig. 5.12). When these two sources operate independently, the magnetic
fluctuations in equatorial belt in relation to that at low latitudes are enhanced
roughly by a factor of 41 due to enhanced Cowling conductivity. However,
when the two mechanisms work in an interactively coupled manner, they
account for the variability of equatorial enhancement seen in individual cases.
The difference in the fields of Thiruvananthapuram and Alibag is used to
derive indices of EEJ and CEJ. The long series of MO data help in bringing out
inverse correlation of CEJ with solar activity and peak occurrence in a given
year in June and Jan. Also, the lunar semidiurnal tide is identified as one of the
major sources of the CEJ.
Table 5.2. Geographic, geomagnetic co-ordinates and dip latitudes of geomagnetic

observatories along 75°E meridian
Station name Station code Geographic Geomagnetic

Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude Dip lat.
(N) (E) (N) (E)
Kanyakumaria KAN 8.10 77.54 1.21 148.98 –0.23
Trivandrum TRD 8.48 76.95 –0.88 148.24 0.28
Virudunagara VIR 9.61 77.94 0.26 149.52 1.61
Karura KAR 11.01 78.09 1.64 149.80 3.32
Annamalainagar ANN 11.40 79.68 1.77 151.20 3.67
Bangalorea BAN 12.98 77.60 3.64 149.52 5.72
Anantapura ANT 14.67 77.63 5.32 149.71 7.83
Alibag ABO 18.63 72.87 9.64 145.39 12.96
Nagpur NAG 21.15 79.08 11.64 151.74 15.74
Ujjain UH 23.02 75.78 13.50 147.00 18.42
Tashkent TKT 41.33 69.62 32.51 145.52 41.50
Alma Ata AAA 43.25 76.92 33.69 152.21 43.50
Novosibirsk NVS 55.03 82.90 44.92 159.07 58.90
Moscow MOS 55.48 37.32 50.79 121.62 54.92
Uloroski ULO 69.8 60.80 65.00 137.70 71.40
Karmakuli KRM 72.40 52.90 67.40 133.00 72.14
Dixon DIK 73.55 80.57 63.36 162.45 78.36
a
IEEY stations.
Figure 5.12. Plots showing equatorial enhancement of the different harmonics

of the regular daily variations in horizontal component during different months of 1992.
The latitudinal structure and equatorial enhancement factors do not show any regular
dependence on the period of oscillating field, both of dynamo and disturbance origin
(Arora and Bharadwaj, 2003). Amplitudes are normalized with respect to the value at
Alibag observatory.
V. Longitudinal Inequalities of Equatorial Electrojet

The EEJ is studied using the surface and scalar data of the Pogo satellite. An
empirical EEJ model including local time and longitude dependence is
constructed based on the surface magnetic data recorded at 26 stations located
in six different longitude sectors that were set up or augmented during the
international equatorial electrojet year (IEEY) (Fig. 5.13). The model reproduces
the characteristic signatures of EEJ associated with H and Z magnetic
components at ground level. The model-predicted variations at the orbit of
Pogo satellite are generally in good agreement with onboard magnetic
signatures. The nature of difference suggests that the global scale
magnetospheric or field aligned current systems may sometimes dominate the
satellite data. The nature of longitudinal inequalities in EEJ strength indicates
it to be strongest in South America (80 to 100W) and weakest in the Indian
sector (75E) with a secondary minimum and a maximum centered respectively
in the Atlantic Ocean (30W) and in western Africa (10E). The EEJ strength
is shown to be inversely correlated with the main field intensity along dip-
equator. The longitudinal differences in the EEJ are used as diagnostic tool for
the systematic global subsurface conductivity probing in induction studies.
164 Geomagnetism
Figure 5.13. Global view of Sun-synchronous EEJ associated magnetic field (H and
Z) at an altitude of 450 km as estimated from the empirical model constructed based on
the surface magnetic data recording at 26 stations in different longitude sectors. The
empirical model includes terms to define variations with latitude, longitude, local time
and altitude (Doumouya et al., 2003).
VI. EEJ Phenomena using Oersted Observations

Data from ground MO as well as satellites are used to understand the structure
of the EEJ. Analyses revealed that the equatorial enhancement varies by a
factor of 3 to 10, and is strongly controlled by the nature of activity in the polar
region. When there is an exaggerated geomagnetic activity in the polar region,
there is a greater enhancement of EEJ. This is attributed to the almost
instantaneous transmission of polar electric field to equatorial region. It also
appears that EEJ acts as a simple amplifier that enhances any input electrical
field by a factor of 3 to 5. One conspicuous feature of the width of the EEJ
varies considerably with longitude. Studies show the fundamental understanding
about the processes leading to formation of EEJ system and dissipation of its
energy, signifying the fact that electrojet controls the electrodynamics of the
entire low latitudinal ionosphere.
Analyses of magnetic field observations obtained from Oersted satellite

underscore an excellent database for studying not only the longitudinal structure
of the EEJ but also the sources responsible for its variations from day-to-day.
An objective method is devised for identifying the signature of EEJ at satellite
altitude and determining the parameters that define its basic structure. This
method works very well in describing the surface manifestations of EEJ as
seen in the observatory data.
(i) Preliminary treatment of the Oersted data: Detailed analysis of the
scalar magnetic field data from Oersted shows that the width of EEJ varies
considerably with longitude. Its axis (centre of EEJ) closely follows the dip
equator at altitude of 106 km and there is a small departure that undergoes
diurnal variation, with a minimum at noon (Fig. 5.14). The globally averaged
EEJ amplitude follows expected diurnal pattern. Principal component analysis
technique reveals that first four components can explain around two thirds of
electrojet variability. The first component, which contributes over 30% to the
observed variance, is identified with global variation of the EEJ emanating
from day-to-day variability of migrating tides. The second and fourth
components, which account for ~15 and 10% of the variance respectively, are
driven by forces that depend on whether the location of the EEJ in that sector
is in the northern or southern hemisphere. The third component provides
maximum contributions wherever the geomagnetic and dip equators are
sufficiently close, accounting for 12.5% of the variance. The remaining
Figure 5.14. Latitudinal variation of residual magnetic field observed at Oersted satellite
height for 135°E longitude pass on 2 August 1999, showing anomaly at dip equator
(Jadhav et al., 2002a,b). CC’is vertical distance between dip and shoulders, a measure
of the strength of the EEJ currents contribution, and WW’is horizontal distance between
two shoulders, giving the width of signature of the EEJ current system.
166 Geomagnetism
components can be associated with contribution of non-migratory tides or other

unknown mechanisms. Thus, besides conductivity, atmospheric tidal modes
play an important role in defining the zonal variability of the EEJ current system.
(ii) Comparison between satellite and ground observations: The scalar
data from 57 orbital passes on four representative quiet days, covering the
forenoon to afternoon hours, provide a greater insight into relative importance
of geomagnetic field structure and tidal control. The Oersted initial field model
along with the earlier IGRF models is used to study secular changes in the
global patterns of position and strength of EEJ. A northward drift in the location
of dip equator (hence the position of the axis of EEJ) to the extent of 1 per
decade is seen ~300E. In contrast, in the Pacific, east of Australia, there is
practically no drift. It is also observed that the largest secular variation in the
Cowling conductivity occurs in South American sector with a possible 4%
increase per decade for the same level of ionization in the E region. The Oersted
main field model does not suggest any changes or reversal of these trends. A
very significant result is that the magnetic field at the dip equator need not be
perpendicular to the line of zero dip, and this deviation from the idealized
scenario of the EEJ can result in significant contribution of EEJ to the D
component. EEJ signatures in American and Indian sectors are shown in
Fig. 5.15.
Figure 5.15. Scatter plot of EEJ Hobs from American and Indian MO data plotted
against the EEJ Hcomputed computed at the axis of EEJ from satellite based EEJ parameters
(Jadhav et al., 2002a, b).
The daytime ionosphere is seen to introduce a shift in phase of the

hydromagnetic wave impinging on it, wherein the phase shift is greater
for higher frequencies and higher conductivity of the ionosphere. There
are also significant phase differences in oscillations recorded at the centre
of the electrojet and below the fringes of the electrojet. The equatorial
enhancement is generally higher for lower frequencies as compared to the higher
frequencies.
5.5 GEOMAGNETIC STORMS AND THE

MAGNETOSPHERE
The extent of the geomagnetic field in near-Earth space defines the
magnetosphere (Chapter 3). The magnetosphere is also described in terms of
its constituent electric currents. The magnetopause is defined by a surrounding
current that flows eastward near the equatorial plane. The magnetotail is
understood in terms of a westward equatorial current sheet. The magnetospheric
interior within ~3-6 RE contains neutral plasma of 1 to 200 keV hydrogen and
oxygen ions and lower energy electrons. These particles undergo a cyclotron
motion around magnetic-field lines, bounce between mirror points in the
northern and southern hemispheres, where field lines converge, and a slow
migration across field lines takes place due to gradients in the magnetic field.
As a consequence, ions drift westward and electrons eastward, a contrary motion
that gives rise to a westward equatorial ring current. Along with solar wind,
the interplanetary magnetic field controls the behaviour of the magnetosphere.
Occasionally, abrupt ejections from the Sun push the magnetosphere into a
highly dynamic, time-dependent state called a magnetic storm. This expression
was coined by von Humboldt in 1808 to describe occasional periods during
which ground-based measurements show large, rapid, and irregular variation
of the geomagnetic field (Chapters 1 and 3).
I. Indices of Geomagnetic Activity

Magnetic indices are simple measures of magnetic activity that occur over a
period of less than a few hours, recorded by observatories. Indices quantify the
variations that have their origin in the Earth’s ionosphere and magnetosphere.
The planetary-scale magnetic activity is measured by the Kp index. Kp scale is
a logarithmic one, hence it is necessary to have a linear scale for assessing the
level of magnetic activity. This is provided by the ap index (index of planetary
amplitude), which is derived from Kp index. During magnetic storms, magnetic
electric currents are diverted along field lines. To measure the auroral zone
component of this circuit, Davis and Sugiura in 1966 defined the auroral
electrojet index AE. The disturbance storm (Dst) index is commonly used to
assess the strength of geomagnetic storms. The strength of the symmetric
westward ring current, which encircles the Earth in the equatorial belt of roughly
±30°, is distinct during storm times. This ring current has a dipole moment,
which is directed opposite to the Earth’s natural magnetic field. The Dst index
is calculated from four low latitude locations.
II. Geomagnetic Storms

Magnetic storms occur as a result of abnormal activities at the Sun that affect
the intensity of the solar wind. These are most easily observed in low-latitude
magnetograms as a depression in intensity of the H component of the magnetic
168 Geomagnetism
Figure 5.16. (a) A sketch representation of the Dst index during a typical magnetic
storm (Lester, 2007). (b) The Colaba magnetogram for the 1-2 Sept 1859 geomagnetic
storm. The peak near 0400 UT 2 Sept, is due to the storm sudden commencement
caused probably by the shock ahead of the magnetic cloud. This was followed by the
storm main phase which lasted for about one hour and a half (Tsurutani et al., 2003).
field. This decrease in H-component intensity is due to the increased population

of energetic charged particles, which make their entry by the injection from
the near-Earth magnetotail into the inner magnetosphere. The after-effects of
magnetic storms on space environment surrounding the Earth are serious,
hampering human activities in space and on the ground. Dst identifies a magnetic
storm, based on the change in the H component measured at low-latitude stations
separated in longitude. Figure 5.16a presents a schematic of the Dst index for
an individual storm, which illustrates three of its specific phases, each having
different timescales. The initial phase follows rapid enhancement in the Dst
index, over a timescale of a few min referred to as storm sudden commencement
(SSC) caused by rapid increase in solar wind pressure incident on the Earth’s
magnetosphere. The second main phase lasts 5–10 hours reducing Dst index
to its minimum value as the ring current intensifies. This represents the period
of the main energy transfer and storage into the Earth’s magnetosphere. The
final phase lasting 10–15 hours is the recovery phase during which the Dst
returns to its pre-storm values. Thus, the timescale for the whole storm is
typically 24–30 hours.
Coronal mass ejections (CME), solar flares, and coronal holes initiate
magnetic storms. These phenomena create unusual conditions in the solar wind,
leading to high values of the solar wind density and velocity (and hence pressure)
and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The orientation of IMF is central
to the energy transfer from solar wind to the magnetosphere. When the IMF
has a southward component, the energy transfer is most efficient, and occurs
through the process of magnetic reconnection between the IMF and the
geomagnetic field. During magnetic storms a large amount of energy is
dissipated in the polar regions leading to profound changes in the global
morphology of the upper atmosphere. An example of the solar flare/CME
causing a big geomagnetic storm is shown in Fig. 5.17.
Substorms: Coinciding with the decrease in the field, a magnetic storm is
generally accompanied by intense auroral brightening. Occasionally, the auroral
Figure 5.17. Magnetogram from Tirunelveli magnetic observatory showing the

geomagnetic storm caused by a solar flare/CME [The effect of a powerful X-class
solar flare that occurred on 10 April 2001 at ~0525 hrs UT modified the ionospheric
current and affected the magnetic field within a few minutes as shown. The CME
eruption following the flare led to an intense shock as observed by the ACE spacecraft
on 11 April at 1520 hrs UT, after almost 34 hrs. The impact of the shock on the
magnetosphere is seen as a sudden impulse on the magnetic record at ~1545 hrs UT.
Subsequently, the development of the intense main phase associated with the westward
ring current is evident] (Lakhina and Alex, 2002).
Figure 5.18. Flow chart representing schematically the chain of solar-terrestrial

processes giving rise to space weather disturbances in the near-Earth’s space
environment.
170 Geomagnetism
ovals expand equatorward with the occurrence of auroral substorms or

magnetospheric substorms. A magnetospheric substorm denotes phenomena
that occur in the magnetosphere. Substorms consider part of the normal solar
wind magnetosphere interaction, and comprise three separate stages: the growth,
expansion, and recovery phases. The overall timescale of a magnetospheric
substorm is typically 2–4 hours.
Severe magnetic storms are relatively rare. However, during magnetic
storms, intense substorms are observed in the polar regions and subsequent
development of intense ionospheric currents. Apparently, perturbations of solar
origin form an important link in the complex chain of solar-terrestrial relations.
A flow chart showing the chain of solar-terrestrial processes that are involved
in causing magnetic storms is shown in Fig. 5.18.
Geomagnetic storms types: The Dst index profile of geomagnetic storms is
used to characterize the geomagnetic storms into various types and categories.
The sudden commencement (SC) storms are characterized by an abrupt increase
in the horizontal magnetic field intensity shortly before the main phase (Fig.
5.19). This rise in magnetic field strength is caused by the interplanetary shock
compression of the magnetosphere. The period between the SC and the main
phase is called the initial phase. However, all magnetic storms do not have the
initial phase. A geomagnetic storm not accompanied by a SC is called a gradual
Figure 5.19. Schematics of magnetic storms (top) sudden commencement (SC) type
driven by interplantery CMEs and (bottom) gradual (SG) type caused by corotating
interaction regions (CIRs). All storms may not have initial phases (Tsurutani et al., 2006).
Figure 5.20. Annual occurrence of magnetic storms between 1958 and 2004. The number
of magnetic storms/year with Dst<–100 nT are given at the top and those with –35>Dst>–
75 nT on the bottom. The smoothed sunspot number is shown as a solid dark line. The
number of major (Dst<–100 nT) magnetic storms follows the solar cycle sunspot number.
There are ~15 to 20 major magnetic storms/year during solar maximum and only ~1 to
2 during solar minimum. The ratio is ~15 to 20. For weak to moderate intensity magnetic
storms, there is much smaller solar cycle dependence. CIRs/high-speed streams are
presumably responsible for most of the weaker storms (Tsurutani et al., 2006).
geomagnetic storm (SG) (bottom panel of Fig. 5.19). Magnetic storms having
a single main phase, wherein the Dst decreases more or less continuously to a
minimum value and then starts to recover, are called Type I or one-step storms.
In Type 2 or two-step storms the main phase undergoes a two-step growth in
the ring current in a way that before the ring current had decayed to a significant
pre-storm level, a new major particle injection occurs leading to further build-
up of the ring current and further decrease of Dst. Hence, there is a possibility
of multi-step storms depending on the ring current injection events caused by
interplanetary conditions.
The intensity of magnetic storm is measured by the Dst index at peak of
the main phase. Magnetic storms are called weak when Dst>–50 nT, moderate
when –50>Dst>–100 nT, and intense when Dst<–100 nT and super intense
when Dst<–500 nT. Tsurutani and coworkers in 2003 deduced the super-intense
geomagnetic storm of 1–2 Sept 1859 with a Dst ~–1760 nT. This large value of
Dst is consistent with the decrease of 'H=1600±10 nT recorded at Colaba
observatory.
The SC type magnetic storms result from interplanetary shocks associated
with CMEs, while the SG type are caused by corotating interaction regions
(CIRs). Figure 5.20 shows the number of major (Dst<–100 nT) storms follow
the solar cycle sunspot number. For weak to moderate storms, there is smaller
solar cycle dependence.
172 Geomagnetism
III. Long-period Oscillations of External Origin

Long period geomagnetic oscillations such as quasi-biennial (QBO), annual
(AO), and semi-annual (SAO) oscillations over Thumba (8.5 °N) show
considerable variation from year to year. Large series of data available for
Thumba is used to quantify these inter-annual variations using the technique
of complex demodulation. In spite of the large inter-annual variation, the height
profiles of AO and SAO retain their basic characteristics. The inter-annual
variations of AO amplitude at tropospheric heights are smallest (2sd ~5 m/sec,
sd is standard deviation) and are well correlated with solar activity. Inter-annual
variations of SAO near stratopause height are largest (2sd ~12 m/sec) and are
inversely correlated with solar activity. The QBO period is noticed to show
considerable height variation with largest value of ~31-month near 40 km
altitude. An oscillation with a period of ~14-month is identified between 18
and 50 km. The characteristics of this oscillation tend to suggest it is an
independent oscillation.
IV. Energy Budget of Geomagnetic Storms

Understanding geomagnetic storms in terms of energies involved in various
associated processes has been a long standing problem. Availability of satellite
measurements of various interplanetary plasma and magnetic field parameters
related to the development of geomagnetic storms provides a unique platform
for investigating the interplanetary causes of storms. Data used are nine intense
magnetic storms (|Dst|>175 nT), for the period from 1998 to 2001, from hourly
values of Dst index provided by Kyoto world data center, horizontal magnetic
field variation data with 1-min time resolution from Alibag observatory, and
the solar wind parameters such as wind velocity, density, temperature, and
IMF components obtained from ACE satellite measurements downloaded from
the internet (http://nsssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov).
The analyses of intense geomagnetic storms (|Dst|>175 nT) with ACE
satellite measurements, and ground magnetic field values at ABO confirms the
crucial role of southward IMF in triggering the storm main phase as well as
controlling the magnitude of the storm. A sudden increase is observed in the
solar density variations maximizing at 0230 UT, when magnetosphere boundary
gets compressed to 6.5 RE (Fig. 5.21). Next higher density impulse with
magnitude ~45/cc around 0715 UT is seen during which the boundary moved
further inward to 5 RE. The main phase interval shows clear dependence on the
duration of southward IMF. An attempt is made to identify the multi-peak
signature in the ring current energy injection rate during main phase of the
storm. In order to quantify the energy budget of magnetic storms, computation
of different energy components by the solar wind, magnetospheric coupling,
auroral and Joule heating and the ring current for each storm under examination
is made. Calculation of the solar wind-magnetosphere coupling function
considers the variation of the size of the magnetosphere, by using the measured
solar wind ram pressure.
During the main phase of the storm, the solar wind kinetic energy ranges
from 91017 to 721017 J with an average of 301017 J, the total energy dis-
sipated in the auroral ionosphere
varies between 2 and 91015 J,
whereas ring current energies
range from 8 to 191015 J. For
the total storm period, ~3.5% of
total solar wind kinetic energy is
available for the redistribution in
the magnetosphere, and ~20% of
this goes into the inner
magnetosphere and in the auroral
ionosphere of both the hemi-
spheres. It is found that during
main phase of the storm almost
5% of the total solar wind kinetic
energy is available for the Figure 5.21. Variation of the magnetopause
boundary (LCF, solid curve) using ACE data,
redistribution in the magneto-
on 4 May 1998 along with the solar wind
sphere whereas during the proton number density variations (N , dotted
recovery phase the percentage curve) (Vichare et al., 2005). PLCF is
becomes 2.3%. Chapman-Ferro magnetopause distance.
V. Dependence of Main Phase Interval

The relationship between strength of the storm and main phase duration has
not been adequately quantified. The main phase interval shows better linear
dependence on the duration of the southward IMF rather than the strength of
the storm. The plot of maximum deviation of Dst vs. magnitude of maximum
southward IMF indicates the strength of the magnetic storm is directly
proportional to the strength of southward IMF (Fig. 5.22).
Figure 5.22. The strength of the magnetic storm is directly proportional to the
strength of southward IMF (Vichare et al., 2005).
174 Geomagnetism
6
SOLID EARTH GEOMAGNETISM
One of the fundamental issues in geosciences relates to formation and evolution

of the crust, whose understanding has increased many-fold with advanced
geophysical techniques. The geological history spans from Archaean, 3.8 Giga
years (1 Giga=109), to the present (Neogene). Geophysical methods and
techniques investigate the structure, composition and physical state of the Earth
by mapping crustal anomalies associated with mineral deposits, structural
features, and hydrocarbons. Since these constituents lie hidden beneath the
surface, geophysics has become a preferred tool of exploration compared to
geological techniques. The present section deals with crustal anomalies, and
deliberates on their form and detection using appropriate geophysical
procedures.
Geophysical methodology is used to detect anomaly in the crust arising
essentially due to differences in physical properties of rock materials
(Fig. 6.1a), which are related to structural setting of subsurface geological
features. The principle of geophysical technique, regarding observed anomalies
of magnetism, gravity and electrical resistivity, is employed to investigate crust-
mantle relationship.
In general, geophysical surveys fall into two categories: (i) natural field
methods, which measure physical properties of the Earth, e.g. gravity, magnetic,
radioactive and geothermal and (ii) artificial source excitation methods, which
generate pertinent signals used as input into the Earth. The response of input
signal is then measured and analyzed to characterize physical properties, e.g.
electrical, electromagnetic and seismic of host material. Natural field surveys
are passive and easier to conduct, since they do not require large equipment.
These surveys delineate the structures to greater depth, but suffer from severe
limitations with regard to spatial resolution. Artificial source surveys, on the
other hand, are techniques designed and organized to image the structures to a
desired degree of accuracy and resolution in an optimal fashion.
Solid Earth Geomagnetism 175
Figure 6.1a. The range of values for the physical properties that can be measured
with the methods of applied geophysics (http://appliedgeophysics.lbl.gov/intro/figures
fig_prop.jpg).
Seismic tomography with controlled resolution, for example, is a versatile

technique capable to resolve complex structures in 3D. Among the various
tomographic techniques, teleseismic wave tomography (TWT), local earthquake
tomography (LET), and high resolution tomography (HRT) are commonly
employed to delineate layered structure in association with seismic wave
velocity perturbations. Wide angle seismic refraction and reflection data are
acquired along several profiles using chemical explosions as artificial seismic
sources. Analysis of teleseismic receiver functions of several P and S phase
configurations produced by conversions at interfaces within the crust and upper
mantle, using a large number of broad-band seismic stations, and azimuthally
well distributed teleseismic sources, is more relied upon. The stacked receiver
functions obtained essentially by waveform inversion give lithospheric structure
with improved accuracy. The low velocity zones (LVZ) and plume conduits
are also imaged well.
Geophysical surveys are carried out on land (magnetics and
electromagnetics), at sea (ocean bottom magnetometry (OBM) and seismic
reflection), and in air (aeromagnetics), over a range of scales: reconnaissance
over 10 to >100 km, focussed mapping in 1 to 10 km range, and high resolution
mapping (for finer details) in a few tens to few hundred metres range. The
Indian subcontinent has been surveyed by a variety of geophysical tools and
the data gained relate to analysis of ground, aerial and satellite potential field
anomalies (gravity and magnetics), geoelectromagnetic inductive studies
(geomagnetic depth soundings, OBM and magnetotellurics) on land and at
ocean bottom, tectonomagnetism (repeat magnetometry for earthquake
precursory changes and global positioning system for seismotectonics), rock
and sediment magnetism (palaeomagnetic and mineral magnetics), and magnetic
petrology. In this chapter, fundamental principles involved in the application
176 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.1b. Locations of Archean-Early Proterozoic cratons in the Indian peninsular

shield. CG, SNTG, GG, MG, MBSZ and PCSZ refer to the Cambay graben,
Sone-Narmada-Tapti graben, Godavari graben, Mahanadi graben, Moser-Bhavani shear
zone and Palghat-Cauvery shear zone, respectively. Geologic ages are from S.M. Naqvi
(pers comm) (courtesy: Pandey and Agrawal, 1999).
of these methods to the major tectonic and lithologic problems, are discussed
with emphasis on comprehensive study of the Earth’s interior.
The Indian shield is known to have grown through the nucleation of six
widespread Archaean-early Proterozoic cratons separated by Gondwana rift
valleys, sutures, and mega-lineaments (Fig. 6.1b). These distinct tectonic and
lithostratigraphic assemblages differ in petrography, chemistry, thickness and
seismic structures. The deeper structures beneath different geological provinces,
which exhibit interesting cratonic formations, grabens with active and dormant
geologic faults and shear zones are studied through geomagnetic methods and
techniques.
Pure and applied geophysical studies: Geophysical methods employ natural
and artificial sources. Earth’s ‘natural’ signatures like gravity, magnetism and
EM are employed for mapping anomalous structures in the Earth’s deep interior,
whereas induced electromagnetism involving geomagnetic deep sounding
(GDS) and magnetotelluric (MT) techniques provide information supplementing
the above methods. For example, the MT method is used in a large frequency
or period range, which corresponds to a depth interval from the surface to
some hundred km. The aim of exploration varies according to depth. In artificial
source methods, the response of subsurface geological feature to artificial
energization of the ground is attempted. Such approaches include artificial
electrical, EM, seismic methods and microseismics.
Thus, geophysical studies have both fundamental and applied aspects,

essential to enhance research and development in geosciences. These studies
upgrade the basic understanding of regional tectonics, and considerably improve
knowledge on the global geodynamical processes that drive the continents,
control generation of energy, give rise to mineral deposits, earthquakes,
volcanoes, and the like. A few of the applied aspects specifically relate to
information on optimizing land-use, potential resource locations, and marking
out earthquake prone areas by identifying active faults and conductive zones.
However, both pure and applied aspects of a geophysical measurement are
necessary to produce a holistic understanding of the dynamical processes at
work in the Earth’s interior. In this sense, they are complementary to each
other.
6.1 GEOPOTENTIAL FIELD ANOMALY STUDIES

Geopotential field methods involve measurement of Earth’s gravity and
magnetic field to prepare anomaly maps. An anomaly is an abnormality, i.e.
something different from the normal (theoretical value estimated from
homogeneous Earth model) formed by spatial gravity and magnetic field
variations, depending on the discrepancy in surface geology, and changes in
composition, subsurface temperature, or thickness of the crust and mantle.
Magnetic (gravity) anomalies are perturbations of the geomagnetic (gravity)
field due to Earth structure. They are seen when one subtracts a regional
magnetic (gravity) field from a series of observed readings.
I. Sources of Regional Anomalies

Many of the regional tectonic features of the study area appear coincident with
satellite geopotential field anomalies. Sources for these anomalies may be
generalized as lateral variations of the vertical integral of crustal density and
magnetization. Hence, optimally reduced anomaly maps are used to detect
these lateral variations. These variations in density and magnetization of the
crustal column may in turn reflect petrological, structural, or thermal variations
of the crust, resulting through active tectonic processes. Anomaly maps are
used to constrain tectonic configuration of the lithosphere.
In general, long wavelength magnetic anomalies can be modelled by
regional scale magnetization variations of the lithosphere, which lies between
the surface and a lower boundary at which magnetic minerals do not occur.
This boundary is defined as the topography of the Curie point isotherm of the
crustal magnetic minerals. The location of this lower boundary is not
unanimously agreed upon. Seismic velocities and analysis of upper mantle
xenoliths indicate that lower crust is made up of granulite grade metamorphic
rocks, and that the upper mantle is dominantly peridotite (Chapter 2). Mantle
xenolith studies also indicate magnetite or serpentinized metals do not exist
below the Moho, making it the magnetic basement except where a limiting
Curie isotherm is above the Moho. Some invoke serpentinization as a source
178 Geomagnetism
of magnetic mineralogy below the crust extending the magnetic boundary to the
upper mantle. However, the debate will continue till this problem is definitely
sorted out.
Crustal conditions affecting regional scale magnetization generally involve
variation in the amount, distribution, and magnetic properties of magnetite
within the lower crust. The amount and distribution of magnetite are related to
crustal composition and thickness, whereas the magnetic properties of magnetite
are temperature dependent (Chapter 2). Thus petrologic, structural and thermal
perturbations within the crust and upper mantle produce magnetization contrasts.
These physical and lithologic variations often combine to produce anomaly
superposition, and source ambiguity, which limits the interpretation of regional
magnetic anomalies.
This is overcome by combining the gravity data. In general, gravity
anomalies are related to density variations, formed from several sources. At
satellite elevations, gravity signals with long wavelengths characterize crustal
and upper mantle density contrasts due to regional variations in composition
(bulk mineralogy), temperature or crustal thickness. Longer wavelength
anomalies, which are of continental scale, commonly arise from deeper mass
variations in the mantle and core, which occur below the magnetic lithosphere.
The combined analysis of gravity and magnetic data is, however, more effective
in bringing out crustal and mantle features, since they map the source fields at
different depths. Hence, ground magnetic and gravity surveys are planned,
wherein ground data can then be coupled with aeromagnetic and satellite data
for a comprehensive subsurface picture.
II. Anomaly Contour Maps

The compilation of gravity and magnetic anomaly maps in this book are
qualitatively presented in the form of contour maps (points having equal gravity
and magnetic values). Presence of 3D bodies is suggested by more or less
circular or elliptical contours, whereas elongated ones define the presence of
2D bodies. The contour map is then divided into zones of different magnetic
characters, which are correlated with the known geology and these correlations
are extrapolated to poorly mapped regions. The axes of the anomalies are usually
drawn on the maps to derive information on major structural controls. Repetition
of the contour pattern is suggestive of a folded sequence of sedimentary beds.
Termination of the contours along a line, or the presence of flexures in the
contours indicates a fault. Magnetic axes are also frequently displaced due to
faulting. Individual bodies of the same rock type occurring within a single
geological province show similar magnetic characteristics. Frequently,
magnetite may be formed in some rocks due to effects of the adjacent igneous
intrusives helping to outline the intrusive itself. A qualitative idea of the depth
of the sources can also be obtained from some striking characteristics of the
anomaly patterns; sharp anomalies indicate, for example, the anomalous bodies
to be at very shallow depths.
III. Geopotential Problems

Solutions to geopotential problems are non-unique, and other available
geophysical data are necessary to constrain the models. Hence, magnetic
surveying is often done in conjunction with other geophysical techniques such
as gravity, heat flow, seismic and MT to recognize different source field depths,
and thereby help to reconstruct the plate history. Magnetic data together with
integrated geophysical data have proved especially useful in studying several
processes, such as intrusive bodies with different magnetization than the country
rocks, the juxtaposition of crustal blocks of different magnetization through
plate tectonics, and creation of the oceanic crust during different core field
polarity periods.
IV. Ground, Aero and Satellite Magnetic Surveys

Magnetic survey is the measurement of EMF intensity or its components (such
as vertical component) with the objective of measuring the magnetism over an
area of interest. Magnetic measurements can be made from a variety of platforms
(water, ground, air) and altitude (ocean bottoms to satellite heights). These
measured magnetic data have contributions from source fields over several
spatial scales. Due to the availability of the data at various scales and elevations
(which generally represent geophysical variations at different depths),
synergistic use of these data provides a unique opportunity to study similarities
and variances of geologic and structural variations through the entire lithospheric
column. Short-wavelength signal is generated by magnetic material that resides
within the uppermost part of crust, medium-wavelength comes from materials
at shallow depths, and long-wavelength component is generated from deep-
seated structures. The ground data contain contribution from all these sources,
but the air-borne data contain mostly medium and long wavelength components,
basically limited by the size of the survey area. The satellite data, on the other
hand, contain only long-wavelength module. As far as exploration of resources
at exploitable depths is concerned, the ground data offer more information
than the air-borne data. For pinpointing exact location of the geodynamic
structure, long as well as medium-wavelength components derived from ground
and air-borne data are subtracted.
Analysis of data for crustal magnetic anomalies is obtained from (1) satellite
data of polar orbiting geophysical observatory (Pogo), and MAGnetic field
SATellite (Magsat), (2) aeromagnetic maps, and (3) ground magnetic surveys
conducted over petroliferous sedimentary basins of India.
6.2 SATELLITE MEASUREMENTS OF EARTH’S

GRAVITY FIELD
Remote sensing of the Earth through satellites provides data to undertake studies
that embrace virtually every aspect of the origin, dynamics and evolution of
180 Geomagnetism
the lithosphere. One of the earliest scientific uses of satellite technology has
been the mapping of the Earth’s gravity field and determining its shape (the
Geoid). As early as in 1956, a new value for the flattening of the Earth was
determined from tracking of Sputnik I. The gravity field is not easy to measure
from air-borne sensors to an accuracy needed for a proper analysis of shallow
subsurface structures. The gravity field is the result of mass and its distribution
inside a body. Therefore, a spacecraft tracking, using its radio communication
signal, determines its orbit or trajectory from which the gravitational field and
a mass of the body can be inferred. For a proper analysis of shallow subsurface
structures, gravity anomalies can be calculated from satellite orbital motions.
I. Satellite Free-air Gravity Anomaly Maps

This book uses free-air anomaly maps at ground level and 400 km height
prepared by Rapp from the spherical harmonic analysis of the 1° by 1° averages
of the measured free-air gravity anomalies and satellite tracking data. These
maps are often called the satellite-derived free-air anomaly maps, or satellite
gravity anomaly maps (Fig. 6.2). In essence, Fig. 6.2b is a downward
continuation of Fig. 6.2a at ground level.
India is known for a thorough gravimetric coverage of its landmass,
although major part of it still continues to be impervious to detailed geological
and geophysical surveys. This is because of problems posed by the highly
varying topography of Aravallis, Vindhyans, eastern and western ghats, Deccan
plateau, and the Himalayas. The only recourse is satellite-based measurements,
which can map surface and subsurface structures of the entire subcontinent,
Figure 6.2. (a) Satellite free-air gravity field anomaly observed at a height of 400
km, contour interval 2 mgal. (b) Satellite free-air gravity field anomaly observed
at ground level, contour interval 40 mgal (Singh et al., 1992a).
and its neighbouring oceanic realm; hence, satellite gravity anomaly maps are
analyzed.
Satellite gravity anomaly, sources: Gravity anomalies are caused, in principle,
by lateral density variations that can be located anywhere from the Earth’s
surface to the Earth’s core. Anomaly components of a wide band of wavelengths
are usually superimposed on each other on gravity anomaly maps. Generally,
the Earth’s gravity field can be considered to be distinctly composed of short-
wavelength (a few to few tens of km), intermediate-wavelength (a few hundreds
to few thousands of km), and long-wavelength (larger than described by
spherical coefficients of degree and order 10) components. The short-
wavelength anomalies, which are of interest in crustal studies are usually
associated with the near-surface structures such as faults, intrusive bodies,
sedimentary basins and others. In contrast, large-scale features such as mountain
belts, isostatic processes, and inhomogeneities due to changes in composition,
thermal state or thickness of the crust and mantle lead to long-wavelength
anomalies. Short-wavelength anomalies overlap and dominate the ground
gravity maps, making it difficult even to identify the trends of anomalies from
deeper tectonic causes. However, anomalies measured at a few hundred km
above the Earth’s surface represent density variations at large depths only,
since most of the short-wavelength components are automatically filtered out
at these heights (Fig. 6.2a).
II. Ambiguity in Gravity Interpretation

Interpretation of gravity data means locating and determining various parameters
of the sources responsible for the anomalies. A given gravity distribution on
the ground surface can be explained by a variety of mass distributions at different
depths. Following the theorem of equivalent stratum, the ground surface (or
plane observation) can be replaced by a hypothetical mass distribution. The
observed anomalies are actually continued downwards to different levels, and
from these continued anomalies, a hypothetical mass distribution can be
calculated at each level. Only one of these mass distributions is the correct
solution to the observed anomalies, and this can be selected, if the depth to the
mass distribution is known. In the absence of any outside information such as
depth to the mass distribution, gravity interpretation is ambiguous, and no
solution can be found that explains the observed anomalies uniquely.
To make the problem determinate, the unknown parameters must be reduced
to a number less than the observations. This can be done in many ways, each
pertinent to the problem in hand. The most important way of overcoming
ambiguity is to assign a regular shape to the disturbing body, and to assume
that the model has a uniform or uniformly varying density contrast. The
important geometrical models very often used in gravity and magnetic
interpretations are spheres, cylinders, faults, dykes, and others. A 2D fault
structure, for instance, with a uniform density has only four parameters to be
182 Geomagnetism
determined from the gravity anomalies. These parameters are the density
contrast, two depths (one each to the top and bottom interfaces), and the dip of
the inclined face. The contour pattern of the anomaly map itself and the
knowledge of local geology permit the assumption of the pertinent shape to
the target.
III. Qualitative Interpretation of Satellite Gravity

Anomaly Maps
The free-air anomaly map at 400 km height (Fig. 6.2a) shows only a couple of
very broad highs and lows, formed by density variations at the boundary of the
upper and lower mantle at 600 km. A major low over the southern part of India
(specifically the Indian ocean low, IOL) and a high over the Kohistan-Himalaya
high (KHH) are the two main prominent gravity features at satellite heights.
The long wavelength of the IOL and its geographical coincidence with extreme
geoidal minima of –104 m suggests the anomaly source to be in the crust or
upper mantle.
On the other hand, the free-air anomaly at the ground level (Fig. 6.2b) is
generally –40 mgal south of 15°N, and nearly zero over the northern portion of
the peninsular shield. The latter observation signifies that the Indian peninsula
is isostatically compensated. The region between 25° and 35°N is dominated
by a strong negative anomaly reaching to <–120 mgal, and an equally strong
positive anomaly north of it. These trends are attributed to the Himalayan
mountain ranges and their overcompensation.
The free-air anomaly at the ground level shows several localized high and
low anomaly values defining different blocks, which do not appear in 400-km
height (Fig. 6.2a), since these anomalies have their roots in crust or upper
mantle. For instance, the gravity high values up to 40 mgal, not seen at 400-km
level, are associated with Sri Lanka and Shillong plateaus, Aravallis, Marwar
and eastern ghats, suggesting their sources limited to the crust. Another
significant feature of 90°E ridge gravity high does not reflect at 400-km level,
implying a crustal anomaly. The long belt of negative anomalies of –40 to –80
mgal, covering the region between latitudes 5° and 18°N confined to 95°E
longitude, corresponds to the trench system of Andaman Islands. These anomaly
components are also missed at 400-km level. There is no obvious expression
of Deccan traps, an extensive cover of the flood basalts, both at ground and at
400 km level.
IV. Anomalous Satellite Gravity over Himalayas and Its

Isostatic Compensation
The satellite free-air gravity anomaly at ground level (Fig. 6.2b) is further
used for studying the isostatic condition in many parts of Indian peninsula in
general and the Himalayas in particular. The anomaly is consistently zero over
the northern portion of the peninsular shield, which implies major part of the
peninsula being isostatically compensated. A strong positive free-air anomaly,
initially trending NW-SE at 34°N and 75°E, and then turning E-W beyond
30°N and 80°E, correlates with the known trend of Himalayas (Fig. 6.2b). The
high positive anomaly is bordered on the south by an equally strong negative
anomaly. The Himalayas are generally considered isostatically
overcompensated, and are expected to give rise to negative free-air anomalies.
But, contrary to expectations, free-air anomalies over the Himalayas in satellite
data are positive, ranging from 40 to 160 mgal. Some have explained this
anomalous behaviour in terms of isostatically undercompensated processes.
To solve the riddle, free-air anomalies are calculated over typical models
of trapezoidal topography depicting elevated masses and steep valleys following
the local compensation theory of Airy-Heiskanen. The crust-mantle boundary
outside the anomalous zone is assumed to be at 30 km depth. According to the
Airy-Heiskanen system, a topographic height of 1 km increases the thickness
of the crust by 6.67 km for a density of 2670 kg/m3 of the topography and the
universally accepted density contrast of 400 kg/m3 at the Moho.
Figure 6.3 clearly indicates that free-air anomalies are positive over the
topography, flanked by negative ones on either side, which are stronger on the
flanks of a steep slope. This shows that the Himalayas are indeed
overcompensated isostatically and it would be erroneous to presume that the
positive satellite gravity anomalies over them prove undercompensation. It is
also stressed that the true nature and extent of isostatic compensation of the
Himalayas can only be decided by investigating both the positive and negative
anomalies resulting from the mountains and their roots.
Figure 6.3. Calculated free-air anomalies over an assumed trapezoidal topography model
depicting the Himalayas with an elevation of 2000 m and base width of 75 km for both
cases of complete and 30% over-compensation (Basavaiah et al., 1991).
184 Geomagnetism
V. Preparation of Residual Free-air Anomaly Map

The anomalies at ground level (Fig. 6.2b) are composed of long-wavelength
anomalies from distant deep sources, which are removed to study crustal and
local features. The long-wavelength part estimated from the inversion of the
gravity anomaly at 400-km level for an equivalent mass distribution at ~600-
km depth is a fairly representative value for lateral heterogeneity in the upper
mantle. Deep earthquakes have foci up to 600-km depth. The anomaly
components due to such a mass distribution are used to recalculate the long-
wavelength anomalies at ground level (Fig. 6.4).
It shows a pronounced minimum over the IOL, and three systematic
maximum anomalies over Sumatra-Indonesia high (SIH), KHH and Baluchistan
high (BNH). These anomalies are long wavelength components and are
subtracted from Fig. 6.2b. The difference between observed total anomaly at
ground level (Fig. 6.2b), and those calculated through the equivalent point
source technique (Fig. 6.4) is called the ‘residual anomaly’. Figure 6.5 shows
the residual gravity anomalies, which give a better idea of sources at shallower
than 600-km depth.
Figure 6.4. Gravity anomaly, in mgal, at the surface of the Earth recalculated from the
equivalent mass distribution obtained by inverting gravity data at a height of 400 km,
contour interval 5 mgal (Singh et al., 1992a).
VI. Residual Free-air Gravity Anomaly Map and

Tectonic Implications
Figure 6.5 shows several highs and lows of different magnitudes, some
extending to several hundred km, and others confined to small areas. The
residual gravity map can identify geological lineaments, horst like structures,
intra-cratonic basins, oceanic ridges, and transform faults that are caused by or
associated with structures at the Conrad or Moho levels or both. Some localized
closures characteristically identify the tectonic units. The high of 40 mgal near
25°N latitude defines the Shillong plateau (shown as SP in Fig. 6.5). Over Sri
Lanka, a distinct positive anomaly closure is surrounded by negatives. The
well-defined and isolated highs over Shillong plateau and Sri Lanka are due to
their associated horst-like structures developed by deep faulting in Meso-
Cenozoic time at Moho discontinuity. The Dharwar folding (DF) is also reflected
on the residual map by a general NNW-SSE trending, partly superimposed by
high grade granulites. The Cuddaph (CD) basin is seen as a major negative
anomaly, indicating it to be the result of tectonic activity at deeper levels either
Figure 6.5. Residual gravity field anomaly, in mgal, after removal of the calculated
long wavelength part due to sources in the upper mantle at a depth of 600 km from the
observed gravity anomaly at the ground surface. Contour interval 20 mgal. DF - Dharwar
Folding; DT - Deccan Traps; CB - Cambay Basin; MB - Marwar Block; ADB - Aravalli-
Delhi Block; CIB - Central Indian Bijawars; SR - Singhbhum Region; EG - Eastern
Ghats; CD - Cuddapah Depression; SP - Shillong Plateau; TP - Tibetan Plateau; HM -
Himalayan Mountain ranges; IGB - Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, and WCI - West-
Central Indian lineament (Singh et al., 1992a).
186 Geomagnetism
at Moho or Conrad or both. Importantly, Fig. 6.5 accentuates many features,

which are not so obvious in Fig. 6.2b. Perhaps, the situation is unique for the
Indian region, where sharp gradients of a strong long wavelength component
masks the local features. The causative sources of all these residual gravity
anomaly trends are wholly located within the crust.
In addition to long running anomaly closures, many localized closures are
also seen to align in well defined trends that can be identified as lineaments.
The most important ones are marked as Himalayas (HM), west-central Indian
(WCI), eastern ghats (EG), and ridge features in the Indian ocean. Some of
these lineaments coincide with or run parallel to the known major geological
trends. The anomaly trends of the Himalayas, eastern ghats, Aravallis-Delhi
block (ADB), Marwar block (MB), and 90°E ridge appear distinctly in the
residual map, but are subdued in the ground map. In addition, this map brings
out a few more important trends, and anomalies such as the Chagos-Laccadive
ridge, 85°E ridge, west-central Indian lineament, Dharwar folding, and
Cuddapah depression. It also gives clear demarcation of the Himalayas, Indo-
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin and Tibetan plateau (TP).
VII. Residual Bouguer Gravity Anomaly Map and

Crustal Thickness
A Bouguer anomaly map of India (Fig. 6.7) is prepared after removing the
long wavelength component from the modified Bouguer gravity anomaly map
(Fig.6.6). The calculated residuals are plotted in Fig. 6.7, and are used to estimate
the thickness of the ‘Indian’ crust.
Figure 6.6. Modified Bouguer gravity anomaly map of India prepared by the National
Geophysical Research Institute (1975). Contours are drawn at 50 mgal intervals.
Figure 6.7. Residual Bouguer gravity anomaly map after removal of long wavelength
component shown in Fig. 6.4 from Fig. 6.2b (Singh et al., 1989a).
Thin crust exists across the Delhi folding, Aravallis, the Bombay high,
Cambay basin and eastern ghats (Fig. 6.7). The change in pattern and amplitude
of anomalies is indicative of different crustal configuration along the east and
west coasts. Although the data do not extend into the oceanic region on the
east coast, closures of anomaly contours on the continental side are evident
and a line of zero-anomaly coinciding with the coast line signifies a transition
in the nature of the crust. The gravity pattern indicates a long linear trend along
the eastern coast suggesting dimensional extent of the causative source. On
the other hand, the contour loops on the west coast seem to continue into the
oceanic side. These deductions of the continent-ocean boundary are
corroborated using the satellite magnetic data.
6.3 SATELLITE MEASUREMENTS OF THE EARTH’S

MAGNETIC FIELD
The Earth is heterogeneous in age from the land to ocean. Beneath oceanic
realm, the crust is young, thin and layered. The continents, at places, have a
crust as thick as 70 km (45 miles) with age up to 4,000 Ma. Research expeditions
mounted through ingenious techniques such as seismic, geochemical,
petrological and the like have been able to accumulate knowledge of its highly
complex structure and composition. The continental crust is alternately seen to
form and deform by the mechanism and processes that are still not well
188 Geomagnetism
understood. A new geophysical tool based on satellite measurements of the

EMF (discovered almost by chance) offers a new avenue of testing models of
the evolution and deformation of the continental, and to some extent oceanic
crust. This methodology has already given some promising results in the
exploration of cosmic bodies such as Mars or the Moon.
The first global EMF measurements encompassing all the sectors of the
Earth were made by Cosmos (USSR) and a series of USA’s Pogo 2, 4 and 6
satellites launched by NASA in the late 1960s. Cain and his associates in 1970
were the first to recognize long wavelength anomalies from the total field
residuals obtained from Pogo data. Magnetic bodies of such magnitude were
hard to predict, and difficult to conceive with the investigative tools at hand at
those times. Scientists, then, were content with delineating micro-level features,
and structures of the crust (fold/fault) as well as the compositional and
temperature changes that were deciphered from rapid variations caused in the
process of propagation of seismic waves.
The anomalies deciphered by Pogo were confirmed later by the Magsat
satellite, launched by NASA in November 1979. This satellite had a lower and
less elliptical orbit equipped with magnetometers that measured the Earth’s
magnetic field vector. NASA’s Langel and his team were the first to publish
new anomaly maps mounted from Magsat data, which were improved later by
other groups. These long wavelength anomalies (product of Pogo and Magsat)
gave newer insights into deformations and other tectonic imprints from
innumerable areas that were inaccessible till then. Magsat has a unique place
in global magnetic studies, since it churned out vector measurements. The
total field measured by Cosmos and Pogo has a scalar component from which
ionosphere components are difficult to separate out. Even for Earth resource
survey, vector measurements are more potent than just the scalar ones. Because
of this reason, Magsat data are extensively used by both space and geoscientists.
The Magsat-like Oersted satellite launched in 1997 covered near-noon local
time, and provided ideal conditions for studying ionospheric current systems.
Such an effort is rewarding not only in an integrated use of Magsat data, but
also in providing appropriate method for reduction of the data to be obtained
through forthcoming missions.
Anomalies in the static part of the magnetic field as deduced from satellites
establish the utility of space-borne measurements in studies of long wavelength
anomalies, which originate largely within the lithosphere. Long wavelength
anomalies are mostly recognized from near-Earth satellites at altitudes of 350-
750 km, and these altitudes define the shortest wavelengths traditionally
associated with such geomagnetic features. Virtually identical features have
now been recognized in satellite magnetic field records from Pogo (1967-1971),
Magsat (1979-1980), Oersted (1999-), CHAMP (2000-) and SAC-C (2004).
All masses contribute to gravity field, but only those materials that have a
significant susceptibility contrast add to magnetic anomalies. The density
variations of different layers within the lithosphere may change by less than
one order of magnitude, but susceptibility variations contributing to
magnetization can change by three orders of magnitude, thus making magnetic

data a very sensitive indicator of change within the lithosphere. With the advent
of digital signal processing techniques, it is now possible to extract far greater
information and gain accurate results.
I. Regional Magnetic Anomaly Map

Potentiality of satellite magnetic data in determining structure of geological
significance and in identifying inhomogeneities in the lithosphere, has been
proved beyond doubt. Identification of the Bangui anomaly in Africa from
Pogo data is an excellent example of the importance of satellite magnetic data.
The magnetic field residuals obtained from several passes of Pogo satellite
over India reveal them to be positive over the southern part of India, and negative
over the Himalayas. Boundary separating regions of positive and negative
anomalies appear to be in line with the Narmada-Sone lineament, which extends
from the western to eastern margins of Indian plate. To resolve the structural
complexities of the Indian plate, regional geomagnetic reference field and
magnetic anomaly maps are prepared using ground and Magsat data.
II. Magnetic Anomaly through Magsat

Data obtained during its passage over the Indian region (0° to 40°N geomagnetic
latitude and 60° to 100°E longitude) with finer time resolution were used to
draw anomaly maps. These data contain contributions from three sources: (1)
Earth’s core (~40,000 nT), (2) ionosphere-magnetosphere currents (up to 200
nT), and (3) geological structures within the crust (0 to 20 nT). Magsat data
provide additional constraints to study oceanic basins and continental margins,
besides giving an insight into deep crustal conditions, as well as providing
useful framework for tectono-mineralogic analyses and synthesis along with
surface and other satellite-based data. These datasets provide interesting
information on the geodynamical structures and processes, which are discussed
below.
III. Data Processing

Several processing and reduction procedures involving equivalent point source
inversion modelling were synthesized and applied to satellite magnetic data.
These yielded improved reduction techniques and better resolved anomaly maps
suitable for geologic analysis. Observed satellite magnetic data came from the
Magsat <2°> scalar and vector anomaly maps derived by Agarwal and his
coworkers.
IV. Isolation of Crustal Origin Components and

Reduction of Data
Data from Magsat measurements are reduced to isolate components of crustal
origin of 10 to 20 nT. Considering that crustal component constitutes only
190 Geomagnetism
~0.5% of the total field, its isolation is an involved process. The normal
procedure is to eliminate core field constituting ~99% of the main field through
MGST (4/81) thirteenth order and degree spherical harmonic expansion. From
the remainder, contribution of ionospheric-magnetospheric currents (which
usually refer to as external field) is removed. The ionospheric contributions
are neglected since Magsat orbits always confined to dawn-dusk meridian.
The distribution of external field currents during disturbed conditions of
magnetosphere is sufficiently complex to preclude a simple expression.
However, when the magnetosphere is quiet, P1°(cos T) is reasonably taken to
represent the latitudinal dependence of external field, where P1 is Legendre
polynomial of 1° and T is the dipole colatitude of the observation point. The
data of 92 passes with Kp<10 are selected. Even after all these corrections, the
residual data from overlapping passes show zero-level difference. This has
been ascribed to lack of base-line control arising from the nature of
measurements, which are made with a continuously moving magnetometer.
To account for base-shift, a quadratic trend is subtracted. The residuals are
then scrutinized, and values with magnitudes >20 nT are rejected. The remaining
data are then isolated for 2° by 2° blocks, and data in each block are averaged.
Values deviating by >2V (V = standard deviation) from the block mean are
rejected. A new average is then estimated, which represents the anomaly at the
average height of 420 km for the block. The crustal part (often referred to as
anomaly field): total (B), N-S (X), and vertical (Z) fields are shown in
Figs. 6.8a, b.
Figure 6.8. Data collected over the Indian subcontinet from the Magsat satellite are
used to understand the crustal structure by determining crustal magnetic anomalies.
Since the crustal component contributes only 0.05% to the total observed values, its
isolation is a complex process. Here the anomaly shown is for: (a) vertical field (Z),
and (b) scalar total field (B) computed from X, Y, and Z anomalies for an average
Magsat height of 420 km. The values plotted are in units of nT (Agarwal et al., 1986).
The B-anomalies synthesized from X-, Y- and Z-anomalies are compared

with B-anomaly estimated directly, and found the two to agree quite well. This
gives credence to the data reduction technique, and at the same time establishes
reliability of the anomaly maps.
V. A Tricky Magnetic Interpretation

Characterization of crust in terms of geological properties directly from the
anomaly map is difficult, because the angle of inclination changes from zero
over the southern end of peninsula to ~45° over the Himalayas. Apart from
depending on the geological structure, the pattern of anomaly also depends
upon the direction of magnetization. Hence, further reductions aimed at
improving the resolution of geologically significant Magsat anomalies are
applied. Most importantly, because magnetization of lower crustal and upper
mantle sources are predominantly induced, the data are reduced for the variable
geomagnetic field effects of inclination, declination and intensity to enhance
geologic analysis.
The vector anomaly maps (particularly the X and Z) exhibit much larger
amplitudes than the scalar anomalies, indicating that the scalar anomaly is not
the total anomaly. Rather it is the projection on the direction of the main field.
Thus, when the main field is wholly horizontal, the scalar anomaly can have
no contribution from anomalies in vertical direction. Such a situation is seen
over the southern portion of the Indian peninsula and the adjoining sea. Since
the angle D over India is 1° to 2°, the scalar anomaly is independent of E-W
direction anomalies. These regions have one or two components (X, Y and Z)
as zero, hence utmost care should be taken when synthesizing models for
geological structures from just total field measurement.
Further, geographical coincidence between the magnetic anomalies and
various tectonic and geological structures need cautious interpretation. Because
of the essential dipolar nature of the Earth’s main field, the anomalies are not
always directly above the sources. The position and character of a magnetic
anomaly caused by a body of given geometry depends on its magnetization
direction, which varies with latitude (Fig. 6.8 c-f). Thus a positive anomaly
can be seen, if the source is at the pole (here the main field is vertical); a negative
anomaly is encountered, if it is at the equator (here the field is horizontal) (Fig.
6.8 c-e). This problem can be overcome by either reducing the anomaly to the
pole (Fig. 6.8 f), which deliberately aligns the anomalies with the sources, or by
calculating the magnetization distribution. The latter is mostly adopted because
it directly parameterizes the crustal characteristics. The transformation makes
the anomalies overlie the sources, making it possible to correlate the magnetic
anomalies over gravity and geological information (Fig. 6.11).
VI. Correctness of Anomaly Maps: Forward Modelling

Realizing the utility of magnetic field anomaly maps in numerical modelling
of ground and aeromagnetic data, it is useful to examine the physical reality of
192 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.8. (c) The magnetic anomaly produced by a magnet of given dimensions (a
point source marked by a + moving latitudinally), which always has two poles, one
positive (red) and the other negative (blue), depends on the magnetic direction within
the body. The main field is dipolar and its inclination is a function of latitude. The bold
lines represent inclination of the main field. Note the position and shape of the poles of
the magnetic anomaly produced by a point source depend on the latitude of the source
(courtesy: Achache et al., 1988), (d) The variation of magnetic anomaly with (magnetic)
latitude. I = inclination. The magnetized body is a sphere with all the magnetization
induced, (e) The magnetic anomaly profile across buried ore body situated at a magnetic
latitude of 60°N, in which magnetization is entirely induced. The magnetization in the
body is dipping in the same direction as the EMF, at ~60°. The magnetic field measured
at point A to D is a combination of the Earth’s field (black) and the field induced in the
body (red), and (f) Skewness of a magnetic anomaly due to a uniform arbitrarily
magnetized source below the Earth’s surface in an obliquely oriented EMF (left) and its
reduced-to-pole expression in the vertical magnetization and vertical field condition (right).
194 Geomagnetism
the isolated crustal component. The forward model assumes: (1) the source
field of the anomaly to lie within the crust, (2) only induced magnetization
exists, and (3) the susceptibility is constant over the whole region represented
by the dipole. Since there is little information on susceptibility and its variation
with depth for the Indian region, a mean value of 0.0025 emu/cc (0.031 SI) is
used for the model. For computation of the anomalies, the total region is divided
into dipoles of 4o by 4o size with their depth of magnetization extending to the
Moho discontinuity. This being the usual crustal thickness, is derived from the
Bouguer gravity anomaly ('g) maps using the relation T = 32.0 – 0.08'g. By
using this formula, the calculated values of crustal thickness are given in
Fig. 6.9. As Bouguer gravity anomaly maps are not available in the deep sea
region, thin oceanic crust of ~5 km is assumed.
With this information, the anomaly in total field (Ban) is calculated at Magsat
420 km height in spherical co-ordinates using the equivalent point source (EPS)
distribution of magnetic dipoles. Evaluation of the anomaly is done numerically
using the Gauss-Legendre quadrature integration method. The salient features
of the calculated anomalies (Fig. 6.10b) show good agreement with observed
Magsat anomalies (Fig. 6.10a). In particular, the zero contour line across central
India and negative anomalies to its north of the observed map are well
reproduced in the computed map. However, to the south of the zero line,
Figure 6.9. Average crustal depth values in 4° by 4° grid of the Indian region.
Crustal depths have been derived from the Bouguer gravity anomaly maps
(Rajaram and Singh, 1986).
Figure 6.10. (a) Scalar magnetic anomaly map deduced from the MAGSAT data.
(b) Scalar magnetic anomaly map deduced from spherical Earth model. The anomalies
are contoured at 2 nT interval (Rajaram and Singh, 1986).
particularly over the Bay of Bengal, the agreement is not good because of the
nonavailability of a good estimate of the crustal thickness. It is established that
the crustal component of satellite data is accurately isolated. The details of
anomaly features are then used to find lithological structures through inversion
techniques.
VII. Ridge Regression in Inversion of Low Latitude Magnetic

Anomalies: Crustal Magnetization Map
The approach adopted is to calculate moments of a set of dipoles over the
surface of the Earth in such a way that they collectively reproduce the observed
anomaly at satellite height in the sense of least squares. Magnetization being
totally induced, dipoles are considered magnetized in the direction of the main
field at their point of location. The moment, being directly dependent on the
product of layer thickness and susceptibility, forms a useful parameter, and
reflects well the depth of Curie isotherm. The inversion technique differs from
the forward model calculation in the sense that dipoles of 2° by 2° size provide
finer details of the crustal structure. First the gross feature of the anomaly is
tested, and through inversion, the finer details of the Magsat measurements
are used.
The ridge regression technique is used to stabilize EPS inversion over the
low latitude equatorial regions. Anomalies averaged over 1° by 1° blocks form
the input data, and the calculated moments are for dipoles representing
magnetization of 2° by 2° crustal blocks. The whole region between –8°S and
38°N latitude, and 60° and 100°E longitude is treated as one 46° × 40° block.
The magnetization of the crust derived by inverting the anomaly in Z-field is
given in Fig. 6.11. The resultant crustal magnetization maps facilitated tectonic
196 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.11. Lithospheric magnetic anomaly cannot be directly interpreted in terms of

the geological properties of the crust. To circumvent this, anomalies are inverted using
a ridge regression technique to calculate magnetization values. Magnetic moment (1014
Am2) distribution of 2° by 2° blocks calculated by inverting anomalies in the vertical
component of the magnetic field (Z) observed at MAGSAT height (contour interval
2×1014Am2). The magnetic moment is proportional to the product thickness of the
crust and susceptibility of its material. In representation, a positive moment means a
thick crust and a negative moment a thin crust (Basavaiah and Singh, 1997).
analyses of magnetic susceptibility variations within the lithosphere; mostly

due to magnetization of the lower crust.
VIII. Geological Interpretation of Magnetization Maps

The magnetization map displays only relative magnetization levels that are
correlated with the thickness and magnetic content of crust and depth of Curie
isotherm (Fig. 6.11). In this concept, negative magnetization represents a thin

crust, crust containing weakly magnetic material, or a high subsurface
temperature. On the other hand, for areas of positive magnetization, the
geophysical situation is just reverse, i.e., thick crust, low temperature and high
susceptibility. Therefore, the highs and lows on the magnetization map (Fig.
6.11) signify lateral variations in the magnetic crust. An overall correlation is
noticed between magnetization and broad tectonic elements of the region,
starting from I to VII.
The high values over four stable Precambrian blocks of the Indian landmass,
namely Dharwar (II), Aravalli-Delhi (V), Marwar Craton (IV) and Singhbhum
(VI) do conform to the high susceptibility of lower crust, since reflection seismic
studies in several parts of the world have found the crustal mass underneath
shield areas to be composed of alternating layers of mafic and ultramafic
material. On the other hand, relatively low magnetization values are observed
over eastern ghats, Kerala-Tamilnadu-Karnataka (KTK) granulite terrain, Panvel
flexure and petroliferous Cambay basin. The low magnetization in KTK
granulite correlates well with granites and some retrograded metamorphic rocks
exposed in the region, while the low over a rift-type Cambay basin indicates a
high heat flow. Likewise, over the Himalayas and Tibet plateau the low
magnetization may have arisen from thermal state of the region. Seismic and
gravity studies have inferred the crust to be thick beneath the Himalayas and
Tibet plateau. The physical evidence that the triple junction of the western
coast is characterized by low magnetization supports the presence of a small
scale convection generated by hot spot activity. This heat transport has played
an important role in the generation of hydrocarbon deposits found in Bombay
High and also those expected in the Cauvery basin.
The magnetization pattern also correlates well with known variations in
crustal thickness as estimated by gravity, seismic and heat flow data. Typical
values for thickness of the crust from south to north are 35 to 40 km under the
peninsula, 30 to 35 km under Indo-Gangetic plains and 60 to 80 km under the
Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. Magnetization is negative under Indo-Gangetic
plain, where the crust is thin, and positive on both sides where the crust is
thick. Assuming that the oceanic crust is very much thinner than the continental
crust, it is expected the former to have less degree of magnetization. Such a
drop in magnetization, as one proceeds from continental realm to oceanic is
clearly seen around the peninsula and Sri Lanka island (Fig. 6.11), where the
magnetization changes from a positive to negative value.
In general, negative values are seen over the oceanic regions and features
prominently over IOL (a structure which still remains to be fully understood).
As expected, positive magnetization values are observed over Laccadives-
Chagos and 90°E ridges. A special trait of interest is the transition from
continental to oceanic crust and is seen to be sharp on the east coast, and gradual
along the west. Positive magnetization contours (continental crust) extend into
the northern portion of the Bay of Bengal. The fact that these patterns are seen
198 Geomagnetism
at satellite heights indicates their deep-seated origin and modelling may provide
some unique information on the tectonic framework of the subsurface structures.
IX. Tectonic-anomaly between Magnetization and

Residual Gravity
To constrain source characteristics of tectonic boundaries, and determination
of their depths, satellite magnetic and gravity data are jointly analyzed in
conjunction with geologic and other geophysical datasets of seismic, heat flow
and petrophysical properties. This is done to understand the relationship between
large-scale features and broad general patterns in the magnetization and residual
gravity data. The joint analysis featured high gravity and low magnetization
anomaly found across the eastern ghats can be modelled in terms of crustal
thinning (as analogous to high heat flow). The SW and NE trending magnetic
low contours over the Arabian Sea seem to centre near Mumbai—a region
associated with local gravity high and also basic and ultrabasic dykes. Other
known associated geological features with this axis of inverse correspondence
between magnetic low and gravity high are the Konkan coast, hot springs, the
Cambay rift and the Panvel flexure. Basic and ultrabasic post-Deccan trap
volcanism, occurrence of mercury, carbonates and high heat flows that
characterize this region suggest it to be a marginal aulacogen.
The other highlight is the occurrence of inverse correspondence between
high gravity and low magnetization over petroliferous basins like the Assam
oil field, Bombay High and Cauvery basin. This is related to a shallow Curie
depth, consistent with high heat flow values, and a thin crust of gravity high. A
comparison with the heat flow map of the region depicts zones with heat flow
~70 mWm-2 are areas of low magnetization with the exception of the central
Indian region. An inverse relationship in the two anomalies over the Himalayas
is due to higher thermal gradients that average beneath these high mountain
ranges. Therefore, inverse correspondence between residual gravity and
magnetization (Figs 6.5 and 6.11) can possibly be used to infer heat flow values.
Nevertheless, with the availability of heat flow map for the country, Magsat
results and gravity maps can be used more effectively.
The western region of India and the Rajasthan shield is associated with
magnetic as well as gravity ‘high’. Magnetically this region has similarity to
the southern, rather than northern shield. The 90oE ridge in the Bay of Bengal
is associated with a NS trending magnetic and gravity high, flanked by lows to
the east and west. The IOL south of Sri Lanka finds an expression as localized
closures.
The low magnetization (Fig. 6.11) and low mass distribution (Fig. 6.12)
are consistent with the trans-Himalayan conductor and the Palk Strait conductor
(Figs 6.32 and 6.33) identified by EM induction methods. This correspondence
between the two suggests that both these conductors are associated with either
high heat flow or low magnetic susceptibility and density. The anomalous
Figure 6.12. Anomalous mass distribution of 2° by 2° blocks calculated through inversion

of satellite gravity anomalies at 400 km height (given in Fig. 6.1a) taking the location
of equivalent point sources to be at a depth of 200 km. Contour interval 2×1019 g. Note
two highly conducting regions in the Palk Strait and trans Himalayan area (Fig. 6.32)
depict low mass distribution from satellite gravity data (Basavaiah, 1993).
character of the lithosphere immediately south of India has low magnetization

anomaly, which reflects thin magnetic crust related to the rise of the Curie
isotherm.
6.4 AIR-BORNE MAGNETIC SURVEYS

Magnetic surveys are carried out over several spatial scales and elevations.
Aeromagnetic surveys are the most common component of reconnaissance
appraisals conducted to estimate depth of the basement, or equivalently the
thickness of the sedimentary basins. With an advent of aircraft-mounted
magnetometer system developed mainly for submarine detection during World
War II by Muffly in 1946, the areal magnetic coverage has expanded rapidly.
Surface and subsurface information are gained in a relatively cheap way
through aeromagnetic surveys, which also provide uniform coverage of
inaccessible areas.
200 Geomagnetism
I. Survey Objectives
Aeromagnetic surveys are done for a variety of reasons, primarily for geological
and structural mapping, mineral and oil exploration, environmental and ground
water investigations. Most surveys are flown to aid in surface geologic mapping,
where the magnetic effects of geologic bodies and structures are detected even
in areas where rock outcrop is scarce or absent, and bed rock is covered by
water, ice, sand or vegetation. Broad correlations are made between rock type
and magnetic properties, but the relationships are complicated often by
temperature, pressure and chemical changes. Nevertheless, the combined ground
and aeromagnetic maps with available geologic information are effective for
meaningful geological insights. Certain kinds of ore bodies may produce
magnetic anomalies that are desirable targets for mineral exploration.
Hydrocarbon deposits are not directly detectable by aeromagnetic surveys, but
magnetic data can be used to locate areas that provide favourable conditions
for oil/gas production and accumulation. Similarly, mapping magnetic
signatures of faults and features within water-bearing sedimentary rocks provide
valuable constraints on the geometry of acquifers and framework of groundwater
systems.
The first aeromagnetic survey for geological properties was carried out in
1945 in Alaska and by the end of 1940s, it had a global sweep. Parts of India
too have been aeromagnetically surveyed. These results are published in the
form of total intensity contour maps in degree sheet format without incorporating
corrections due to main field variations of the Earth, which can be acquired
from GSI.
II. Quality Control

The magnetic effects of different heading directions and aircraft manoeuvres
are first measured during a calibration flight in the absence of magnetic
anomalies, and then subtracted in real-time during survey operation as magnetic
anomalies are recorded. During survey operation, the recorded aircraft attitude
is used to apply an appropriate correction to each reading of the magnetometer.
The following tests are carried out periodically to demonstrate the success of
compensation.
The ‘clover-leaf’ test for magnetic heading
effect: The ‘clover-leaf’ test is designed to
demonstrate that the aircraft and system have
no significant ‘heading effect’, i.e. that the
same magnetic field value is recorded at a
given location in x and y, regardless of the
direction in which the location is overflown
(once corrections for temporal variations of
the magnetic field are applied). A visible
point on the ground in an area of few
magnetic anomalies is chosen and overflown at survey altitude in, say, a

northerly direction. The aircraft then turns and flies over the same point again
in an easterly direction, then in a southerly direction, a westerly direction and
finally in a northerly direction again to check for any diurnal variation since
the first overflight.
Noise level monitoring: Noise experienced while recording a magnetometer
profile can be divided into discontinuous and continuous noise. The former
causes spikes to appear on the profile, which may be attributed to a plethora of
sources, internal and external to the aircraft. These include lightning, DC trains
and trams, power lines, radio transmission, electrical switching and so forth.
Such effects usually demand manual elimination—or non-linear filtering—
during data reduction. The continuous effects are largely eliminated by the
compensation system in a modern installation, but there will be detectable
residuals, which still set the limit to the sensitivity of the system.
Lag test for correcting the position (herringbone effect): The differing
positions of magnetometer (or other) sensor within the aircraft and possible
electronic delays in recording values are checked by overflying a magnetic
object such as a bridge twice, the second time in the direction opposite to the
first. The displacement between the two anomalies relative to the source is
twice the shift that must be applied to bring magnetic and positional information
into registration. A lag of 0.1 to 0.2 sec—equivalent to about 10 m on the
ground—is not uncommon. Since survey lines are often flown alternately in
opposite direction, i.e. after completion of flying one line E to W, the aircraft
turns around and flies the next line W to E. Failure to correct adequately for lag
can result in values being shifted systematically, e.g. E on lines flown E-W and
W on lines flown W-E. This is one possible cause of the so-called ‘herringbone’
effect seen on contour maps of surveys, which are not reduced correctly.
However, in modern surveys such effects are more often due to incomplete
levelling of the flight lines.
III. Aeromagnetic Survey Operations and Processes

Usually oil exploration and regional surveys are flown at a constant elevation
in order to provide a constant datum for the basement depth estimates. Mineral
surveys are carried out with a constant ground clearance. The planning of survey
operations consists of choice of magnetometer, aircraft, navigational aids, proper
scales for base maps, and flight parameters such as flight line direction, spacing
and flight elevation.
Magnetometers: Compared to the magnetometers used in the 1940s, the
resolution and accuracy of recent magnetic field measurements have increased
significantly (Chapter 4). The early fluxgate magnetometers had resolutions
of ~1 nT, noise envelopes of 2 nT and suffered from appreciable drift of ~10
nT/hr. The fluxgate magnetometer can also be used as gradiometer, and it is
therefore most sensitive to shallow magnetic sources. Proton precision
202 Geomagnetism
magnetometers have followed fluxgate magnetometers with a resolution of

0.1 nT, noise envelope of 1 nT and minimal drift. These are superseded by the
cesium vapour magnetometers, which have a resolution of 0.001 nT and a
noise envelope of 0.005 nT.
Single magnetometer aircraft configurations simply produce measurements
of the magnetic field intensity in the direction of the EMF. By adding extra
sensors, various other quantities can be measured. With increased sensitivity,
three component systems at the wing-tips and tail are increasingly being used.
Aircraft motion, noise, attitude sensors: Magnetic noise caused by the survey
aircraft arises from permanent and induced magnetization effects and from the
flow of electrical currents. The permanent magnetization of the aircraft results
in a heading error. Induced magnetizations occur due to the motion of the
aircraft in the EMF. These effects are partially reduced by mounting the
magnetometer either on a boom attached to the aircraft’s tail or in a towed
‘bird’ attached by a cable. One serious disadvantage with the towed bird
installation is that the motion of the bird in the EMF causes noise on the
magnetometer record, and there is virtually no satisfactory way of compensating
for the motion of the bird. A rigid extension of the airframe—usually in the
form known as a stinger—solves many of these problems, but necessitates
closer attention to the sources of magnetic effects on board the aircraft. The
permanent magnetic field of the aircraft at the magnetometer sensor is
compensated (backed-off) by passing appropriate DC currents through each of
three orthogonal coils in the vicinity of the sensor. The induced component
was offset by mounting pieces of highly permeable material close to the sensor
in a position (found by trial-and-error) such
that their magnetic effect is always equal
and opposite to that of the engines. The
eddy-current effects are similarly
mimicked, but in opposite sign by coils of
wire placed close to the sensor. Recently,
active magnetic compensators have been
developed to address these problems ‘on-
line’ during survey flight. Once the survey
is started, the aircraft’s noise level is
assessed repeatedly to ensure that the same
level of data quality is maintained.
The choice of aircraft is a matter of economics and balancing costs against
performance. The most common aircraft types include single-engine cessnas,
twin-engine aircrafts, and larger model Dakotas.
Navigation, positioning: No matter what accuracy is achieved in the magnetic
field measurements, the value of the final survey data is dependent on exact
location of measurement points. Traditional methods of navigation rely largely
on visual tracking using aerial photographs. The actual location of the flight
path is recovered manually by comparing these photographs with images from

onboard video cameras. However, in areas of poor photographical features,
navigational aids like Doppler or ANA (aircraft navigation using atomic
standards) become necessary. These techniques are superseded by the
introduction of GPS in 1990s. GPS relies on the information sent from an
array of satellites, whose locations are known precisely. Signals from a number
of satellites are used to triangulate the position of the receiver in the aircraft, so
that its position is known for navigational purposes and to locate the magnetic
field measurements. GPS brings a number of important benefits to aerial
surveying. Firstly, the coordinates of the survey aircraft (horizontal and vertical)
are provided on a continuous basis. This not only improves the quality of survey
navigation and reduces its cost, it also eliminates to a large degree the tedious
and error-prone manual steps inherent in flight path recovery from film or
video. Secondly, GPS provides a reusable positioning system. Surveys flown
at different times in the same area may be correlated in position, making it
easy to repeat survey lines or to fly infill lines. Current surveys generally use
real-time differential GPS navigation where the raw positional information is
corrected as the data is being collected. Altimeter keeps track of the altitude.
Temporal effects: Monitoring of the EMF is an essential component of
aeromagnetic surveys. The time-varying effects due to micropulsations,
magnetic storms and diurnal variations are removed through base-station
subtraction, tie-line levelling and microlevelling (decorrugation). One or more
base station magnetometers are used to track changes in the field during survey
operations. The smoothly changing diurnal variation is removed from the data
using tie-line levelling. Simply subtracting this variation from the measured
data is not sufficient, since diurnal changes may vary significantly over the
survey area. Nonetheless, the recorded diurnal is used as a guide in the levelling
process. Tie-line levelling is based on the differences in the measured field at
the intersection of flight lines and tie-lines that run perpendicular to the flight
lines. If the distance and time taken to fly between these intersection points is
small enough, then it can be assumed that the diurnal varies approximately
linearly and can be corrected for.
Micro-levelling (de-corrugation): Creating a grid is still less than satisfactory
in that some line-related noise remains evident. This effect is described as
corrugations and the standard procedure for its removal as de-corrugation or
micro-levelling. The micro-levelling procedure used to remove line-related
noise has become standard in recent years. It is essentially a filtering process,
whose wavelength in the across-line direction is equal to twice the line spacing
and in the along-line direction to the spacing between the tie-lines. The need
for micro-levelling arises from the imperfections in the polynomials applied to
hang the flight line data on the tie-lines. Micro-levelling is applied to gridded
data and the adjustments made to improve the grid are then feed back as a
correction to the original profile data so that, when next gridded, line-related
noise will not be evident. Adjustments made in micro-levelling need to confine
204 Geomagnetism
to a few nT. The assumption in micro-levelling is that the near-DC component

of each profile resembles that of its neighbour, i.e. that the ‘regional’ field
varies only smoothly from line to line across the whole survey area. The danger
is that genuine geological features can also follow flight lines and micro-
levelling can remove these.
Example, aeromagnetic survey operations, data acquisition: Aeromagnetic
surveys over the peninsular shield were conducted in distinct epoch and altitude
ranges (Fig. 6.13). The flight lines, which are parallel lines flown in a regular
pattern of equally spaced, are N25°E - S25°W, where the flight altitude is 7000
ft, and for the rest of the region, the flight lines are N-S. The line spacing for all
these blocks was maintained at 4 km, except for the ‘drape’ survey over
Cuddapah basin (altitude 500 ft) covered under ‘operation hard rock’, where
the line spacing varied from 500 m to 1 km. It thus becomes inevitable to
reduce data to a common barometric altitude to obtain an overall idea of
magnetic response of the geological terrain in general.
IV. Data Display and Interpretation

The final product is a set of levelled flight line data that are interpolated onto a
regular grid of magnetic field intensity values covering the survey region. These
values can be displayed in a variety of ways, the most common being a colour
map, where the magnetic field values based on their magnitude are assigned a
specific colour. Similarly the values can be represented as a simple line contour
map. Both kinds of representation can be used in a qualitative fashion to divide
Figure 6.13. Sketch map depicting epoch and altitudes of aeromagnetic survey
undertaken. Note different flight altitudes are indicated in different colours (Rajaram
and Anand, 2003).
the survey area into sub-regions of high and low magnetizations. Since the
data are available digitally, it is straightforward to use computer-based
algorithms to modify and enhance the magnetic field image for the specific
purpose of the survey. Transformation and filtering allow certain attributes of
the data to be enhanced, such as the effects due to magnetic sources at shallow
or deep levels, or occurring along a specified strike direction. More sophisticated
methods may estimate the depths, locations, attitudes, and magnetic properties
of magnetic sources.
Example, aeromagnetic anomaly map preparation: The GSI catalogue
published in 1995 has details about the collection of aeromagnetic data. There,
however, exists a data gap, as degree sheets are not available over a part of the
Cuddapah basin, hence ground magnetic data collected over this basin at 10
km interval has been incorporated. The acquired degree sheet maps were
machine digitized along contours. The observed digital aeromagnetic data for
each block are corrected to remove the main field contribution using the 1980
and 1985 IGRF models interpolating appropriate date and altitude of
observation. The data were then regrided at 2 km interval. IGRF removed data
in different blocks are at different elevations, therefore all are continued to the
same elevation of 5000 ft above msl and merged. The colour-shaded image of
aeromagnetic crustal anomaly map, thus prepared is presented in Fig. 6.14.
The red colour represents high and blue low values.
Figure 6.14. Composite aeroborne total intensity anomaly map. The aeromagnetic
anomalies are used to understand tectonic elements and regional magnetic
characteristics of the Indian peninsula showing a thin exhumed southern granulite
crust with its lithological and mineralogical changes at ~22 km (Rajaram et al., 2006).
206 Geomagnetism
V. Geological Correlations of Crustal Magnetic Anomaly

The map (Fig. 6.14) clearly shows tectonic elements and regional
characteristics of the peninsula. Superposed on it are short wavelength
anomalies near surface features. A very striking element of the map is that
north of 13°N, coinciding almost with the line of change of amphibolite to
granulite facies, the trend of anomalies change from NNW-SSE in the north
to essentially E-W in the south. The region between the line of change of
facies and the Palghat-Cauvery shear zone exhibits east-west trending
alternate high and low values. This striking contrast in gradients across the
Moyar-Bhavani shear system is indicative of a change in magnetic sources.
Based on magnetic anomaly pattern (Fig. 6.14), the image map can be
broadly classified into two distinct blocks, viz. block I covering area between
13o and 18oN latitude and block II between 8° and 12°N with a transition
region between 12° and 13°N. Block I includes the Dharwar craton and
block II comprises southern granulite terrain (SGT) and northern granulite
block. Block I is heterogeneous and characterized by sparsely distributed
broad anomalies, besides isolated 2D linear anomalies. A well defined 3D
feature is much less common. In contrast, block II is fairly homogeneous
and is characterized by a generally high density of anomaly distribution.
This block is dominated by 2D linear anomalies trending mainly ENE-
WSW to E-W and contains a localized 3D feature. Dense anomaly signature
along the west coast between 8° and 14°N latitude represents post-
Gondwana rifts and Cretaceous-Eocene magmatic activity.
The investigated area being in low latitude region, the inclination of
the inducing main field increases the complexity of anomalies and makes
the interpretation difficult. The analytic signal of total field reduces the
magnetic data to anomalies whose maxima mark the edges of the magnetized
bodies, thus helping in identifying the magnetic source distribution. The
analytic signal map is represented in Fig. 6.15. The peaks (sources) of
analytic signal within the Dharwar region represent intrusives/localized
iron ore bodies. At 13°N parallel, the maxima align themselves along E-W
direction parallel to the orthopyroxene isograd. The zone between Moyar-
Bhavani-Salem-Attur faults and the Achankovil shear zone is characterized
by many maxima representing extensive magnetic sources related to
charnockites. Thus the analytic signal can be used to define change in grades
of metamorphism. In fact, subsurface charnockites, and those in inaccessible
regions like forests can be mapped using the analytic signal map. The west
coast fault is also clearly visible. Surprisingly, no signature of khondalite
belt is evident in this picture though they show clear highs in aeromagnetic
anomaly map. This is because low gradients prevail over the khondalite
belt in the aeromagnetic map, which has a lower susceptibility compared
with charnockites.
Figure 6.15. Analytic signal map of the aeromagnetic anomaly. Red colour
represents magnetic sources (highs). Analytic structural trends, lineaments and faults
identified are demarcated. Magnetic sources (highs) in the region south of 13°N are
mainly charnockitic and that above 13°N are iron ore bodies of schist belts (Rajaram
and Anand, 2003).
VI. Aeromagnetic Interpretation

The sources of magnetic anomalies over peninsular India are charnockites,
intrusives, iron ore and trap flows. In the Dharwar craton, the NW-SE trends
are deeper, older and are cut by several younger NE-SW shallow trends, the
junction of which yields diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes. Chitradurga schist
belt forms the dividing line between eastern and western Dharwar. The analytical
signal map also reveals changes in metamorphic grades.
Magnetic crust below the high-grade terrain of SGT and all along the east
coast is thin. Below the thin exhumed crust of SGT, there is a lithological/
mineralogical change at ~22 km depth also seen as velocity change in deep
seismic sounding (DSS) studies. The inverted magnetic data gave a crustal
model along the existing Palani-Kolatur DSS profile. The model suggests that
alteration of charnockites into hornblende-biotite-gneiss is more towards the
north than south, wherein the process of retrogression is high but the exhumation
of charnockites is more between Cauvery fault and Salem-Attur fault.
Aeromagnetic anomalies on the east coast continue and merge gently with
marine magnetic anomalies till the ocean continent boundary, but the west
coast fault abruptly terminates the aeromagnetic anomalies towards the western
offshore.
208 Geomagnetism
6.5 NATIONAL GROUND MAGNETIC SURVEYS

I. Data Acquisition and Total Field Anomaly Map
Aeromagnetic data in general and satellite surveys in particular regionalize the
surface and subsurface geological characteristics, whose exact location is
decoded by supplementing with ground survey data. Study of continental
anomalies from a national magnetic anomaly map is being carried out
extensively in USA. For such a study in India, SOI prepared total field anomaly
map (Fig. 6.17) based on ground measurements at ~800 field and repeat stations,
whose distribution is shown in Fig. 6.16.
II. Data Reduction and Processing

Based on these data, an analytical field representation is developed through a
sixth degree polynomial as a function of latitude and longitude. This covers
spatial variation of the field with wavelengths as short as 1000 km. The field
values at stations corresponding to above model are subtracted from the
observed field values, and residual values are used to compile the magnetic
anomaly (Fig. 6.17), which can be considered free from anomalies >1000 km.
The shortest wavelengths are ~80 km controlled by inter-station spacing.
Figure 6.16. Location map of ~800 field and repeat stations installed by the Survey
of India in order to collect the ground magnetic data used in the preparation of regional
isomagnetic charts over the Indian region.
Figure 6.17. Residual total intensity anomaly map prepared after removing regional
anomalies represented by a sixth degree polynomial model from the observed field
values at stations in Fig. 6.16. These residual anomalies are considered to be free from
anomalies of wavelengths >1000 km. The anomaly patterns are used to understand the
crustal structure by comparing with an anomaly in total field as seen from the Magsat
heights of 420 km. Contour interval 100 nT (courtesy: Survey of India).
III. Qualitative Interpretation of Anomaly Trends: Tectonic

Features
The most conspicuous feature of total magnetic intensity anomaly map
(Fig. 6.17) is the presence of a number of parallel to subparallel E-NE trending
zones over central India that stretch right from west to east coasts. These
anomalies correspond well with the Narmada-Sone lineament (NSL). NSL
forms the boundary between the Vindhyans to the north and the Gondwanas to
south and is known to be a prominent rift structure from gravity and seismic
observations. To the north, anomalies are aligned in N-E direction corresponding
to Aravalli mountain ranges. These mountain ranges represent rejuvenated
uplifted block mountains resulting from tectonic activation of Indian shield.
The whole of southern peninsula and Deccan trap region are characterized by
small scale, large number of positive and negative anomalies, though Deccan
210 Geomagnetism
has blanketed the pre-existing topography over a considerable area. However,

the presence of structures such as basins, rift valleys, fissure zones and dykes
have been conjectured with scanty information from geophysical surveys. It
would be interesting to examine whether the zones of positive anomalies
characterize the fissure zones along which large lava eruption has taken place.
The negative anomalies correspond to presence of pre-trappean sediments,
primarily Mesozoic, which are also indicated from seismic surveys.
IV. Tectonic Correlations between Magsat and

Ground Anomalies
In satellite anomaly maps due to natural filtering, many of the local features
disappear because of which large scale regional features get sufficiently
enhanced. When Magsat total field anomaly (Fig. 6.8b) is compared with ground
data (Fig. 6.17), it is found that the ground anomalies cannot be distinctly
separated in geological provinces. The conspicuous Magsat anomaly over the
Himalayas is indecipherable in ground data. The general trend in Magsat data
has a positive and negative anomaly over the southern and northern regions
respectively, separated by a zero anomaly coinciding with NSL. The
demarcation of NSL is not so clear in ground data. Perhaps, strong features of
local extent mask the presence of this lineament. Other applications extend the
existing analysis capability for knowledge of the conductivity of the upper
mantle useful for inferring temperature, structural and compositional variations.
6.6 GROUND MAGNETIC SURVEYS

The magnetometer readings made at each observation point on ground surface
represent a combination of main field, its temporal variation due to ionospheric
current system and the relevant anomalous component due to lateral variations
in magnetic parameters of the crust, mostly in the outer shell measuring 18 to
25 km thickness. Watchful evaluation and removal of extraneous contributions
are essential to the attainment of a satisfactory picture of magnetic anomalies
of small relief. Careful attention to various corrections to magnetometer reading
corrections forms an important aspect in the application to oil prospecting in
view of weak anomalies than to the exploration for iron ores, igneous intrusions,
etc. where the anomalies are stronger. Table 6.1 shows different stages of
magnetic data reduction in calculating crustal magnetic anomalies.
I. Plan of Conducting Ground Magnetic Surveys

The exact manner of conducting survey depends upon the purpose of the survey,
the type of host region, the ease of transportation, and the type of anomalies
expected. Regional surveys involve large areal extent (thousands of sq km)
and can be for mineral or oil exploration. In contrast, detail surveys for minerals
usually cover only a few km. Regional surveys are primarily intended to serve
Table 6.1 Typical example of reducing magnetometer data
Sl. No. time-F obs-F time-Z obs-Z H Z IGRF-F ext.H ext.Z IGRF(F+ext) Final-F
1 8.45 40578 8.47 8478 2.5 4.1 40403 38109 18519 40027 551
2 8.55 40536 8.57 8546 2.6 4 40401 38111 18517 40024 512
3 9.05 40517 9.07 8426 2.6 3.9 40400 38111 18515 40024 494
4 9.12 40432 9.14 8332 2.8 3.8 40399 38114 18513 40020 411
5 9.18 40574 9.20 8525 2.9 3.6 40398 38116 18510 40020 555
6 9.25 40540 9.27 8440 3.1 3.4 40397 38119 18506 40017 523
7 9.35 40537 9.37 8373 3.2 3.2 40396 38121 18502 40016 521
8 9.42 40514 9.44 8343 3.4 3.1 40394 38124 18500 40012 502
9 9.48 40486 9.50 8336 3.6 3.1 40392 38128 18500 40007 479
10 9.55 40531 9.57 8466 3.8 3.1 40391 38131 18500 40003 529
Solid Earth Geomagnetism
211
212 Geomagnetism
the purpose of reconnaissance, to identify favourable ore environments or to

understand geological or tectonic framework of a region. It helps to delineate
major lithographic units favourable for specific type of mineralization or fault-
fracture pattern of a region as a prelude to detailed work. Magnetic surveys for
oil exploration over large sedimentary basins are primarily intended to know
the thickness of sediments and the configuration of the underlying basement in
order to locate structural oil traps. Regional surveys can be carried out on a
regular grid pattern at 2 to 3 km interval or stations can be set up on all available
roads and tracks so that an average station density of 2 to 3 km is achieved.
1:5000 scale maps are adequate for such a survey.
Detailed surveys for minerals are usually carried out on regular grid. The
profiles are laid at right angles to the geological strike. A baseline along the
strike of the body is fixed and profiles are set across the baseline. If L is strike
length and w the width of the geological body, a profile interval of L/4 or L/5
and station interval of w/10 are adequate.
II. Surveyed Areas and Frontier Sedimentary Basins

The eastern continental margin of India (ECMI) has several sedimentary basins,
which evolved following the dismemberment of Gondwanaland in Mesozoic
(245 to 65 Ma) and formed between late Jurassic (200 to 130 Ma) and Miocene
(23 to 5 Ma) as a result of southwesterly drainage associated with northward
anticlockwise drift of India from southern latitudes to its present position. These
basins were intracratonic, pull-apart type during their initial stage of formation,
but after the break-up, became pericratonic. The intracratonic basin occurs on
continental crust, either in the interior or at the crustal margins of old continental
plates. They are caused by divergence and tension within the continental block
and more often by subsidence along reactivated primordial faults. The
pericratonic rift basins, on the other hand, form by subsidence of rifted trailing
edges along extensional faults. Their basin axes are usually parallel to
continental/oceanic crust boundary and sediments overlap into the oceanic crust.
The common feature of east coast basins is subsidence along down-to-basement
faults. The sedimentary fill, ranging in age from Jurassic to Pliocene, includes
deltaic transitional marine sediments, carbonates, clastics, etc. In order to shed
light on the evolution of ECMI and hence to reconstruct the configuration of
Gondwanaland, knowledge of the structure, tectonics and sedimentation history
of these sedimentary basins is very vital.
Ground magnetic survey was carried out over Deccan trap (Maharashtra),
Cambay and Kutch (Gujarat), Khandwa (Madhya Pradesh), Mahanadi (Orissa),
schist belts of Chitradurga-Holenarsipur (Karnataka), Krishna-Godavari
(Andhra Pradesh), and the Proterozoic Cuddapah-Palar (spanning Andhra
Pradesh and Tamilnadu) (Fig. 6.18). These surveys were carried out with point
readings maintaining an average station interval from 5 to 10 km on a grid
using indigenous PPMs (Chapter 4).
Figure 6.18. Generalized map of various sedimentary basins, which are categorized
according to their hydrocarbon bearing potential (Biswas et al., 1993). These form the
potential regions for carrying out ground magnetic surveys to understand the relationship
between their magnetic characteristics and hydrocarbon bearing potential.
III. Reduction of Ground Magnetic Observations

To isolate crustal anomaly, spatial and time variations occurring in EMF over
the period of surveying area are determined, and removed from the raw
measurements. The EMF, however, varies rather uniformly over large distances
of hundreds of km, and is thus easily predictable using IGRF. This, together
with contributions from external current systems when subtracted from the
observed field (obs-F in Table 6.1), leaves behind the magnetic anomaly.
214 Geomagnetism
(i) Diurnal corrections: These corrections are very important since the
magnitude of diurnal variations of EMF is from 10 to 100 nT. There are three
methods used for making diurnal correction: (1) Observatory measurement:
Magnetic observatories make continuous records of magnetic measurements.
Data are procured from the closest MO and corrections effected. But it has two
roadblocks: (i) the data may not be available immediately, and (ii) the surveyed
area may not be in the vicinity of observatory. (2) Repeat observations:
Repeated observations at the same point during the course of the day can check
for constancy of magnetic intensity. Any inconsistency in the readings will
give out magnetic variation for the day. However, the daily variation curves
show readings at an interval of even 2 hr can miss details of the daily variation
of as large as 10 nT. Therefore, this method is inadequate, wherein a precision
of a few nT is desired. (3) Continuous recording: In this method, an auxiliary
base instrument is used, which records continuous curve of the daily variation
at the base station. This curve is used for corrections, which is considered safe
to effect corrections in field station curves within a perimeter of 80 km.
(ii) Normal corrections: This correction is made to remove normal
variation of magnetic intensity over the Earth’s surface. The magnetic field is
determined from magnetic charts, since it cannot be represented mathematically
in terms of the geographical coordinates; its direction, distance, and absolute
value are also not normally known at the base. The corrections are made by
drawing contours of normal variations at a convenient interval of 10 nT. For
example, the N-S and E-W gradient can be evaluated from the isomagnetic
maps published at five-year intervals by the world data centre. Knowledge of
the NS and EW distance of the field station from primary base helps remove
the normal variation (with proper sign) from the observed data. For example,
for Indian latitudes, say ~20°N, the normal field gradient of the order of 5 to 6
nT/km along NS and ~1 nT/km along EW direction exists for 1985 epoch.
IGRF coefficients of a fixed epoch are used to calculate the response of
main field at each observation point (IGRF-F). For quantifying period of external
field variations of the survey area, data recorded at a nearby magnetic
observatory are used. In Table 6.1, values of H and Z represent digitized data
from magnetograms corresponding to the date and time of the recording done
at field, while the ext.H and ext.Z represent horizontal and vertical magnetic
field components, obtained by adding the baseline values after multiplying H
and Z with their scale values. The baseline and scale values are supplied by the
observatories along with the magnetograms. Ext.F is obtained by squaring and
adding ext.H and ext.Z and taking the square root. The value of ext.F thus
obtained is summed with IGRF value and deducted from the observed total
field value to gain the final anomaly (final-F), which is further plotted against
location co-ordinates. The total field anomaly map (F) thus prepared for different
basins is shown in Figs 6.19, 6.20, 6.23 and 6.28 for Cambay, Mahanadi,
Krishna-Godavari, and Cauvery basins, respectively.
IV. Transformation and Interpretation of Magnetic Anomalies

The varying amplitudes and wavelengths of the total field come from magnetic
sources at different depths. To know certain characteristics of sources, anomaly
maps are subjected to various transformations. Transformation and filtering
allow certain attributes of the data to be enhanced such as the effects due to
magnetic sources at shallow or deeper levels or those occurring along a specified
strike direction. To resolve shallow sources, downward continuation and second
vertical derivative transformations are done. Upward continuation and
horizontal gradient of pseudogravity (HGPG) transformations are performed
to isolate deeper sources. (i) Magnetic field analytical continuation: The
continuation techniques transform mathematically the magnetic anomalies on
to a plane either above or below the plane of observation. In the upward
continuation, i.e. to a plane above the level of observation, the regional features
are preserved at the cost of shallow sources and in the downward continuation,
i.e. to a level below the level of observations, the shallower sources are enhanced
and regionals suppressed. (ii) Derivative technique: In the magnetic data
processing, derivative is generally used to denote the first or higher vertical
derivatives of magnetic anomalies. These are used to enhance the anomalies of
shallower sources. When the influence of overlapping sources or regional
features is predominant, derivatives help to resolve the shallower sources better
than the original field. Computation of even second, fourth, sixth derivatives,
etc. is much easier in the space domain than the odd derivatives. Several
procedures are in vogue now for the preparation of second derivative maps.
(iii) Reduction to the pole: The magnetic anomaly observed over a particular
source is dependent on its location and orientation. Usually, the magnetic
anomalies constitute a pair of negative and positive peaks located on either
side of the source. Instead of dipolar anomalies, a technique known as ‘reduction
to pole’ centres the anomalies over the respective sources (Fig. 6.8f). This
procedure does not create any confusion with respect to dipolar anomalies.
Reduction to pole maps are generally used for quantitative interpretation, and
for direct comparison of gravity and magnetic maps. (iv) Apparent
susceptibility mapping: This is a data processing technique that converts a
total field magnetic map to an apparent susceptibility map. This method involves
such operations as downward continuation and reduction to pole; all conducted
in the frequency domain. It has advantages such as overlapping of anomalies
being reduced, areas of uniform susceptibility appear relatively flat, and level
differences appear between units with different magnetic properties and contacts
between rock types, are demarcated clearly. The application of the various
techniques is discussed below.
1. Cambay basin: The anomaly trend is controlled by faults within the
basin (Fig. 6.19) and outside on the NE; it depicts the Aravalli trend. The
anomaly map also shows margin faults, ENE-WSW trending NSL, major faults
and geological features. Also the expected residual gravity values are higher
inside than outside the basin, while magnetic anomalies are low over the graben.
216 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.19. The ground magnetic data collected at ~5 km over petroliferrous Cambay
basin. Data are used to prepare its total field anomaly map. Note the correlation between
magnetic anomalies and tectonic structures in its basin evolution. Regions of high heat
flow reveal negative magnetic anomalies and positive gravity anomalies indicating a
thin crust beneath them.
Figure 6.20. The correlation between total field anomalies and tectonic structures in
the Mahanadi basin. Contour interval is 40 nT (Anand et al., 2002).
This is in line with the satellite gravity and magnetic anomaly interpretation of
their inverse correspondence depicting high heat flow, resulting into this proven
petroliferous basin.
Figure 6.21. Second vertical derivative map of Mahanadi basin showing NE-SW to
E-W trends associated with shallow features. Contour interval is of 50 nT/sq km
(Anand et al., 2002).
2. Mahanadi basin: Ground magnetic surveys were conducted at 5 km

interval over Mahanadi basin covering an area of 21,000 sq km. The total field
anomaly map (Fig. 6.20) shows a combination of NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE
trends.
Second vertical derivative map (Fig. 6.21) has enhanced the shallow NE-
SW to ENE-WSW source trends, which are in conformity with eastern ghats
rock exposures on the western side as well as the trend of the ridges and
depressions within the basin. The thick band contours running NE-SW from
north of Chilka lake to south of Kabatabandha, are the basin margin fault,
which limits the basin to the west. This fault was not delineated by gravity
studies. A geological contact is found further west.
The anomaly map continued to 10 km above msl reveals deeper features
having NW-SE trends (Fig. 6.22). The observed NE-SW and E-W trends
in second vertical derivative and downward continuation are related to
shallow ridges and depressions of the coastal basin. However, the deeper
features evidenced from upward continuation show NW-SE trends (Fig. 6.22),
possibly associated with extension of Mahanadi graben under the coastal basin.
The shallow trends of NE-SW to E-W seem to be superposed on deeper
NW-SE ones formed prior to the breakup of Gondwanaland. Thus, this
delta has two structural units, wherein the shallower one is associated
with breakup of Gondwanaland and the deeper with formation of intracratonic
Mahanadi graben.
218 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.22. Anomaly map of Mahanadi basin continued upward to 10 km above msl,
showing NW-SE trend of the deeper features. Locations of I, II and III are DSS profiles
(Anand et al., 2002).
3. Krishna-Godavari basin: The prominent trends (Fig. 6.23) are in the

NE-SW direction in accordance with subsurface ridges and depressions in this
basin. The elongated negative anomaly initially runs NE-SW and later turns
ENE-WSW aligning with Baptala, Tanuku and Kaza ridges. Some secondary
NW-SE trends are terminated at the NE-SW ends. One such trend passes right
on to the south of Rajamundry (RAJ) forming the eastern boundary fault of
Chintalapudi sub-basin.
Figure 6.23. Map of total field anomaly over Krishna-Godavari basin prepared from
the ground data. Data are interpreted in terms of its basement configuration and
estimating the total thickness of sediments. Solid lines represent highs and dashed
lines low. Contour interval 40 nT. NIZ: Nizamapatnam, MAC: Macchlipatnam, RAJ:
Rajamundry (Rajaram et al., 2000).
Similarly, in the NW portion of the map, another NW-SE trend is found to

match with Chintalapudi cross (CCS) trend. Several close anomalies south of
CCS are associated with eastern ghats and charnockites.
West of Rajamundry (Fig. 6.23), the closed anomaly pattern is due to the
basaltic exposures. The coastal basin has lower values, whereas the Archaean
exposures of eastern ghats have relatively higher values. Like Mahanadi, NE-
SW trends in KG basin are shallower and superposed on deeper N-S trends
related to extension of Godavari graben.
The second vertical derivative map (Fig. 6.24) shows a combination of
N-S, NNE-SSW and NE-SW trends. Towards the western side, trends of N-S
to NNE-SSW are seen; the N-S to NNE-SSW trend is associated with eastern
ghats and NE-SW trends reflect the KG basin. The ridges and depressions
cannot be distinctly demarcated probably due to a large station spacing of ~10
km in comparison with the width of the structures.
Figure 6.25 shows the anomaly map continued down to 2 km from msl,
which shows a combination of NE-SW and N-S/NNE-SSW shallow trends
associated with coastal basin and eastern ghats, respectively.
Figure 6.26 presents 6 km upward continuation from msl. As the level of
continuation increases, the NW-SE trends become more prominent. The most
conspicuous feature of this map is the appearance of several NW-SE trends at
the expense of dominant NE-SW trends, implying limited extent of KG basin,
while sources related to NW-SE trends are at larger depth.
Figure 6.24. Second vertical derivative anomaly map of the ground total magnetic
field superposed on the shaded relief map of the Krishna-Godavari basin to isolate
the NE-SW trends (red depicts maximum reflectance decreasing to green). Contour
interval is of 30 nT; solid lines represent high values and dashed lines low values
(Rajaram et al., 2000).
220 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.25. Anomaly map of the Krishna-Godavari basin continued downward to

2 km. Contour interval 200 nT (Rajaram et al., 2000).
Figure 6.26. Anomaly map of Krishna-Godavari basin continued upward to 6 km.

Contour interval 10 nT (Rajaram et al., 2000).
The total field magnetic anomaly is converted into gravity anomaly by

replacing magnetization distributions with identical density distributions. This
is the pseudogravity anomaly and is measured in pseudo mgal. The steepest
horizontal gradient of gravity anomaly or of a pseudogravity anomaly caused
by a tabular body tends to overlie the edge of the body. It amplifies the long
wavelength components. This characteristic of pseudogravity anomalies is used
to locate abrupt lateral changes in magnetization. The horizontal gradient tends
to have a maxima located over the edges of pseudogravity sources, hence
Figure 6.27. Composite HGPG map of ground F data (contour interval 0.5 mgal; solid
lines represent highs and dashed lines low; all the values are positive) and the marine
magnetic total field anomaly map over the KG basin and its offshore region. The
continuation of the NW-SE trends into the offshore is marked on the figure as dashed
lines (Rajaram et al., 2000).
horizontal gradient pseudogravity (HGPG) transformation is carried out. The

composite HGPG anomaly map of ground data and the marine magnetic
anomalies (Fig. 6.27) shows clear and direct continuation of onshore NW-SE
trends.
The magnetic data reveal deeper features associated with Dharwar and
Bastar cratons prior to the rifting of India from Gondwanaland. The superposed
horst and graben structures are formed as a result of rifting and drifting of
India from Gondwanaland. The deeper features and horst/graben structures
belong to two different tectonic events. NE-SW trends associated with the
coastal basin and N-S to NNE-SSW trends of the eastern ghats indicate
shallower sources.
4. Cauvery basin: NW-SE anomalies are seen to dominate within the
Cauvery basin (Fig. 6.28), which are constrained within the eastern ghats
folding. Anomaly trends also show mixed high NW-SE, NE-SW and E-W
anomalies over the charnockites. Regions of marine transgression also depict
high anomalies. Interestingly, the Ariyalur-Pondicherry (AP) depression
is associated with a NE-SW high on ground and aeromagnetic anomaly
maps, while the gravity anomaly map shows a low over this depression.
The gravity low is due to large sediment thickness of ~5 km, while the
magnetic high is due to charnockite basement. The high associated with the
AP depression extends offshore in NE-SW direction right up to the ocean-
continent boundary.
222 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.28. Total field anomaly map of the Cauvery basin. The anomaly trends are
used to understand the influence of eastern ghat orogeny on its basin evolution and
characteristics of ocean-continent boundary.
6.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) INDUCTION METHODS

Subsurface images of the electrical conductivity can be gained from two
methods. The first is electrical technique, in which a constant electrical current
is applied to the Earth. The second is EM induction, in which electrical currents
are induced to flow in the Earth by a time varying external field. GeoEM
induction maps the Earth’s surface through to the mantle, where it delineates
conductivity structures to improve upon the prevalent understanding of tectonic
processes. These studies are carried out on local and regional scale of a few
km to hundreds of km to get both lateral and depth extensions of the conductor.
Local scale studies include active fault zones or volcanoes, while regional
studies include investigations of subduction zones, orogenic belts, seafloor
measurements, and mantle hot spots. EM induction studies are used to construct
models of electrical conductivity variation in 1D, 2D or 3Ds.
EM induction methods are broadly categorized by the type of source field.
If the source of the externally varying field is sufficiently distant from the
location of measurement, the source is approximately plane wave, and is said
to be 1D (varying in only one direction). On the other hand, if the source and
measurement are close, then it is 3D (varying in all spatial dimensions). This

latter category can be further subdivided into techniques, (i) that use a
continuously varying controlled source field, usually in the form of a sine
wave, known as frequency domain EM, and (ii) those that require a source that
abruptly switches on and off as a square wave, known as time domain EM or
transient EM induction. Deep Earth conductivity is being traditionally
demarcated either by geomagnetic depth sounding (GDS), or magnetotelluric
(MT) methods. These two methods do not have any measurement limit, since
they use the dynamic part of EMF temporal variations, unlike the static magnetic
anomalies that can probe only up to Curie isotherm (~20 to 40 km). The data
generated through these methods extend the existing knowledge on conductivity
patterns, useful in inferring temperature, structural and compositional variations
from the crust down to the lower mantle (~1500 km).
In gravity or magnetic fields, the anomalies are small perturbations over
the normal field, but in transient variations they can be greater than the normal
part by a few orders of magnitude. The causative process is the large electrical
conductivity contrast of 13 orders of magnitude (e.g. dry crystalline rocks have
conductivities <10-6 S/m, while ores have conductivities exceeding 106 S/m).
Electrical conductivity is a sensitive parameter for saline fluids, carbon grain-
boundary films, conducting minerals, high heat flow and partial melts (molten
rocks or aqueous solutions). This parameter is extensively used in GDS, OBM
and MT for mapping geoelectrical structures.
6.8 BASIC METHOD OF EM INDUCTION

A time-varying magnetic field induces currents in a neighbouring conducting
medium in accordance with Faraday’s law. An oscillating externally magnetic
field of the wave generates electric currents in the Earth through EM induction,
and the signal propagation becomes diffusive, resulting in signal attenuation
with depth (skin depth). The induction process is governed by Maxwell’s
equations (Appendix 6.1). The factors that control the strength of induced
currents are: conductivity distribution of the Earth’s interior, and variation in
time and space of the external field.
I. Earth’s Natural EM Field

The source of natural currents flowing inside the Earth is definitely located
outside of it. Periodic and transient EMF fluctuations are correlated with time
varying solar emissions, which have a great influence on the ionospheric
currents. The telluric currents are thought to be induced in the Earth by currents
flowing partly in ionosphere and magnetosphere.
The currents are produced through complex interaction of EM radiation
and particle flux radiated from the Sun with the EMF. The incoming EM
radiation interacts with gases in the upper atmosphere producing distinct ionized
layers at 40 to 400 km. These layers move across the EMF due to thermal
224 Geomagnetism
gravitational action of the Sun producing varying currents in the ionosphere.

These variations depend on the Earth’s position with respect to the Sun, hence
have a periodicity of 24 hrs, which is the periodicity of Earth’s rotation. The
currents in the magnetosphere are due to complex interaction of solar wind,
interplanetary field and EMF. These currents are situated around 4RE to 10 RE
(Chapter 3). Below a frequency of 1 Hz, most of the signals originate in the
magnetosphere as periodic external fields including magnetic storms, substorms
and micropulsations. These signals are normally incident on the Earth’s surface.
Above a frequency of 1 Hz, the majority of EM signals flash out through
lightning activity.
The inductive mechanism is an EM field propagated between the ionosphere
and the Earth surface somewhat in the manner of a guided wave between parallel
conducting plates. That is to say, it proceeds by bouncing back and forth between
these boundaries, and hence has a large vertical component. At large distances
from the source, this is a plane wave of variable frequency (10-5 Hz to audio
range). Obviously, these MT fields can penetrate the Earth’s surface to produce
the telluric currents.
II. Principle of EM Method and Relations between Primary

and Secondary Fields
If an EM field is produced on Earth’s surface, currents flow in the subsurface
conductors in accordance with EM induction laws. The natural electric field
associated with these currents inside the Earth is of the order 10 mV/km. The
‘primary’ currents in the induction process are electric currents, which flow
external to the Earth and change with time. As the solid Earth conducts
electricity, ‘secondary’ currents (which are out-of-phase and of same frequencies
with the primary current) are induced. In general, the resultant field recorded
at the Earth’s surface differs from the primary field in intensity, phase and
direction, revealing the presence of subsurface conductors. In many instances,
the primary fields are uniform and spatially uncorrelated from one induction
event to the next; but the spatial patterns occurring systematically reflect spatial
patterns in the secondary fields due to conductivity structures.
III. Determination of Nature of Conductivity (High/Low)

of EM Anomalies
The EM field shifts in phase on encountering a relatively good conductor. In
fact, the conductor becomes the source of a secondary field, which differs in
phase from the primary field, while having the same frequency. In commonly
used EM field method, the in-phase and out-of-phase components are measured.
If the secondary field is 90° out-of-phase with the primary field, the subsurface
conductor is a bad one. On the other hand, if the out-of-phase secondary field
is 180° with the primary field, it is a very good conductor.
IV. EM Depth Sounding

It is used to study the variation of conductivity with depth. EM depth soundings
are carried out either by change of frequency or change of transmitter to receiver
(T-R) separation. Measurements may be in frequency or time domain. The
sounding depth of any EM method depends on the frequency (time period)
contents of the induced fields, and subsurface conductivity (skin depth). The
EM signal diffuses to a distance into the Earth, defined as the skin depth, G, in
metres by G = 503/¸Vf, where Vis the conductivity (S/m) and f is the frequency
(Hz). The skin depth is inversely related to the frequency, and thus high
frequency signals probe the shallow subsurface, while low frequency fields
penetrate a much wider induction space and depth into the Earth. Depth
persistence of the conductor or conductive overburden can be resolved by the
use of two frequencies.
If the anomalous conductor is indicated by more than one T-R separation,
it is assumed that the conductor persists with depth. If the same anomalies are
indicated on the adjoining traverses (y-direction), the body persists along the
strike direction also.
V. Advantages of EM Sounding Method

The major advantage of EM induction methods of GDS, MT and OBM is that
the frequency can be varied to obtain different profiles for different frequencies.
Such EM profiles then help in locating the target more clearly. Another
advantage is that it requires no ground contact, and can successfully be used in
sandy areas. Also, EM soundings have operational convenience even in highly
resistive surface areas, where DC resistivity surveys are not feasible. In noisy
environments, active EM methods like transient EM, and controlled source
EM can be a good choice, but the sounding depth of these methods is restricted
to the first few metres, but in favourable conditions perhaps a few km. For the
really deep targets, one can only rely on natural source MT.
VI. EM Data Interpretation

If the Earth had ideal spherical symmetry, and its properties (including electrical
conductivity) varied with the depth only, the observational analysis for structure
determination is straightforward and is termed 1D. But for a 2D situation, the
conductivity varies with two spatial parameters such as depth and one horizontal
direction; while in a 3D situation the conductivity may vary in all directions.
Developments in modelling of EM induction data are closely parallel to
those in other subsurface geophysical imaging techniques such as seismology.
The forward problem of EM induction involves solution of Maxwell’s equations
in the electrically conducting Earth, excited by appropriate external sources.
Inverse modelling of EM data reverses this process, using data generally
observed on the surface to image conductivity variations within the Earth. For
natural source methods such as GDS and MT, the frequency-dependent response
226 Geomagnetism
of the Earth to large-scale sources is determined by statistical estimation of

transfer functions (especially local ratios of field components) from EM time
series data.
Initial inverse modelling efforts were focussed on 1D interpretation,
wherein data from one site are inverted to obtain information about the local
conductivity-depth profile. Later 2D inversion methods were developed for
profiles of data across a dominant geoelectric strike. Finally, as more powerful
computational resources became available, methods for full 3D inversions
evolved.
6.9 GEOMAGNETIC DEPTH SOUNDING (GDS)

The technique of detecting inhomogeneities in the subsurface conductivity with
GDS has its origin in the pioneering works of Schuster in 1908 and Chapman
in 1919, which was a popular natural source EM method between 1950 and
1980. The book by Rokityansky in 1982 covers all aspects of the GDS, while
a detailed account of theory is given by Weaver in 1994. With the advent of
more powerful computing facilities, MT took over from GDS, which was then
somewhat ignored.
6.10 METHODOLOGY, OBJECTIVES OF GDS

TECHNIQUE
I. GDS Survey Instruments

These instruments are different from MT since they employ only the magnetic,
and not the electric field to investigate subsurface electrical conductivity
distribution through an array of three-component magnetometers. Magnetic
observatories provide the requisite periodicity data to map depths running into
hundreds of km. But, because of their poor distribution, only the smoother
fields can be defined adequately. In GDS profiles or arrays, three-component
Gough-Reitzel or fluxgate magnetometers are left in position for periods of
one to several months, during which time they record geomagnetic variations
such as storms, bays, pulsations and the normal daily variation. These variations
contain the external and internal parts. By mapping the patterns of induced
currents, and using suitable analysis of the magnetic variations, theoretical
models of the subsurface electrical conductivity structure are inferred. GDS is
also known by the term magnetovariational (MV) method, since it uses the
ever changing magnetic variations.
II. Sounding the Earth Using Natural Geomagnetic Variations

A slowly varying magnetic field inside a uniform conductor (conductivity
V and relative magnetic permeability P) satisfies the induction equation:
E = PPVGB/Gt, the time varying field induces eddy currents in the conductor,
2
which flow so as to exclude the field from the deeper parts. The amplitude of a
spatially uniform field of frequency Z falls to 1/e of the surface value at the
‘skin depth’: Z0 = (2/ZPPV 1/2. Thisexpression provides a rough guide to the
‘sounding depth’, which might be expected of a particular frequency. The basis
of sounding method is to measure the Earth response at a range of frequencies
and/or source wavelengths.
6.11 ACQUISITION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

OF GDS DATA
I. GDS Data Acquisition

The method involves collecting simultaneous records of N-S (X), E-W (Y),
and vertical (Z) components of naturally time-varying geomagnetic field from
a 2D array of magnetometers deployed in a regular grid pattern. The observed
variations over the surface of the Earth have contributions from external currents
as well as from induced currents. Over an infinitely conducting horizontally
layered surface, the field due to spatially uniform external varying field and its
induced counterpart interact with each other in such a way that they nullify the
vertical component Z and enhance the horizontal components H or D of the
observed field to an extent that it becomes twice the value due to external field
only. Under this condition, if one observes Z over the surface of the Earth, it
can be indicative of lateral heterogeneities of conductivity near the observation
site.
Figure 6.29. Stacked profile of substorm recorded on 28 September 1984 at some of

the lesser Himalayas array stations. Note a marked enhancement of X and highly
suppressed Z variation at PAU. But the two stations on its two sides show opposite Z
variations, indicating the presence of a conducting zone beneath PAU.
228 Geomagnetism
II. Stack Plots

In the first instance, a sample stack plot of variations in the three components
of the field is prepared by taking data recorded through an array of
magnetometers from a disturbed period. An example of such a plot is given in
Fig. 6.29 taken from array records of 28 September 1984. A reversal in sign of
Z is seen between CHU (Chaukutia) and CHA (Champawat). The conductor is
located between these two stations underneath PAU (Pauri). Therefore, the
observed features of associated X, Y and Z variations are used to locate
subsurface conductive zones. However, the observed variation over a site is
due to combined response of different subsurface conductive layers. To achieve
the proper estimates of contribution of each layer to the observed phenomena,
data processing techniques given in section 6.12 are used.
6.12 DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

The determination of the vertical variation of conductivity has two steps: (1)
measurement of the response or transfer function, which links the input (external
part of the magnetic field) to the output (internal part created by induced
currents), and (2) inversion of the response for the conductivity, detecting
conductivity from the response and its associated errors. For arriving at proper
estimates of dimension, conductivity, depth and direction (strike) of the
causative body, one or more of the Fourier transform maps, transfer functions,
Parkinson’s vectors, etc. are used.
I. Fourier Transform Maps

GDS data gathered in time domain are converted to frequency domain to map
fields at selected periods. The spectral peaks of amplitude and phase exhibit
EM response of structures in a particular depth range. It thus enables to isolate
the response of layers of interest, and study their behaviour separately over the
array area.
II. Transfer Functions

Transfer functions are more quantitative and frequency dependent. For
calculating transfer functions, five or more events of almost same duration and
with different intensity and polarization are selected to arrive at Fourier
transforms, after removing the linear trend. Tables 6.2a,b and Appendix 6.2
present the procedural steps followed in processing the raw data to compute
transfer functions.
III. Parkinson’s Induction Vectors

The first task in interpretation is to determine the spatial pattern of conductivity
without actually modelling the response. If there are a number of irregularly
Table 6.2a Information from time series raw data
Event Period range, X-Variations, Y-Variations, Z-Variations,

date sec nT nT nT
1 April 2004 1-512 (-30) – (20) (15) – (-12) (-10) – (20)
30 March 2005 1-512 (-40) – (40) (25) – (-15) (22) – (17)
Table 6.2b Data in frequency domain after determination of transfer functions
Period, sec A B C D
256 (0.868, -0.016) (0.033, 0.015) (0.100, 0.060) (0.796, -0.097)
90 (0.891, 0.037) (0.051, 0.024) (0.159, 0.017) (0.708, 0.039)
60 (0.911, 0.042) (0.067, 0.018) (0.163, -0.019) (0.708, 0.039)
40 (0.928, 0.039) (0.077, 0.001) (0.145, -0.055) (0.708, 0.039)
30 (0.937, 0.035) (0.076, -0.016) (0.121, -0.017) (0.708, 0.039)
distributed magnetometers, then induction arrows are plotted. Parkinson showed

in 1964 that geomagnetic variation in the amplitude of Z-component mainly
depends on the direction of horizontal field. The Z-response is maxima for a
particular direction of horizontal field. Near a conductivity contrast, Parkinson
vectors always point towards the zone of high conductivity.
IV. Complex Demodulation

Variation of field component with time represents gross response from
subsurface layers. Complex demodulation method was introduced by Banks
in 1976, which combines the time and frequency domain analysis. It provides
variation with time of both amplitude and phase of selected frequency for the
time duration of the event. Additionally, this procedure provides an accurate
method for estimating the transfer function from a single storm’s stretch of
data, which has different directions of polarization.
V. Hypothetical Event Analysis

This method was developed as an analytical tool in the absence of simultaneous
records from recording stations over a surveyed area. For each station, an
estimate of A and B is made, and then the analysis proceeds to estimate the
Z-response for hypothetical uniform source fields for selected direction of
polarization. Contour plots and pseudo-sections of anomalous vertical fields
estimated from the hypothetical event analysis on transfer functions are essential
to characterize the orientation and dimensionality of electrical conductive
structures of the region.
VI. Thin Sheet Modelling and Island Effect

The electromagnetic induction effects due to highly conducting sedimentary
basins, seawater of variable depth (continent-coast interface, island effect) are
230 Geomagnetism
solved by assuming that these conductivity anomalies are confined to a thin

layer. In such cases, mathematical model used comprises an infinitesimally
thin sheet of varying surface conductivity materials. It is known as thin sheet
because thickness of this sheet is negligible as compared to the skin depth of
underlying layer. This condition ensures that electrical properties of the materials
in the thin sheet itself are electrically linked to substratum so that at the period
of interest, horizontal electric field remains constant over the thin sheet.
A number of records are generally analyzed to cover wide range of
frequency bands, and different polarizations of incident waves. Electromagnetic
impedance of ratio of vertical magnetic variation and most correlated horizontal
component is estimated to gain transfer functions. The transfer functions are
frequency dependent, and they provide induction arrows, and its variant
hypothetical event analysis and Z/H pseudosections for various source field
polarizations. All these data analyses methods are based on the fact that a time
varying magnetic field tries to avoid a conductor.
6.13 GDS FIELD SURVEYS

Magnetic array studies provided valuable initial information on the conductivity
structure of the crust and upper mantle all over the globe, especially in North
Figure 6.30. Location map of some arrays of magnetometer operated to understand

the subsurface electrical conductivity of the Earth. The map shows where and over
what periods these arrays operated.
America, Africa, Australia, and Europe. India, too, is not lagging behind in
these studies. With the inception of two equatorial geomagnetic observatories
at Annamalainagar and Trivandrum in the 1970s/1980s, an exciting era of
induction studies was initiated. To account for anomalous behaviour in observed
Z variations at these observatories, the phenomena of induced current
perturbations was invoked. So, they were started in 1979 in India after which
areas such as Garhwal, Kangra, Valsad, Singhbhum, Uttarkashi, central India
and Ladakh-Leh regions were surveyed under different array campaigns. Figure
6.30 shows the station locations and some of the regions covered by these
arrays.
6.14 MAGNETIC VARIATION MAPPING EXAMPLES

Large magnetometer arrays employed in different tectonic regimes imaged
deeper structures of the crust and upper mantle. The observed conductivity
anomalies have different causes and variable regional extents, which are
presented below in the form of case studies.
I. Conductive Bodies below the Himalayas

A ‘trans Himalayan conductor (THC)’, running from the NE Indian shield to
the foothills of the Himalaya was deciphered. The position of this conductor
coincides with a localized high seismicity zone (Figs 6.32 and 6.58). This
Figure 6.31. 3D view of the conductance map. The integral sign high conductance
zone signifies eastward and westward extension of the THC. Also, note the furrowed
type conducting zones paralleling the trend of Himalayan collision zone.
232 Geomagnetism
conductor is modelled as a 45 km wide, 85 km high protuberance from the

asthenosphere into the lithosphere (Fig. 6.31). A resistivity of 2 ohm-m and
background resistivity of 104 ohm-m were used in the modelling. Also, ‘Garhwal
Lesser Himalaya conductivity anomaly’ was established along the Uttarkashi
region (Figs 6.30-6.32). This mapped conductive zone in the epicentral track
of 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake is viewed as a shallow but extended fracture
zone above an obducted crustal block. Movement in the fracture zone to readjust
compressive forces explains the correlation of this conductive zone with
Garhwal Lesser Himalayan seismic belt and with recent Uttarkashi earthquake.
II. Conductance and Seismicity in Central and Western Parts

of India
A plutonic body delineated near Valsad in south Gujarat is embedded in the
upwarped asthenosphere along the western continental margin (Figs 6.32 and
Figure 6.32. Generalized tectonic map of India and the different conductivity structures
identified through GDS, MT and long-period MT probes. The numbers on the map are
the following conductive structures: 1 - Trans Himalaya, 2 - Bhuj, 3 - Valsad, 4 & 5 -
Central India, 6 - Singhbhum, 7 - South Indian offshore conductivity anomaly.
Figure 6.33. A composite map of different conductivity structures. THC - Trans

Himalayan Conductor, BCA - Bhuj Conductivity Anomaly, VCA - Valsad Conductivity
Anomaly, CICA - Central India Conductivity Anomaly, SCA - Singhbhum Conductivity
Anomaly and PC - Palk-Strait Conductor. (Arora and Subba Rao, 2002).
6.33). This region has been experiencing earthquake swarms in recent years.
Studies in seismically active Bhuj region point to the concentration of induced
currents in thick sedimentary columns. The high conductance prevalent in
western part of Kutch region, NW of Lodai is related to half graben formed
due to the uplifted Wagad upland (Figs 6.32 and 6.33). An arcuate-shaped
conductor at mid-crustal depth is also found beneath the Satpura ranges. This
conductor coincides with Mandla gravity high. A geothermal anomaly is also
observed in this area.
The Godavari graben is mapped up to the southern limit of NSL beyond
which it is shrouded under the thick cover of Deccan traps (Figs 6.32 and
6.33). Electrical characteristics of the Bengal basin marginal fault and also the
E-W trending conductor bordering the Singhbhum craton are well established
(Figs 6.32 and 6.33). In Singhbhum region, a linear trend of conductivity
anomaly extending in E-W direction is located to the north of Ranchi and
Bokaro lying at greater depths. Its source is the Gondwana grabens of Damodar
valley (Figs 6.32 and 6.33).
III. South Indian Offshore Conductivity Anomaly

The south Indian offshore conductivity anomaly (SIOCA) is associated with
relics of the Marion plume outburst. The conductivity anomaly beneath Palk
Strait is due to thermal interaction, when the Indian lithosphere passed over
the Marion plume. However, the conductivity anomaly observed beneath
Comorin ridge and a rift structure encountered along the west coast margin of
India appear to be related to Reunion hotspot activity (Figs 6.32, 6.33 and
6.34).
234 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.34. Locations of different hotspots (white stars) and volcanic ridges formed
during the transit of the Indian plate over them. Inset: Areas affected by the outburst of
Marion plume that led to the separation of Madagascar from India (Arora et al., 2003).
IV. Determining Electrical Conductivity from MO Data

The MOs spread over the globe
collect time-series data of
magnetic and electric fields. This
data can be inverted to gain a
profile of electrical conductivity
with depth. For example, crustal
conductors are modelled
following finite difference and
thin sheet approximation (3D
modelling), providing important
geoelectrical parameters of
lithosphere. This MV data are
important to study conductivity
heterogeneities residing in the
deep interior of 1000 km. Figure 6.35. Conductivity distribution pattern
Theoretical model on electrical with depth derived from continuous strings of
conductivity structure of the upper geomagnetic field components recorded at
mantle (~50 to 1200 km) is Indo-Soviet chain of MOs (Chandrasekhar and
Arora,1992).
developed using the continuous strings of geomagnetic field components

recorded at Indo-Soviet chain of MOs. This model reveals alternate increase
and decrease in the conductivity up to ~500 km from where it does not change
up to ~900 km, beyond which a steady increase is seen (Fig. 6.35).
6.15 OCEAN BOTTOM MAGNETOMETER STUDIES

The ocean floor, with pressures of up to 600 atm (60 MPa), temperatures ~3C
and no possibility of radio contact with instrumentation, presents a particularly
harsh environment for carrying out magnetic and electrical measurements.
Furthermore, sea water is corrosive and a conductive fluid. However, with the
availability of reliable underwater technology, electrical conductivity studies
of the ocean bottom have now become a routine affair. This is done through
ocean bottom magnetometers (OBMs), which are similar to GDS fluxgate units.
They can enhance understanding the surface and subsurface structures of the
ocean in conjunction with land-based geoelectrical studies. OBMs sit on the
floor and measure the attenuation of magnetic field components between sea
surface and seafloor. As magnetic field variations are difficult to measure on
sea surface, nearest land station is taken as a reference station. OBM data are
found to have increasing applications on seafloors to study mid-oceanic ridges,
plate margins, subduction zones, hot spot trails and others.
6.16 OBM FIELD EXAMPLES

OBM arrays were set at Mariana trench back-arc spreading centre, Barren
Island in Andaman Sea, 85 ridge, 90E ridge in the Bay of Bengal, and off the
coast of Cochin in the Arabian Sea. The latest trend in marine surveys is to
gain improved depth resolution through MT methods using ocean bottom
electrometers (OBE).
I. Conductivity (Resistivity) below Arabian Sea and Bay of

Bengal
A long conductive structure aligned in a N-S direction at a depth of ~12 km
below the Arabian seafloor was identified ~100 km off Cochin. The oceanic
crust and upper mantle underlying the Bay of Bengal is more resistive than the
crust and mantle below the Andaman arc region, because the Bay of Bengal
crust is older than the Andaman arc region. The OBM results reiterated the
subduction of Indian plate beneath the Burmese plate, providing a breakthrough
for understanding mantle dynamics related to plate subduction (Fig. 6.36).
II. Barren Island Volcanism

Two different conductivity zones in depth ranges of 17-27 km and 80-100 km
mapped beneath the Barren Island in Andaman Sea saw eruption of a volcano
236 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.36. Map showing the subduction of Indian plate beneath the Burmese plate
along with the resistivity values obtained from OBM array studies (Subba Rao et al.,
2000).
in March 1991 (Fig. 6.36). Furthermore, the Andaman Sea experiment showed
the spreading ridge significantly perturbs the regional current flow. A subsurface
conductive channel is proposed between the mouth of the Irrawaddy River and
Coco Island. No evidence of conductive plume or plug is noticed beneath the
Narcondam or Barren Islands.
6.17 MAGNETOTELLURIC SURVEYS

Natural EM signals are used in magnetotellurics (MT) to image subsurface
electrical structures. It is now routinely used in both commercial exploration
and pure research. Its commercial applications include exploration for minerals,
hydrocarbons and geothermal resources. Researchers use MT to study the
continental subsurface structures and dynamics of plate boundaries. Most
continents consist of Archaean cratons, which are enclosed by Proterozoic and
Phanerozoic geotectonic belts and suture zones. Many of the old structures are
covered today by huge sedimentary basins, whose position and structure can
be unravelled through this method.
Excepting seismic method, greater depths of exploration are not attainable
by other techniques. Hence, MT holds promise for deep exploration, forming
an alternative to seismic in oil exploration and basement studies. Additionally,
the method can be valuable for reconnaissance, especially in sedimentary areas,
where highly insulating formations like salt, anhydrite and evaporite beds are
involved. This is because the EM waves penetrate large depths, if the ground
is highly insulating. Specifically, the Deccan volcanics provide an ideal
geological setting for exploiting MT method. Here, the entire Precambrian
formation is covered by Deccan basalts, and is thus not available for scrutiny
through conventional geological methods. The basaltic cover forms a
high velocity zone and a large number of reflections generated by these
rocks make the seismic interpretation difficult. Hence, MT methods are
useful in this terrain. Recently, the scope of MT studies has been extended to
map lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary by introducing long-period MT

instruments called LMT measurements. These instruments measure very low
frequencies (1–10-4 Hz), and are used for imaging the lower crust and upper
mantle.
Determination of Earth’s conductivity by measuring the geomagnetic field
and telluric currents was suggested by Taikhonov in USSR and Cagniard in
France. Cagniard showed that if magnetic and electric fields comprising a plane
EM wave travelling into Earth are measured, the resistivity of the Earth can be
computed. Later on, considerable studies were carried out by Vanyan and other
Soviet investigators regarding depth soundings by natural and artificially
induced electromagnetic fields. Keller furnished English translation of these
papers in 1967 which also gives an interesting historic account of the
developments in this field.
6.18 METHODOLOGY, DATA ACQUISITION AND TIME

SERIES PROCESSING
I. Basic Method of MT and Time Series Data Processing

MT method involves simultaneous measurement and analyses of five
components of naturally existing EM fields of the Earth constituting two
orthogonal electrical and three orthogonal magnetic fields. In this method,
oscillations of the electrical and magnetic fields are recorded normally in two
or three frequency bands in the range of 10-4 to 10 Hz. Though Earth’s natural
EM fields contain a wide spectrum of frequencies originating from different
causes, frequencies <1 Hz originating from interaction between EMF and flow
of plasma of the Sun (solar wind) are of interest to MT. Hence frequencies
higher than a few Hz originating mainly due to sources of meteorological and
man-made power lines are not considered.
II. MT Data Collection and Penetration Depth

An example of recorded time series (variation of field amplitude with time) of
the five electrical and magnetic field components is shown in Fig. 6.37. The
total recording for a MT sounding is ~5 to 7 hrs. MT time series data are
processed to yield frequency domain estimates of apparent resistivity and phase.
Modern processing schemes compute fast Fourier transform of subsections of
the time series. In MT data collection, time series data are recorded
simultaneously at several locations to allow for the removal of noise at the
measurement location through the remote reference method.
In MT, the skin depth G (km) for a period T (hrs) in a half-space of
conductivity V (S/m) is calculated using the same formula as given in GDS
section, i.e. G = ~30.2×(T/V)1/2. The better the conduction and higher the
frequency are, the smaller is the skin depth or penetration depth.
238 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.37. The measured time series of the five components

(Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy and Hz) at a MT sounding site.
III. Instrumentation and Field Technique

MT soundings measure tangential components of both the electrical and
magnetic fields on the ground surface so as to determine their ratio as a function
of frequency. A typical field set-up of MT data acquisition is shown in Fig.
6.38 which basically consists of the following components: (i) two electric
sensors that are normally two pairs of grounded non-polarizing electrodes
connected to suitable amplifiers for measuring electric components Ex and Ey,
(ii) three highly sensitive magnetic sensors for measuring the three magnetic
components Hx, Hy, and Hz. The magnetic sensors are normally induction
coil type or more recently super conductivity magnetometers (Chapter 4). Highly
resistive fluxgate type magnetometers can also be utilized when low frequencies
are of main interest, (iii) suitable post amplifier units for five field components,
Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy and Hz, (iv) digital data acquisition system for recording and
analyzing the data by computer, and (v) a five-channel analog strip chart record
for monitoring the field data.
Presently, there is a clear tendency for a large number of recording
instruments to operate simultaneously, and with much denser site spacing.
Another development has taken place in 3D MT wherein instruments are
distributed over an area or aligned in a grid instead of simply following profiles.
IV. Basic Theory

For developing the basic theory for MT method, an isotropic Earth of a plane
surface and plane EM waves are assumed near the site of measurement. A
homogeneous isotropic Earth has no real significance in exploration geophysics,
Figure 6.38. A pictorial representation of the field set-up for MT sounding.

(http://science.jrank.org/article_images/science.jrank.org/ magnetotelluric-
prospecting.1.jpg).
but the response of such a model can be utilized to define an apparent resistivity.
Since the theory is concerned with EM fields, any material medium can be
described by the three physical parameters, viz. electrical conductivity (V),
magnetic permeability (P) and dielectric constant (H). Starting from the
Maxwell’s EM equations (Appendix 6.1), it can be shown that impedance is a
characteristic of the electric properties of the medium of propagation and the
frequency of the EM field. The impedance is calculated by taking the ratio of
the amplitudes of electric field and the associated orthogonal magnetic field
(EX/HY or EY/HX) for a given frequency. The subscript X and Y denote the
direction of the measurements. The frequency provides an extra dimension to
the measured ratios, which permits deduction of the frequency variations of
the apparent resistivity similar to that obtained at various electrode separations
in DC resistivity method. By determining the impedance elements at various
discrete frequencies, the conductivity of the Earth as a function of depth is
obtained. Appendix 6.2 reports calculation of elements of a 2×2 impedance
tensor Z.
In MT analysis, initially four impedance values of ZXX, ZXY, ZYX and
ZYY are determined from the measured electrical and magnetic field
components. In the case of a horizontally stratified Earth model, both ZXX
and ZYY are equal to zero and ZXY = – ZYX. When a structure is present,
such as fault, both ZXX and ZYY are nonzero. In this case the impedances in
various directions are mathematically determined by rotating the coordinates
of the measured impedances. When one of the rotation axes becomes parallel
to the strike direction, the quantity Z’XX + Z’YY will become minimum, while
the quantity Z’XY + Z’YX will become maximum (here Z’XX, etc. are the
240 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.39a-d. An example of MT sounding curves of the apparent resistivity (and

phase) vs. frequency.
rotated impedance values). This property of the tensor impedance is utilized to
determine the values of Z’XY and Z’YX—known as principal impedances.
One of the principal impedance elements is either parallel (transverse electric,
TE or E-polarization) or perpendicular (transverse magnetic, TM
or H-polarization) to the strike of the structure or formation. The rotated
data, with respect to the strike direction, are used to calculate the apparent
resistivities (Ua) in the principal directions, i.e. parallel and perpendicular to
the strike from
Ua(T) = 0.2 T Z2
where T is the time period and Z is the subsurface impedance of the stratified
Earth either in TE or TM mode. After calculating the apparent resistivities, the
data are presented as MT sounding curves by plotting apparent resistivity values
versus time period and apparent resistivity versus phase. Examples of frequency
versus resistivity, and frequency versus phase curves at a site in two different
directions (both for raw and rotated data) are shown in Figs. 6.39a-d.
V. MT Data Interpretation
Based on various Earth response functions obtained from processed data like
skew, tipper, induction arrows and polar diagrams, the data are analyzed for
dimensionality (1D/2D/3D) and directionality of the subsurface conductors.
Before modelling or inverting MT data, it is vital to understand its
dimensionality. Tensor decomposition is a common approach and determines
well the measured MT impedance data fit to a 2D geoelectric model and gives
an estimate of the geoelectric strike direction. Once the dimensionality is
understood, and distortion for static shifts addressed, MT can be forward
modelled or inverted in 1D, 2D or 3D to recover a model of subsurface electrical
conductivity. Thus, analysis of MT signals yields apparent resistivity, and phase
as a function of frequency. The interpretation involves deducing subsurface
geometry from quantitatively interpreting true resistivities, depths of geoelectric
layers and postulating the possible geological structures. The basic technique
of MT interpretation involves comparing field results with those obtained from
computed models.
6.19 PRINCIPLE OF MT METHOD AND ITS UTILITY

The MT method involves a comparison of the amplitudes and phases of the
electric and magnetic fields associated with the telluric currents. It can be shown
that the surface electric and magnetic fields E and H respectively are horizontal
and orthogonal. Their amplitudes are related by
U = 0.2 T E/H2
where U is in ohm-m, E in mV/km and H in nT. Their phases differ by S/4, H
lagging behind E. If, then, E and H are measured at a definite frequency, the
first indication of the non-homogeneity of the Earth is that the phase difference
T will not be S/4. Secondly, U calculated from measurements at different
frequencies is the same. However, apparent resistivity Ua can always be defined
by the above equation. On determining Ua and T as functions of frequency by
actual measurements, MT sounding curve analogous to electrical resistivity
sounding curve is obtained.
GDS and MT are considered to be two complementary geophysical
methods. The former has a better lateral (horizontal) resolution, while the latter
has a better vertical resolution. For some years now, MT measurements have
added substantial information to that gleaned from GDS observations. For
example, MT soundings conducted along the foothills of Kumaon Himalayas
have not only confirmed the presence of the trans-Himalayan conductor (Figs
6.32 and 6.33) postulated by GDS, but also provided support to earlier estimates
242 Geomagnetism
of its depth and lateral extent. The effectiveness of MT data to provide

constraints on the tectonic configuration under study increases on synthesizing
its information with gravity, seismic wave velocity and heat flow data.
While the theoretical aspects of MT method are dealt with exhaustively,
there are scanty publications on practical applications from the subcontinent.
Now however more and more scientists and organizations are planning to put
this technique to enhance its practical use. Furthermore, efforts are on to compile
all the available ‘Indian’ EM data generated so far to derive a comprehensive
electrical conductance model to demarcate thermally favourable zones of
hydrocarbon deposits and to provide a better insight into the seismic pattern of
the region.
A few more EM induction methodologies are: (i) audio-frequency magnetic
field (AFMAG) or audio-frequency MT (AMT) based on measurement of
natural magnetic field originating in thunder storms at frequency 100–500 Hz.
The method is said to be useful to explore large deep seated conductive zones,
faults, shear zones, and water bearing fissures of appreciable extent and (ii)
very low frequency EM method (VLFEM) which utilizes EM fields in the
range 15–25 Hz radiated by powerful radio stations meant for military
communications.
6.20 APPLICATIONS OF MT IN GEOPHYSICAL

PROSPECTING
In geophysical prospecting, MT is used in a very large frequency range, which
corresponds to a depth interval from the surface to some hundred kms. The
aim of the exploration varies according to depth. The method is widely used in
Russia, and has been developed further in USA, Canada, and Germany. In
India, MT studies were initiated in 1984 with the procurement of a conventional
band (4 to 4096 sec) MT system; presently the Indian geoscientists are working
with three wide band (300 to 0.002 Hz) MT systems.
Analysis of the MT signals yields the apparent resistivities, phases and
various other parameters as a function of frequency. These data are interpreted
into a geoelectric section of the subsurface from which inferences are drawn
regarding the geoelectrical structures. The main applications of the MT method
are in the evaluation of large sedimentary basin and Earth deep interior. It is a
complement and often as alternative to seismic method. The results presented
here come from MT measurements made on various geological and tectonic
settings, such as the Deccan traps, Vindhyan and Siwalik sedimentary regions,
Precambrian crust of Rajasthan and Dharwar, the Himalayas, etc. These
campaigns (Fig. 6.40) yielded some major findings, not amenable for studies
with other techniques.
Figure 6.40. Geological map of India showing locations of the MT profiles over the
period 1984-2003 (Gokarn, 2003).
I. Geoelectrical Structure below the Dharwar Craton

From studies on granite-greenstone formations over Dharwar craton, a shallow
and deep sections (Figs 6.41 and 6.42) of the geoelectric structure are inferred
that constitute a high resistive (2000 ohm-m) upper crust and a deep crustal
conductor (DCC) between the depths of 5 and 25 km. Variations in Bouguer
gravity are attributed to the undulations of DCC. From joint analysis of MT
and seismic data, an anticline is delineated in the region of Closepet granite.
However, the Closepet granite, which is assumed to be a major crustal divide,
has only a weak signature in the geoelectric cross-section.
II. Electrical Conductivity Image from Seismic Regions of

West and Central India
A conducting fluid filled ductile layer is identified in the depth range of 10 to
17 km in the earthquake-affected region of Bhuj. It is conjectured that this
ductile layer prevented accumulation of stress within this section of crust,
leading to earthquake hypocentres being concentrated either in the brittle upper
crust above or in the lower crust below this conducting layer. Indications are
obtained regarding the prevalence of compressional tectonics regime prior to
244 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.41. Shallow crustal structure in the Goa-Raichur region. Also shown are the
Bouguer gravity variations along the MT sounding profile. The geology along the profile
is also shown on the top of the crustal section (Gokarn, 2003).
Figure 6.42. Deep section of the geoelectric model over the Goa-Raichur profile. The
important geological units along the survey profile and the Bouguer gravity along the
profile are shown on the top (Gokarn, 2003).
Figure 6.43. MT data were collected at seven stations along a linear profile of ~100
km across a part of Kurduvadi rift. 1D analysis revealed a four-layered conductive
structure in the region surveyed. AST -Astha, BOS - Bosga, SAL- Salegaon, CHI -
Chincholi, KIL - Killari, LAM - Lamjana and JAW - Jawli (Gokarn et al., 1992).
Deccan volcanism near Nasik, and conversely an extensional tectonic regime
around Koyna. At Koyna, existence of a resistive block has been suggested in
vicinity of the epicentre of the earthquake that rocked it in 1967. MT has also
revealed a mid-crustal conductor across the Kurduvadi rift in Solapur region
(Fig. 6.43) at a depth of 15 to 20 km at the Concord discontinuity, allowing
interpreting the gravity low in this area to be not due to a rift-type structure but
rather due to undulations in the crustal thickness. MT campaigns have delineated
NW-SE trending high conductivity (100 ohm-m) structure at a depth of 60 km
below the Panvel flexure (Fig. 6.44). This flexure extends to south and goes
beneath the Dharwar craton and has been attributed to the passage of Indian
plate over the Reunion hot spot (Fig. 6.34)
A lower crustal intrusive body that rises from below Jabalpur to shallow
depths of ~2.4 km is dentified. This study is important in terms of understanding
the cause of recent earthquake that occurred on 22 May 1997 with a magnitude
of 6.0 on the Richter scale. The epicentre of this earthquake is located 20 km
SE of Jabalpur. Furthermore, MT studies have yielded a strong lateral resistivity
contrast (Fig. 6.45) near the great boundary fault along the Kota-Kekri profile
and also similar formations in the Katangi-Jabalpur region separating the
Precambrian upper and lower Vindhyan sediments on the north and the Deccan
basalts on the south as well as other regions south of Mandla. A 10 km thick
conductive layer of oceanic crust is also identified along a 400 km long profile
in the NW Rajasthan shield area.
246 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.44. The Deccan trap volcanic region is experiencing mild to severe seismicity,
necessitating its investigation at several closely-spaced sites in this region. The low
resistivity feature in the lithospheric mantle is the shaded portion, superimposed over
the Bouguer gravity map of the Deccan volcanic province and the northern part of the
Dharwar craton.
Figure 6.45. Deep geoelectric structure in the Satpura region. The Bouguer gravity
variation is shown on the top of this figure (Gokarn, 2003).
III. Electrical Image of Siwalik Sediments

Thickness of Siwalik sediments is ascertained over 150 km long profile in the
Mohand-Ramnagar region. This geoelectric structure is predominantly four
Figure 6.46. MT data were collected at 13 stations along a ~100 km long linear profile
in the Mohand-Ramnagar region. 1D analysis showed a four-layered geoelectric cross-
section at different sites. Note the break in the delineation of resistive basement between
stations GEN and SNH, broadly coinciding with the width of the THC identified by
GDS. MOH - Mohand, BAN - Bandarjudh, AUG - Aurangabad, RAU - Rauli, KAN -
Kangri, GEN - Gendikhata, SIG - Siggadi, KOT - Kotdwar, SNH - Sanch, NIM -
Nimgot, KUA - Kuakhera, LAL - Laldhang and RMN - Ramnagar (Gupta et al., 1994).
layered (Fig. 6.46) and is explained by presence of three layers of sediment

overlying the resistive basement. The top layer (50 m thick) is due to the alluvial
and post-Siwalik sediments deposited over a more resistive upper Siwalik layer
with a thickness of 700-1000 m. The third layer is ~3 to 4 km thick and is
believed to be of middle and lower Siwaliks. The resistive basement is delineated
below the middle and lower Siwaliks at depths of 5 to 8 km from the surface.
IV. Transects along the Himalayan Collision Belt

In NW Himalaya, MT deep sounding studies are carried out to obtain
information on the position and structure of deep crustal blocks over the
Himalayan collision belt under the HimProbe project, as part of deep continental
studies. Two high resistive blocks of Ladakh and Chushul batholiths (Figs
6.47 and 6.48) with a depth extent of 12 km are delineated to the north of Indus
Tsangpo suture (ITS) zone. A vertical low resistivity zone (500 ohm-m)
demarcates the Ladakh and Chushul batholiths.
The use of MT as a tool for geoexploration is on the rise because of its
many advantages: a number of national and international groups are using this
technique to explore various geological and tectonic settings, not amenable
with other techniques. In fact, Indian scientists have already ventured into the
Himalayan collision belt, where topographic effects are rather strong. Recently,
MT studies were conducted in the syntaxial belt of NE Himalayan region and
248 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.47. Geoelectric structure over the Bara la Cha la Panamic profile. The
major structural features are marked on the top part of the figure (Gokarn, 2003).
Figure 6.48. Geoelectric structure over the Pang-Phobrang profile. The major
structural blocks are marked on the top of the figure (Gokarn, 2003).
also in Andaman Nicobar islands. Also a major thrust is needed towards

understanding the complex nature of crust below the Vindhyan sediments and
a complex pattern of rift valleys prevalent in the basement below the Deccan
basalts. Precambrian tectonics and crustal evolutionary processes will also be
carried out by MT technique.
6.21 EARTHQUAKES: CAUSATIVES AND

MEASUREMENTS
Earthquakes are the outward manifestation of Earth’s internal dynamism and
occur where tectonic deformations are active, i.e. mainly along the boundaries
of mobile crustal blocks, where portions of the crust are either scraped or
generated or destroyed. They also occur, when fluvial migrations leave behind
a hollow.
All the current hypotheses acknowledge that when stress exceeds the
material strength of crustal rocks, a fracture occurs across the weak planes
releasing large amount of accumulated strain energy. The release can be in
almost one go or in successive stages through the violent breaking of rocks.
This energy travels through Earth in the form of vibrations called seismic waves
consisting of P (primary), S (secondary/shear/transverse) and surface (Love/
Rayleigh) waves (for their characteristic features, refer to Chapter 2). Seismic
waves move out from the focus (the place where the rupture begins) of the
earthquake in all directions. The intensity and position of earthquakes, seismicity
(frequency of earthquakes) of an area, type of fault in the rocks and the velocity
of the waves (mainly P (Vp) and S (Vs) waves) in different rocks, reveal different
properties of the Earth (Chapter 2). Surprisingly, people on the surface feel
tremors, but those in caves in the same area do not. This is because ground
motions on the surface are induced by Rayleigh waves, which are seldom felt
below 65 m depth. The great 1934 Bihar earthquake brought disaster to coal
mines due to wrenching along fault planes. Thus, caves and mines are wholly
not immune to earthquakes. It is generally accepted, ground motion decreases
with depth during an earthquake.
Changes in crustal stress are seen to precede as well as occur simultaneously
with earthquakes. Magnetic properties of crustal rocks are sensitive to stress
and this leads to the possibility of monitoring it using magnetic measurements.
Local changes in geomagnetic field due to any kind of tectonic activity are
termed ‘tectonomagnetism’ and the study which specifically relates to
earthquakes is called ‘seismomagnetics’. Location of faults and their extent is
deciphered on sharp magnetization and resistivity contrasts in subsurface layers.
The prediction is done through analyzing changes in the intensity of
magnetization and resistivity that follows an earthquake cycle.
Seismic activity prevalent across the Indian subcontinent is attributed to
underthrusting of Indian plate below the Eurasian plate, although convergence
is considered as not the sole process responsible for its seismicity. Seismic
studies were earlier concentrated in Himalayas to the exclusion of the stable
peninsular shield, which is also regularly shaken by violent Earth tremors at
Koyna, Latur, Jabalpur and Bhuj. According to plate tectonics, seismic energy
dissipates only along the plate boundaries. Since neotectonic movements are
leading to catastrophic earthquakes in the peninsular region, installation of
wide band sensitive seismographs (instrument recording ground motion) in a
250 Geomagnetism
closer grid within critical areas (Fig. 6.60) is being made a priority. Also,
integrated geological and geophysical investigations are carried out to
supplement seismic studies. This will help in carrying out large scale structural
and deformational studies as well as mapping the stress accumulation and release
phenomenon (Fig. 6.49) occurring in the Indian plate.
Seismic deformation: A fault rupturing causes two types of deformations
(strain)— static and dynamic. Static deformation, unlike dynamic, is permanent
displacement of ground due to a rupture event. The earthquake cycle progresses
from a fault that is not under stress to a stressed one, as tectonic motions driving
the fault slowly proceed to split during an earthquake and form a newly relaxed
but deformed state fault (Fig. 6.49)
Figure 6.49. Simplified schematic representation of a fault rupture.
Richter Magnitude
The magnitude (M) of an earthquake, represented by Richter scale (RS), is a
measure of the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded at the time of an
earthquake and the amount of energy released. It calculates the strength of an
earthquake from seismograph data. The dynamic and transient seismic waves
released by any earthquake propagate throughout the globe, and are recorded
by sensitive detectors. Nuclear test-ban treaties, in effect, rely on the ability to
sense underground nuclear explosions equivalent to an earthquake of magnitude
3.5 (M3.5) on Richter scale.
In early twentieth century, earthquake intensity was measured on a 12-
point scale devised by Guiseppe Mercalli. This scale was later modified and
called the modified Mercalli (MM) scale. In 1935, Charles Richter, after
analyzing data of earthquakes in southern California, proposed an alternative
scale, where each point corresponded to 10 times the intensity or 30 times the
energy. The MM scale with 12-divisions of intensity is based on the amount of
damage caused to various types of structures. The RS has 8-divisions of
magnitude, and allows making more uniform comparison of quakes world over.
In this scale, the amplitude of the surface waves is measured on a standard
instrument called the Wood-Anderson type seismograph.
Under Richter scale, earthquakes M<3 are called microquakes, which are
not even felt by people living in the area and are detected only by sensitive
seismographs. Earthquakes of M4 can be detected globally and stack up to
thousands everyday. Up to M5 are moderate quakes, while M7 are major, and
those of M8 or more are the great quakes. The Richter scale has no upper limit
(it is open ended), but the largest known quakes fall in magnitude range of 9.0
to 9.5. Earthquakes with M9 and higher, are not possible on RS because rocks
are not sufficiently strong to store energy without breaking at higher stress.
Though Richter proposed the ‘logarithmic’ scale (where the difference
between the values of successive points keep increasing), others too have
contributed to its refinement. Gutenberg proposed an alternate method in which
he used ‘body waves’, unlike the ‘surface waves’ utilized by Richter. Actually,
the difference in the reported magnitude of earthquake (by different agencies,
institutions and countries) arises due to different measurement methods used.
For example, the US, Japanese and many other countries use ‘surface’ waves
(Ms mode) for large earthquakes, while it is a common practice to make use of
‘body’ waves (mb mode) at large (teleseismic) distances. Thus, magnitudes
differ when the method of calculation alters. Magnitudes calculated in the ‘local’
mode (ML) are quite different than those calculated in the Ms mode or the Mw
mode (moment magnitude). Apart from different methods of measurement,
there are also different units in circulation like ‘intensity’, ‘magnitude’ and
‘energy’. There are several relationships connecting different types of seismic
magnitudes. Few of them are well calibrated and therefore universally
standardized based on which it is possible to convert one type of magnitude
into the other depending on the requirement. A generalized expression for
determining magnitude is given by the following empirical equation:
M = log (A/T) + xf(', h) + y
where A is maximum amplitude of a wave in microns, T – wave period in
seconds, ' – distance from the point of measurement of signal amplitude at
observing station to the epicentre, in degrees of an arc of meridian (great circle
arc), h – focal depth in kilometers, x and y – constants determined empirically
and f is the function obtained through study of empirical and theoretical results.
The magnitude scale patterned after the RS is logarithmic and measures
the energy (E) released by earthquakes in ergs. Its relation with the magnitude
of earthquakes is expressed by the formula: log E = 12.24 + 1.44 M for M>5.
The use of the scale is explained in Table 6.3 that compares magnitude to the
seismic energy yield released in terms of TNT explosive equivalent. For
example, the M8.4 Bihar earthquake of 1934 is calculated to have released
2.041025 ergs of energy, while 1952 Assam quake of M8.7 released an energy
equivalent to ~6,000 times that of the atom bomb dropped over Hiroshima.
For every unit of increase in magnitude on the RS, there is roughly a 30 fold
increase in the energy released by an earthquake. For instance, an M2 earthquake
releases 30 times more energy than an M1 earthquake. On the same scale, the
252 Geomagnetism
Table 6.3 Richter scale used to compare magnitude with seismic energy yield
Magnitude Amount of TNT Example (approximate)

for energy yield
-0.5 6 ounces Breaking a rock on a lab table
1.0 30 pounds Large blast at a construction
1.5 320 pounds -
2.0 1 ton Large quarry or mine blast
2.5 4.6 tons -
3.0 29 tons -
3.5 73 tons -
4.0 1,000 tons Small nuclear weapon
4.5 5,100 tons Average tornado
5.0 32,000 tons -
5.5 80,000 tons Little skull mountain
6.0 1 million tons Double spring flat
6.5 5 million tons Northridge
7.0 32 million tons Ryogo-Ken Nanbu
7.5 160 million tons Landers, California, quake, 1992
8.0 1 billion tons San Francisco, California, quake, 1992
9.0 5 billion tons Anchorage, Alaska, quake, 1964
9.5 32 billion tons Chilean quake, 1960
10.0* 1 trillion tons San Andreas-type fault circling the Earth
12.0* 160 trillion tons Fault dividing Earth in half through centre,
or Earth’s daily receipt of solar energy
* Hypothetical examples
ratio of the energy released between earthquakes of magnitudes M3/M1 is 900
times (3030).
6.22 MAJOR EARTHQUAKES OF THE WORLD AND

INDIA
The earliest earthquake recorded in a catalog occurred in China in 1177 BC,
which has description of several dozen large earthquakes from then onwards.
Earthquakes in Europe find mention as early as in 580 BC, but the one for
which some description is available, occurred in the mid sixteenth century.
The earliest known earthquakes occurred in Mexico were in the late fourteenth
century and in Peru in 1471. The descriptions of the effects, however, are not
well documented for any of these quakes. By seventeenth century, depictions
of the effects of earthquakes, exaggerated or distorted, were published around
the world (Fig. 6.50).
Earthquake prone areas of the Indian subcontinent: Indian subcontinent is
replete with seismic prone areas (Fig. 6.51, Appendix 6.4), the most well known
being the Himalayan region, which is a part of worldwide zone of earthquakes
running from the Alpine belt through Indonesia, Mynamar, Himalaya (of India,
Figure 6.50. Map of the world showing the locations and the time of the known
major earthquake occurrences (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/
historical.php/).
Nepal, Tibet, China), Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey to the Mediterranean Sea.
This belt has been the seat of great many earthquakes in the past resulting in
massive destruction. Peninsular shield made of Dharwar, Aravalli and
Singhbhum protocontinents was considered seismically less hazardous. Yet
the disastrous earthquakes at Koyna (1967, Mw= 6.3), Killari (1993, Mw= 6.1),
Jabalpur (1999, Mw= 5.8) and Bhuj (2001, Mw= 7.7) disprove this myth. The
intra-plate earthquakes, unlike the plate boundary shakings, are less frequent
but kill more people. Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) caused the Koyna
quake, but the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake (M~8.0) was due to intra-plate
events that produced a surface scarp of ~100 km long. During 35 years between
1963 and 1998, Koyna and its adjoining areas have faced 102,715 tremors, of
which 79 were above M4.0, and seven were above M5.0. Seismologists
254 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.51. Seismotectonism of the Indian subcontinent. Note the seismic prone areas
in the subcontinent; the most well known being the Himalayan region, which is a part
of worldwide zone of earthquakes running from the Alpine belt through Indonesia,
Mynamar, Himalaya (of India, Nepal, Tibet, China), Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey to
the Mediterranean Sea (http://www.cessind.org/ earthquakes_inindia.htm#eqindian).
conclude that Killari (Latur, M6.4) type of disasters can occur on discrete faults
in regions generally presumed to be aseismic.
Data recorded at Indian and international permanent seismological
observatories are analyzed to model the structure and tectonic setting of Indian
subcontinent. For example, P and S wave analysis led to estimating seismic
velocity structure below the Indian region. Tomographic analysis of tele-seismic
P wave residuals over the Deccan trap and adjoining area revealed the existence
of 600 km long and 350 km wide NS trending anomalous high-velocity zone
(2 to 5% contrast) at a depth over 100 km. Also, focal depth, faulting mechanism
and moment tensor estimations are made for several other earthquakes.
6.23 HIMALAYAN TECTONICS AND ITS EFFECT ON

PENINSULA
Seismicity in the Himalayan belt is attributed to movements along the main
boundary thrust (MBT) and main central thrust (MCT). The MBT is the
intracrustal boundary along which the Indian plate is sliding down. In the
Himalayan region, seismic activity largely results due to building up tectonic
stress from continuous movements along the faults and thrust zones. The
Figure 6.52. Generalized schematic map of major rift zones of Indian subcontinent
and their association with seismic activity. The seismicity in peninsular India is found
mostly restricted mainly along NE-SW and NNW-SSE trending faults and fractures.
resultant pressure has upwarped the peninsula at many places, and reactivated
ancient rifts (Fig. 6.52). The seismicity in peninsular India is found mostly
restricted mainly along NE-SW and NNW-SSE trending faults and fractures.
The Coimbatore earthquake in 1900 (M6) is attributed to a NNW-SSE fault.
The Bhadrachalam earthquake of 1969 (M5.7) is thought to have been caused
by movement along a graben fault. The earthquake that shook up Bharuch in
1970 was located at the intersection of the boundary faults of the Narmada and
Sabarmati grabens. Movements along faults in a NNE-SSW direction delimiting
the Aravalli ridge are considered to have given rise to earthquakes in the Delhi
region. 1993 Latur earthquake occurred due to the rubbing together of
landmasses on two sides of the 400 km long Kurduvadi rift having 40-60 km
width and spreading from SE of Solapur and ending in the north of Pune
(Fig. 6.52).
The Himalayan collision zone witnessed four great earthquakes (1897
Assam, 1905 Kangra, 1934 Bihar-Nepal and 1950 Assam) in a span of 53
years. The quantitative seismicity map of the Himalayan terrain shows high
seismicity (M5-6) in the Kashmir valley, Doda in Jammu, Spiti, Nepal and
Bhutan. Seismicity in the northern part of the Tibetan plateau and adjacent
regions is attributed to strike-step movements along E-W trending transcurrent
faults. The frequent moderate earthquakes and the infrequent great earthquakes
suggest ongoing episodic slippage. These processes also imply future great
earthquakes in the unruptured ‘gaps’ of the Himalayan front, with uncertainties
attached to their recurrence interval. Recent destructive earthquakes from India
are described below.
256 Geomagnetism
I. 1991 - Uttarkashi (Almora) Earthquake

The 1991 moderate Uttarkashi earthquake (M~6.5) attracted a lot of attention
due to its proximity to the high Tehri dam in Garhwal Himalaya. The epicentre
of the earthquake was found to lie in Almora, but the maximum damage to
buildings and human life took place in Uttarkashi and Chamoli. This damage
can be attributed to the incohesive condition of soils and the weak structure of
buildings. This earthquake occurred because of slippage along the MCT, a
major tectonic boundary, which also divides lesser Himalayan terrain in the
south from the snow-clad mountains in the north. Some environmentalists fear
that the construction of the Tehri dam across the Bhagirathi river may lead to
reservoir induced seismicity. The fear is compounded by the fact that the area
is normally prone to seismic activity. From the engineering point of view, it is
considered that the proposed dam can withstand earthquakes with magnitude
up to 7.2.
In 1995, a pair of telluric and resistivity sounding dipoles and PPM were
set up at Rohtak and Jhajjer region (Haryana) to monitor the electric and
magnetic precursors to earthquakes in parts of Garhwal Himalaya. Three ultra-
low frequency (ULF) stations were also installed in 2001-2002 in Uttarkashi
region in Garhwal Himalaya.
II. 1999 - Chamoli Earthquake

The Garhwal region was rocked by M6.8 earthquake on 29 March 1999. The
main tremor was followed by after-shocks with magnitudes between 4.9 and
2.0. The focus of the earthquake lay at a depth of 30 km. The death toll and
injury in and around Chamoli and Rudra Prayag were at least 100 and 300
people, respectively. The earthquake occurred in zone V in the inner Himalayas.
Tremors were reported from adjoining Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Delhi.
III. 1819 - Kutch Earthquake

The 1819 earthquake (M~8.0) at Kutch generated a 100 km long fault scarp,
popularly known as Allah Bund, meaning the wall of God. Mapping the scarp
morphology, trenching excavations near Allah Bund and developing age
constraints are some of the studies in progress.
IV. 1967 - Koyna Reservoir Induced Seismicity

Seismicity associated with Koyna dam is one of the classic examples of reservoir
induced seismicity, whose seismotectonics are governed by a large water load.
Remarkable correlations are observed between seismicity and water filling
cycles of Shivajinagar lake, Koyna. This is attributed to the pore pressure
changes induced by the reservoir load, which reduces the strength of the rocks
in the vicinity of the dam, leading to fault failure. Globally, Koyna is among
the four well documented RIS cases, where earthquakes in excess of M6.0
have been generated. An earthquake of M6.5, and many aftershocks of M>5,
occurred at Koyna on 10 Dec 1967. There is an alternate theory. This earthquake
might have resulted from Earth movement over a 10 km stretch long N10°E-
S10°W trending fault below the Deccan traps. Because of this, the region is
under tensional stress leading to record tremors of different magnitudes.
Migration of seismic activity due south of the clustered Koyna events, is reported
in recent studies.
V. 1993 - Latur Earthquake

The painful consequences of Killari earthquake felt over ~110 sq km area in
the Latur and Osmanabad, Maharashtra are highlighted by the loss of 10,000
lives and several razed villages. The M6.3 Latur earthquake of 30 Sept 1993 is
the world’s most devastating stable continental region (SCR) earthquake, whose
epicentre lies in an aseismic region. After the earthquake, several fractures in
the ground are observed (Fig. 6.53), and high concentration of helium over the
fractures is also detected. With a shallow focal depth of <10 km, this earthquake
is similar to other moderate events in the Australian and Canadian shields. The
repeat time of moderate SCR earthquakes is at the order of hundreds and
thousands of years. Lack of historical documentation makes their strikes a
total and unexpected surprise. Latur event gave a new perspective and urgency
to initiate seismic hazard assessment in peninsular India leading to strengthening
of seismic networks and upgradation of several existing facilities.
Figure 6.53. The Latur earthquake generated a surface rupture that was traceable for
about 2 km. The maximum height of the scarp observed near Killari was about one
metre (http://www.cessind.org/ earthquakes_inindia.htm#eqlatur).
258 Geomagnetism
VI. 1997 - Jabalpur Earthquake

The M6.0 earthquake of 22 May 1997 at Jabalpur was recorded by newly
installed broadband digital stations in the shield region. This earthquake not
just caused widespread devastation, but also generated great deal of data helping
to understand the response of various types of residential and commercial
structures to seismic waves. This offered valuable guideline in the design and
construction of earthquake resistant buildings. Later, tectonomagnetic studies
were initiated in areas adjoining Jabalpur. Figure 6.54a shows the layout map
of ground geomagnetic repeat surveys undertaken using PPM. Repeated yearly
surveys of 2003 to 2007 show secular changes in total geomagnetic fields
concentrating locally (Fig. 6.54b). It also shows the anomalous geomagnetic
field SVs in a range of ±0.06 to ±9.54 nT at separate stations across the profiles.
These SV are related to anomalous accumulation of tectonic stresses, and
tensions on the fault zones and crustal blocks due to recent geodynamic
processes along the NSL.
VII. 2001 - Bhuj Earthquake

The Bhuj earthquake (M~7.7) in Gujarat that occurred on 26 Jan 2001 is
historically the most catastrophic, whose epicentre is located 20 km NE of
Bhuj (Fig. 6.55a). Seismic data from an aftershock array suggested south dipping
thrust with a surface projection at ~23.8N, near the central Rann of Kutch.
Aftershocks were unusually deep (up to 30 km). The earthquake severed the
lithosphere leaving ~20,000 people dead and ~200,000 injured. Nearly 400,000
houses were destroyed and twice as much damaged. Although damages of
such proportion were astonishing, the occurrence of the event itself was not
surprising, considering the geologic and seismic history of the region. The
Figure 6.54. (a) Layout map of Jabalpur repeat survey. (b) Secular change of the
geomagnetic field T along AA’ profile in (a) (Waghmare et al., 2008).
Figure 6.55. (a) The crack at Dhang-Godai village near the epicentre. (b) Simplified
criss-cross faults within Gujarat exposing it to seismic activity.
Kutch forms a part of Mesozoic rift system and has been noted for occurrence
of large earthquakes since historic times. For example, this area has been
experiencing above normal levels of microseismicity throughout the past 200
years, and probably for many more millenia. Damaging earthquakes occurred
in 1845, 1846, 1856, 1857, 1869 and 1956 in the same general region as the
1819 and 2001 earthquakes.
After the 2001 major quake, a substantial increase in tremors is seen since
Gujarat is located over the south Narmada fault and attributed to its reactivation.
Apart from this fault, there are scores of other major fault systems in Gujarat
making the region extremely vulnerable to seismic activity (Fig. 6.55b).
6.24 SEISMIC ZONATION MAPS AND SEISMIC HAZARDS

Seismic zonation map (Fig. 6.56) is a guide to the seismic status of the region
and its susceptibility to earthquakes. The Bureau of Indian Standards introduced
the seismic zoning concept in 1962, and revised it from time to time on the
basis of accumulating seismic data. India was earlier divided into five zones
with respect to severity of earthquakes, but in the latest version these have
been scaled down to just four with zone I getting the axe. Each seismic zone
corresponds to a particular ‘seismic coefficient’ that has to be incorporated in
the design of large civil engineering structures. According to the ‘seismic gap’
theory, the 2400 km long seismic belt of the Himalayas is divided into three
major segments (Fig. 6.56b). Future earthquake shocks are likely in the gaps.
Unfortunately, the Tehri dam is located on the longest stretch (300 km, between
Hardwar and Tanakpur). The validity of the seismic gap theory is questioned,
since it is based on circum-Pacific belt, which cannot be applied to the
Himalayan terrain. In the circum-Pacific area, continental plates interact with
260 Geomagnetism
oceanic plates, but the Himalayan terrain occupies continent-continent collision

zone.
Of all the seismic zones, zone V is seismically the most active where
earthquakes of M8 or more can occur. In case of shield type earthquakes, historic
data are insufficient to plug them in higher zones because their recurrence
intervals are much longer than the recorded human history. This gives a false
sense of security. Occurrence of the damaging earthquake at Latur, falling in
zone I (according to old seismic zonation map) is a typical example of this
situation.
However, within a single seismic zone not all structural faults and thrusts,
and not even all elements of single fault, are identically active. Furthermore, in
the task of preparing seismic zoning map of the region, which lends support to
determining the long-term predictability of earthquakes, the structures of the
zone in which tectonic stresses cause faults are often not considered. Physical
basis of long-range earthquake occurrence patterns cannot be effective without
elucidating the deep structures of seismically active regions. Therefore, the
emphasis of geophysical research in these regions should be the study of crustal
structures to a depth of several tens of km, discrimination of inhomogeneities
in terms of structures and physical properties, clarifying their characteristics
and distinguishing seismically active areas from relatively inactive ones.
Figure 6.56. (a) Seismic zones of earthquake vulnerability in India at macro-level.

Zone II to Zone V show increasing magnitude; Zone V is of the highest seismic intensity,
zones IV and III are relatively of moderate damaging intensities for well built structures
and dangerous for poor buildings and Zone II is light to minor shaking regions. Within
the zones, earthquakes of more or less same intensity may be expected. (b) Himalayan
seismic gap.
(http://www.earthscrust.org/earthscrust/science/transects/india.html)
Seismically active areas should intensively be monitored for stress induced

changes effected in a host of physical parameters.
6.25 GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES IN SEISMICALLY ACTIVE

REGIONS
Lack of geophysical data inhibits understanding into the subsurface linkages
of tectonic features with the contemporary seismicity of the region. This
necessitates examination of crust from its surficial levels to the lithospheric
depths, for which gravity and magnetic (GDS, MT) investigations are
recognized as effective tools. Thus, areas rocked by earthquakes are investigated
by geological and geophysical (magnetic, GDS and MT) methods for evaluating
their long-term seismicity.
GDS and MT can probe the deep interior. They are quick, inexpensive and
used as proxy tools to explain spatial-depth distribution of seismicity, identifying
zones of strain accumulation, layering, and for constraining tectonic evolution
model. These techniques map zones of sharp conductivity contrast associated
with fault planes, whose depth and dimension are estimated later on. For
example, the noted correlation between mapped structures by GDS, OBM and
MT, and high seismicity underlines the role of fluids in current tectonic
processes. For instance, consideration of space-time pattern in seismicity in
relation with high conductive zone helps infer the nature of electrical
conductivity distribution. This can be a sensitive pointer towards the reactivation
of subsurface structures that lead to earthquakes. This subsurface structural
mapping provides better insight into the seismicity pattern and cycles of stress
accumulation and release in the Indian plate. Towards this end, two broadband
seismic observatories are established at Rewa and Kolhapur. Few examples
from regions in the Himalayas (Nazibabad-Satpuli profile and Trans-Himalayan
conductor) and peninsular India are discussed below.
I. Nazibabad-Kotdwar-Satpuli Line
Spatial variation of magnetic field along Nazibabad-Kotdwar-Satpuli in the
Himalayas is examined for earthquake precursory signals. Two pronounced
anomalies associated with large susceptibility contrasts correlate with Amri
thrust and Nayar fault (Fig. 6.57). The magnetic anomalies are explained in
terms of intrusion of basic material along the thrust and associated fault plane.
II. Trans-Himalayan Conductor, NW India

GDS experiments over NW India and Garhwal Himalayas discovered a major
conductivity structure running across Ganga basin into the foothills of
Himalayas following the strike of Aravalli mountain belt of the Indian shield.
The overall geometry of this conductivity structure can be approximated as an
asymmetric domal upwarp in the middle and lower crust located between Delhi-
262 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.57. Trend-free magnetic anomalies associated with large susceptibility contrasts
are shown to correlate with Amri thrust and Nayar fault. Two pronounced anomalies
are interpreted in terms of intrusion of magnetic material along Amri thrust and Nayar
fault (Singh et al., 1986).
Figure 6.58. Position of trans-Himalayan conductivity structure identified by GDS

studies (Arora and Mahashabde, 1987), superimposed on the quantitative seismicity
contour map of the Himalayas (Kaila and Narain, 1976).
Hardwar ridge on the NW and Moradabad fault on the SE. The position of the
conductive zone is shown in Fig. 6.58, overlain on quantitative seismicity map
of the region. A zone of high seismicity characterizes this region, containing
the electrical conductivity anomaly. The correlation suggests that this
conductivity belt is associated with either present tectonic activity or with ancient
tectonic structure, which is now reactivating.
III. Rohtak Region

In the 1960s and 1970s, Delhi and surrounding regions were frequently rocked
by earthquakes. The temporary seismic network set up then recorded ~100
shocks of varying magnitudes for ~10 years duration. During Dec 1995, MT
data were collected at 18 stations in Bahadurgarh-Jind region covering the
epicentral cluster west of Delhi. The results indicate a deep NS trending ~5 km
wide conductive feature located below Rohtak and Jind. Microearthquake data
indicated deeper microseisms foci in the vicinity of this conductive zone, and
the depth of foci to be decreasing away from it. Thus the conductive feature
was proposed to be an active fault leading to the earthquakes.
IV. Khandwa-Jabalpur Region

The region surrounding Khandwa has been seismically active, where the
earthquake swarms increased between Aug and Sept in 1998. Subsequently,
MT surveys were undertaken and data collected at 30 stations along the 250
km long NS trending Burhanpur-Khandwa-Barwaha profile. The results
indicated a conductive deep crustal intrusive ~50 km south of Khandwa, which
was associated with the EW aligned Malwa ridge. The earthquake epicentres
are located on the northern flank of this ridge. MT studies in the Damoh-
Jabalpur-Mandla region delineated a similar deep crustal intrusive ~30 km SE
of Jabalpur, which is again due to the Malwa ridge. This occurrence along with
the enhanced seismic activity in the Khandwa region is indicative of the fact
that the north flank of the Malwa ridge is seismically reactivated.
V. Nasik-Dalvat Region
The magnetic (GDS) and deep resistivity (MT) studies conducted in the Nasik-
Dalvat region indicated a complex rift pattern in the basement, which is covered
by 500 to 700 m thick Deccan volcanics. MT showed a NS aligned rift valley
passing through Nasik, extending almost up to Dalvat on the Maharashtra-
Gujarat border. Another rift valley was identified perpendicular to the Nasik–
Dalvat rift near the village Vani ~30 km north of Nasik. Further investigations
are needed to get a detailed picture of the rift pattern in this region.
VI. Koyna Reservoir Region

Spatial behaviour of residual magnetic field around the Koyna reservoir was
monitored in four phases between May 1978 and October 1980. Figure 6.59
gives the residual field for three phases of measurements reckoned with respect
to the field level of phase I (May 1978). The residual field pattern for phase III
(May 1980) is quite different from those obtained during phase II and IV
(January 1979 and October 1980). The characteristic pattern of phase III is
explained in terms of electrokinetic effect suggesting water diffusion along
NS fault running parallel to Koyna river in response to high pressure exerted
264 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.59. Contour map of temporal changes in residual geomagnetic field for
three phases of measurements around Koyna reservoir (Arora, 1988).
by the reservoir. These results indicate that geomagnetic measurements in

continuous mode can provide effective means of detecting precursory signals
of earthquakes from Koyna region.
6.26 CO-SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS—MAGNETIC AND

ELECTRICAL ROCK PROPERTIES
Increased manifestation of Earth tremors both in seismic and aseismic areas
makes it imperative to study this phenomenon more intensely. Magnetic and
electrical properties of rocks are subjected to change with the stress imparted
by impending earthquakes. Continuing worldwide efforts have shown that,
from among the variety of geophysical precursors, geomagnetic and
geoelectrical forewarnings lend good support to prediction programmes.
Geomagnetic repeat surveys with high sensitive magnetometers in dense
network configuration have proved effective in delineating long term (>few
years) precursors.
Considering the recurrence of earthquakes in different parts of India
including the seismically active Himalayan belt, and to isolate seismic
precursors, an augmented plan has been put in place to monitor geomagnetic
and geoelectrical parameters. Specifically, an increase in density of geomagnetic
repeat stations, establishment of more digital geomagnetic observatories,
electrical resistivity dipole and telluric current recordings supplemented by
monitoring ionospheric parameters obtained from digital ionosonde (digisonde)
and VHF receivers like ball antenna, form useful earthquake precursory
experiments.
More frequent observations of magnetic field changes show better
understanding of secular variation and help in delineation of stress induced
changes in geomagnetic field. Noting that SV trend is locally distorted in seismic
areas due to accumulating stress, a close network of repeat stations, as in
Jabalpur, can be set up in other such areas. Efforts would need to transmit data
in real time by radio telemetry system to a centralized recording station where

rapid on-line computerized analysis is organized for detecting short-term
premonitory signals preceding an earthquake.
6.27 PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES

The goal of prediction is to issue warning of potentially damaging earthquakes
early enough to allow appropriate response to the disaster for minimizing loss
to life and property. The aim is to increase earthquake probability estimates
within reasonable spatial and temporal accuracy. Earthquake probabilities are
estimated in two ways: by studying the history of large earthquakes, and the
rate at which elastic strain builds up in the rocks.
The frequency of past earthquakes is a pointer to future shocks. For
example, if a region has experienced four M7 or larger earthquakes during 200
years of recorded history, and if these shocks occurred randomly in time, then
it is assigned a 50% probability (just as likely to happen, as not to happen) to
the occurrence of another M7 or larger quake in the region during the next 50
years.
But in many places, the assumption of random occurrence with time may
not be true, because when strain is released along one part of the fault system,
it may actually increase on another part; this reasoning is open to debate and
controversy. For instance, four M6.8 or larger earthquakes and many M6.0-
M6.5 tremors shook the San Francisco bay regions for 75 years between 1836
and 1911. For the next 68 years (until 1979), no earthquake of M6 or larger
took place. Beginning with a M6 shock in 1979, earthquake activity in the
region increased dramatically between 1979 and 1989, wherein four earthquakes
of M 6 struck, including the M7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake. This sort of
clustering of earthquakes led scientists to estimate the probability of an M6.8
or larger earthquake to occur during the next 30 years in the San Francisco bay
region to be ~67% (twice as likely as not).
Another way to estimate the likelihood of an impending earthquake is to
study the rate of strain accumulation. When plate movements build the strain
in rocks to a critical level, like pulling a rubber band too tight, the rocks suddenly
break and slip to a new position. Scientists measure the amount of strain
accumulating along a fault segment in a given time, say each year, the time
passed since the last earthquake along the segment, and the quantity of strain
released during the last earthquake. This information is then used to calculate
the time required for the strain to build to the level capable of triggering an
earthquake. This simple model is complicated by the fact that such detailed
information regarding dynamic behaviour of faults is rare. Only the San Andreas
fault system has adequate records for using this prediction method.
266 Geomagnetism
6.28 EARTHQUAKE PRECURSORY CHANGES

Forecast of earthquakes falls broadly in two categories: long and short range.
For long range forecasting, a map showing all epicentres with spatio-temporal
patterns of seismic activity is compiled. Figure 6.60 presents such a map along
with major tectonic features and significant earthquakes (M 5) that helped
identify main seismic belts in peninsular India. Statistical techniques are also
employed to assess earthquake risks. The technique of short range forecast
includes observation of foreshocks, space-time variation of earthquake activity,
changes in seismic wave velocity, geomagnetic anomalies and others.
Some earthquakes in Russia, Japan, China and USA have been successfully
predicted, though systematic precursory observations are very few. The science
of earthquake prediction is still in its infancy. The current approach is to collect
Figure 6.60. Epicentres of the major tectonic features and the significant earthquakes
(M~5) in peninsular India; the recent damaging earthquakes are shown by star symbols.
Preferred fault-plane solutions are shown by beachball symbols (1-6: after Chandra,
1977; 7: Chung and Gao, 1975; 8-10: USGS); the dark area indicates the zone of
compression, and the blank area zone of dilatation, the fault movement is shown by
arrows. NSL: Narmada Sone Lineament, NNF: Narmada North Fault, NSF: Narmada
South Fault, TL: Tapti Lineament, KMF: Kutch Mainland Fault. Inset: Indian plate
movement from theCarlsberg ridge (CBR), HA: Himalayan arc, BA: Burmese arc
(Kayal, 2003).
data on all possible parameters and investigate possible correlations. This

includes monitoring variations in seismic wave velocity, magnetic field,
electrical resistivity, water level in wells, porosity/permeability, emanations of
odours/gases and determination of ground deformation through tilt/strain
measurements. In some cases even animal instincts (abnormal behaviour of
certain animals) are reported to be helpful. For example, the Asian tsunami
came as a complete surprise to humans, but the animals in the area had gone to
higher ground hours before the tidal waves unleashed their wrath.
The physics of earthquake precursors is commonly described in terms of
dilatancy-diffusion (DD) or crack-avalanche (CA) models. Non-universality
of premonition signals is related to the diverse nature of earthquakes; shear-
rupture or strike-slip motion. Because of limited information available on the
nature of faults and lack of theoretical understanding of the growth, coalescence
and recovery of fractures, the strategy for prediction depends upon observation
of precursory changes. Delineation of active faults and knowledge of their
Figure 6.61. Predicted systematic changes in the rate of dilatancy, resistivity, volume,
water flow and the number of seismic events as a function of time during earthquake
cycle based on the dilatancy-diffusion model (Scholz et al., 1973).
268 Geomagnetism
stress distribution are of great help in optimizing forewarning observational

networks.
The DD model developed experimentally by Scholz and his coworkers
explains many of the premonitory phenomena (Fig. 6.61). They found that
dilatancy is produced by the formation and propagation of cracks within the
rock and these cracks begin to appear when stress level reaches nearly half of
the fracture strength giving rise to changes in physical properties of rocks,
such as permeability and electrical resistivity. This can be clearly seen from
Fig. 6.61, which shows changes in Vp/Vs, electrical resistivity, radon emission,
volumetric strain and number of seismic events (foreshocks). Stage I
corresponds to the period of strain accumulation. This phase sees a steady
increase in stress levels leading to an increase in volume of crustal rocks. During
the phase of stage II, resistivity of rocks drops considerably due to an increase
in the number and dimension of cracks and fluid flow into the dilatant zone.
On the occurrence of an earthquake, there is a reduction in stress because of
which cracks close and water flows out of the source region, resulting in the
return of resistivity to its earlier values.
The CA model is also somewhat similar to DD model. In this model,
physical properties change only slightly, marking the onset of phase I. After a
certain critical density is reached, there is a marked increase in oriented fracture
formation. There is thus an avalanche like rapid growth signifying the presence
of phase II. The stage III begins with a further rise in strain accompanied by a
drop in stress in the narrow zone of the future macro-fault. This also causes
reduction in the stress throughout the volume of rock, dividing the area into
two parts with differing properties. This model allows one to explain the relation
between precursor times and the magnitude of impending earthquake.
The piezomagnetic theory explains the effect of stresses on magnetization
of crustal rocks that causes anomalous changes in geomagnetic field in relation
to seismic activity. The effects of stress on magnetic susceptibility and remanent
magnetization are well understood. In general, the compression axis decreases
while the transverse susceptibility tends to increase. The electrokinetic
phenomenon, on the other hand, is based on the effect of water diffusion into
newly created cracks in the dilatant region. The underground water, because of
the effect of stress, is forced through the porous medium which creates a
streaming potential inducing electric current flow. This current is strong enough
to produce detectable variations in the electrical as well as magnetic fields at
the Earth’s surface.
6.29 EARTHQUAKE PRECURSORY CASE HISTORIES

Geomagnetic and geoelectric precursors have played a significant role in the
prediction of earthquakes, for example in China, Greece and other parts of the
world. The nature and duration of premonitory changes from its first appearance
till the time of earthquake suggest these two have large potential in medium
and short-term, as well as in immediate prediction of earthquakes. However,
the spatial extent and precursory time are seen to vary from one seismic zone
to other. Inclusion of this aspect into earthquake prediction strategy in
conjunction with other seismological and geophysical precursors would put
these studies on a better footing from diagnostic (probabilistic) to prognostic
(deterministic) level.
I. International Status
Secular variation anomaly in geomagnetic field prior to a large earthquake in
Japan is given in Fig. 6.62, where station A is treated as a magnetic benchmark.
Here the rate of SV during the decade of 1950-60 was ~7 nT/yr compared to
the normal 2 nT/yr recorded at stations B and C. This anomalous behaviour
disappeared after earthquakes of M6.1 and M6.4 close to station A, which
showed up several years before and persisted up to the time of earthquake
occurrence. A relation between the spatial extent of anomalous area and
magnitude was obtained by Rikitake as: log r = 11.4 + 1.1 M, where r denotes
the radius of the anomalous area in cm and M the magnitude.
Another example of short-term precursory change in geomagnetic field
(Fig. 6.63) was detected in association with M5.2 earthquake on 28 Nov 1974
along an active fault in California. The plot gives the temporal variations in
local geomagnetic field obtained by differencing the simultaneously observed
field at two pairs of stations. In this process, the temporal variations associated
Figure 6.62. Typical example of anomalous behaviour of large secular variation in the
geomagnetic field intensity observed in association with two earthquakes in Japan.
Note secular change foreruns large earthquakes (Tazima, 1968).
270 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.63. An example of mid-term precursory change in geomagnetic field detected

in association with a magnitude 5.2 earthquake on 28 November 1974 along an active
fault in California. Note a clear bay-shaped change in residual geomagnetic field intensity
preceding the earthquake (Smith and Johnston, 1976).
with ionospheric and magnetospheric currents are effectively eliminated, leaving

behind the component of tectonic origin. The plot shows a clear and distinct
bay-shaped anomaly preceding the earthquake. It was seen that an increase in
magnetic field began seven weeks before and returned to normal four weeks
prior to the earthquake. The epicentral distance of this site was 11 km. Another
place located only a few km away did not record any change. Such examples
of precursory changes are many, but there are also instances, where no
discernible change preceding an earthquake has been found.
The most popular techniques employed in China, Russia and USA for
earthquake prediction are the measurement of telluric current, Earth potential
and resistivity. In an experiment in China, electric potential difference between
two pairs of electrodes aligned in NS and EW directions were measured daily,
where potential difference between NS electrodes showed a sharp drop of 100
mV during ~2 to 3 days prior to the earthquake (M7.3) at Haicheng on 4 Feb
1975 (Fig. 6.64). At another station in the same region, but located at epicentral
distance of 145 km, the NS component of telluric current had showed a 40
PAmp decrease ~10 hrs before the earthquake (Fig. 6.64). The anomaly lasted
for 7 hrs and then the telluric current intensity recovered to the previous level,
3 hrs before the shock. Kamchatka in Russia is another area, where anomalies
in telluric current forerunning impending earthquakes have been observed very
often, which have now become one of the regular parameters for making short
term predictions of earthquakes.
Figure 6.64. (a) Variation in self-potential differences between the NS and EW electrode
pairs recorded in association with Haicheng earthquake at a station about 25 km from
epicentre. Potential difference showed a sharp drop of >100 mV about 2–3 days before
the earthquake. (b) Abrupt changes in electric current observed a few hours before
Haicheng earthquake at a station located about 145 km from epicentre. Telluric current
showed a 40 PA decrease about 10 hrs before the earthquake (Raleigh et al., 1977).
Figure 6.65. Changes in apparent resistivity observed in association with earthquake

in the San Andreas fault region. Note a precursory change in resistivity amounting to
15% and lasting for 60 days before an earthquake of magnitude 3.9 (Mazzella and
Morrison, 1974).
272 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.66. Temporal variation in apparent resistivity observed at Garm, central Asia
and earthquake occurrence times of M>3. A strong correlation is evident between minima
in electrical resistivity and earthquake occurrence time (Barsukov, 1974).
A strong correlation between minima in electrical resistivity and earthquake

occurrence (Figs 6.65 and 6.66) is also found. A decrease in electrical resistivity
is observed up to 20% for large/near earthquakes and up to 10% for small/
distant earthquakes. The precursory time is seen to vary from ~2 to 7 months
for earthquakes of M4.2 to M5.7, and it tends to be longer for larger earthquakes.
II. Results from Shillong, NE India

Geomagnetic field variations at Shillong, a place located in an intense seismic
region, are examined for possible association with the felt earthquakes in its
Figure 6.67. Changes of geomagnetic total field (F) at Shillong and Jaipur. The frequency
of felt earthquakes during April 1980 to April 1981 is shown at the bottom and monthly
variation in F (total geomagnetic field intensity) is shown at the top. Note the
tectonomagnetic effect showing a systematic decrease in magnetic field at Shillong
prior to earthquake during Sept to Oct 1980 (Chakrabarty, 1984).
Figure 6.68. General trend of variation of geophysical (electrical resistivity, self potential
and Earth current) and geohydrological (water level and spring discharge) parameters
with the different stages of earthquake activity associated with M4.2 earthquake on
9 March 1980 near Shillong in NE India (Nayak et al., 1983).
vicinity. The results are compared with Jaipur, a station along the same latitude
as Shillong, but differing in LT by one hour. It revealed a depression of the
geomagnetic field prior to the shock, when epicentre of the earthquake is not
too far away from Shillong (Fig. 6.67). The field change is most likely due to
alteration in the crustal stress generated by NE Himalayas.
The geomagnetic field intensity curves for Jaipur and Shillong apparently
display similar signatures (Fig. 6.67). However, a significant change in the
total geomagnetic field intensity ‘F’ is observed at Shillong between Sept and
Oct 1980. During this period Shillong shows –22 nT change, while Jaipur
shows +5 nT change. The anomaly at Shillong is directly attributable to the
earthquake occurrences during this interval (Sept-Oct 1980), which includes
the largest M6.5 earthquake. Similar changes are also observed during other
months as well. These observations thus reveal changes of regional geomagnetic
field due to magnetization changes in subcrustal rocks.
Figure 6.68 gives changes in geoelectrical and geohydrological parameters
such as electrical resistivity, self potential (S.P.), Earth current (E.C.), spring
discharge and water level in dug wells recorded in association with 9 Mar
1980 earthquake (M~4.2) at a site near Shillong. Although precursory changes
in all these measured parameters were seen preceding many earthquakes, the
strongest precursory change was registered in resistivity, which gradually
decreased by 25%. The precursory time in various parameters varied from 7 to
20 days.
III. Sunspot Activity and Earthquakes

Sunspot activity is also monitored to predict the occurrence of an earthquake.
The sunspot hypothesis suggests certain changes in Sun-Earth environment
affect the EMF that can trigger earthquakes in areas prone to it. During sunspot
274 Geomagnetism
activity, a huge mass (or energy) from the outer periphery of the sunspot is
hurtled towards the Earth (Chapters 3 and 8). This disturbs the magnetic field
and brings about changes in the atmosphere, ionosphere and geosphere. The
changes associated with sunspot activity are known to take place typically ~24
to 36 hrs before a moderate earthquake and hence can be utilized to predict
earthquakes. Such a change, for example, occurred on 24 Jan 2001 and two
days later, a large earthquake measuring M7.7 hit Gujarat (Bhuj; on 26 Jan
2001).
6.30 PALAEOSIESMOLOGY: QUASI-EMPIRICAL

EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION TECHNIQUE
‘Palaeoseismology’ is the study of prehistoric earthquakes in terms of their
location (fault dislocation), timing (date) and size (magnitude). The probability
of a future earthquake can be worked out, but not accurately predicted. To
circumvent this lacuna, geoscientists study earthquakes of the geological past.
The instrumental, historical and geological records reveal major quakes to recur
after a gap of 100 years or more. The seismographs are not more than century
old, which precludes the possibility of instrumental record beyond that
timeframe. Historical earthquake records are scanty and do not go beyond 500
years. Religious scriptures have mentions of older earthquakes, but their veracity
is difficult to confirm. But the earthquakes that go long back in time have left
behind definite tell-tale marks, the study of which forms part of a comparatively
new science called ‘palaeo-seismology’. These signs are in the form of active
faults, shifting of river courses, tilting of rock beds, displacement of strata,
liquefaction of sediments (as sand dykes and sand blow), sudden change in
sedimentation pattern in lakes and co-seismic land slides.
I. Methodology and Palaeoearthquake Studies

Sedimentary formations are normally deposited as layers and these are deformed
if an earthquake occurs. While searching for past earthquakes, geoscientists
search for clues that locate and identify deformational features called ‘seismites’.
The study and methodology of palaeosiesmology involve identification of
seismites, trenching and collecting relevant material for dating, and also
cataloguing of stratigraphic sequences. Past earthquakes may generate a series
of faults, hence it becomes necessary to ascertain the number of displacements
(indicative of past earthquakes), which is done by excavating the trenches across
the fault zone. The magnitude of a palaeoquake is judged by the amount of
relative fault displacement. The age of the sediments displaced by the fault is
then determined using various dating techniques. For example, the sample
overlying the undeformed strata gives the minimum age, since it postdates the
event. On the other hand, organic material deposited at the time of seismic
event along with the deformed strata provides the coeval age, i.e. age pertaining
to the palaeoseismic event. 14C dates are then related to the geological signatures
to constrain the time of seismic occurrence along with measurement errors

(uncertainties). Relative dating method of magnetostratigraphy is also
undertaken to complement direct dating techniques.
Palaeoseimology also involves approximating probable magnitude, apart
from estimating the timing of seismic event. The recurrence period of large
earthquakes is then reconstructed from a set of events identified in a given
area. This information helps in estimating the extent of areal threat experienced
by the region in historical past, and serves to make realistic projections to
mitigate the hazards.
II. Indian Palaeoseismological Studies

Palaeoseismological studies have recently started in India. An earthquake
induced fault in Nainital was dated to 40 ka. Deformational structures (seismites)
are mapped from Shillong plateau. The faulting due to M8.7 Shillong earthquake
of 12 June 1897 shifted the course of Krishna river. Dated liquefied structures
coincided with this earthquake timing. Studies also suggest the area quaked
with similar magnitude 500, 1000 and 1500 years BP (1950 is taken as a
reference year), suggesting recurrence period of 500 years. Similarly, a few
notable studies show Latur was not just rocked for the first time in 1993, but
damaging earthquakes had taken place in the area some 200 years ago too.
Allah Bund is another palaeoseismological signature due to 1819 Kutch
earthquake. Geologists investigating the 2001 Bhuj earthquake found a number
of liquefaction features in the form of sand blows, ground fissures, mud craters
and subsidence craters. Earthquake occurrences even much before the collision
of the Indian and the Asian plate, some 120 Ma ago, have been found in
deformational structures from the rocks of Chaibasa formation (2100 to 1600
Ma) of eastern India.
Since instrumental records are short and historical records sparse in India,
it is necessary to understand the mechanism responsible for producing
Figure 6.69. Dating faulted deposits. Trench exposure showing displacement of sand
and gravel deposits. Fault 1 displaces only unit C, Fault 2 displaces B and C and Fault
3 displaces A, B, and C. Samples of 2, 3 (UB), 4, 5, and 6 (LB) are used for age
estimation. UB - Upper bound, LB - Lower bound (Keller and Pinter, 1996).
276 Geomagnetism
catastrophic earthquakes and their repeat times from sedimentary sequences.

Thus, palaeoseismological studies are of global relevance. Examples of
palaeoearthquake age determination and an array of seismites are shown in
Figs 6.69-6.72.
Figure 6.70. Dating of liquefaction features: (a) In case of sand dykes,

(b) Penecontemporaneous event, and (c) Layers of earthquake-twisted ground
seen at the San Andreas.
Figure 6.71. (a) Palaeoliquefaction feature at Nayapara site along the Krishna river,
Shillong plateau, India. (b) A trench at Beltaghat meander showing multiple sand dykes
originating from the sand bed below (Sukhija et al., 1999 a,b,c).
Figure 6.72. (a) A fault observed with a displacement of about 15–25 cm at Ther
village, along Terna river. (b) Geological records of tsunamis from lithological field
observations at Andaman Nicobar islands. Note that the sediments carried by the tsunami
waves have an admixture of offshore and onshore material and are mainly composed
of fine to medium sand layers.
6.31 GPS MEASUREMENTS AND GEODYNAMICS

The global positioning system (GPS) designed for military and civilian
navigation has become a preferred method to study a wide range of geophysical
phenomena. GPS measurements are now used to determine the motion of
tectonic plates, deformation around active faults/volcanoes and to measure
crustal isostatic adjustments in response to changes (past and present) in the
mass of sediments/ice sheets. It is also used in combination with tide gauges to
monitor global sea level changes. Because GPS signals are measurably delayed
as they pass through the Earth’s atmosphere, they are even able to contribute to
atmospheric studies.
The tremendous growth in GPS research can be attributed to several reasons.
It provides 3D relative positions with the precision of a few mm to a cm over
baseline separations of hundreds of metres to thousands of kms. The 3D nature
of GPS measurement allows to determine vertical as well as horizontal
displacement at the same time and place. Previously, horizontal measurements
were often made by trilateration and vertical measurements by spirit levelling.
The two data types are almost never collected at the same time and place
considerably complicating the analysis. Furthermore, the collective vertical
and horizontal information often place more robust constraints on physical
processes than do either data type alone. GPS receivers and antennas are
portable, operate under essentially all atmospheric conditions, and do not require
intervisibility between sites. The level of precision and accuracy are enhanced
by using a combination of precise GPS satellite orbit information, dual-
278 Geomagnetism
frequency GPS receivers, advanced software packages for post-processing the

GPS observations, and multipath-mitigating antennas, to name a few. With
such a remarkable development, GPS found its way in the field of geophysics
for studying crustal deformation.
GPS technology started out as a military tool. It was initiated in 1970s by
the Department of Defense (DoD), and developed later to provide an invaluable
navigational service in an alien terrain to save soldiers’ time and life. In 1980,
this utility was opened to civilian use as well. The remarkable development in
space technology, radio science, and the experience with very long baseline
interferometry (VLBI) greatly facilitated its development.
I. The GPS Constellation

The first of 24 satellites GPS network called NAVSTAR was launched in 1978.
The cluster of NAVSTAR satellites orbits the Earth every 12 hours (twice a
day), and emits continuous signals irrespective of weather conditions. These
satellites run in a specific orbit, that is ~20,000 km above the ground, and
travel as fast as 14,000 km/hr. The satellite orbits are distributed such that a set
of at least four satellites are always visible from any point on the Earth at any
given instant (with up to 12 visible at one time). Each satellite carries with it an
atomic clock that ‘ticks’ with an accuracy of one nanosec (one billionth of a
second). With proper equipment, any user can receive these signals to calculate
time, location and velocity. Receivers have been developed for use in aircraft,
ships and land vehicles. Portable ones are also available for hand carrying.
The navigation system uses radio frequencies that are sent out by the
satellites to locate a transmitter. In this sense, signals transmitted from the
satellites are ‘trapped’ by the GPS receivers, and then the time a signal was
transmitted by a satellite is compared with the time it was received. The time
difference, if any, tells the GPS receiver its distance from the satellite. With
distance measurement from a few more satellites, the receiver determines the
user’s position and displays it on the unit’s electronic map. In order to calculate
latitude and longitude, receivers need information from three satellites. But if
it has to determine altitude as well, then it has to receive information from four
or more satellites. In addition, GPS can also provide other information such as
sunset time.
GPS technology has now matured into a resource that goes far beyond its
original visualized goals. These days scientists, sportsmen, farmers, soldiers,
pilots, surveyors, hikers, delivery drivers, sailors, dispatchers, lumberjacks,
fire-fighters, and people from many other walks of life are using GPS in ways
that make their work more productive, safer, and sometimes even easier.
II. Principle
GPS satellites transmit synchronized signals on their position and real time (t)
to the ground based receiver. The ground receiver however receives the signals
from a given satellite at a time (t+Gt), where Gt is the transmission delay between
the satellite and the ground station. This delay at ground station is different for
signals arriving from different satellites positioned at different places in space.
The ground station processor uses these delays to compute its location with
reference to the four ‘best’ satellites. The set of four satellites helps determine
the four unknown parameters at the ground station, viz. the three position
coordinates in space and the fourth, time. The error of measurement of these
parameters is governed by various external parameters, such as the error in the
position and time coordinates transmitted by a satellite, the constellation (spatial
distribution of the satellites at the time of measurements), the topospheric
refraction of the electromagnetic signals, etc.
III. GPS System and Sources of Errors

The GPS system has been designed to be as accurate as possible. But, it still
gives out some errors. These errors, when compiled together, cause a deviation
of ±50 as 100 m from the actual GPS receiver position. The source of errors is
many, but the most significant ones are discussed below:
Atmospheric conditions, also known as ionosphere and troposphere, delay
causing an inaccuracy due to reduced speed of propagation. Radio signals travel
with the velocity of light in the outer space, but are slower through the
ionosphere and troposphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that
calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error.
Signal multipath occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as
tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases
the travel time of signal, thereby causing errors. It is difficult to completely
correct multipath error, even in high precision GPS units. Hence, this error has
become a serious concern.
Satellite orbits: Although the satellites are positioned in very precise orbits,
slight shifts are possible due to gravitation forces. The resulting error is very
low, which is not >2 m.
Receiver clock errors: A receiver’s built-in clock is not as accurate as the
atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellite. Therefore it may have very slight
timing errors.
Satellite geometry/shading refers to the relative position of the satellite at
any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at
wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry occurs when the satellites
are located in a line or in a tight grouping.
6.32 OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE

GPS receivers and antennas: The ground-based GPS equipment is only a
receiver, without any transmitting capability. The satellites do not contain any
280 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.73. GPS unit at Shillong.
database about their location or other parameters. They are equipped with only
highly precise atomic clocks that generate some codes, which are transmitted
to the Earth. The GPS receiver gets that code from multiple satellites which is
slightly time shifted due to difference in the distance to the satellites. Using
this difference, the receiver precisely calculates the geographic longitude and
latitude of its own position. Indian scientists use both Trimble and Leica GPS
receivers for data collection.
A GPS site is chosen such that it has exposed bedrocks with unobstructed
view of the sky and a non-reflective environment. About 1 cm diameter and 6
cm deep hole is made into strong and sturdy bedrocks and a non-magnetic
stainless steel pin is rigidly driven into the hole. A fine dot of 0.5 mm is made
on the pin to aid accurate measurements (Fig. 6.73). Later, 2-channel dual
frequency receivers are used in re-occupation mode. Microstripped omni
directional (with 9 cm internal ground plate) GPS antenna is placed over the
marks (fine dot made on the pin) using tripods. The sampling interval and cut-
off angle of elevation (to receive signals from the orbiting satellites) are then
fixed at 30 sec and 15o, respectively. However, the sampling interval and cut-
off angle of elevation can be changed according to the requirement and needs
of the purpose.
6.33 METHODOLOGY, DATA ACQUISITION AND

ANALYSIS
GPS satellites transmit signals on two carrier frequencies: the L1 carrier and
L2 carrier. L1 carrier is 1575.42 MHz, used for civilian purposes and the L2
carrier is 1227.60 MHz used for more precise military purposes. These signals
travel by line of sight, i.e. they pass through clouds, glass and plastics, but
cannot go through most solid objects such as buildings, mountains, etc. In
every transmission the satellite sends three types of information: Pseudo-random
code is an I.S. code that identifies which satellite the information is being sent
from. Ephemeris data tells the receiver, where the satellite should be at any
given time of day. The Almanac data is the part that is essential for determining
the user’s position. Almanac data is constantly transmitted by each satellite,
and it contains important information about the status of satellite (healthy or
unhealthy), the current date and time.
GPS methodology follows three different approaches: (i) Estimating the
strain field in seismic zones using GPS receivers: Precise measurement of
baselines between well defined ground markers is made. The methodology is
such that the changes in position coordinates and baseline lengths in three
orthogonal directions (coordinates)—computed with GPS data during two or
more visits to the same place or during successive reoccupations—enable to
assess crustal deformation in the survey region. Four to five sets of observations
are required to estimate the strain field. In addition to the observed strain field,
attempts are made to compute strain field for hypothetical stress distribution
either by the method of least-square collocation or finite element method. This
enables to relate the GPS results to the seismotectonics of the region.
(ii) Establishing certain prerequisites in high precision geodesy, and
(iii) Establishing the ability of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry
for deformation measurements: SAR is a new technique in which the phases
of two SAR scenes are made to interfere to generate interference fringes which
relate to terrain elevations. This technique promises to revolutionize the study
of active tectonics by providing high precision deformation measurements
carried out remotely from space.
The GPS data is normally organized into 24 hrs covering Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) day. The data are processed using the GAMIT post-process
software to produce estimates, and associated covariance matrix of station
positions for each session. The site coordinates are constrained by surrounding
International GPS Service for Geodynamics (IGS) stations. To get a combined
solution for site positions and velocities, all such covariance matrices are
input to GLOBK software, which is essentially a Kilman filter that gives
the coordinates and velocity vectors at each site. Figure 6.74a shows
the horizontal component of the velocity vector with 95% confidence error
ellipses. The horizontal components of these velocity vectors are further used
to estimate the horizontal strain field by least-squares prediction method in
which two empirically deduced local covariance functions (corresponding to
E-W and N-S components of horizontal crustal movement in Gaussian form)
are used.
282 Geomagnetism
6.34 GPS: REPEAT CAMPAIGNS, PERMANENT SITES

AND CASE STUDIES
I. Survey Design
GPS networks are operated all over the world to estimate crustal displacements.
Permanent networks like CIGNET and the IGS network have proven their
utility to the geodetic community for orbit determination, and have also been
used for plate tectonic studies. India started GPS in 1995 and since then taken
up campaign-style repeat surveys over a period of time in seismically active
regions, viz. western Maharashtra, Bhuj, Chamoli, North-East India, Andaman
& Nicobar Islands, and Antarctica (here focus is on glacial movements).
Continuous GPS (or permanent GPS) monitoring is an essential complement
of seismological observations (time unit: sec), and geological (time unit: a ka
or a Ma). It is the only technique that can directly measure displacements about
a few mm/year over distances of several hundred kms. In view of this, a network
of 13 permanent GPS sites are established in different parts of the Indian
subcontinent, four in Andaman-Nicobar Islands, and two in east Antarctica
region. The GPS data obtained at these stations are used to detect ionospheric
TEC perturbations associated with large vertical ground movements related to
earthquakes.
II. Seismological Device

Before describing some results obtained with GPS data, its general role of
crustal deformation measurements in the study of earthquakes is discussed.
Measuring long term current displacements of the crustal blocks in an active
zone of deformation like the Himalayas allows to know the amount of energy
which accumulates at the active faults, which could be released during
earthquakes. These measurements are complementary to seismological data
because they document the full earthquake cycle, including interseismic and
transient postseismic processes, as well as coseismic deformation. To directly
monitor crustal deformation between (interseismic), during (coseismic) and
after (postseismic) earthquakes, there are several well established and
recognized space-borne geodetic (geodesy is the science of surveying and
mapping the Earth’s surface) techniques such as VLBI, satellite laser ranging
(SLR), SAR interferometry, and GPS. Compared to these techniques, GPS is
more widely used in deriving crustal displacement, velocity and strain
distribution because its receivers are cost-efficient and highly portable allowing
their deployment in large numbers and also in frequently repeating modes as
warranted by the deformation status of a particular region. Apart from these
factors, post-process softwares, which circumvent purposeful degradation of
GPS signals by the DoD to reduce the accuracy and precise orbits from
International GNSS Service (IGS), make it ideal to use GPS for geodynamic
studies.
GPS data are used to accurately determine horizontal as well as vertical

movements to characterize active fault regions, and to determine the position
of centroid of the deformation zone. GPS records serve as equivalent tools to
very low frequency seismograms. Recently, many countries have developed a
way to use GPS satellites to monitor the environment, which could lead to
better weather prediction models. They are also trying to develop a system
using GPS signals to image things on the ground, measuring soil moisture, and
the thickness of ice on the Earth’s surface. Few GPS applications in studies of
the weak crustal motion, geodynamics (velocity and strain field), and glacial
movement are discussed here.
III. Plate Motions and Plate Boundary Deformation

The success of the GPS investigations depends to a large extent on the speed at
which the crustal movements occur. In the absence of any significant movements
in the crust, the GPS studies may not be conclusive. At present, the Indian
continent is subducting below the Eurasian continent at a rate of 4 to 5 cm/yr.
This fact has been established by the GPS studies, which have shown that the
distance between Bangalore and Hanley (Ladakh) is decreasing at the rate of 4
to 5 cm/year. Thus, GPS data are vital to understand the compressive effects
and estimate strain within different crustal blocks, which is possible by taking
a NS trending profile across the entire Indian subcontinent.
It is instructive to examine geological and tectonic evidences after the 26
December 2004 Andaman-Sumatra giant earthquake. GPS data from Andaman
& Nicobar Islands, nearby IGS sites, and some sites from the Indian
subcontinent indicated thtat the south Indian shield shifted towards east by
~1.5 cm, and all the baselines cutting across the India-Burma interface have
been shortened by 2-4 cm.
IV. Crustal Deformation in Deccan Trap Region

From GPS data, 2D strain field is estimated and modelled for crustal
deformation. GPS has brought out an extensional regime along the western
coast of Maharashtra including south of Koyna and Warna reservoirs, which
transcend into a region of compressive strain towards the interior of the shield
area. The extensional strain regime coincides with the west coast geothermal
province, and intersecting fault system south of Koyna-Warna reservoirs. The
crustal deformation strain rate has been estimated to be in the range of 40 to 60
mm/year (Fig. 6.74a) with an average of 51 mm/year in N47E and compressive
strain of ~0.4 P-strain/year (Fig. 6.74b). Strain pattern in the Deccan trap region
is a reflection of the transmitted stress field caused by northward continental
collision between Indian and Eurasian plates along the Himalayan arc in NS to
NNE-SSW direction (Fig. 6.74a).
284 Geomagnetism
Figure 6.74. (a) Observed and calculated horizontal velocity vectors at 21 sites
in Deccan volcanic province. The velocity vector for IGS site IISC (Bangalore)
is shown in the inset. (b) Principal axes of strain at GPS sites corresponding to
the dilatation strain rate. Note the axes of compressional and extensional strain
rates (Reddy et al., 2000).
V. Crustal Deformation in Bhuj Region

Bhuj earthquake affected region is investigated for evaluation of seismo-
tectonics of the region. A compressive strain of ~0.1 P-strain/year in the
epicentral region is established, and the crustal deformation strain rate is
estimated to be about 50 mm/year in N-NE direction (Fig. 6.75). The residual
velocity of 11.62 mm/year in N-NW direction and 5.24 mm/year towards south
is seen at sites south and north of the epicentre. This indicates localized ongoing
convergence in the epicentral region. The results also suggest ongoing
transpressional deformation across the area with a blocked structure embedded
between the north and south Wagad fault. This deformation is believed to be
Figure 6.75. GPS derived velocity vectors in ITRF2000 estimates from Bhuj. Star
(blue coloured) indicates the 2001 earthquake. The study region and velocity of IISC
(IGS site) are shown in inset.
related to the present neotectonic compressive stress regime of the Indian plate
due to its NNE movement against the collision front in the north, and its
proximity to the triple junction in the western continental margin of the study
area.
VI. Antarctic Schirmacher Glacier Movement

GPS studies on ice-sheet dynamics of the Schirmacher glacier (east Antarctica)
have revealed that the magnitude of horizontal velocities of the glacier sites lie
between 1.89±0.01 m/year and 10.88±0.01 m/year to the N-NE with an average
velocity of 6.21±0.01 m/year. The velocity and strain-rate distributions across
the GPS network in Schirmacher glacier are spatially correlated with topography,
subsurface undulations, fracture zones/crevasses and the partial blockage of
the flow of nunataks and the Schirmacher oasis (Fig. 6.76).
Figure 6.76. Horizontal velocity vectors (with 95% confidence ellipses) for the GPS
network on Schirmacher glacier, superposed on a shaded relief velocity–distribution
map with 1 m contour interval obtained from the GPS velocity field. The scale represents
the glacier flow rate corresponding to the velocity shaded relief (m/yr). The black
patches indicate the Schirmacher oasis and nunataks (Sunil et al., 2007).
286 Geomagnetism
APPENDIX 6.1
Maxwells Equations
To understand the propagation and attenuation of electromagnetic waves, it is
necessary to use Maxwell
vectors.
Name Differential form Integral form
Gauss D= s D dA v d V
Gauss B= 0 s B dA 0
(absence of magnetic
monopoles)
B d
Faraday E=
t C E dI dt s
Bd A
D d
Amp H=J
t C H dI s J d A dt s D
(with Maxwell
Symbol Meaning SI Unit

E electric field V/m
H magnetic field A/m
also called the auxiliary field
D electric displacement field C/m2
also called the electric flux density
B magnetic flux density Tesla or Wb/m2
also called the magnetic induction
also called the magnetic field
free electric charge density, C/m3
not including dipole charges bound
in a material
J free current density, A/m2
not including polarization or
magnetization currents bound in a material
APPENDIX 6.2
Transfer Function Estimates

The transfer functions showing the relationship between seafloor station
horizontal components (XSF and YSF) and land station horizontal components
(XL and YL) are estimated from the magnetic storm and sub-storm (bays) by
using tensor analysis. The relationship between the horizontal field components
and transfer function is given by
XSF = A XL + B YL
YSF = C XL + D YL
where the subscripts SF stands for seafloor station while L for land reference
station. The analysis has been carried out in frequency domain. A, B, C, and D
are thus the frequency dependant complex numbers and are known as transfer
functions, for the north and east components of geomagnetic field variation
between land and seafloor station. Transfer functions are computed by using
tensor analysis technique. Single station vertical transfer functions are calculated
from
Z = Txx X + Tyy Y
where X, Y and Z are time varying magnetic fields observed at that particular
station. The following assumptions are made in order to calculate the transfer
functions: (i) The normal inducing field (Xn,Yn) is nearly equal to the observed
field X and Y, i.e. (Xn,Yn) = (X,Y) and (ii) in low and middle geomagnetic
latitudes the normal Z-component is zero and hence total recorded Z can be
taken as wholly anomalous, i.e. Za = Z.
288 Geomagnetism
APPENDIX 6.3
Trembles that Shook Mumbai in the Past
Year Month Intensity

(MMI)/Magnitude (RS)
1618 May IX
1832 Oct VI
1906 March VI
1929 February V
1933 July V
1951 April VIII
1966 May V
1967 April 4.5
1967 June 4.2
1993 September 6.4
1998 May 3.8
2005 March 5.1
2005 June 3.7
2005 August 4.1
APPENDIX 6.4
Major Earthquakes in the History of the Indian Subcontinent
Year Location Magnitude Intensity Death Toll

1618 Mumbai - - 2000
1720 Delhi 6.5 - 2000
1737 Bengal - - 3000
1803 Mathura 6.5 - Hundreds, shock
felt up to Calcutta
1803 Kumaon 6.5 - 200-300
1819 Kutch, Gujarat 8.0 XI Thousands, chief
towns of Tera,
Kathara and
Mothala razed to
the ground
1828 Srinagar, Kashmir 6.0 - 1000
1833 Bihar 7.7 X Hundreds
1848 Mt.Abu, Rajasthan 6.0 - Few people killed
1869 Assam 7.5 - Affected an area of
2,50,000 sq. miles
1885 Srinagar, Kashmir 7.0 - 1,600
12 June 1897 Shillong 8.7 XII 1600
4 April 1905 Kangra, Himachal 8.0 XI 20,000
1906 Himachal Pradesh 7.0 - Heavy damage
1916 Nepal 7.5 - All houses at
Dharchula in
Pithoragarh, India
collapsed
8 July 1918 Assam 7.6 - Heavy damage
1930 Dhubri, Meghalaya 7.1 IX Heavy damage in

Dhubri
15 August Northern Bihar- 8.3 XI 20,000
1934 Nepal
1935 Quetta, Pakistan 7.5 IX 25,000
26 June 1941 Andaman Islands 8.1 X Very heavy damage
1947 Dibrugarh 7.8 - Heavy damage
15 August Assam 8.6 XII >1,500
1950
1952 Northeast India 7.5 - Heavy damage
1956 Bulandshahar, 6.7 VIII Many killed
Uttar Pradesh
1956 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0 VIII Hundreds of people
killed
1958 Kapkote, Uttaranchal 6.3 VIII Hundreds of people
killed
(Contd.)
290 Geomagnetism
Year Location Magnitude Intensity Death Toll

10 December Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5 VIII 200, Koyna Nagar
1967 razed to ground
1969 Bhadrachalam, 6.1 I Moderate damage
Andhra Pradesh
19 January Kinnaur, 6.2 - 42
1975 Himachal Pradesh
1980 Dharchula, - - Heavy damage
Uttaranchal
1980 Jammu, J&K - - 12
1986 Dharamshala, H.P. 5.7 VIII Heavy damage
1988 Almora, Uttaranchal - - 1000
1988 Assam 7.2 XI Few people killed
21 August Bihar- Udaypur 6.5 VIII Large number of
1988 (Nepal) people killed
20 October Uttarkashi, 6.6 VIII 768, heavy damage
1991 Uttaranchal to property
30 September Latur, Osmanabad, 6.4 VIII >9,000,
1993 Maharashtra heavy loss of
property
22 May 1997 Jabalpur, 6.0 VIII 40, heavy damage
Madhya Pradesh to property
29 March Chamoli, 6.8 VIII 100, heavy loss of
1999 Uttarakhand property
26 January Bhuj, Gujarat 7.7 X >20,000, huge
2001 devastation
25 October Mujaffarabad, 7.6 X 73,000 dead
2005 Pakistan and including both
Kashmir, India countries. Heavy
loss of property
Experimental Geomagnetism 291
7
EXPERIMENTAL GEOMAGNETISM
Experimental geomagnetism deals with experimental observations and their

potential applications of palaeomagnetic and environmental magnetic
investigations. Palaeomagnetism is a specialized study, which has provided
positive evidence of continental drift and development of the hypothesis of
plate tectonics. The other major contributions relate to understanding of the
generation of EMF, palaeointensity, relative movements of continental blocks,
concept of tectonostratigraphic terrains and magnetostratigraphy as a dating
tool. All these varied research activities require the development and use of
extremely sensitive instruments.
Palaeomagnetic studies, therefore, are of special significance to students
of geology and geophysics. The deciphering of India’s flight northwards is
largely dependent on the acquisition of palaeomagnetic data and their
interpretations. The first section covers theoretical aspects as well as
experimental details of both rock magnetism and palaeomagnetism. Few
examples of application of these techniques are reviewed enabling to understand
apparent polar wandering path of the continents, how the magnetic minerals
register the palaeolatitude and pole position and how one can de-convolute
them in the laboratory.
Initially, the study of magnetism implied certain standard types of
measurements such as magnetic susceptibility and remanent magnetization.
With the progress in understanding of microscopic processes in natural materials
of soils, sediments and rocks, the study of magnetism has considerably
diversified leading to new exciting areas like the environmental geomagnetism.
It is in this context that the second section of this chapter is devoted to discuss
exclusively the rock and environmental geomagnetism, which constitutes one
of the major subjects in modern Earth Sciences. The environmental
geomagnetism, particularly for the Quaternary studies (last 2 Ma), is considered
to be a powerful technique to ascertain the past climate, erosion and pollution.
Results obtained from potential applications of magnetic properties or
292 Geomagnetism
parameters through investigations of such subjects as the magnetic and chemical

constitution of different rocks, sediments and waters from streams and lakes,
the measurements of impurities in the atmosphere and water bodies and the
reconstruction of environmental and climate change, are discussed in detail
here.
7.1 PALAEOMAGNETISM AND GEOMAGNETIC FIELD IN

GEOLOGICAL PAST
Even a weak Earth’s magnetic field (50 PT) can make a lasting impression on
rocks, baked materials and sediments. The fossil magnetism naturally present
in a rock is termed the natural remanent magnetization (NRM), whose NRM
directions help in recovering EMF history. This forms the subject matter of
palaeomagnetism, which started to take up shape in the early 1950’s. By 1960,
however, it evolved into two separate disciplines referred to as rock magnetism
and palaeomagnetism. By producing information about the location and
orientation of continents relative to the Earth’s magnetic pole, palaeomagnetism
has played a significant role in understanding the Earth processes, particularly
with regard to continental drift, polar wandering and the development of plate
tectonics. As currently practised, palaeomagnetism includes topics related to
age dating, stratigraphy and magnetic anomaly interpretation together with
traditional topics like tectonics, polar wander, and historical evolutionary EMF
studies.
Palaeomagnetic studies suggest EMF has frequently changed and the
polarity reversals occurred 24 times during the past 4.5 Ma. It is tentatively
concluded that a complete reversal of the EMF takes place in 103–104 years.
The changing pattern of convection currents in the Earth’s outer core is generally
considered the reason for polarity reversals.
An approximate coincidence of the magnetic axis with the axis of rotation
is seen to exist. Accordingly, when there is dislocation of magnetic poles, there
is a change in the position of the Earth, and its outer layers with respect to the
axis of rotation. Thus, the dislocation of magnetic poles takes place
simultaneously with the dislocation of the geographical position, and dislocation
of the geographical location influences the climatic regimes of the Earth. The
slow variation of EMF at any given place, and also a slow shift in the
geographical position of magnetic poles, which are roughly cyclic with a period
of ~500 years, is called secular variation. By means of repeated magnetic
observations from time to time made at any stations, and MOs, maps and tables
can be prepared showing the annual rate of change of geomagnetic field.
I. Direct Measurements and MOs

Magnetic observatory measurements reveal EMF as a transient phenomenon.
The field is subject to periodic fluctuations in direction and intensity with rates
of change varying from second to thousands of years. At present, the average
annual value of the field is undergoing a regular change known as secular

variation (SV), leading to a decrease in its total intensity and inclination. The
first known instrumental measurement of declination was carried out by the
Chinese, which was far from comprehensive. Global chain of MO measurements
is used to determine EMF’s past and future changes. Spherical harmonic models
are created using data from MOs, satellites and ancient marine logs. There are
now models based on direct measurements of geomagnetic field, e.g. London
and Paris MOs that extend from ~400 yrs ago to the present (Fig. 7.1). This
time span is well short of that required to obtain a valid time-averaged magnetic
field, the characteristics of which must be incorporated into any valid theory
for the origin of the geomagnetic field.
When SV of the geomagnetic field is averaged out over several thousand
years, the field can be modelled as a geocentric axial dipole, i.e. a dipole at the
centre of the Earth aligned along the Earth’s rotational axis. If this was true
throughout the geological past, then palaeomagnetic measurements can be
related to geographic position, provided that results are averaged over a
sufficiently long time range. This assumption is fundamental to the application
of palaeomagnetism to geological and geophysical problems, and is therefore
important to examine the characteristics of SV in the geological past and
determine its effects on palaeomagnetic measurements. The two techniques,
which are used to investigate the SV during pre-observational times, are: (1)
archaeomagnetism and (2) palaeomagnetism.
Figure 7.1. A stereographic projection of secular variation of declination and inclination

since 1000 at London from observatory (solid curve) and archaeomagnetic (dashed
curve) data (courtesy: Jacobs, v1, 1987).
294 Geomagnetism
II. Historical Indirect Measurements and Archaeomagnetism

As observatory studies of the geomagnetic field only extend back for 400 years,
it is only relatively recent ‘magnetized’ material that can be dated by direct
comparison with observatory record. The extension of such records over
archaeological time, therefore, requires archaeomagnetic observations based
on well-dated magnetized materials. Measurements of the SV during historic
time are made using archaeomagnetism; the palaeomagnetism of archaeological
specimens. Pottery, kilns and pots acquire thermoremanent magnetization
(TRM) parallel to the geomagnetic field existing at the time they are fired. The
TRM is the magnetization acquired by magnetic minerals as a result of cooling
from a higher temperature (>TC of the mineral than the normal temperatures).
Such magnetization is stable against mechanical, thermal and other external
influences. If the objects are found at the actual position of firing, then both the
declination and inclination of the palaeomagnetic field can be determined. If
the objects are pottery or bricks, not in the position of firing, then only the
inclination can be found. By dating the hearths, and hence the magnetizations
archaeologically or by radiocarbon methods on associated material,
archaeomagnetic measurements yielded results about the properties of the
geomagnetic field during the last 30,000 years and a SV pattern up to ~2,000
years for southern India (Fig. 7.2).
Since archaeological materials normally record events such as firing at a
specific point and time, most archaeomagnetic records are intermittent in both
space and time. Over the past few thousand years, many world civilizations
have produced artifacts such as kilns, helping to record the EMF at the place,
and time they are baked (Fig. 7.2). However, it is not possible to extend the
observations back in geological time using artifacts because such well dated
materials closely spaced in time are not available.
III. Geological Past Indirect Measurements and

Palaeomagnetism
The history of geomagnetic field can be extended into the geological past
through the study of NRM, since natural material can record its ancient direction
and intensity. If one can find such materials, reconstruct their palaeo-orientation,
measure their remanent magnetization, and date the time of acquisition of the
magnetization, then one can trace the geomagnetic field in the past.
Palaeomagnetists have assembled a remarkable picture of the ancient
geomagnetic field using such fossil remanent magnetizations from many parts
of the world, and for ages ranging back to those of the very oldest rocks found
on Earth. The materials studied are the youngest lava sequence, sedimentary
sequence and rocks.
(i) Remanent magnetism of lava sequences: Volcanic rocks are heated well
above the TC, so the magnetization is free to align with the external magnetic
Figure 7.2. (a) Sketch showing reversed and normal patterns of Earth’s magnetic field
over 30 ka and present times (Press and Siever, 2002). (b) The Tamilnadu palaeointensity
secular variation curve estimated using Thellier and modified Shaw methods. Error
bars give the standard error of the mean for each site. Inset shows yearly mean intensity
of EMF calculated from Annamalainagar and Pondicherry MOs data from 1964 to
2005 together with IGRF model since AD 1900. The horizontal dashed line
indicates the present day field intensity (courtesy: Ramaswamy and Duraiswamy).
field, and retains it as the rock cools. The processes by which lavas become
magnetized are well founded in the theory of TRM. Secular variation of the
geomagnetic field may be reflected in small differences in the remanent
magnetism of sequential lava flows. The results of measurements on historically
dated lavas are used in conjunction with archaeomagnetism for the extension
of observatory data. Dating lava flows of the remote past involve errors, which
are large in comparison with the SV time scale; therefore in such cases only
the sequence of geomagnetic directions can be determined.
296 Geomagnetism
(ii) Remanent magnetism of sediment sequences: The magnetic particles of

sedimentary rocks align themselves with their magnetic axis parallel to the
ambient magnetic field during their process of deposition, and give rise to
detrital remanent magnetization (DRM). The magnetization acquisition process
is still not well understood, and the role of the complex interplay of processes
occurring during deposition, water-sediment interface processes, burial, and
compaction requires further analysis (Fig. 7.3a). The magnetic polarity positions
of sediments (normal and reversed) represent changes in the direction of EMF
at the time of deposition of particles of the sediments. The speed of deposition
of marine sediments is estimated to be 0.5 to 3.0 mm/ka. If the rate of sediment
deposition is slow, then the DRM of a small sediment sample indicates the
geomagnetic field at one instant on the SV timescale. If the deposition is
continuous, SV may be represented by an upward variation in remanent
magnetism of the sediment sequence. For most sedimentary rocks, as with
lava flows, it is difficult to establish an accurate timescale. In the case of varves,
however, it is generally assumed that one pair of laminae correspond to the
annual deposit. Studies of lake sediments produce palaeomagnetic picture
extending the historical documented observations of the geomagnetic field
further back in time. The palaeomagnetic directions have discovered field
reversals of SVs, possessing periods of 10 ka, and also revealed the essentially
dipolar character of the geomagnetic field throughout the time span covered
by the geological record. Correlation of G18O records with the marine isotopic
stages can provide high-resolution age control through a reversal. Such records
provide information regarding the age, timing, and duration of polarity
transitions.
(iii) Remanent magnetism of rocks and origin of palaeomagnetism: Rocks
of all ages with ancient fields ‘fossilized’ into them are significant sources of
palaeomagnetism. The fact that rocks acquire the ambient magnetic field at the
time of their formation was recognized by Gilbert in 1600. When solidification
process passes through temperature ranges below TC, magnetic minerals acquire
permanent magnetization in the direction of the ambient field (Chapter 2).
Magnetite, for instance, acquires magnetization below its TC (Fig. 7.3b), and this
is the ‘spot reading’ of the Earth’s field. This is because the time needed for
magnetic minerals to crystallize out of the magma through different temperature
ranges is short compared to the time needed for significant changes to occur in
the core-generated main field. A series of such extrusive rocks give a series of
‘spot readings’ of the field. In general, the field recorded this way is the
geomagnetic field at that site, and the differences noted between individual ‘spot
readings’ are a measure of the amount of change in the geomagnetic field.
Some researchers have inferred correlations between changes in Earth’s
orbital parameters, and geomagnetic field variations. The outstanding question
concerns the very ancient geomagnetic field. The field is known to have existed
for 3.5 Ga, suggesting it is continuously regenerated. However, polarity reversals
are documented from as early as 1.5 Ga.
Figure 7.3. (a) Magnetization resulting from sedimentation process referred to as

depositional or detrital remanent magnetization (DRM), and chemical remanent
magnetization (CRM). (b) Above the Curie point (here for magnetite), atoms take
random directions unlike below the Curie point in the presence of an external magnetic
field, where domains line up (http://www.phys.uu.nl/~sommer/master/geopotential%
20fields/).
IV. The Pioneers Who Shaped Palaeomagnetism

Humboldt was the first to describe magnetism of rocks from a serpentinite
outcrop in Germany. Later in 1848, Joseph Fournet wrote a summary entitled
‘Glimpses on the magnetism of ores and rocks and on the causes of some
anomalies in terrestrial magnetism’ providing all experimental procedures and
description of magnetic ores and rocks. He prognostically suggested avoiding
crystalline rocks in favour of limestone terrain to locate the MO since they
affect the instruments and the readings. Delesse experimentally analyzed the
magnetism of rocks and minerals, and defined for the first time in 1849, the
notion of coercivity. He found coercivity depending on chemical composition,
and was zero for soft iron, which increased through the addition of O, S, P, Si,
and C to iron. He also deciphered shock sometimes increased magnetic power,
and asserted recent lava flows are uniformly magnetized in alignment to the
local EMF.
Macedonio Melloni built a very sensitive astatic magnetometer, and
established permanent magnetization of 108 different species of volcanic rocks.
298 Geomagnetism
According to him, to study the intensity of EMF, the magnetic state of a specimen
is important, and not the amount of material. He also explored the origin of
TRM by heating and cooling fragments of lava to propose in 1853, ‘the general
law of permanent magnetization of lavas’. Later on, Sidot in 1868 announced
that the direction of magnetization coincides with that of the applied field, and
not the crystallographic axes of the material.
Giuseppe Folgheraiter followed Melloni, and showed that Melloni’s
inferences on Vesuvias lavas can be extended to other rock types also. He in
1894 was the first to distinguish between permanent and induced magnetization,
and also first to recognize viscous remanent magnetization (VRM). He showed
that on heating, material remagnetizes and transforms hematite to magnetite.
He also laid down the foundations of archaeomagnetism by displaying the
variations of inclination between 800 BC and 100 AD from Greek and Etruscan
vases.
Later, Bernard Brunhes and Pierre David worked on natural bricks baked
by overlying lava flow to find their magnetization to be homogeneous, but
different from the recent field orientation at the site. This magnetization, they
believed to be the EMF at the time when the volcanic flow transformed the
clay into brick. Brunhes and David then turned their attention to lavas, since
baked clays besides being rare were found to be strongly magnetic, had similar
directions, and gave less homogeneous results. From a Royat quarry, they
discovered two flows sandwiching a clay layer, wherein the flow at the bottom
had a different direction from the overlying clay and flow layer. David also
studied trachyte-made flagstones at the temple of Mercury on top of Puy-de-
Dome, and found from several samples taken from the same slab dissimilar D,
but identical I, helping locate the quarries from where the slabs had been
extracted throwing up an archaeological application.
Brunhes discovered magnetic reversals in 1905, when he studied together:
(1) an outcrop of basalt flow, and (2) baked clay under that flow near Pontfarein
in Cantal, France, to find both having same negative I of –75°. The rocks
collected some 100 m away from them, though had different magnetization.
He reasoned that the long horizontal layer of metamorphic clay could not have
turned upside down, because the lava that cooked it would have found below,
and not above, leading conclusively to the concept of magnetic reversals.
Pierre Curie discovered in 1895 that magnetic susceptibility varied inversely
with absolute temperature. The fact that TRM in lavas was much more intense
than isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM), was discovered in 1909 by
George Allen. Paul Langevin published his theory of paramagnetism in 1910,
and the theory of ferromagnetism was published in 1911 by Pierre-Ernst Weiss.
Further in 1926, Mercanton insisted on the stability of reversed magnetizations
for past geological ages in both the hemispheres leading to the understanding
of magnetic poles undergoing ‘enormous displacements’. This is the first clear
statement that workers in the field of palaeomagnetism could demonstrate and
measure polar wander, and/or continental drift. He also described the first
magnetostratigraphic section of three reversals in Tertiary lavas. Raymond

Chevallier determined SV of D in Sicily based on some 100 blocks from 10
distinct lava flows for the time-frame between 1200 and 1900 AD. Motonori
Matuyama of Japan showed for samples from Manchuria and Japan that their
magnetizations were arranged in two groups, a Pleistocene being normal (N),
and pre-Pleistocene, reversed (R). In 1933, Johann Koenigsberger showed the
importance of magnetite and maghemite as carriers of natural remanent
magnetization (NRM), and proposed the first theory for TRM that led to
formulation of techniques to ascertain confidence in palaeomagnetic
measurements.
Emile Thellier’s lasting contribution to rock and palaeomagnetic laboratory
practice was the development of cleaning methods, and palaeointensity
determinations which revealed the differences in behaviour of IRM versus
TRM. Thellier used astatic magnetometer to measure the induced and remanent
magnetization of baked and unbaked clays as far back as 1932. He also was
the one to propose his famous sampling technique for large rocks or
archaeomagnetic samples using a cover or ‘hat’ of Plaster of Paris. He also
established the existence of VRM in basalts. Lake sediment studies of
palaeosecular variation were undertaken by many scientists like Gustaf Ising
who found SVs of 10° in D, and 20° in I when studying lake varves in Sweden
dated from a period of ~350 years. Juliette Roquet, in 1954, performed the
first systematic study of grain size dependence of TRM. Louis Néel wrote his
first paper on ferromagnetism in 1949, and in the same year, John Graham
introduced field stability tests, like fold and conglomerate tests. Along the same
time, Graham and Torreson developed a very sensitive spinner magnetometer
able to measure very weak magnetization.
V. Sampling, Laboratory Experiments and NRM

Measurements
The palaeomagnetic method involves: (1) collecting oriented samples, (2)
determining their direction of remanent magnetization, (3) confirming the
stability of remanence, (4) establishing ChRM, (5) ascertaining characteristic
components related to the EMF direction during rock formation, and (6)
determining age of ChRM from established palaeomagnetic data with reliable
radiometric absolute ages.
(i) Primary and secondary remanence: When magnetic grains alter by
oxidation to, for example, hematite, or by oxidation and hydration to minerals
such as goethite, the original magnetization is replaced by a later or ‘secondary’
magnetization in a process called remagnetization. Often, such alteration or
weathering leaves some original magnetite untouched, and surrounded by
younger oxides or oxyhydroxides. The resulting magnetization is now a
composite of ancient (‘primary’), and secondary components. In sediments,
the primary remanence is usually a DRM acquired when ferromagnetic particles
300 Geomagnetism
are aligned in the geomagnetic field during deposition. In sedimentary rocks,

dewatering during the prolonged process of lithification usually has enhanced
the alignment of these grains with the geomagnetic field to produce a post-
depositional detrital magnetization (PDRM). Lightning reaching the ground is
capable of inducing magnetization in rocks in a very strong, essentially
instantaneous magnetic field. This is called isothermal remanent magnetization
(IRM), and can completely obscure the primary remanence. Meteorites are
extraterrestrial samples that can acquire a secondary shock remanent
magnetization (SRM), both in the event that excavated the material from the
parent body, and during impact at arrival on Earth.
(ii) Isolation of NRM components using demagnetization: A major task in
all palaeomagnetic investigations is to identify and separate the magnetic
components in the NRM using a range of demagnetization and analysis
procedures. Hence, the laboratory measurements and the Zijderveld plots arise
from the need to separate these different components from each other in a
process called stepwise demagnetization. Such alternating field or thermal
demagnetization is done in a zero magnetic field, provided by a shielded room,
lest the samples acquire a new magnetization during treatment (Fig. 7.4a,b).
The MAgnetic VACuum System (MAVACS) used for thermal cleaning, which
produces magnetic field free space in a 5-litre volume to an accuracy better
than 2 nT is shown in Fig. 7.5. The characteristic remanent magnetization
(ChRM) is the earliest acquired component of magnetization that can be isolated.
Interestingly, a secondary magnetization need not be thought of as totally
useless. In certain situations, a secondary magnetization’s direction can be
compared with known directions for the geological past, and allows one thereby
to date the event that caused the rocks to acquire a secondary component of
magnetization. Hence, both primary and secondary components in a rock can
record geological events, e.g. the time of formation, metamorphism, or an impact
Figure 7.4. Schematic behaviour of a remanent magnetization during: (a) AF (alternating

field) demagnetization, and (b) thermal demagnetization. H: maximum intensity of the
alternating magnetic field, TH: maximum heating temperature, TC: Curie temperature
(courtesy: Soffel).
Figure 7.5. The magnetic vacuum system (MAVACS) that creates a ‘magnetic vacuum’
in which thermal cleaning is carried out to get at the ‘primary component’ to infer the
direction and intensity of the ancient magnetic field.
event, and are of interest in unraveling the geological history. Depending on

the intensity, and duration of the events responsible for secondary
magnetizations (also known as overprints), the secondary component may partly
or completely reset the primary magnetization.
Typically there is also significant effort put in to date the magnetizations
so that not only the detection of the magnetic field at that particular sampling
site is known, but also the time when the field was in that direction. Many of
the successful applications of palaeomagnetism are derived from an effective
partnership with geochronology.
(iii) Reliability and improvements in palaeomagnetic analysis: Geological
processes like metamorphism during geological history of rock formation may
cause remagnetization resulting in the reset of initial magnetization at younger
age than the age of rock formation. This leads to erroneous age dating
interpretations. A number of tests exist that can constrain the age of
magnetization. If a baked contact next to an intrusion has a magnetization that
is the same as that of the intrusion (because this baked margin was thermally
re-magnetized at the same time as the intrusion was emplaced), and if the host
rock far away from the intrusion carries a different magnetization, then this
‘positive’ contact test provides evidence that the magnetization of the country
rock is older than the magnetization in the intrusion. Similar (fold-,
302 Geomagnetism
conglomerate-) tests exist in other geometrical situations, and collectively such

tests provide several key poles with a high reliability factor. This factor is an
invention of Van der Voo, who in the late 1980’s felt the need to come up with
a parameter that quantified the relative reliability of a given result. It has since
become a widely used quality component.
Another assessment method involves the use of electron microscopy.
Knowledge about the minerals that are potential carriers of the magnetization
is tremendously important as palaeomagnetists try to decide how and when the
magnetization was acquired. For magnetite, for instance, its primary nature
may be revealed by its titanium content, whereas its magnetic stability can be
deduced from the grain size. Grains that are larger than several micrometres
(Pm) are usually not able to preserve an ancient remanent magnetization.
Instead, it is the fine magnetic grains of ~0.05 Pm that are important. Such
grains cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope, but with scanning and
transmission electron microscopy, it is possible to build up the magnetization
history of a large variety of rock types. Combined with modern rock magnetic
research, these studies have been truly pioneering and promise to become a
standard component in future studies.
VI. Palaeomagnetic Data from India

The Indian sub-continent has a northward drift, which can be understood
precisely by measurement of stable remanent magnetization of well dated rocks.
Palaeomagnetic study of Indian rocks was first carried out by Cleg, Deutch
and Blackett. Subsequently, palaeomagnetic measurements of a few
Precambrian rocks, Tertiary-Mesozoic formations (Deccan and Rajmahal traps),
and Gondwana sediments were carried out. The geographical distribution of
various formations studied, and the approximate sampling locations are shown
in Fig. 7.6, and their palaeomagnetic data are given in Appendix 7.2.
The scarce data show that there is room for rectifying anomalies regarding:
(1) Precambrian results with lack of reliable radiometric ages, (2) large gap of
~45 Ma in the Indian Cretaceous palaeomagnetic data between Rajmahal Traps
(110 to 115 Ma), and the Deccan Traps (65 Ma), (3) the precise age, duration,
and extent of Deccan magmatism, (4) detailed magnetostratigraphy of
Cretaceous basins of the western and eastern parts of India for delineating
accurate ages, (5) lack of palaeomagnetic data across different cratons of the
Indian sub-continent, (6) establishing Indian sub-continent to be an
amalgamation of smaller plates, or a single unit, (7) synclinal rotation of the
Himalayas in the NE region, and (8) tectonic and orogenic upliftment of the
Himalayas, and the effect on monsoon initiation. In order to address several
neglected palaeomagnetic issues, few laboratories were established especially
at Allahabad and Navi Mumbai, which are operated by IIG.
1. Pavagadh 11. Himgir sandstones

2. Deccan traps 12. Vindhyan sandstones
3. Tirupathi sandstones 13. Malani rhyolites
4. Satyavedu sandstones 14. Mundwara complex
5. Rajmahal traps 15. B.H.Q. and B.H.J.
6. Rajmahendri traps 16. Bijwal traps
7. Sylhet traps 17. Veldurti hematites
8. Dykes from Palamau etc. 18. Chitlor dykes
9. Parsoa sandstones 19. Cuddapah sandstones and shales
10. Kamthi sandstones 20. Hyderabad dyke
Figure 7.6. Geographical distribution of the various geological formations used in

palaeomagnetic studies and the approximate locations of sampling sites. The sites are
classified into Tertiary-Mesozoic volcanic activity, sedimentary rocks belonging to
Gondwana system and Precambrian formations based on the ages of rocks studied and
the dispersion in their magnetic directions shown in Appendix 7.2 (courtesy: Athavale
and his coworkers).
304 Geomagnetism
7.2 PALAEOLATITUDE, POLE POSITION, APPARENT

POLAR WANDER PATH
I. Geocentric Axial Dipole Hypothesis
Palaeomagnetic data analysis mainly deal with: (1) obtaining ChRM related to
ancient EMF of a particular sampled rock formation, (2) gaining statistically
significant data, (3) determining age of ChRM component, and (4) expressing
magnetic field directions in geographical coordinates. For this purpose, some
constant feature associated with the geomagnetic field is required to provide a
reference system on a geological timescale. This reference system then forms
the basis for comparing the palaeomagnetic results obtained from different
landmasses. Based on numerous studies on rocks of ages ranging from recent
to ~5.0 Ma, it has been found that EMF averaged for a period of 10 ka or more,
can be assumed to be due to a geocentric axial dipole (Fig. 7.7a) coinciding
with the geographical N-S axis of the Earth. Thus at any point on the surface of
the Earth, the time-averaged palaeomagnetic latitude (O) is equal to the
geographic latitude (Fig. 7.7b). This is the most important assumption in
palaeomagnetic studies, which enables to compare the pole position of different
continental masses of a given age for the reconstruction of their relative
orientations in the geological past. This assumption of the existence of geocentric
dipole is in contravention to the one made in geomagnetic studies. In
geomagnetic studies, the axial dipole field is known to make an angle D.
Therefore, palaeomagnetic studies allow the determination of the palaeolatitude
of the sampled area from inclination and orientation of the ancient pole
(palaeomagnetic pole) from declination and inclination.
Figure 7.7. (a) The field of a geocentric axial dipole (where m - magnetic moment, a -
Earth’s radius, H, Z, F - horizontal, vertical components and total field at latitude O).
(b) Variation of inclination with latitude for a geocentric dipole (courtesy: McElhinny).
II. Palaeolatitude
The remanent magnetization acquired by either TRM of igneous, CRM of
metamorphic or DRM of sediments is parallel to the ambient EMF at the time
of their formation. Palaeolatitude can be calculated from the mean inclination
of NRM. To find out the latitudinal location, and the polarity of geomagnetic
field (N or R) at the time of rock formation (Fig. 7.7c), the equation (tan Os =
0.5 tan I) is used. In this equation, Os denotes palaeolatitude of the sampling
site, and I is the mean inclination of the magnetization acquired in that particular
rock formation.
Figure 7.7c. Sketch of lavas (A-C) located at three different latitudes showing normal
and reversed magnetizations (http://www.phys.uu.nl/~sommer/master/geopotential%
20fields/).
By pooling together the inclination values of the remanent magnetization

of Deccan rock samples with those of the dipolar field in Fig. 7.8a, the ancient
geographical latitude of India can be determined. For instance, the NRM
directions (D and I) of Deccan traps, particularly in terms of their mean
inclinations, display variations: 64° upward in Jurassic, 60° upward in
Cretaceous, 26° upward in the early Tertiary, and 17° downwards in middle
Tertiary (Fig. 7.8a). It must be noted that the upward inclinations indicate the
sampling site in the southern hemisphere, whereas downward inclinations
suggest the site to be in the northern hemisphere with respect to the present
day normal polarity, which can be related to the distribution of inclination of
dipolar field at various latitudes of the Earth (Fig. 7.8a). In Fig. 7.8b, the dotted
arrow represents the inclination value for Jurassic basalt in India, while the
solid arrow represents that of the dipolar field. In order to make the two arrows
coincide, one must place India around point J in the southern hemisphere. If
Mumbai is taken as the reference point, which is today located at 19°N,
obviously this must have been located at 40°S in the Jurassic as revealed from
Fig. 7.8b. The ancient latitudes for India for four geological periods (Jurassic,
Cretaceous, early Tertiary and middle Tertiary) are computed and displayed in
306 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.8. (a) Inclination values of the NRM of the dipolar field at various latitudes of
the Earth. (b) The dotted arrow represents I value of the Jurassic basalt in India, while
the solid arrow represents that of the dipole. In order to make the two arrows coincide,
one needs to place India around point J in the southern hemisphere. If Mumbai is taken
as reference point which is today located at 19oN, obviously this must have been located
at 40oS in the Jurassic. (c) Ancient latitudes for India for other geological periods are
computed. Mean inclinations display variations: 64o upward in Jurassic, 60o upward in
Cretaceous, 26o upward in the early Tertiary and 17o downwards in middle Tertiary
(courtesy: Deutsch).
Fig. 7.8c, which clearly shows that India moved northward for ~700 km, perhaps
at the rate of a few cm/year since Jurassic.
III. Palaeomagnetic Poles and Apparent Polar Wander Path

The basic criteria for a key palaeomagnetic pole are: (1) Age of the palaeopole:
The palaeopole should be demonstrated to be primary and the rock-unit precisely
and accurately dated. (2) Quality of the palaeopole: The primary palaeomagnetic
remanence needs properly isolated, secular variation averaged out, and where
necessary, correction made for tilting. When the angles of D and I are measured,
the position of the palaeomagnetic pole can be calculated (see Appendix 7.1).
Table 7.1 shows formation mean directions and calculated pole positions for
four sites from A to D. Palaeomagnetic measurements are made on rocks of
different geological ages and continental areas with their mean pole positions
given in Table 7.2. If palaeomagnetic pole positions are obtained from rocks of
different ages on the same continent, these poles can be plotted. Such a plot is
called an apparent polar wander path (APWP) (Fig. 7.8d-g) and shows how
the magnetic pole moved relative to that continent. If such APWPs from two
continents coincide, then the two continents cannot have moved relative to
each other during the times shown. However, if the paths differ, there must
have been relative motion between the continents. This is because these
continents have drifted with respect to each other, as well as relative to the
rotation axis of the Earth. Each of the several continents has its own APWP
Table 7.1 Formation mean directions (A to D) and their computed pole positions
Natural Remnant Magnetization (NRM) Site positions Pole positions

Site Before AF After AF Latitude Os Longitude Is Latitude Op Longitude Ip
ID demagnetization demagnetization
Declination Inclination Declination Inclination N E N E
A 151.3 51.6 155.1 48.7 16.37 73.84 38.0 281.6
B 356.9 –39.8 351.2 -52.5 15.95 74.02 40.2 263.7
C 132.9 68.1 161.8 39.1 19.25 74.83 45.0 279.0
D 317.3 –55.0 300.5 -54.7 20.91 77.86 10.4 303.6
Table 7.2 Position of the north magnetic pole in different periods as determined by palaeomagnetic studies
North Europe Russian Siberian Africa South Australia India

America platform platform America
Tertiary U 87N, 140E 80N, 157E 78N, 191E 66N, 234E 87N, 152E 82N, 62E 77N, 275E
L 85N, 197E 75N, 151E 68N, 192E 57N, 152E 85N, 186E 70N, 306E
Cretaceous 64N, 187E 86N, 0E 66N, 166E 77N, 176E 61N, 260E 78N, 236E 53N, 329E 22N, 295E
Jurassic 76N, 142E 36N, 50E 65N, 138E 65N, 262E 84N, 256E 48N, 331E
Triassic 62N, 100E 45N, 143E 51N, 154E 47N, 151E 80N, 71E 20N, 308E
Permian 46N, 117E 45N, 160E 44N, 162E 34N, 144E 27N, 269E 60N, 180E 7S, 304E
Carboniferous U 37N, 126E 38N, 161E 43N, 168E 46N, 220E 46N, 315E 26S, 312E
L 22N, 168E 26N, 206E 43N, 151E 73N, 34E
Devonian 29N, 123E 0N, 136E 36N, 162E 28N, 151E 72N, 174E
Experimental Geomagnetism
Silurian 28N, 149E 24N, 139E 54N, 91E

Ordovician 28N, 192E 10N, 176E 25S, 131E 24S, 165E 11S, 143E 2N, 188E
307
Cambrian 7N, 140E 22N, 167E 8N, 189E 36S, 127E 28N, 212E
308 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.8. (d) Successive rock layers. (e) Movement of poles from 600 Ma to present.
(f) APWP derived fixing the continent. (g) Continental drift keeping pole position fixed
(http://www.phys.uu.nl/ ~sommer/master/geopotential%20fields/).
curve altogether different from that of other continents, but all converging at
the present-day pole. The only plausible alternative, therefore, is that the
continents have migrated their position during the geological period.
Comparison of APWPs from different continents enables observation of their
ancient juxtaposition. Their reconstructions can be compared and improved
using palaeontological, geochronological, geomorphological and structural data.
IV. Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics views the whole Earth as a dynamic system in which internal
heat drives lithospheric plates in relative motion with respect to each other
(Chapter 2). Palaeomagnetism enables to view continental movements in the

past, viz. changes in latitude and orientation relative to the geographic poles.
The worldwide efforts led to the discovery of polarity reversals of the EMF
over geological history and thus the realization that the seafloor acts as a tape
recorder of the Earth’s magnetic reversals and polar wandering (Chapter 2). In
particular, the polar wandering is the interpretation given to the observation
that the magnetic pole (and the geographic pole) has moved extensively in the
geologic past.
According to the GAD model, when averaged over time, magnetic north
is geographic north. There are simple relationships between the geographic
latitude and the angle I of the EMF, which are applied to plate reconstruction
and palaeogeography. Palaeomagnetic data can be used to find latitude and N-
S orientation of the palaeocontinents. Palaeolatitude changes calculated from
palaeomagnetic data are consistent with palaeoclimatic changes; the distribution
of various palaeoclimatic indicators is latitude dependent. Although it is not
possible to assign longitudinal position to the palaeocontinents, the relative
positions of the continents around the globe can often be pieced together by
matching the shapes of APWPs.
There are two principal ways of summarizing palaeomagnetic data for a
given region. One approach is to construct palaeogeographic maps of the region
for different geologic periods. A much simpler way is to plot successive positions
of palaeomagnetic pole for a given continent from epoch to epoch on present
latitude-longitude grid. By careful gathering the available palaeomagnetic,
geological and geophysical data and integrating them, Earth scientists are testing
new hypotheses about smaller scale, intracontinental deformation. It is important
to realize the crucial role that palaeomagnetic studies have played in providing
the tectonic framework that guides geological investigation and interpretation.
7.3 MAGNETOCHRONOLOGY
Palaeomagnetic dating and graphic correlation methods take advantage of the
fact that the EMF varies over time and this variation is recorded by the rocks.
The magnetic field has two stages, normal and reversed. One of the most
fascinating characteristics of the EMF is that the dipole undergoes complete
polarity reversals a few times every million years on average. The intervals
between reversals have a stable normal or reversed polarity and are called
subchrons, chrons, and superchrons, depending on their duration. Analysis of
rocks of increasing age allows to trace the history of the magnetic field and
palaeomagnetism can be used as a chronological tool: the polarity, direction
and intensity are compared with reference curves and the rock’s relative age is
derived. Methods and techniques differ according to the age and thus the time
resolution needed as described below.
310 Geomagnetism
I. Secular Variation Magnetostratigraphy

Earth’s field can be divided on a broad spectrum of time variations as shown in
Fig. 7.9a. The horizontal scale represents a temporal change, whereas the vertical
line height gives relative magnitudes of each type of magnetic field contribution.
These temporal intensity and directional changes are due to internal and external
sources of field (details in Chapters 1 and 3). Changes in geomagnetic direction
useful for dating are of two types; generally assumed to be caused by fluid
motion in the core reflecting antiparallel directions (180° of D and opposite
sign of I). The first type relates to polarity reversals having periods on the
order of 106 years, and these polarity intervals are called chrons. There are also
short N and R intervals, whose duration lies between 104 and 105 years, called
subchrons. During a polarity reversal, the intensity of the field drops to ~10 to
20%, then increases again. The last one occured ~780 ka ago (Chapter 2, Fig.
7.12). The second type is called secular changes, whose periods are from 102
to 103 years. These are minor (fleeting) changes in the nondipole part of the
field, whose D and I changes to the extent of ~30o, and are recognizable over
regions of ‘continental extent’.
SV master curves provide rapid means of dating sediment sequences by
matching the fluctuations with a previously dated SV record. This approach,
however, is much more difficult to apply than that of polarity reversals because:
(1) geomagnetic secular variations are not uniformily global, (2) SV records
are generally based on lake sediments, which are exceedingly difficult to date
Figure 7.9a. Internal and external temporal changes in the magnetic field observed on
the surface of the Earth are represented in this figure. The amplitudes of the shorter-
period changes are exaggerated relative to the secular change and reversals (http://
www.grisda.org/origins/10018.htm).
Figure 7.9b. Regional Holocene declination and inclination master curves for South
Australia, SA; North America, NA; western Europe, WE; eastern Europe, EE; Near
East, NE; East Asia, EA and north Pacific, NP. Curves based on data from different
sources given in Thompson and Oldfield, 1986.
with better than 10% accuracy, and (3) SV patterns with amplitudes of ~20°
are more susceptible to noise than polarity changes of 180°. Secular I
fluctuations are large and significant at low latitudes, whereas secular D changes
are prominent at high latitudes, hence are used for dating purposes in the
respective regions (Fig. 7.9b, Table 7.3). The SV records of both D and I from
seven regions of the world (Fig. 7.3b) are useful for dating applications of
magnetostratigraphy within the past 10 ka. These patterns of SV can be used
as master curves for dating newly acquired palaeomagnetic records.
Sediments and volcanic rock record several types of magnetic archive of
interest to palaeolimnologists. At the longest timescales, a record of polarity
reversals is preserved and identified in lake deposits, providing absolute age
information. However, the binary nature of magnetic reversals (N or R) implies
that some independent means need to be employed to infer polarity transition
in a particular sequence of lake beds. In practice, this is usually done by cross-
312 Geomagnetism
correlation with some other source of age information such as biostratigraphical

or radiometric dates (Table 7.3).
Table 7.3. Ages of magnetostratigraphic features (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986)
SA* NA WE EE NE EA NP
Declination
a< 300 - 140 160 220 0 900
b 680 100 450 300 700 700 1100
c 1300 750 600 600 850 1200 1800
d 2000 1200 1000 1400 1300 1650 2150
e 2800 2000 2000 2200 1900 2200 3200
f 3500 2400 2600 3100 2100 3100 3900
g 4500 4000 4900 5700 2400 4400 4400
h 5500 5900 7100 6500 3200 5100 5300
i 8300 7000 8300 7600 5600 7300 5600
j 9000 7900 9100 8000 - - 6000
k - 9000 10000 8700 - - 8350
l - - - 9000 - - 8900
Inclination
D - 50 240 300 300 - 200
E - 420 650 600 550 400 2150
J 400 750 1150 1300 700 760 3500
G 900 1200 1650 1900 900 1000 4700
H 1900 2300 3100 2600 1400 1300 5100
9 2600 2900 3800 4600 2000 1550 5800
K 3200 3700 4300 5500 3600 1750 7000
T 3600 4400 5000 6400 5300 2800 8200
L 4600 5300 6000 7200 - 4100 8950
N 6000 6600 7100 7800 - 4600 9800
O 6800 7700 8300 8600 - 5100 -
P 7900 8400 8800 - - 5600 -
Q 8600 9600 9700 - - 6600 -
[ 10000 - - - - - -
* SA South Australia (35°S 140°E) based on Barton and McElhinny (1981)
NA North America (45°N 90°W) based on Banerjee et al. (1979)
WE Western Europe (55°N 05°W) based on Turner and Thompson (1981)
EE Eastern Europe (60°N 30°E) based on Huttunen and Stober (1980)
NE Near East (30°N 35°E) based on Thompson et al. (1985)
EA Eastern Asia (35°N 140°E) based on Horie et al. (1980)
NP North Pacific (20°N 155°W) based on McWilliams et al. (1982)
<
a to l declination turning points. D to [ inclination turning points. Ages tabulated in
calibrated 14C years BP. The EA ages are rather poorly known, based here on a linear
interpolation between the basal tephra layer and the archaeomagnetic features
preserved in the upper sediments. Errors in 14C ages at all the sites possibly amount
to several hundred years. Labelling of the palaeomagnetic features is purely for
convenience of reference. Any likenesses in ages or in shapes of similarly labelled
features are probably chance occurrences, unlikely to be duplicated in other parts of
the world.
II. Magnetostratigraphy and Geomagnetic Polarity

Timescale (GPTS)
Magnetostratigraphy refers to the description, correlation, and dating of rock
sequences by means of magnetic polarity reversals. Remanent magnetic
moments measured on field-oriented rock specimens along sedimentary strata
enable to determine polarity reversals of EMF during the time interval of
deposition of those particular sedimentary strata called magnetostratigraphy.
One of the most fascinating characteristics of the EMF is that the dipole
undergoes complete polarity reversals a few times every million years on
average. The intervals between reversals have a stable normal or reversed
polarity and are called subchrons, chrons, and superchrons, depending on their
duration. They define characteristic pattern of polarity zones through time and,
as such, form a fundamental tool for dating of the geological record: the
geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS).
In a sequence of rock formations, each polarity intervals are called
magnetozones. Magnetozones of alternating polarity yield magnetic polarity
stratigraphy. This form of magnetostratigraphy plays an important role in the
construction of GPTS. The association of radiometric ages with key
biostratigraphic stage boundaries, which are correlated by magnetostratigraphy
to the marine polarity record, yields a dated GPTS.
Exact stratigraphic correlation of normally, and reversely magnetized strata
from all over the world assumes significance. The potassium-argon (K-Ar)
technique has made it possible to precisely date volcanic rocks of known
polarities helping to compare polarity patterns in a stratigraphic column to
define its age. This is therefore an indirect dating method, since recognition of
polarity reversals alone does not provide an estimate of age. Palaeontological
analyses based on ammonites, foraminifera, or nanofossils define a
biostratigraphy that is tied to the magnetostratigraphy.
Since continental volcanic activity is essentially an intermittent process, a
continuous sequence of the entire history of polarity changes is not possible.
However, marine magnetic anomalies at the mid-oceanic ridges give a
continuous pattern, and order of polarity reversals from Mesozoic (~200 Ma)
to the present. The age of polarity reversals is determined from the sea-floor
spreading model, and age of marine magnetic anomalies on the basis of
hypothesis of Vine and Matthews. The extrapolation of this timescale enables
isochrons to be drawn on the ocean floor up to 2000 to 3000 km from the ridge
axis. This permits correlation of anomalies of specific number, and age from
one ocean to the other helping to erect a Mesozoic-Cenozoic polarity timescale.
Microfossils also help in establishing polarity timescale. For example, to
test the polarity chron 25 (this pertains to marine magnetic anomaly numbering
system) of early Palaeocene age, a core is drilled through the sediment
containing marine magnetic anomaly 25. This core when studied should contain
microfossils of the same age (early Paleocene) as determined from magnetic
314 Geomagnetism
anomalies. Palaeontological dating of deep sea sediment cores puts a strong

constraint on the polarity timescale. A polarity superchron for Phanerozoic
and Proterozoic is given in Fig. 7.10.
To use a geomagnetic timescale to date the oceanic plates, it is necessary
to recognize specific anomalies. The prominent anomalies up to age 83 Ma are
numbered from one to thirty-three. For ages 125-162 Ma, they are labelled
with the prefix M (M standing for Mesozoic). Particularly prominent is the
long magnetic quiet zone in the Cretaceous (83-124 Ma numbered C34), during
which no reversals occurred. Information for construction of GPTS is lacking
for older periods (oldest oceanic crust that still exists is ~200 Ma), and hence
determination of polarity timescale beyond 200 Ma has to be done through
palaeomagnetic studies from the continental rocks alone. Nevertheless, several
attempts have been made to set up polarity timescales of earlier periods including
the Precambrian. The best known features of the polarity timescale for the
Paleozoic are the Permo-Carboniferous R-superchron, R-superchron in the
Devonian, and N-superchron in the late Ordovician and early Silurian (Fig.
7.10). Schmidt and Embeleton recognize that a common APWP can be drawn
Figure 7.10. Simplified magnetostratigraphy through geological time scale modified

from Butler, 1992. This is used to understand the pattern of polarity reversals from the
Paleozoic and Proterozoic eras.
Figure 7.11. Simplified figure from Schmidt and Embleton (1981). N-poles with
normal polarity, R-poles with reversed polarity.
for Africa, Australia, Greenland and north America. They have shown that the
N-polarities predominate from 2300 Ma to ~2100 Ma (Fig. 7.11). From 2100
to ~1650 Ma, the R-polarities are common. N-polarities again become the
norm from 1650 Ma onwards. Halls in 1991 reported from Matachewa dyke
swarm of Canada, the oldest known magnetic reversal to have occurred at
2452 Ma ago.
III. Application of GPTS for the past 6.0 Ma

The polarity timescale of the last ~5.0 Ma has been established by compiling
palaeomagnetic data of known K-Ar or biostratigraphic ages. Allan Cox and
Richard Doell have built a well defined polarity timescale comprising epochs
and events (Fig. 7.12). The optimum GPTS is the CK95 timescale, which adjusts
for Earth’s orbital variations and climatic responses published in 1995 by Cande
and Kent. Significant periods of time marked by consistent orientations of the
EMF are called epochs (it is the same term used for the smallest division of the
geological timescale, e.g. Pliocene epoch). Epochs come in two states (Fig.
7.11) of N and R. Unfortunately, it is impossible to extend the polarity timescale
beyond 4.5 Ma, because of inaccurate dating. Within the Brunhes normal
polarity epoch, which began 0.78 Ma ago, many have identified temporary
reversals and major polarity fluctuations, termed excursions such as 272 ka
(Biwa II), 187–192 ka (Biwa I), 110–120 ka (Blake), 40–45 ka (Laschamp),
25–30 ka (Mono lake), 10 to 12 ka (Gothenburg) and ~2.8 ka (Starno). Short-
term variations of the magnetic field are also used for dating during the last
few hundred ka.
316 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.12. Details of the recent reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field as determined
from detailed radiometric dating of continental and oceanic island lavas and
palaeomagnetism of marine sediments. Simplified geomagnetic polarity time scale with
focus on Quaternary magnetostratigraphy (Cande and Kent, 1995). Epochs (chrons)
have been named after prominent scientists (e.g. Gilbert, Gauss, Bruhnes, Gauss) and
events (subchrons) are named after their location found (e.g. Olduvai George, Tanzania,
the site of early hominid discoveries of Leakey; Mammoth, California, USA and Jaramilo
creek, New Mexico, USA). This scale may not yet be completed; many short events
remain to be firmly established.
7.4 IMPLICATIONS OF PALAEOMAGNETIC RESULTS

Study Areas: Palaeomagnetic studies have been carried out (on): (1) dyke
swarms of the Deccan volcanic province (~65 Ma) in the Dhule district of
Maharashtra, (2) magmatic rocks occurring in Kutch rift basin, Gujarat, (3)
middle to upper Cretaceous (~100 Ma) sediments of the Bagh group in the
Man valley of Madhya Pradesh, (4) dolerite dykes and Closepet granite in the
Archaean terrain of south India, (5) Eocene (~55 Ma) sediments of the Tapti
river section in the Cambay basin of the Gujarat, and (6) magnetostratigraphy
of Tertiary sequence of Machhial-Neri river section, Himachal Pradesh.
Magnetostratigraphic screening of sedimentary formations covering the entire
Cretaceous period in the western part of Narmada basin infers their
magnetization/remagnetization ages, and related tectonic and geophysical
implications. The salient features of the studies are as follows:
I. Dyke Swarms of Deccan Volcanic Province

Dykes present south of Narmada river and Mumbai region have yielded pole
positions similar to the Deccan Super Pole (40°N, 79°W) shown in Fig. 7.13a.
These intrusions are affiliated to the massive Deccan extrusion that took place
~65 Ma ago, which spanned a short duration of just <0.5 Ma. The studies also
Figure 7.13a. Palaeomagnetic pole positions of the Deccan trap related dykes and
the Deccan Super Pole. Note dyke intrusions are affiliated to the Deccan extrusion,
which spanned a short duration of just <0.5 Ma. (1) Murud dykes, (2) Dhadgaon
dykes, (3) and (4) Mandaleshwar dykes, (5) Goa dykes, (6) North Kerala dykes
and (7) Deccan Super Pole.
indicate post-trappean dyke swarms which possibly coincide with the opening
of Arabian sea, and rifting of the Seychelles-Mascarene oceanic plateau.
II. Tholeiites and Alkali Basalts of the Kutch Rift Basin

Palaeomagnetic results of 30 magmatic bodies of Kutch, Gujarat yielded a
VGP pole at 33.7°N and 81.2°W (dP/dm= 5.81/9.18), which is statistically
concordant with that of the Deccan Super Pole (36.9°N and 78.7°W). The
magmatic rocks of the Kutch basin are broadly contemporaneous straddling
30N-29R-29N chrons. It is suggested that the magmatic rocks of Kutch were
generated by the impact of the Reunion plume on the Kutch lithosphere under
extensional setting (Fig. 7.13b).
III. Cretaceous Bagh Group Sediments: Pervasive Deccan

Remagnetization
The mid to upper Cretaceous intra-trappean Bagh sediments in the Man river
valley of Narmada basin in Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh have their pole
position near the late Cretaceous segment of the Indian APWP (Fig. 7.14a). It
is concordant with other poles reported from the Deccan basalt flows, and also
with dated deep sea cores of the Indian ocean. The study has further revealed
that these sediments were subjected to large scale remagnetization due to igneous
activity of Deccan basalt effusion. Since Andaman sediments are far away
318 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.13b. Groups I, II and III Kutch magmatic bodies, and Deccan Super
pole (DS) virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP) are plotted along with synthetic APWP
for India. Group I: Tholeiites and gabbroic dykes of Kutch mainland, Group II:
Alkali basalt plugs of Kutch mainland and Group III: Magmatic rocks of northern
Island belt (courtesy: Paul et al.).
Figure 7.14a. Palaeopoles obtained for different rocks of Cretaceous age. The
swath, in greyish white, is the APWP suggested for India and Pakistan (courtesy:
Prasad et al.).
from the Deccan influence, Bagh sediments can give reliable palaeomagnetic
and magnetostratigraphic results in Cretaceous period for the Indian
subcontinent. The results also revealed that the Indian subcontinent experienced
counterclockwise rotation by 13°±3° and a latitudinal northward drift by 3°±3°
during Deccan volcanism.
IV. Eocene Sediments of the Cambay Basin

The middle to upper Eocene sediments of Tapti river section near the village of
Bodhan (21°18 N; 73°3 E), in Gujarat showed a mismatch with Tertiary part
of the standard APWP. Two pole positions are displaced east of the APWP,
which suggests a clockwise rotation of ~65° of the sampled area. The two
rotated poles are almost coincident, and agree reasonably well with the APWP,
the displacement being 10° towards the younger side of the polar path. The
discrepancy arises due to steeper inclinations observed in the rock samples,
than was expected at the sampling locality according to the relevant portion of
the APWP.
V. Proterozoic Dykes of the South Indian Granulite Terrain

Palaeomagnetic results on Proterozoic dolerite dykes from the granite
greenstone terrain (GGT) are similar to the adjacent Tiruvannamalai dykes
from the adjoining south Indian granulite terrain (SIGT). Thus, there was no
relative movement, at least since 1600 Ma ago, between the GGT and SIGT.
The palaeomagnetic directions of basement rocks to these dykes showed an
age of ~1100-1000 Ma due to partial remagnetization/streaking that occurred
probably during eastern ghats orogeny (EGO). Anorthosite rocks at
Oddanchatram from SIGT have yielded two magnetic components: (1)
corresponding to ~1100 to 1000 Ma reflecting the vestiges of EGO, and (2)
~550 Ma corresponding to the Pan-African thermal event that has prominently
affected part of the SIGT.
VI. Magnetostratigraphy of the Tertiary Sequence

The magnetostratigraphic investigations on the ~5-km thick sedimentary
sequence of Himachal Pradesh Machhial-Neri section yielded 12-N and 12-R
polarity magnetozones. The graphical comparison of prepared magnetic polarity
scale (MPS) is compared with standard GPTS within chrons 5AAr to 6r. The
sediment deposition is found to have occurred within a span of ~7-Ma, ranging
in age from 20 to ~13 Ma with an average sedimentation rate of ~63 cm kyr-1.
VII. Magnetostratigraphy of the Karewa Palaeolake Sediments

The Karewa (in Kashmir) lake deposits are in the northwest Himalaya, which
is an intermontane basin presently experiencing rapid uplift along its
southwestern margin. Karewa sediment profile contains a unique climatic record
320 Geomagnetism
of a series of climatic oscillations, comprising glacials, interglacials and

interstadials. Rock magnetic studies reveal titanomagnetite, magnetite and
hematite are the main carrier of characteristic remanent magnetization.
Figure 7.14b. Age vs. stratigraphic thickness plot of Kashmir paleolake sediments
showing the sediment accumulation rate (SAR) deduced from polarity sequence and
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS). Note an increase in sedimentation rate
from 4.6 cm/kyr to 33 cm/kyr at Plio-Pleistocene boundary coinciding the onset of
westerlies in the Kashmir valley, thereby reducing the influence of SW monsoon
(Basavaiah et al., 2010).
Detailed magnetostratigraphy has been investigated from 250 sites collected

at 435 m thick Romushi section of lower Karewa deposits, which records a
chronometrically constrained volcanic ash. The ChRM directions obtained
through AF demagnetization procedure are used to calculate the virtual
geomagnetic pole (VGP) positions. VGP latitudes were plotted against the
stratigraphic level to obtain the magnetic polarity time scale (MPTS). A total
of eight normal and eight reverse polarities are deciphered in Romushi
sediments. MPTS of Romushi formation is well correlated with standard GPTS
(Fig. 7.12). The samples collected from Romushi river section gave an age of
0.79 to 4.68 Ma and sediment accumulation rates (SAR) range from 32 to 4.6
cm kyr-1. The revised magnetostratigraphy delineates chronological depositional
processes influenced by both climatic and tectonic factors. For example, the
low SAR of 4.6 cm kyr-1 indicates a calm sedimentation regime prevailed until
the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. The rapid increase in SAR after ~2.0 Ma,
is either due to local or regional tectonic event, or by strengthening of the
monsoon reported for ~2.6 Ma.
7.5 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOMAGNETISM

Rocks, baked materials and sediments owe their magnetization/magnetic
properties to Fe oxides, oxyhydroxides, sulfides and solid solution components
present in them. Recent developments in electronics and computing have helped
manufacture sensitive instruments for magnetic measurements, enhancing/
establishing a now familiar study area called environmental geomagnetism
(also called mineral magnetism). The rock magnetic techniques investigate
nondirectional magnetic properties of natural and synthetic materials to delineate
environmental or climatic controls on accumulation of the parent material
(rocks, glacial till, eolian and alluvial deposits), and its microstructural and
chemical alteration (pedogenesis) with time. Basically, environmental
geomagnetism employs the experimental approach to identify/characterize the
mineralogy, concentration, grain size, morphology and composition of the
magnetic mineral phases present.
Magnetic grains with their distinctive assemblages are virtually omnipresent
and their type, size and concentration change relative to their source and
depositional history. The sensitivity and detection of magnetic attributes (even
in ppm to ppb concentration ranges) by environmental instrumentation make
the methodology relatively inexpensive, easy, and rapid compared with other
types of mineralogical analysis. This methodology has a nondestructive trait,
wherein the same samples can be used for any additional and complementary
investigations. In multidisciplinary studies, one small diameter core is generally
sampled for pollen, diatom, ostracode, isotope, geochemistry, mineral
magnetism, carbon, radiocarbon, lead isotope and amino acid dating.
Consequently, the researchers run out of sample before they run out of ways to
examine it. Thus, the nondestructive method of environmental geomagnetism
322 Geomagnetism
stands to be a great asset. Most importantly, it enables comparison of different

records across thousands of kilometres. Magnetic analyses thus help a great
deal in producing spatial as well as temporal record of ambient climatic,
environmental and post depositional processes. Environmental magnetists use
the magnetic properties to isolate natural and human-induced changes in climate
and environment on both spatial (site-specific and regional scales) and temporal
(contemporary and geological timescales) level.
7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOMAGNETISM VS.

PALAEOMAGNETISM
Environmental geomagnetism is a distinct scientific entity, which studies
intrinsic magnetic characteristics of the mineral types within nonoriented
samples such as magnetic susceptibility (F), frequency dependent susceptibility
(FFD), anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM) and isothermal remanent
magnetization (IRM). Some of these properties (F and FFD) are measured in
the field, while others are measured as a remanent response to a series of
externally applied and artificially induced magnetizing fields of different kinds
(AC, DC) and magnitudes (ARM, 0.1 T and IRM up to ~9 T) in the laboratory.
The magnetic properties of sediments are entirely independent of the EMF and
are largely a function of mineralogy and grain size that provide insights into
the mode of transport, deposition and changes in their properties caused by
different processes of iron mineral authigenesis, diagenesis and dissolution.
Thus, this branch is independent of palaeomagnetism, which primarily
determines the directional nature of remanent geomagnetic field, wherein
oriented samples are an absolute necessity. In mineral magnetic research,
however, samples are not required to be measured in situ or to have their original
orientation noted. It involves measuring ‘bulk’ magnetic properties
complementing other techniques such as geochemical or micropalaeontological
studies, to name just a few.
Environmental geomagnetism also has palaeomagnetic applications which
focus on: (1) correlation of palaeomagnetic signals in sediment cores, (2)
development of astronomically calibrated age model, (3) testing the hypothesis
of orbital forcing of the EMF, and (4) determining the origin of the
palaeomagnetic signal. In essence, environmental magnetic measurements allow
detection of quantitative as well as qualitative variations in magnetic minerals
as an aid to environmental data interpretation, rather than the geomagnetic
directional properties. Thus, palaeo and rock magnetists use magnetic
measurements to identify which magnetic minerals are responsible for acquiring
a record of the Earth’s magnetic polarity at their time of formation.
Environmental geomagnetists seek to identify causal links between magnetic
properties and climatic and environmental histories/origins.
7.7 ENVIRONMENTAL MAGNETISM: OBJECTIVES AND

EVOLUTION
Environmental magnetism largely relies on the sensitivity of Fe compounds to
physicochemical changes, and on their tendency to persist as diagnostic ‘tracers’
over long periods of time. Magnetic properties of the natural materials are
largely connected with the element Fe, its valency, concentration, and
partitioning. This methodology can be applied to many areas of study such as
soil forming processes, slope and evolution, basin erosion/sedimentation,
sediment source tracing, historical/contemporary particulate pollution,
differentiation of atmospheric dusts/aerosols, stratigraphic correlation of a wide
range of temporal/spatial/depositional sites, archaeological studies of pottery/
soils, interpretation of palaeoclimatic records, diagenetic changes and authigenic
sulphide formation. Besides, the growth of biomagnetism as a major field has
run parallel to the above developments.
Environmental magnetism has evolved on three principal objectives: (1)
characterizing spatial variability in physical properties of the shallow subsurface
(soils, sedimentary sequences) environment, wherein the information is used
to model palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment, (2) environment pollution
characterization based on the fact that atmospherically transported magnetic
particulate material makes a significant contribution to the iron (hydr)oxide
particle content of many sedimentary deposits/soils and (3) biomagnetism,
where the research programme aims to provide information about the
environmental control variables (temperature, rainfall, pH, as well as microbial
type and concentration) for the process of Fe3+ to Fe2+ reduction and challenges
posed by environmental magnetic observations of biomineralized nanophase
(1–100 nm) materials. The most fascinating examples of investigation come
from magnetotactic bacteria found in diverse environments playing a role in
fine magnetic particle (submicron size) studies.
I. The Beginnings
Gustav Ising first used magnetic minerals as a proxy in 1926. He collected
annually laminated glacial lake sediments from Sweden and measured their F
and NRM, which varied seasonally and with distance from the source. He
found lake sediments deposited in the spring time were more magnetic than
those deposited in winter. He interpreted it in terms of detrital input and higher
density of magnetic minerals. Forty years later, John Mackereth used magnetic
measurements on lake sediments from Windermere to investigate the magnetic
mineral source.
In 1950s, the study of soil magnetism was pioneered by Le Borgne, who
unraveled the phenomenon of magnetic ‘enhancement’ (increased F) in natural
top soils (humus rich horizons), and ascribed it to in situ conversion of a
proportion of the weakly magnetic forms of iron (hydr)oxide to a strongly
magnetic form of secondary ferrimagnetic oxides (maghemite, magnetite). But
324 Geomagnetism
the process controlling the enhancement of F was then poorly understood.

Thompson and Oldfield later invoked a mechanism based on Mullin’s
hypothesis to explain the postulated formation of microcrystalline maghemite
or magnetite from weakly magnetic iron (hydr)oxides through the redox cycles,
which occur under normal pedogenic conditions. An alternate hypothesis
proposes soil bacteria to grow small chains of stable single domain (SSD)
magnetite crystals within their cells resulting into the enhancement observed
as normal part of pedogenesis.
Frank Oldfield, in the mid 1970s, was inspired by a demonstration by
Mackereth of the use of palaeomagnetic secular D measurements for dating
Holocene lake sediments. He found F had striking similarity between cores of
the Lough Neagh sediments, which became the first attempt of core correlation.
He and his coworkers in late 1970s put forward the concept of using magnetic
properties as proxy parameters. Thompson and his team’s article in ‘Science’
in 1980 formally announced environmental magnetism to be a sub-discipline,
and extended the use of rock magnetic methods in soil, sediment, peat and
atmospheric dust studies. It has now become a rapidly expanding research
methodology (see review articles and books by King and his associates,
Thompson and Oldfield, Oldfield, Maher and Thompson, Walden and his
associates, Evans and Heller and Basavaiah and Khadkikar).
II. Environmental Impacts on Magnetic Minerals

In an environmental system, the magnetic minerals found in descending order
are iron oxides (hematite, magnetite, maghemite), iron oxyhydroxides
(ferrihydrite, goethite, lepidocrocite), iron sulphides (greigite, pyrrhotite) and
manganese (rhodochrosite, vivianite) minerals (Chapter 2), which are
commonly scattered within the nonmagnetic matrix of the natural materials.
The nature of Fe compounds, their presence, environmental sensitivity
and variable stability make magnetic measurements widely adaptable to many
environmental fields. For instance, majority of magnetic minerals, which cycle
in environmental systems, originate from the Earth’s crust and pass through
the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere in varied ways (Fig. 7.15). Only a
small part of atmospheric magnetic dust is derived directly from the Earth’s
interior, via volcanic eruption, whereas extra-terrestrial inputs are found to be
very limited. Magnetic minerals in unweathered parent rock material or those
which survive largely unaltered in weathered contexts are characterized as
primary minerals. Those formed by chemical/physical processes or biogenic
effects associated with weathering, pedogenesis, diagenesis or authigenesis
are secondary. Human intervention also leads to some of these processes such
as fossil fuel combustion and soil erosion (Fig. 7.15).
Chemical transformation can lead to Fe conversions among paramagnetic,
ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic forms giving rise to environmental ‘finger
prints’, which become significant indicators in environmental tracing
investigation. Also, fire and soil forming processes enhance top soil magnetic
Figure 7.15. Major sources and cycles of magnetic minerals within the environment.
Magnetic minerals can be produced, modified, transported and deposited by a range of
environmental and anthropogenic processes. Environmental geomagnetism can be
applied to identify/differentiate/characterize principal sources of magnetic minerals
displaying ferromagnetic behaviour within the environment of soils and sediments.
These include detrital minerals derived from rocks, sediments or soils (transported by
water or wind), authigenic/diagenetic production, volcanic ash, in-situ pedogenic
processes, cosmic sources (important near sites of meteor impacts), anthropogenic
pollution and magnetic bacteria. Examples of major areas of application of
environmental geomagnetism include environmental change, past climates, sediment
sourcing and mapping of particulate pollution (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986).
material by converting nonferrimagnetic minerals to fine ferrimagnetic grains.

These secondary magnetic oxides differ, both in crystal form and size, from
the primary magnetic oxides present in the underlying substrates; both of
primary and secondary minerals are eroded and incorporated in river and lake
sediments. Thus, differences in primary and secondary magnetic minerals form
the basis for sediment source identification. Alternatively, chemical
transformation can make the environmental interpretation of magnetic data
more difficult. Diagenesis or authigenesis, for example, may distort the magnetic
‘signals’ from source materials preserved in sediments, which can mislead the
analysts.
Physical processes usually perform the function of simply removing and
redepositing magnetic mineral assemblages. These processes are relatively
conservative of magnetic minerals, but the magnetic properties can still be
326 Geomagnetism
affected through the following mechanisms: (1) magnetic grain size reductions
and crystal shape changes, (2) regrouping of mineral assemblages, and (3)
vertical rearranging of magnetic assemblages. However, these minerals are
found to persist unaltered in a wide range of transport and deposition contexts.
Hence, appropriate mechanism needs to be taken into consideration, when
specific EMM study is finalized. For instance, particle size based magnetic
study should be harnessed to reduce the effect of sorting in sediment source
tracing. Sediment source identification can be established in a catchment system
(if) (1) some weathering and soil formation have taken place and the types of
source materials can be characterized by magnetic measurements, (2) the
timescale over which erosion and sedimentation are being studied is
substantially shorter than the rate at which the assemblage of metastable Fe
oxides is being transformed in the potentially eroding soil and (3) sediment
diagenesis or authigenesis have not affected the magnetic properties of the
sediments.
III. Magnetic Mineralogy as a Proxy

Natural as well as anthropogenic influenced climatic and environmental changes
have occurred innumerable times in the past. In a fundamental sense, the
discernment of past changes (and future ones) requires a database that goes
long back in time and space. This information is contained in historical records
of meteorological observatories, ship-logs, personal records, etc., as also in
religious texts and epics which volunteer detailed descriptions of floods,
droughts and such other natural disasters. They are, however, allegedly
considered short on reliability. But, the ‘proxy’ indicators of climatic alteration,
unlike historical records, go a long way back in time (Ma), and their
distinguishing feature is their ability to characterize the natural system, or part
thereof in an approximate manner. They are also easily and quickly ‘measured’
at a competitive cost, enabling rapid measurement of large number of samples;
a key advantage in obtaining high-resolution spatial and temporal environmental
data.
Climate proxies are generally used as signs of past climatic processes,
which include physicochemical properties and isotopic compositions of
minerals, fluids or gases. The other contenders are the anatomical assemblages
of certain fossil plants, animals, and presence (or absence) of index fossils. On
land, climatic variables used as proxies include temperature, precipitation and
evaporation. In the ocean, the key variables include currents, temperature,
salinity, nutrient availability, productivity and redox chemistry. Biodiversity
patterns, continental weathering rates, winds and storms also come in handy as
climatic proxies.
The use and reliability of different proxies are established by comparing
the present day values with some record of the past, e.g. the tree-ring thickness
or the isotopic composition of water. Here, the present is used as a key to the
past. When scientists understand how tree rings change their thickness in recent
wet and dry periods, the information (or an assumption) gained is then
extrapolated back in time to make a reliable (nearer to truth) estimate of a
climate or an environmental change. The assumptions, however, involve some
amount of uncertainty. The conjecture that under different climatic conditions,
a marine organism grew most vigorously during the same season and at the
same water depth as in the modern environment, has a tinge of chaos and
uncertainty to it. To circumvent this problem, multiple proxies, about whom
few suppositions are made, are used in the decision making process to increase
the reliability of palaeoclimate reconstruction. The physical proxies like old
air extracted from bubbles in ice cores, old water from pore spaces in seabed
sediments or continental rocks, concentration of noble gases found dissolved
in old groundwater provide direct evidence of past climatic compositions. In
the category of direct evidences are also included sand dunes, and glacially
polished bedrock.
Many cross checks are used when interpreting proxies for climate changes.
Marine isotopic stages (MIS) deduced from alternate warm and cool period of
the Earth’s past climate are used as one of the tallies. Based on carbon and
oxygen isotopes from the marine sediments/organisms, these stages are
chronologically arranged as MIS1, 2, 3, 4, etc. (Fig. 7.16). It is based on the
fact that physical and chemical characteristics of atoms of differing isotopic
mass increase with decreasing temperature of the medium. For example, the
carbonate shells growing in water typically favouring isotopically heavy oxygen
tend to become isotopically heavier at lower temperatures. The growth of ice
sheets removes isotopically light water (ordinary water) from the ocean, forcing
the organism to use isotopically heavy oxygen from water in their carbonate
shells, which then provide information on the presence (or absence) of ice
sheets over time. To quote another example, a few chemicals are always
common in the environment, but the organism may use only a typical ‘favoured’
isotope. A shortage of this chemical may force it to use another ‘less favoured’
isotope. Also, marine photosynthesis increasingly favours a lighter isotope of
carbon as CO2 becomes more abundant. This allows estimation of changes in
CO2 concentration from the isotopic composition of organic matter in oceanic
sediments. The change in ocean isotopic composition can be estimated
independently from the composition of pore waters in sediments, whereas the
change in temperature can be estimated from both the abundance of cold or
warm loving shells in sediments. Concentrations of noncarbonate ions
substituted into calcium carbonate shells provide further information. Reversals
of the EMF have helped to provide a timescale for changes in oxygen isotopes,
giving it a chronology that could be used to understand the frequency of
glaciations and rates of change (Fig. 7.16).
It is important to consider the quantum of time when interpreting climatic
change. Four major timescales are generally considered, which include: Long-
term (hundreds of Ma), medium-term (one Ma), short-term (~160 ka), and
modern period (hundreds of year). This is important because climate has both
328 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.16. Climatic oscillations during the last 870 ka based on oxygen isotopic
measurements of marine foraminifera from the sea core V28-238 (courtesy: Emiliani).
long-term trends and short-term variability. Long-term datasets provide the

observer with a sense of ‘big picture’ of the climatic trends, when major shifts
such as ice ages are easily recognizable. Short-term variations like a colder
than average month, can exist within longer pattern of warming trend. The
coexistence of short and long-term trends complicates the climate change signal.
But, the magnetic proxy is able to tackle and discern the complex trends in a
far better and cogent way than the other proxies.
The oceanic sediments are a mix of terrestrial and atmospheric constituents.
The rivers of the Himalayas and the peninsular India drain tonnes of detrital
material into the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, where the typical rate of
sedimentation is much higher for the former than the latter. Lake sediments,
on the other hand, have the potential of yielding high-resolution palaeoclimatic
fluctuations, especially from proglacial lakes, which may have annual
laminations (varves) that are deposited in the higher central Himalayas. The
time resolution achievable from these lakes depends on sedimentation rate,
sampling interval, and methods of dating. In general the temporal resolution is
ca. 100 years. For high resolution in time, cores are retrieved from areas, where
sedimentation rate is higher, but for a longer history with poorer temporal
resolution sedimentary cores are raised from regions where sedimentation rate
is slower. These sediments are studied for understanding long-term dynamics
of the monsoon and climatic fluctuations. However, the chemical and biological
proxies are limited in spread and strongly depend on the local climatic and
environmental conditions. Index fossils thrive in particular locations and
particular climatic umbrella only (their growth is also a function of a number
of other variables). Hence, their use in tying up loose ends connected to climate,
environment, stratigraphy and correlation remains equivocal.
Magnetic proxy parameters do not have this limitation, and so reliable
results can be obtained from them. To begin with, relationships are found to
exist between F and oxygen isotope ratios, elemental constituents, and
foraminifera instilling confidence in using it as a quantified and calibrated
proxy. The carriers of magnetic properties of samples generally result from the
uppermost layer of crust (sediments), which is prone to many physical (erosion,

weathering) and chemical (oxidation, reduction) processes governed by
atmospheric, oceanic and terrestrial system changes (Fig. 7.15). Precipitation,
in excess or deficit, has some chemical (change in redox environment) and
physical (increased or decreased detrital input) influence on the lake, ocean
and terrestrial sediments. In case of terrestrial sediments, the variable degree
of water saturation alters the redox states leading to the formation of magnetite
during periods of enhanced rainfall, whereas the formation of hematite/goethite
is made possible through oxidative processes during periods of reduced rainfall.
This interpretation has been experimentally verified and established. Fe-oxide
system is found to be capable of carrying out a few interconversions between
its different phases. In favourable conditions, almost every Fe-oxide can be
converted into at least two others. Under oxic conditions, goethite and hematite
are found to be the end members of many transformation routes, since
thermodynamically, they are the most stable compounds. Although
thermodynamically unstable (in the presence of oxygen), magnetite and
maghemite are widespread in the environment. It is seen that at RT, magnetite
very slowly oxidizes to maghemite. But at higher temperatures, magnetite
metamorphoses to hematite. The oxidation of magnetite to maghemite is thus
a significant environmental process, and is a topotactic reaction in which the
original particle morphology is maintained throughout. Experiments have also
shown ultrafine magnetite crystals (100 to 300 nm) to change to maghemite at
RT, but in some cases, small particle sizes, of a couple of hundred nm, failed to
initiate oxidation even after one year. Some experiments show that for ~9 nm
nanocrystals at 24°C in water, oxidation is detectable after a few hours and
completed in ~3 months.
These experimental reactions are replicated in natural environment. In an
actual environmental setting, thermal transformation of magnetic polymorphs
caused by natural or man made fires is seen to be widespread. The frequent
occurrence of maghemite in surface soils of the tropics and at localized burning
sites around the world, is due to the presence of organic matter which directs
the transformation of goethite or ferrihydrite during heating to maghemite,
whereas in the absence of organic matter, hematite is formed. Reductants such
as zinc powder or elemental sulphur lead to maghemite formation, and it is
assumed that the transformation proceeds via magnetite. In fact with higher
amounts of reductant, e.g. sucrose, and/or lower O2 supply, magnetite is formed
instead of maghemite.
This establishes the veracity of magnetic proxy evidences for
palaeoenvironmental interpretation. Palaeoclimatic history from magnetic
properties is reconstructed by determining the magnetic framework of the
sedimentary material. The next step involves ascertaining the basic aspect of
the climate (physical-chemical), which predominantly has control over the
magnetic signature. Finally, the magnetic measurements reveal the parameters
(especially F, ARM) most sensitive to climate change. In all this, it becomes
330 Geomagnetism
essential to identify space and time characteristics of climate/environment and

magnetic minerals and ascertain their relationship with each other. However,
in some situations, this magnetic proxy can be nonunique and noisy, to
circumvent which independent and complementary analyses are adopted to
compare the magnetic data with other environmental proxies, e.g. pollen, carbon
isotopes or geochemistry.
IV. Mineral Magnetic Data of Resolving Ambiguity

In studies of environmental magnetism, often the recourse is to use only
magnetic properties as analytical probes. In such cases, data interpretation
becomes difficult since measurements are of bulk properties, comprising
contributions from the entire gamut of magnetic minerals, rendering it to be
nonunique. Hence, their scales are generally utilized in a relative sense. To get
around this problem, many a times, ratios of several parameters are used to
reduce nonuniqueness. In the process, interpretation of a ratio may change
depending on the absolute values of numerator and denominator. Hence, the
analysis may vary from one depositional environment to another or sometimes
within similar kinds of environment as well. Proper comprehension of a mineral
magnetic dataset, therefore, requires expert training and a feel for potential
variability in the databank. The compilation of existing theoretical and
experimental data derived from known sample sets enables to narrow down
the ambiguity in interpretation and also reveals several ways of plotting the
results. As a consequence, the inferences of sample ‘interrogation’ can be related
to all the information available for the samples enabling to search causes of
variability of magnetic properties. In the light of this, mineral magnetic data is
interpreted confidently without resorting to use of other proxy data. Also, the
results enumerated ahead and compiled from different sources can indicate the
type of information obtained from the qualitative study of the magnetic and
complementary parameters. The rock magnetic components listed in Appendix
7.3 provide an overview of the measurements undertaken in rock and
environmental magnetism research.
V. Mineral Magnetism: Theory and Measurement

All substances demonstrate some degree of magnetic behaviour determined
by: (1) interactions between electron spins, and (2) nature of their alignment in
Bext. In order to allow interpretations of bulk magnetic measurements, the
phenomenon of magnetism is usually discussed on the subatomic scale, and
then in ascending scales of reference in terms of atoms, subgrains, grains and
grain assemblages (Fig. 7.17).
Basic magnetism: Minerals consisting of ions without an intrinsic magnetic
moment are diamagnetic (Chapter 2). Minerals with an intrinsic magnetic
moment are either ferro-, ferri- or antiferro-magnetic, where there exists
exchange interaction between these ions, or paramagnetic, when there is no
Orbital and spin

ELECTRON moments
Pairing or imbalance of
ATOM electron spins
Exchange interaction coupling

DOMAIN of spins; alignment of spins in
individual regions
Domain configuration
GRAIN/CRYSTAL according to grain volume
PARTICLE
GRAIN INTERACTIONS
Figure 7.17. Scales of magnetic order.
interaction. For the existence of an intrinsic magnetic moment in an ion, presence

of unpaired electrons in the electron’s outer shell is necessary. Different magnetic
measurement techniques respond to different properties of a mineral
assemblage, e.g. paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals have an effect on
only the susceptibility measurements, but SIRM measurement reacts to
minerals, which retain remanent magnetism. Table 7.4 summarizes the
magnetization and remanence characteristics of main types of magnetic
behaviour.
Magnetic granulometry is the determination of the effective grain-size of
magnetic materials, based on the discrimination between magnetic relaxation
effects (SP and SD particles) and domain processes (MD grains). In rock
magnetism, magnetic grains are divided into SP, SD (stable SD), PSD and MD
according to their magnetic properties, and domain states (Chapter 2, Fig. 7.18).
The approximate magnetic grain size (distinct from sediment particle size)
boundaries for magnetite are: SP (20–25 nm), SD (25–80 nm), PSD (80 to
~10–15 nm), and MD grains (>10–15 m) (Chapter 2). Basically, there are
two types of magnetic parameters that are strongly dependent on grain size:
(1) magnetic hysteresis and (2) remanence properties. Also it is based on
measuring some of these same magnetic parameters as a function of temperature
either low temperature or high temperature, below or above RT. Figure 7.18
illustrates relationships between the magnetic parameters and the mineral grain
size.
An approximate method, known as the Lowrie-Fuller test, compares the
AF demagnetization spectra of ARM and SIRM to distinguish fine grains
332
Table 7.4 Main types of magnetic behaviour.
Substance Ferrimagnetic Antiferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic

Geomagnetism
Definition These substances are strongly These substances are weakly These substances are
attracted by the magnet attracted by the magnet repelled by the magnet
Nature of alignment Part of the atoms line up in Electron spins alternate atom Align with the applied field Align in opposite
one direction, the other part by atom, thus cancelling out direction to the applied
oppositely with net moment each generated moment field
Field + + + -
Susceptibility (F ) Large and positive Small and positive Small and positive Small and negative
Magnetization Strong Weak Weak Very weak
Remanence High Low None None
Temperature effect F 1/T F 1/T F 1/T Independent of
temperature
Examples Magnetite Hematite Ferrihydrite Quartz
Maghemite Goethite Lepidocrocite Calcite
Greigite
Figure 7.18. (a) The relationships between SIRM (SIRM/F) and F, and mineral grain
size, showing approximate ranges of miltidomain, SSD and viscous grains. (b) A
summary of the general influences on F, SIRM/F, BCr and S ratios of mineral grain size
(MD, SSD, SP) and mineral type: magnetite (MAG) and hematite (HEM) (courtesy:
Dearing and his coworkers).
(<20 m) from coarse grains (>20 m). Banerjee and his coworkers in 1981
argued that the ratio of anhysteretic susceptibility (F arm) to magnetic
susceptibility (F) can be used as a proxy for grain-size changes in magnetite.
This reasoning is based on the fact that ARM is enhanced in the fine-grained
SD fraction, whereas F is relatively independent for the coarse grained PSD
and MD fractions. The ratio, therefore, varies inversely with grain size.
Furthermore, as pointed out by King and his coworkers in 1982, Farm is a
strong function of concentration, so caution is warranted. Nonetheless, it is
clear that susceptibility is virtually independent of grain-size, while Farm is a
strong function of grain size, so changes in Farm normalized by F in fact reflect
changes in grain-size. Later, Maher and Oldfield have proposed variations of
this method using Farm/SIRM or Farm/FFD to discriminate SP from MD particles.
Application of magnetic granulometry: The determination of effective grain
sizes is useful for various geological and geophysical problems such as detection
of climatic and cultural signatures left in natural sedimentary materials and
formation/erosion of soil on bed rock. Grain size determinations are extremely
valuable to identify origins of the various components in environmental samples.
Since the data have contributions from all magnetic grain sizes, including
detrital/pedogenic components, some magnetic properties, particularly
coercivity and remanence, vary greatly with particle size. It is therefore possible
334 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.19. Theoretical and experimentally determined critical grain size transitions
in some common iron oxide minerals (courtesy: Dunlop).
to categorize grain-size by the study of remanence. It is widely accepted that

the coarse MD fraction is predominantly detrital (eolian), while the ultrafine
SP grains are mainly authigenic or pedogenic in origin. An increasing body of
evidence supports the dominance of in situ formation of ultrafine magnetic
minerals, which enhance the susceptibility of soil layers. The critical grain
size boundaries, which divide the various types of size-dependent magnetic
behaviour are shown in Fig. 7.19. Moving from the finest to coarsest grain
sizes, the boundaries ds and d0 separate those particles, which display SP to
SSD and to PSD through MD behaviour.
7.8 PRIMARY MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS—

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Magnetic measurements do not just reveal the nature of magnetic material, but
also signify its structure through anisotropy and its history through
palaeomagnetism. To comprehend the relationship between magnetic
parameters, and distinctive features of magnetic grains (e.g. chemistry, size,
shape, defects and origin), a number of smart and effective techniques have
been developed. To bring out the practical facets, and its realistic applications,
a brief description of magnetic parameters and the basis that lies behind the
methodology and interpretation of data is described.
F)
I. Low-field Magnetic Susceptibility (F
This type of susceptibility is the ability of a given substance to get magnetized,
i.e. it grows an induced magnetization that dissipates after the external field is
removed. There are several valid definitions in vogue, but the one given by
Encyclopedia Britannica defines magnetic susceptibility as ‘a quantitative
measure of the extent to which a material may be magnetized in relation to a
given applied magnetic field’. Thus F is studied by applying magnetic field
(H) and measuring the magnetization (M) induced in the material. There exists
a relation connecting M and H: M = FVH, which yields FV = M/H, where v
denotes ‘volume’. F is specified either by volume (N) or mass (F) (=N/U, here N
is replaced by FV and U is density). Thus, F is used to classify materials in
terms of their response to B ext as diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferro(i)magnetic, making it an attractive magnetic characterization tool.
If ultrafine SP particles are present, the frequency of applied AC field has
significant effect in terms of applied magnetic field. At higher frequencies,
energy of thermal fluctuations reduces the alignment effect of the applied field,
and consequently F measured at higher frequencies is always equal or lower
than that measured at lower frequencies. By measuring at different frequencies,
the frequency dependent of magnetic susceptibility FFD% can be expressed as
(Fig. 7.18a):
FFD% = (FLF - FHF/FLF) × 100
FFD is particularly sensitive to grain sizes spanning the SSD to SP boundary,
often referred to as fine viscous (Fig. 7.18a), because these grains show a
degree of time dependent loss of remanence. Hence, this is a proxy for the
relative amount of SP grains. It has strong implications with regard to delineating
source type, since mineral assemblage exhibiting FFD is rare in unweathered
rocks, volcanic ashes or fossil fuel derived sediments, but is characteristic of
soils in which secondary magnetic minerals form as a result of pedogenesis
and fire. Thus, natural susceptibility of sediment needs to be measured at two
or more different frequencies to gain information about the amount and grain
size of magnetite. For instance, while ultrafine magnetite (<0.03 m) is formed
in soils giving high (>8%, <16%) FFD percentages, relatively larger magnetite
(MD ranges) is usually eroded out of rocks. While FFD depends on grain size,
F itself depends mostly on magnetic mineralogy and its concentration.
Pedogenesis and/or intense weathering induce hematite-magnetite
transformation and reduction in effective grain size. This change is reflected in
F and FFD, which display higher susceptibility for magnetite. Simultaneous
F and FFD measurement discriminates active enhancement of ferrimagnetic
minerals during pedogenesis from the passive enhancement caused by the
leaching away of nonmagnetic components in the humus-rich horizon. Thus, a
parallel increase of F as well as FFD points to secondary origin, whereas
variations of F not associated with corresponding variation of FFD indicate
contribution of ferrimagnetic minerals of primary origin. Therefore, F and its
frequency dependence are used to determine the intensity of weathering, and
hence climatic changes in different environments.
336 Geomagnetism
High-field magnetic susceptibility: Hysteresis loop is used to determine F at

fields higher than the EMF. The field strength HMAX relating to FMAX is
practically independent of the percentage magnetite, but is connected with the
grain size. The greater the grain size, the smaller is HMAX. For pure crystals of
magnetite, HMAX will be 2 mT or even smaller. The ratio of FMAX to F at the
EMF does not appear to vary with the grain size, but is dependent on the
percentage of magnetite by volume. Generally, the reversible high field
susceptibility (FHIGH) is measured as the gradient of the magnetization slope
between 800 and 1000 mT, indicating paramagnetic and antiferromagnetic
component of a material minus the diamagnetic component.
Factors affecting susceptibility: Magnetic susceptibility is influenced by the
type of magnetic minerals, their shape, size and the geological history. It
decreases as a rule with decreasing grain size. Layered rocks always exhibit
magnetic anisotropy, i.e. the susceptibility (FÌÌ) along the layers is greater than
the susceptibility across the layers (FA). The magnetic anisotropy of a rock is
defined by the ratio FÌÌ/FA. This ratio can be as high as 3.0 and is dependent on
the percentage of magnetite content. This observation does not, however, apply
to the susceptibilities obtained in situ. One of the main interests in the
determination of the low field anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) is
its value as a petrofabric indicator. In magnetite, for example, shape anisotropy
is dominant, as crystalline anisotropy is weak. Thus, for an elongate
(nonspherical) magnetite grain, susceptibility measured in a magnetic field
parallel to the grain’s long axis would be greater than the susceptibility measured
in the same field if that field is applied normal to the grain’s long axis. AMS
studies are useful in delineating individual flow directions of Deccan basalts,
tectonic and metamorphic events of south Indian highly deformed rocks.
Curie temperature susceptibility, F-T graphs: Low-field susceptibility is
controlled by the internal forces acting in a grain. These in turn are determined
by mineralogy, crystal structure, shape, and size of the grains. These parameters
may vary with temperature as thermal energy of the system is increased or
decreased. Magnetocrystalline anisotropy is particularly sensitive to
temperature, and is dependent on crystal structure and composition only. High-
temperature (high-T) and low- temperature (low-T) susceptibility were studied
from liquid nitrogen temperature (–196°C) to 700°C. Measurements on natural
and synthetically produced magnetites of known sizes have helped to define
the major changes in F with crystal size and domain, which are shown in Fig.
7.20.
The presence of minerals and domains is detected from the shapes of the
F-T curves and distinctive transition points. Figure 7.20 summarizes the more
common features in low-T and high-T curves. The lack of irreversible change
and the presence of several diagnostic transitions mean that low-T curves are
easier to interpret than their high-T counterparts.
Figure 7.20. Schematic trends and transitions of Nlf values from -196°C (liquid nitrogen)
to 700°C for different minerals and domains; SP, SSD, MD, paramagnetic (P), magnetite
(MAG: T C 580°C), titanomagnetite (TMAG: TC 250°C) and hematite (HEM).
Susceptibility axis not to scale (courtesy: Dearing).
II. Anhysteretic Remanent Magnetization (ARM)

This parameter, independent of hysteresis effects, is measured by subjecting a
sample to an increasing, then decreasing alternating field in the presence of a
weak DC bias field, which serves to impart a magnetization in a known direction.
Typical values for the peak alternating field (HAC) are 100-300 mT, whereas
the bias field varies between 30 and 100 T. All ferrimagnetic minerals with a
coercivity HAC are remagnetized.
The ARM intensity is a function of the bias field, for low bias fields (<100
T), it scales linearly. Hence by dividing the ARM intensity by the bias field
value, a field-independent parameter is created, referred to as anhysteretic
susceptibility (FARM) through its analogy with F. Some instruments allow the
field to sense particular coercivity windows and such ARMs are referred to as
partial ARM (pARM). ARM is considered to be a good analog of TRM created
by cooling through the TC in a small magnetic field. In particular, stable SD
domain grains are sensed by ARM.
Anhysteretic remanence shows grain-size-dependence in magnetite (Fig.
7.21), such that SSD to PSD grains (0.02 to 0.1 m) have a higher remanence
than larger MD grains. It is suggested that IRM20mT/FARM ratios provide a
simple way to discriminate between a ferrimagnetic mineral assemblage
dominated by SSD or MD grain sizes (ca. >1 m), aiding to clarify the dominant
control upon FARM. Also, the effects of SP or large MD grains which can
dominate the F are minimized. Ultrafine grains ranging from SSD to SP of
ferrimagnetic minerals formed by pedogenesis give rise to characteristic FARM
and FFD.
338 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.21. Variation of FARM values with magnetic grain size in the 0.02–0.4 m
range for magnetite. With ferromagnetic grain sizes both above and below this range
FARM values drop quite dramatically (courtesy: Maher).
ARM is used in a variety of applications: (1) estimate absolute

palaeointensity from igneous rocks, and relative palaeointensity from lake and
marine sediments, (2) characterize magnetic carriers, and determine domain
state/grain size, (3) detect magnetic fabrics in rocks/sediments, and (4) study
the fundamental aspect of magnetism.
III. Isothermal Remanent Magnetization (IRM)

As indicated by the name, IRM is a remanent magnetization acquired without
the aid of changes in temperature. The term IRM denotes a remanence resulting
from the application and subsequent removal of a pulsed DC field. Beyond the
threshold of F measurements, magnetic substances magnetized in a direct field
(HIRM, generally >10 mT) follow a magnetization acquisition curve to a point
of saturation (Fig. 7.22b). All ferro(i)magnetic grains with a coercivity HIRM
are remagnetized in the applied field direction. Since IRM is a strong-field
remanence, the imparted magnetization is not linearly related to HIRM.
Saturating IRM (SIRM) is the maximum IRM a sample can obtain, and is
determined by recording IRM in progressively higher magnetic fields (Fig.
7.22b). On reaching saturation, IRM does not increase further regardless of
strength (high) of the magnetic field. The saturation field depends strongly on
the type and to some degree on the grain size distribution of magnetic mineral(s).
For minerals such as hematite and goethite, magnetic fields larger than a few
Tesla are required for saturation. Nevertheless, some laboratories with limited
magnetic ‘power’ at their disposal still call IRM1T as SIRM. Figure 7.23a shows
grain-size dependence of SIRM for (titano-)magnetite, hematite and pyrrhotite.
Thus, magnetite and hematite give out characteristic ‘curves’ when subjected
Figure 7.22. A sketch of: (a) Magnetic grain size boundaries and (b) IRM
acquisition curve (courtesy: Oldfield).
to the entire spectrum of IRMs with an increase in induced field (Figs 7.24 and
7.25).
Low-field IRMs are not fully representative, because they are mainly
influenced by magnetically ‘soft’ ferrimagnetic grain sizes. But, IRMs imparted
in fields >300 mT reflect signatures of all remanence holding minerals, including
canted antiferromagnetic and ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ ferrimagnetic minerals. A general
linear relationship between SIRM and F (Fig. 7.23b) can also be used to
characterize the maximum possible range of magnetic mineral assemblages.
Further, a combination of magnetic parameters including the forward IRM
acquisition curve, SIRM, coercivity, BCR, IRM demagnetization curve and
S-ratio are used to determine sediment sources.
IRM acquisition in forward and back-fields: Recently, researchers have
started to measure IRM acquisition curve (remanence vs. log of the applied
Figure 7.23. (a) Variation in intensity of Saturation IRM in different magnetic minerals
as a function of grain size (courtesy: Jackson, 1991). (b) Log-log plot of 1000 natural
samples (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). The IRM is imparted in a magnetizing field
strong enough to saturate magnetite.
340 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.24. Acquisition of isothermal remanent magnetisation with increase in inducing

field strength. Magnetite crystals have curves of acquired remanence that plot in the
stippled area, whereas hematite crystals plot in the cross-hatched area (courtesy:
Thompson).
Figure 7.25. Empirically derived, idealized, normalized acquisition of isothermal

remanent magnetization curves for magnetite (a) and hematite (b) of different grain
sizes (courtesy: Thompson).
field); the gradient of this curve is the IRM coercivity spectra. In this process,
a sample is demagnetized after ARM measurement, and then exposed initially
to small fields (~20 mT), later on subjecting to a set of increasing magnetic
fields, say in the range 0–4 T. All these fields are applied in the same direction
and are commonly referred to as ‘forward’ fields. After each field is applied,
the sample magnetization is measured. These values represent total combined
vector for each field and can be termed as the ‘raw’ data. A typical IRM
acquisition analysis requires a selection of a series of the following forward
fields (all in mT): 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 500, 600, 800 and 1000.
Such a progressive field produces IRM acquisition data, which can easily
be compared with theoretically derived IRM acquisition data (Figs 7.24 and
7.25). Also, once the sample is saturated, a number of backfields may be used;
the following set of fields is sufficient (all in mT): 20, 40, 100 and 300.
To understand/appreciate the form of raw data, a sequence of hypothetical
measurements for four samples is listed out in Table 7.5. Note the data for
samples 1 and 2. This is considered to be a ‘good’ one, since for the forward
fields the remanence acquired becomes gradually greater and is always positive.
It reaches a maximum at 1000 mT, and thereon when the backfields are applied
(–20, –40, –100 and –300 mT), the SIRM at 1000 mT goes on reducing to
eventually become negative. The data for samples 3 and 4, show errors at 300
and 100 mT forward reading, respectively. The 1000 mT forward field reading
for sample 3 is slightly smaller than the 800 mT forward field reading. Also,
for sample 4, the 300 mT backfield reading is in error, since it is larger than the
saturation achieved by 1000 mT forward field. For possible errors in
measurements, there are a number of explanations: (1) small calibration errors,
(2) small differences in the orientation of the sample within the magnetometer,
(3) movement of grains within the sample pot, and (4) delay between
magnetization in the pulse magnetizer and the remanence measurement in the
magnetometer.
Partial IRMs: Partial IRMs and their ratios are widely used for sediment
characterization in environmental (rock) magnetism. For example, the hard
fraction, HIRM, is determined by substracting the IRM acquired in 300 mT
(IRM300) from SIRM, to estimate the contribution of antiferromagnetic minerals
(e.g. hematite and goethite) to the saturation remanence. HIRM is an absolute
Table 7.5 Hypothetical raw data for four samples generated using the combination
of pulse magnetizer and magnetometer
Fields Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

20 65.3 3.3 190.2 65.3
forward (mT)
40 140.6 19.5 260.2 160.6

100 1025.7 70.6 792.4 –1095.7
300 1534.0 140.3 62.5 1634.0
500 1601.1 166.4 4112.3 1701.1
600 1606.3 185.3 4263.5 1706.3
800 1607.3 190.2 4302.6 1707.3
1000 1608.5 195.4 4296.5 1708.5
20 1200.6 140.3 2200.7 1300.6
back (mT)
40 800.6 26.4 –3.9 600.6

100 –792.3 –95.2 –1024.4 –992.3
300 –1554.6 –165.0 –2684.9 –1754.6
Values represent total combined vector taken from the magnetometer for each field
(courtesy: Walden)
342 Geomagnetism
concentration-dependent parameter. The soft fraction is quantified in relative

terms through S-ratios, calculated from measurements of SIRM and of the
IRM subsequently acquired in backfields of 100 mT (IRM-100) or 300 mT
(IRM-300): S100 = –IRM-100/SIRM and S300 = –IRM-300/SIRM. These ratios range
from –1 for samples containing only hard antiferromagnets to +1 for samples
dominated by soft ferrimagnets. These parameters are frequently used in
palaeoceanographic and environmental applications because they are sensitive
to changes in magnetic mineralogy. Table 7.6 shows a hypothetical example of
this process for an individual sample. In effect, it normalizes the data for each
sample for its overall concentration of magnetic minerals, as indicated by SIRM.
The advantage of this exercise is that it aids in comparing different samples
and exhibits the proportion of remanence acquired by each one of them at
relatively low or high fields helping to identify the relative proportions of
magnetically ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ mineral species.
Component analysis of IRM coercivity spectra: In contrast to magnetic
susceptibility, the remanent magnetization is carried only by ferro(i)magnetic
minerals. The ability to retain a remanent magnetization is a coercivity parameter
and is dependent on grain size, temperature, and an applied field. Information
about the remanence carriers can be obtained by analyzing IRM coercivity
spectra. The coercivity of grains is governed by their volume, shape, stress,
oxidation state and impurity content. Therefore, an attempt can be made to
separate and quantify different magnetic components according to their
coercivities. Another way to quantify mixed magnetic mineralogy is the IRM
component analysis, the decomposition of a measured IRM acquisition curve
into several components with the use of model analysis. Initially, cumulative
log-Gaussian curves are used to closely conform to measured IRM acquisition
Table 7.6 Processing of a raw data set to produce mass specific IRM data for each
forward field and IRM/SIRM ratios for both the forward and back fields
Sample weight Forward field only All fields

= 10.09 g
Field used Raw data Mass specific IRM/SIRM
(total combined IRM ratio
vector × 1.29)
20 57.7 5.72 0.25
forward
(mT)
500 199.3 19.75 0.86

600 217.8 21.59 0.94
1000 230.7 22.86 1.00
20 83.9 0.36
(mT)
back
100 –143.6 –0.26

300 –204.8 –0.89
Hypothetical data for an individual sample. The raw data values represent the total
combined vector taken from the magnetometer (courtesy: Walden)
curves. Recently Kruiver and her coworkers proposed the use of the F-test
(and t-test) to judge upon the number of coercivity fractions required for the
optimal fit.
IV. Demagnetization Parameters

Demagnetization techniques test the stability of the magnetic minerals that
carry the remanent magnetization, and provide information on their properties.
Starting from the SIRM state, application of successively larger backfields
causes the net remanence first to decrease, and then to grow in the reverse
direction eventually reaching the negative SIRM state. This process is often
termed DC demagnetization (Figs 7.26 and 7.27), and is similar to a part of the
isothermal remanent hysteresis cycle.
Figure 7.26. Typical coercivity spectra plots for MD magnetite, SSD magnetite
and hematite.
Figure 7.27. (a) Comparison of DC demagnetization, IRM acquisition and AF

demagnetization. (b) Magnetic properties of small particles: Hc coercive force, F
susceptibility, Mrs/Ms and Hcr/Hc (courtesy: Soffel).
344 Geomagnetism
Assemblages dominated by MD and SP grains exhibit ‘soft’

demagnetization behaviour, because they easily relinquish the induced
alignment of their moments, through domain relocation and thermal disordering.
Characteristically, concave demagnetization curves result with low HCR
(backfield at which the IRM equals zero) values and reverse saturation attained
in low field strengths (Fig. 7.27b). A slightly more resistant curve arises from
the harder response of SSD grains, giving a convexity in the upper part of the
curve due to initial resistance in the lower fields before realigning at slightly
higher intensities. Coercivity curves derived from canted antiferromagnetic
minerals contrast with those typically characterizing ferrimagnetic minerals
(Fig. 7.26), e.g. convexity of the curve indicates the extreme magnetic ‘hardness’
of the material giving high (>60 mT) values of HCR, which only attain reverse
saturation at maximum backfield intensities. Coercivity is thus seen to
sensitively discriminate between natural samples, even where the curves are
composite results of mineral and grain size mixtures.
The two parameters of the coercivity spectra, simplified S-ratios
(IRM-0.1T/IRM1T) and Y-percentages [(IRM-0.3T/IRM1T 2) 100], are useful
to discriminate between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ magnetic minerals (Fig. 7.26). A
sample’s coercivity spectrum is estimated by plotting the ratio of IRM to IRM0.8T
for a range of backfields (5–500 mT). High HCR suggests ‘hard’ or ‘hematite
type’ behaviour. Intermediate and low values indicate SSD and MD ‘magnetite
type’ behaviour, respectively.
With AF demagnetization, the peak AF is increased until magnetic minerals
with the highest coercivity are demagnetized (Fig. 7.27a). It is important to
note that coercive force values are concentration-independent. To a first-order
description, this is warranted in many natural situations. Under this condition,
values of magnetizations and various remanences scale linear with the
concentration of the magnetic minerals. By dividing two concentration-
dependent parameters, a concentration-independent ratio is obtained that
contains information on grain size or the oxidation degree of the magnetic
mineral.
V. Hysteresis and Remanence Coercivity

Most of the fundamental magnetic properties used in environmental magnetism
studies can be illustrated and defined with reference to a hypothetical hysteresis
loop (Fig. 7.28) for an assemblage of randomly oriented ferro(i)magnetic grains
ranging in size from MD through to SSD and SP.
The induced magnetization rises (shown by [a] on the apparent curve)
when a small magnetic field is applied (Fig. 7.28). On removal, however, the
magnetization intensity returns to ‘pre-magnetized’ state. This linear and
reversible response is produced by the combined reactions of the constituent
magnetic grains: (1) in MD grains, reversible movement of domain walls causes
enlargement of domains, whose moments are aligned closest to the field
direction. Conversely, slight rotation of the nonaligned moments also takes
Figure 7.28. The hysteresis loop of a magnetic material. Various symbols are
explained in the text (courtesy: Dankers).
place, (2) in SSD grains, there is slight domain rotation towards the field
direction, whereas (3) SP grains spend a proportionally longer time aligned
within the field. The gradient of the curve (a) gives the F of the sample. The F
is the magnetization observed in low field, which is equivalent to the Earth’s
field (50–100 T).
Subsequently, when the applied field intensity is increased, magnetization
again increases, but now non-linearly (part [b] of the apparent curve), and the
process is no longer reversible. When the applied field is removed, the induced
magnetization does not return to its origin, but merely relaxes towards a level
of remanent intensity defined as IRM. This non-reversible magnetization
process is produced by contributions from MD and SSD grains. In MD grains,
it is caused due to irreversible domain wall movements, while in SSD it is by
irreversible flipping or rotating of the previous easy axes of magnetization. SP
grains do not contribute to remanence, since their in-field alignment is lost
through thermal disordering immediately upon removal from the field. Further
increase in applied field intensity induces increased in-field and remanent
magnetization. But, a point is reached where no further in-field magnetization
is attained despite continued field increase. This point represents the largest
magnetization the assemblage can attain with maximum alignment of: (1) the
domains of the larger grains (achieved through energized wall movement), (2)
the individual domains of the small grains (which have all been flipped and/or
rotated), and (3) the individual SP grains. This maximum magnetization is
termed the saturation magnetization (MS on the apparent curve), which relaxes
to the saturation IRM (SIRM, on the remanent curve). MS is measured in the
laboratory by applying a magnetic field over 1 to 2 T.
The amount of viscous magnetization loss undergone by a sample from its
MS to its SIRM is dependent on the grain sizes present with the moments of
346 Geomagnetism
MD and to a lesser extent SSD grains. These tend to readjust and relax towards
their inherent easy axes of magnetization, while the SP grains totally lose their
imposed in-field magnetic order. The ratio of SIRM to Ms for an assemblage of
randomly oriented SSD grains has been theoretically calculated as 0.5 for
magnetite and Ti-magnetite, PSD grains give a ratio between 0.1 and 0.3 for
magnetite and 0.05 for Ti-magnetite, and MD and SP grains tend towards a
ratio of zero. Thus, the viscous loss is greatest for SP and MD grains and least
for the SSD configuration (Figs 7.29, 7.30 and Table 7.7).
Having attained forward saturation of the sample, a series of fields is then
applied in the opposite direction to identify DC demagnetization behaviour of
mineralogy and grain volume. This is attained by verifying the degree of ease
(or difficulty) with which the induced forward magnetization can be reduced
and then reversed. The point (d) on the remanent curve reveals the SIRM to
have been reduced to zero. The field intensity required to achieve this is the
parameter of remanent coercivity (BCR). At this point, half of the remanent
magnetization is directed opposite to the original remanent saturation direction.
Table 7.7 Magnetic hysteresis properties of some pure samples of known narrow
grain size
Sample Domain state MS MRS MRS/ MS BC BCR BCR /

10-6 A m2 10-6 A m2 mT mT BC
Magnetite fine PSD 2.32 0.92 0.397 38.4 57.7 1.5
Magnetite PSD 1.80 0.29 0.162 8.7 18.6 2.1
Magnetite MD 9.07 0.08 0.008 1.2 14.4 12.0
Magnetite MD 7.67 0.09 0.011 1.4 12.0 8.8
Hematite SD 1.98 1.19 0.602 150 230 1.5
Greigite SD 0.81 0.45 0.557 53.8 69.4 1.3
Figure 7.29. Examples of magnetic hysteresis loops (a, b). (a) Hysteresis loop of an
ensemble of SSD, characterized by square hysteresis loops; loops of PSD and MD are
increasingly slender and have inclined slopes hysteresis loop for hematite. (b) Example
‘wasp-waisted’ hysteresis loop. The central section is smaller than the outer parts. Wasp-
waisted loops are typically of mixed phases with contrasting coercivities: either a mixture
of two magnetic minerals (magnetite and hematite in the present case) or a mixture of
SP and MD of the same mineral. (c) Determination of an IRM acquisition curve and
the remanent coercive force (courtesy: Dekkers).
Figure 7.30. Hysteresis loops for two pure samples of known grain size, shown with
the composite loop obtained by measuring both samples together. Loops are listed
from lowest to highest moment: (a) PSD magnetite, hematite, PSD magnetite + hematite;
(b) hematite, MD magnetite, MD magnetite + hematite; (c) SD greigite, hematite, SD
greigite + hematite; and (d) PSD magnetite, MD magnetite, PSD + MD magnetite. The
hysteresis parameters for these samples are listed in Table 7.7 and can be matched by
comparing Ms values (courtesy: Roberts).
These two directional moments being ‘equal but opposing’ cancel each other
thereby producing a zero net moment. On the apparent curve, the coercive
force BC (Fig. 7.28) occurs, where in-field forward and reverse magnetizations
are ‘equal and balanced’. Continued increased intensity of the reverse fields
past the BC and BCR points causes the induced magnetization to follow the
paths (e) to (f) and (e’) to (f’) on the apparent and remanent curves, respectively.
The cycle of hysteresis is then completed with the attainment of reverse
saturation and remanent magnetizations (MS and –SIRM). A reverse field of
300 mT corresponding to point (f) on the curve, denoted by IRM-300 is given
by (Of’). The ratio IRM/SIRM at a specific reverse field is denoted by
[S-ratio] (Fig. 7.28). For hematite, BCR is >0.2 T; for magnetite it is ~0.05 T.
Values of S–ratio (~IRM-300/SIRM) of ~1 indicate a high proportion of
magnetite, whereas the lower values indicate an increasing proportion of
hematite and goethite.
Day plot and hysteresis loops: If there is only one magnetic mineral, and it is
known to be magnetite or titanomagnetite, the grain size can often be estimated
from the plot of two ratios between magnetization (Mrs/Ms), and coercivity
(Hcr/Hc). It is called the Day plot obtained from bulk hysteresis parameters.
348 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.31. The data of Indian archaeological samples as shown on ‘Day plot’.
ADC - Adhichanallur, AKM - Azhagankulam, MGI - Mangudi, MPM - Mamallapuram
and PER - Perur. M S = saturation magnetization, M rS = saturation remanent
magnetization, Hc = coercivity, Hcr = remanent coercive force. The plot is usually
divided into regions: SD for MrS/MS> 0.5 and HCr/HC < 1.5, MD for MrS/MS < 0.05
and HCr/HC > 4 and PSD.
Figure 7.31 illustrates how SSD, PSD and MD grains can be recognized through
their magnetization and coercivity ratios in the Indian archaeological samples,
where identification of SSD magnetic grains is important in absolute
paleointensity studies.
7.9 SECONDARY MAGNETIC PARAMETERS:

INTERPARAMETRIC RATIOS
Concentration independent parameters: These reflect relative proportions
of magnetic minerals of different types and/or grain sizes and are thus mainly
unaffected by bulk concentration of magnetic material in a sample. These are
inter-paramagnetic quotients (or ratios) primarily influenced by either the
mineralogical or granulometric composition of the sample’s magnetic
assemblage rather than its bulk concentration. The most important
concentration-independent parameters include S-ratio, SIRM/F, Farm/F, Farm/
SIRM, Ffd%, HIRM%, SIRM/MS, BCR/BC and MRS/MS.
Rock magnetic parameters and their ratios: In routine environmental studies,
about a dozen magnetic parameters and ratios are used to characterize magnetic
materials, which basically relate to four main aspects of mineral magnetic
properties (Table 7.8). These are: (i) the concentration of magnetic minerals,
(ii) the stability of the magnetization (measured by the hysteresis loop width;
goethite and hematite have high stabilities, hence low S-ratios), (iii) the
squareness of the hysteresis loop (related to steepest gradient of the hysteresis

loop; goethite and hematite show square loops that can be identified by IRM/
F ratio), and (iv) the type of magnetic interactions between crystals as chains
(Table 7.8).
Table 7.8 Four important mineral magnetic properties
Characteristic Hysteresis loop Remanence

Concentration Height IRMs
Stability Width S ratios or ARM demag
Ease of magnetization Squareness SIRM/F or ARM/F
Grain interactions Steepness ARM/SIRM
Figure 7.32 presents a flowchart which shows how a few magnetic measure-
ments can be used to discriminate between the major magnetic constituents.
The flowchart uses magnetic ratios rather than individual magnetic properties,
because individual remanence or magnetization measurements predominantly
reflect just magnetic concentration, and not magnetic mineralogy. In the flow
chart, four types of magnetic ratio have been listed to aid in mineral
discrimination. They are: (i) S-ratios which relate to IRM acquisition, (ii) IRM/
F and ARM/F ratios, measure of the shape/squareness of hysteresis loop, (iii)
ratio A-40, a measure of the stability of the anhysteretic remanence and (iv)
ratio ARM/SIRM, which is related to the strength of grain interactions. Table
7.9 summarizes typical values of these four types of ratio for a range of natural
magnetic minerals. A biplot of magnetic stability against squareness (Fig. 7.33)
graphically reveals these differences for a range of magnetic minerals, grain
sizes and morphologies.
Table 7.9 Typical magnetic ratios of natural minerals (courtesy: Maher and
Thompson)
Mineral SIRM/F S40 S100 A-40 A/S ARM/F

(kA m-1) (kA m-1)
Magnetite (soft) 1.6 0.83 0.97 0.001 0.02 0.03
Magnetite (hard) 55 0.26 0.85 0.5 0.005 0.3
Titanomagnetite (soft) 10 0.5 0.82 0.24 0.004 0.5
Titanomagnetite (hard) 60 0.08 0.34 0.9 0.04 2.4
Hematite 400 0.005 0.003 Low 0.001 0.01
Ilmenohematite 320 0.02 0.13 0.9 0.004 19.0
Greigite 92 0.03 0.38 0.8 0.01 0.9
Pyrrhotite (soft) 90 0.8 0.95 0.04 0.018 1.6
Goethite 70 0.005 0.02 Low 0.01 1.0
Iron 40 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.01 0.4
S40: proportion of SIRM grown in a forward DC field of 40 mT
S100: proportion of SIRM grown in a forward DC field of 100 mT
A-40: proportion of ARM remaining after partial demagnetization in a peak alternating
field of 40 mT
A/S: ratio of ARM to SIRM
350 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.32. A flowchart indicating utility of few magnetic measurements to discriminate

between the major magnetic minerals found in environmental samples. Note few
magnetic measurements are sufficient to identify major magnetic constituents in the
samples (Maher and Thompson, 1999).
Figure 7.33. A biplot of magnetic stability vs. squareness showing six examples of
different magnetic minerals, grain sizes and morphologies (courtesy: Maher and
Thompson).
7.10 MAGNETIC STUDIES, COMPLEX ISSUES

Magnetic method is a powerful tool to reconstruct environmental history, though
it is restricted in its application by the potential complexity of relationship
between sediment sources and sinks. A catchment has several magnetically
distinguishable sources, because of which determining relative source
contributions become mathematically and statistically complicated.
A significant impediment to use of lake and marine sediment records is
the post-depositional chemical changes in magnetic mineralogy. Dissolution
is a diagenetic process that involves initial loss of the finest magnetic fraction
and later on the coarser magnetic minerals. In such cases, the assumption of an
entirely detrital origin becomes erroneous, because it requires the presumption
that magnetic properties are conserved during transport from the source to the
sink.
Apart from the chemical reduction of magnetite, marine and freshwater
bacterium are also found capable of dissolving and reducing magnetite. Iron
sulfides such as greigite, and fine grained (SSD) biogenic magnetite are reported
352 Geomagnetism
to have authigenically grown in lacustrine and marine sediments. These minerals

are produced intracellularly and to some extent extracellularly. Magnetic bacteria
have also been found in soils as well. Thus, biogenic ferrimagnetic minerals
can make a contribution to the assemblage of magnetic minerals in sediments,
although this contribution is likely to be more significant in depositional
environments that favour the growth of magnetotactic bacteria.
An important issue associated with sediment transportation processes is
the complex relationship between sediment particle size and magnetic
properties. The highest F values occur in the <125 m fraction of river bed
sediment, implying downstream increase in particle sorting, which makes the
sediment progressively finer. However, this relatively simple setting is
complicated by other processes that come into play in the form of abrasion,
particle breakage or the selective deposition of heavy minerals that contain a
high proportion of magnetic minerals (like magnetite). To reduce ambiguity
associated with sediment transport, it thus becomes necessary to conduct tracing
studies on well defined (laboratory sorted) particle size fractions. This may,
however, not eliminate magnetic mineral dilution or enrichment by fluvial
sorting processes.
I. The Mixing and Unmixing Problem

Rocks and sediments inevitably contain mixtures of magnetic minerals of
different grain sizes and weathering states. Most environmental (rock) magnetic
techniques rely on a set of parameters, designed to interpret in terms of
mineralogy, concentration and domain state of magnetic minerals. In some
cases, however, such interpretation of natural samples can be misleading. A
more reliable approach to magnetic mineralogy models is based on the analysis
of magnetization curves, which are decomposed into a set of elementary
contributions characterizing specific set of magnetic grains with unimodal
distribution (component analysis) of physical and chemical properties. Magnetic
components are then related to specific biogeochemical signatures, not
characterized as just SSD magnetite. This unconventional approach opens up
a direct link to the interpretation of natural processes on a multidisciplinary
level. Despite these advantages, component analysis has not yet come into
wide use for three reasons: (1) lack of quantitative magnetic models for natural,
non-ideal magnetic grains, and/or the statistical distribution of their properties,
(2) intrinsic mathematical complexity of unmixing problems, and (3) need of
accurate measurements that are beyond the usual standards.
Since magnetic components rarely occur alone in natural samples, unmixing
techniques and rock magnetic models are interdependent. Recently, efforts have
been initiated to verify the basic properties of magnetization curves, and obtain
useful/reliable solutions to the unmixing problem. It has already resulted in
collection of a few hundred magnetic components from various natural
environments. The properties of these components are controlled by their
biogeochemical history, regardless of the provenance of the hosting sediment.
For example, the coercivity of all detrital magnetites is tuned by the transport
mechanism (air/water) and the ARM of biogenic magnetites is controlled by
their (paleo)redox condition. The consistency of these results supports the linear
additivity principle upon which all current magnetic unmixing methods are
based. Once the rock magnetic properties of individual components and their
statistical distribution are known, the solution of unmixing problems provides
important benefits. One of the major benefits pertains to making the whole
process simple, thereby making it accessible to even the non-specialized users.
Simplified unmixing algorithms are robust, and are capable of delivering reliable
results based on relatively fast measurements.
II. Ternary Diagram and Thermomagnetic Curves

In the context of mineral magnetic studies, it is those minerals spanning the
solid solution series between magnetite (Fe3O4) and maghemite (JFe2O3), which
are most important. In addition, the various Ti substituted compositions of
these two minerals called titanomagnetite and titanomaghemite often dominate
much of the magnetic information gained from the bulk sample measurements.
Three solid solution series on Fig. 7.34 have a characteristic crystal form,
but vary in their composition, especially the Fe/Ti ratio (Chapter 2). As the
material oxidizes, it moves across a constant Ti/Fe ratio line signifying increase
in its oxygen concentration. The titanomagnetites solid solution series are
usually found in basic igneous rocks with a movement towards the magnetite
end of the series as rocks become more acidic. The ilmenite-hematite solid
solution series are usually found in more oxygen-rich environments. For
example, hematite can be formed by the oxidation of titanomagnetites or by
inversion of maghematite (>350°C). The minerals of pseudo-brookite solid
solution series are all paramagnetic above liquid oxygen temperature (Chapter
2). At low latitudes, weathering in the form of low temperature oxidation (LTO)
of titanomagnetites yields ferro(i)magnetic mineral as a product through the
process of maghemitization. Pyrrhotite (FeS1+x, 0<x<0.15) when present also
contributes to LTO.
Thermomagnetic analysis determines the compositional diagnostic TC for
different minerals by monitoring high-field magnetization MS-T, and low-field
susceptibility (F-T) during heating to a maximum of 700°C (Figs 7.20 and
7.34). This together with results of chemical analyses plotted on ternary diagram,
can be diagnostic of the chemistry of magnetic minerals. Two points in the
ternary diagram represent chemical composition of the magnetic mineral
between Fe-Ti oxides. Curie temperatures change with oxidation degree of the
magnetic mineral according to its position in ternary diagram and Ti content.
Thermal alteration frequently occurs, when the magnetic mineral is heated.
Alteration temperatures and thermomagnetic behaviour of the alteration
products provide further information as to the initial mineralogy of the sample.
Use of magnetic measurements at cryogenic temperatures for characterizing
magnetic mineralogy is becoming a valuable new tool in rock magnetic and
354 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.34. Ternary diagram for iron oxides. Solid lines are solid solution series with
increasing titanium concentration (x). The dashed lines with arrow indicate the direction
of oxidation (z). Two typical examples show compositional relationships (x or y) and
Curie temperatures of Fe-Ti oxide minerals (http://magician.ucsd.edu/Essentials/
WebBook162x.png).
environmental magnetic investigations. This is because low-T magnetometry

has the potential to complement conventional high-T methods, while offering
an advantage of avoiding chemical alteration in magnetic mineralogy during
heating.
The various enviromagnetic parameters and their combinations discussed
here are employed for the purpose of answering three broad questions: (1)
Composition (i.e. which magnetic minerals are present?), (2) Concentration
(i.e. how much of each one is present?), and (3) Granulometry (i.e. what are
the dominant grain sizes present?).
7.11 ENVIRONMENTAL MAGNETISM—ITS APPLICATION

TO THE INDIAN DEPOSITIONAL SETTINGS
Mineral magnetic variations, depending on the environmental context, are used
as an aid towards elucidation of a diversity of problems. Several Indian research
groups are working diligently to reconstruct palaeoclimate over the
subcontinent, and its contiguous oceanic realm. These studies offer considerable
potential to correlate marine and terrestrial sequences. However, only a few
investigators have used rock magnetic and environmental magnetic properties
to extract palaeoclimatic and palaeoceanographic information, which has been
presented in the next sections.
Depositional environments under investigation: Indian subcontinent has
many sedimentary basins, which are investigated for a complete perception of
the sources and processes to understand subcontinental environmental and

climatic changes. In this attempt, use of other techniques such as X-ray
diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission
electron microscope (TEM) is undertaken to confirm rock magnetic
interpretation.
Mineral magnetic measurements have been performed on core and hand
specimens collected from India encompassing depositional environments of
varying type and provenance, viz. ~>4.0 Ma Kashmir Karewa palaeolake
sequence; ~10 ka to ~30 ka old palaeolake sequences in the central higher
Himalayas at Goting, Pipalkoti, Burfu and Garbayang; ~12 ka shallow playa
lakes of Thar desert in Rajasthan; Nalsarovar lake in Gujarat, which is almost
~6.0 ka; ~5.0 ka Mastani lake near Pune; ~500 years old Powai and Tulsi lakes
in Mumbai city; near shore deltaic/estuarine environments like those of
Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Iskapalli situated on east coast and Mandovi
on west coast; ~25 ka Himalayan loess deposits, ~25 ka, ~50 ka and ~120 ka
terra rossae palaeosols of Saurashtra, and beach samples of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Goa. Figure 7.35 shows the locations, from where sedimentary
samples have been collected for environmental magnetic investigations.
Figure 7.35. Location map of the samples collected for environmental mineral magnetic
studies. Digital elevation model based on 1-arc sec resolution (~0.03 km) GTOPO30
data. (a) Proglacial lake deposits from central higher Himalayas, (b) Thar desert lakes
and playas, Gulf of Kutch coastal deposits and continental deposits in Mainland Gujarat,
(c) Mumbai lakes and Konkan belts covering estuaries in Goa and mangroves along
the west coast and (d) East coast deltas, viz. Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery
and Pennar. In these regions stress is being given on mangrove deposits as they are
ideal sites for using the mineral magnetic approach.
356 Geomagnetism
7.12 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND DEPOSITIONAL

ENVIRONMENTS
How stable are Fe oxides in a given set of environmental conditions, and modify
with a change in chemical and physical ambience are discussed earlier. Since
they have the diagnostic ability at interconversions between different phases,
magnetic minerals are used as a quantified and calibrated proxy. The premise
is based on the fact that magnetic mineralogy reflects the course of
environmental (climate) changes by recording evidence of associated
modifications in sedimentation, weathering and pedogenic regimes. In all,
magnetic susceptibility is found to be a valuable tool that accurately plays
back the original signals entrenched in the sediments.
I. Magnetic Susceptibility and Mangrove Sediments

In India, mangroves are unevenly distributed along the east and west coast
regions. Because of major deltas along the east coast, the mangroves here are
better and well developed compared to those along the west coast. Factors
such as geomorphology, climate, tidal amplitude/duration and quantity of
freshwater inflow determine the mangrove distribution, wherein the
sedimentation is influenced by interaction between the mangrove root systems
and sediment laden tidal waters.
Indian climate is dominated by two monsoon seasons, and the rate of rainfall
varies considerably from one place to the other. Holocene monsoonal and
environmental changes are stored in mangrove swamps, where high rate of
sediment accumulation takes place. Accordingly, the mangrove swamps develop
into good storage sites with a huge pile of fine black clays and silts ideally
suited for high-resolution palaeoclimatic study. Natural events and man-made
changes have significant impact on the climate, which in turn affects the
vegetation, and these signatures are reflected in the subsurface sediments of
mangroves. As of now, there is hardly any input of environmental magnetism
from the mangrove swamp sediments of India, and hence there is tremendous
scope to utilize this technique.
In sediments of Deccan basalts, the magnetization is due mainly to large-
grained (titano)magnetite grains of high F. But, when the rock or sediment
weathers by the passage of water through cracks, it results in oxidized grains
such as hematite that has a much lower F. The core logs of F are used for two
studies: (1) to see if different outcrops could be characterized for their similar
or dissimilar origins and (2) to use weathering profiles to differentiate diverse
depositional sequences.
The transition or variation in F is governed by a change in the depositional
environment. For example, the characteristic feature of mangrove sediments is
the display of very low and consistently invariant F values, which discriminate
these deposits from others (Figs 7.36 and 7.37). The section from the base to
40 cm depth, where there is a change in environment, is dominated by very
Figure 7.36. The Hadi mangrove sediment core with representative microfossil
assemblages at different species and corresponding magnetic susceptibility curve. The
low and invariant F values correspond to the dark clays of mangrove origin. Magnetic
susceptibility together with palynoflora enables to recognize marine, estuarine,
freshwater aquatics, sandy beach and terrestrial or hinterland ecological complexes
(Kumaran et al., 2004).
Figure 7.37. The mangrove sediments from east coast deltaic vibra-cores exhibit low
and invariant magnetic susceptibility values. The F logs across three major east coast
deltaic basins distinguish depositional mangrove environments from non-depositional
ones in a relatively more reliable and inexpensive manner (Seetharamaiah et al., 2004).
358 Geomagnetism
low F variation reflecting mangrove elements (Fig. 7.36). The terrestrial and
freshwater sediment input increase F values significantly towards the top.
The major peninsular rivers like Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery have built
large deltas on the eastern coast of India over a total area of ~19,187 sq km.
The initiation of these modern deltas is believed to have begun ~8.5–6.5 ka
and the rivers bring in a total sediment load of 28 109 tonnes annually to the
Bay of Bengal. These deltas are characterized by the presence of extensive
mangrove swamps along their seaward margins. Low F variation of the shaded
portion (Fig. 7.37) is the repository of mangrove sediments, whereas the highly
fluctuating F indicates more vigorous detrital environment from eastern India
deltaic environments of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. The 14C ages obtained
are: Godavari mangrove delta (2.1 to 1.7 cal ka at 83 cm depth), Krishna
mangrove (4.3 to 3.7 cal ka at 95 cm), and Cauvery mangrove (2.3 to 2.0 cal ka
at 126 cm).
Generally, sediments from various environments have different F values.
But, the mangrove results indicate that even in a similar environment,
ferrimagnetic mineral concentrations vary vertically from one delta to another.
The F values range between 10 and 2000 with the highest ferrimagnetic mineral
concentrations in Krishna mangrove swamp followed by Godavari and Cauvery.
In the upper part of the cores, there is a steady decrease in F. High fluctuations
in F occur below 100 cm depth in Godavari, and ~40 to 60 cm depth in Krishna
and Cauvery delta mangroves, indicating a change in sequence evolution of
deltaic environments during the late Holocene in these regions. It is argued
that fluctuations in Holocene F records reflect climatic change in sediment
provenance areas.
II. Magnetic Susceptibility and Flood Plain Sediments

Floods are usually local, short-lived events that happen suddenly across a part
of moving or still water body because of intense precipitation that produces
more runoff than an area can store or a stream can carry within its normal
channel. Rivers can also flood when dams fail, when ice jams or landslides
temporarily block a channel or when snow melts rapidly depositing detrital
components in the nearby areas giving rise to flood plains. In a broader sense,
normally dry lands can be flooded by high lake levels, by high tides or by
waves driven ashore by strong winds. Thus, these sediments contain history of
climatic changes in the form of flooding and nonflooding events.
The sediments of the Mahi floodplain cover a considerable part of western
India, which were formed within the time span of 30 to 10 ka. Rapid oscillations
in the intensity of SW monsoon during the last glacial phase have been
deciphered from magnetic and calcrete proxy records. Alternating strong and
weak monsoon events identified from Mahi river basin in Gujarat, suggest
impact of glaciation and glacier melting to have occurred on regional and global
scale.
The values of F and FFD% vary from 12 to 21 SI and from 0 to 1.2%,

respectively. Here both allogenic and authigenic processes (pedogenesis and
early diagenesis) occurred together, to differentiate which F records were
compared with opaque magnetic heavy mineral percentages. As can be seen
from Fig. 7.38, increase in FFD% follows an increase in opaque magnetic heavy
mineral concentration pointing to heavy detrital input on account of flooding.
As opposed to this phenomenon, when there is an increase in FFD% accompanied
by a decrease in opaque magnetic heavy minerals, it is suggestive of
pedogenesis. The secondary enrichment of ferrous/ferric Fe due to pedogenesis
is captured by simultaneous converging or diverging trends in FFD% and
magnetic heavy mineral concentration. Based on these two collective
parameters, four pedogenic horizons are delineated. Seven flood and non-flood
periods are also identified, reflecting strong and weak monsoonal phases at a
time scale of a few thousand years.
III. Mineral Magnetism and Foraminiferal Assemblage in

Mudflat Sediments
Mudflat is an intertidal sedimentary area formed by deposition in low energy
coastal environment, like an estuary, whose sediment consists mostly of silts
and clays with a high organic content. It is also characterized by high biological
productivity and abundance of organisms, but has low diversity with few rare
species.
Figure 7.38. Variation of magnetic susceptibility, frequency dependent susceptibility

and opaque heavy mineral percentage along depth profile for the sediment sequence at
Bhimpura, where the Roman numerals indicate flood events. Simultaneous
measurements of F and its frequency dependence coupled with heavy minerals can be
used to identify flood periods and nonflood periods, reflecting indirectly strong and
weak monsoon phases (Sant et al., 2006).
360 Geomagnetism
The samples of Navlakhi mudflat, whose organic matter was subjected to

carbon dating, gave an age of ~11 calibrated ka years before present (cal years
BP). A combination of foraminiferal and magnetic analyses was used to
reconstruct the depositional environment of clays from a 3.5 m shallow core of
the mudflats of the Gulf of Kutch (Fig. 7.39), wherein samples of two levels,
viz. 140 cm and 200 cm yielded 14C dates of 9,390±140 years (cal 11,040 to
10,430 years) and 8,720±200 years (cal 10,150 to 9,530 years).
Wet periods of monsoonal reinforcements occurred at the early and middle
(°) Holocene, which has been suggested by: (1) overall reduction in magnetic
grain size reflected in higher values of ARM/SIRM, (2) low hematite content
inferred from high S-ratio, (3) higher (lower) values of S-ratio correlate well
with higher (lower) numbers of Elphidiidae and Nonionidae, which seemed to
be governed by the increasing (decreasing) degree of salinity, and (4) increase
in percentage abundance of the micro-fauna of Elphidiidae and vice versa.
The relation of these magnetic parameters to climate change is through discharge
variations across time. For example, low variations in the S-ratio, which relates
directly to the presence of hematite, indicate changes in fresh water influx in
this environmental setup. As this hematite is derived from erosion of oxidized
soils of the catchment during drier periods, low values in S-ratio can directly
be related to low discharge conditions (weaker monsoons). On the other hand,
high S-ratio values reflecting more titanomagnetite in the sediments reveal
increased fresh water influx during wet periods of monsoon reinforcement.
IV. Magnetic Susceptibility and Rajasthan Playa Sediments

Playas are enclosed shallow depressions in desert basins, tectonic lows,
interdune flats and abandoned channels, which contain deposits and evaporites
Figure 7.39. Downcore variations of magnetic susceptibility and remanence measurements

and their quotients together with foraminiferal from the Navlakhi mudflat core. Interpreted
values of low and high discharges are marked across the plots. The study demonstrates
magnetic parameters coupled with foraminifera provide useful insights into climate related
salinity changes. Note S-ratio together with ARM/SIRM suggests the influence of fresh
water resulting in salinity variations (Rajsekhar et al., 2004).
from the impoundment of episodic stream flow or near-surface groundwater.

These can be entirely dry or seasonally filled with water, where the sediment
load carried into a playa from streams or blown in by wind includes clay, silt
and fine grained sand. Evaporation of water from playas leaves exposed surfaces
of the resident material, which can be any mix of clay, silt, fine sand and salt.
Episodic streams may enter the playa from runoff during or shortly after rainfall
in distant watersheds. Water may also appear due to rising groundwater in
localities, where the basin floor or a channel intercepts the water table.
The playa sediments carry both the history of past climates and hydrology.
In a desert, changes in water level, water chemistry and rate of sedimentation
are all controlled by the climate. A dry phase of climate means dessication and
shrinkage of the lake leading to increase in salinity. A wet climate leads to
more vegetation around the lake filled with water. The pollen of steppe type of
vegetation has been reported for Didwana. However, from 8.1 to 6.3 ka and
4.6 to 2.0 ka the landforms were unstable, and the climate was dry and arid,
during which maximum influx of sediments took place in the lake.
Bap-Malar and Kanod lakes are in the arid Thar desert of Rajasthan, where
climatic records for the past ~12 ka have been preserved. F values at Kanod
and Bap-Malar show progressive decrease down the profile and are interpreted
in light of the changing hydrology of the lakes. During periods of high lake
levels or rise in groundwater table, sediment composition is governed by the
presence of paramagnetic minerals brought into the playa either by eolian or
Figure 7.40. Variation in magnetic susceptibility in the Bap Malar and Kanod playa
lake sediments. Variations in F reflect changes in the lake hydrology, leading to dilution
of F through increases in diamagnetic evaporitic minerals. Higher F values occur when
aeolian detrital fluxes increase onto the playa surface (Deotare et al., 2004).
362 Geomagnetism
wind activity. When the lake evaporates and groundwater tables go down, the
precipitation of evaporites and carbonates suppresses F. With progressive aridity
and simultaneous drying up of the lake, precipitation of evaporite and carbonate
minerals decline. Subsequently, eolian sediments rich in hematite deposited
onto the lake surface increase F values.
V. Magnetic Susceptibility, FTIR Record and

Civilization Collapse
The world has witnessed gradual as well as abrupt civilizational growth and
collapse. The decline has been because of any one or a combination of factors
such as war, drought, natural disaster, disease, overpopulation and economic
disruption. In India, past settlements and old civilizations occur along most of
the lakes and river basins, barring few of the inhospitable terrains. Palaeoclimatic
fluctuations are known to coincide with changes in cultural stages in Palaeolithic
sites of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Lothal in Gujarat is a fascinating remnant of ancient Harappan civilization
and little is known about the climate that prevailed before, during and at the
terminal phase (3.5 ka ago) of this grand culture. Hence, collective proxy studies
were carried out to ascertain critical palaeogeographical and palaeoclimato-
logical issues. The magnetic record is jointly interpreted with remote sensing
and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) studies. FTIR was
employed to know the relative abundance of carbonate with respect to silicate
in order to see the effect of any dilution on the F values.
Three different levels of F in the sediment trench record (Fig. 7.41) display
changing depositional environments from coastal realm at the lower part to
Figure 7.41. Down profile changes in F and Ffd% compared with variations in relative
percentage of carbonate with respect to silica in the sediment. F and carbonate
concentration show fluctuations that are governed by changes in the depositional
environment. A marked drop in Ffd is observed towards the top implying a reduction in
soil generating processes (Khadkikar and Basavaiah, 2004).
intertidal at the centre, and supratidal at the top. The uppermost part of the
sediment record is characterized by low F. This is not matched with Ffd%,
showing high values till ~26 cm after which a fall is observed at 18 cm. This
low Ffd% implies reduced monsoon rainfall accompanied by high sea levels
witnessing collapse of Harappan civilization. When Lothal was inhabited, the
weathering processes in the provenance area were subdued.
VI. Magnetic Susceptibility and Terra Rossae

Late Quaternary aeolinites occur along the coast of Saurashtra in Gujarat,
western India. They show a wide array of epikarst and red soil (Terra Rossa)
events making them typical formations to study the manner and character of
aeolinite weathering under a monsoonal regime (Fig. 7.42). Karst is derived
from a German word meaning crag or stone. In geomorphological terms, it
refers to limestone terrains, and describes locales with distinctive characteristics
Figure 7.42. Terra Rossae inter-stratified with aeolianites at the classic exposure
of Gopinath along with their event stratigraphy and notations (Khadkikar and
Basavaiah, 2004).
364 Geomagnetism
of relief and drainage arising primarily from a higher degree of rock solubility
in natural waters than is found elsewhere. The term also refers to dissolution
features found pervasively developed in aeolinites, like in Gujarat. ‘Karst’ is
essentially a variant of solution pipes that are vertically oriented, sometimes
interconnected to form honeycomb network or appear as an irregular surface
dominated by cavities and channels. Most of the variants of karst are ‘epikarst’.
These are solution features that have developed near the surface within depths
extending to a few metres only. Terra Rossa, on the other hand, are red soils
commonly developed on limestones under a Mediterranean type of climate.
These are also reported from tropical regions. The Terra Rossa soils are
understood to have formed by leaching and residual accumulation of limestone.
Alternatively, it has also been suggested that the dust from Sahara gave rise to
these soils.
Three Terra Rossae events were observed along the coast of Saurashtra,
which placed the age of lower Palaeolithic in western India at ~30 to 100 ka.
Of the three Terra Rossae events, event 2 was formed during the last interglacial
period and the older event correlates with 170 ka event similar to MIS-3 during
which time the Earth entered into interstadial. These Terra Rossae events were
formed during periods of interglacial style of climates that were also durations
of increased SW Indian monsoon rainfall.
The down-profile changes in F, FFD and ARM (Fig. 7.43) are complex,
and are related to changes in concentrations of SSD and SP magnetite,
siliciclasts, carbonate, and hematite. Seasonal wetting in the monsoon months
formed SSD and SP magnetic grains by the breakdown of MD magnetite,
whereas formation of hematite was restricted to dry hot summers through
oxidation of magnetite. The formation of SSD and SP magnetite and hematite
are linked genetically to weathering of the aeolianite that formed Terra Rossa.
VII. Magnetic Susceptibility and Beach Sands

Beaches are by far the most widely distributed of any of the coastal sedimentary
environments. The actual shape and orientation of the beach is apparently
dependent on a number of variables, including the direction of wave approach,
the material comprising the beach, the overall shape and composition of the
coast. Beach sediment is the unconsolidated debris produced from the
weathering of rocks. Since beaches are prone to erosion or deposition of
sediments and are used for recreational purposes, their study forms an important
public utility service.
Magnetic proxy measurements can serve as a fast and efficient tool for
screening anthropogenic heavy (magnetic) mineral accumulation in soils and
sediments. Beach samples from Vengurla (Fig. 7.44) were collected in the
three seasons of the year from 2002 to 2005. Magnetic measurements (F) were
carried out to understand sediment movement along the beaches, and to test
the validity and efficacy of this technique to collect rapidly and reliably the
initial data on sediment movement. The study found that magnetic minerals
Figure 7.43. Histogram showing the frequency distribution of (a, b) low and frequency-
dependent susceptibility (Flf and Ffd). Both these parameters do not covary as shown in
(c). (d) Bivariate plot of ARM and magnetic susceptibility Flf which shows that they are
positively correlated, implying a genetic relationship (Khadkikar and Basavaiah, 2004).
Figure 7.44. Magnetic susceptibility changes delineating magnetic mineralogy and

sand migration along beaches of Redi, Aravali and Vengurla, of Sindhudurg district,
Maharashtra, India. It can be seen from the diagram the prevalence of magnetic minerals
at the extreme ends of the beaches denoting the migration path of beach sediments and
the morphotectonic features of longshore currents (Gawali et al, 2010).
366 Geomagnetism
across the beach are mostly of ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic type

concentrated more towards the northern and southern ends of the beaches (Fig.
7.44). But stations situated at the centre of the beaches are distinguished by
exclusive presence of antiferromagnetic and/or paramagnetic minerals. The
studies also revealed that concentration of magnetic minerals is more during
the monsoon season than in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon because of the
increased detrital influx from both land and sea. The main source or provenance
of these magnetic minerals is the Deccan basalts, laterite and iron ores present
along this stretch.
VIII. Magnetic Susceptibility and Himalayan Lake (Vanished)

Sediments
The great Himalayan mountain range as a highland emerged by middle to late
Miocene (11 to 7.5 Ma); it became a mountain barrier high enough to disrupt
W–E flow of winds and push low-pressure area over northern India, which
attracted moist summer winds from the Indian ocean. Palaeoclimatically, the
uplift of Himalaya and Tibet exerts profound influence on regional and global
climate in several ways.
Since the ascent of the Himalayas, the region has undergone several climatic
vicissitudes experiencing glaciation for ~18 ka. Such events have devastating
effect. For example, the slopes of the Alaknanda valley are loose and fissile
phyllitic rocks prone to landslides, which temporarily block the river from a
few days to several thousand years. The filled up reservoir is unable to withstand
pressure from the stored water causing flash floods in its wake. Landslides of
the recent past blocked scores of the Himalayan rivers, inducing scientists to
look for evidences of ancient and pre-historical blockades. The presence of
ancient river streams and lakes is confirmed by the respective presence of sand
and clay/silt at the bottom. Two palaeolakes were thus identified at Goting and
Garbayang (Fig. 7.45) in the higher central Himalayas, where sampling was
carried out for detailed analyses like mineral magnetics, geochemical and
optically stimulated luminescence studies (OSLS).
These palaeolakes contain signatures of glaciation within the timeframe
between 40 and 10 ka. The higher central Himalaya is a narrow strip of
mountainous terrain between the great Himalayan range and the Indo-Tibetan
water divide. Garbayang lies in a transitional zone between dry steppe (Tibetan
plateau) and the sub-humid (Himalayan) climate zone. Here the SW monsoon
is the dominant source of precipitation which accounts for 80% of the total
precipitation, a part of which falls as snow. During Nov to Feb, the westerly
disturbances (winter monsoons) contribute the remaining 20% of the
precipitation. Goting basin, on the other hand, represents the dry steppe climate
of the adjoining Tibetan plateau. At Garbayang, deposition occurred in a
proglacial lacustrine environment. These deposits formed in a lake blocked by
terminal moraine after the retreat of the main valley glacier. The base of the
Figure 7.45. Lithology and structure between Garbayang (NE) and Goting (NW).
Central crystalline rocks (wavy symbol) are south of the trans-Himadri fault (THF).
Open circles are the relict lake locations. An inset indicates a synoptic view of major
structures in the region.
palaeolake at Garbayang and Goting has been dated to 20±3 and 29±3 ka,
respectively (Fig. 7.46).
Garbayang varve lake deposits: Environmental magnetism can extract
valuable insights from physical and biogeochemical lake processes and can
characterize lake systems ‘prior to’ and ‘post’ significant anthropogenic impacts.
Variations in magnetic mineral concentration, grain size and mineralogy are
used in the Himalayas to identify changes in environmental conditions that
include deglaciation, Younger Dryas cold and arid events during the early and
mid Holocene. Younger Dryas represents the ‘big freeze’ between 12.7 and
11.5 ka. This was a global phenomenon during which time apparently everything
remained frozen.
The Swiss launched the first scientific expedition to the remote Himalayas
in 1930s, when Heim and Gansser discovered varve-like deposits at Garbayang.
Varves (Swedish varv) are fine clays deposited in layers, each representing a
year (summer/winter) of glacial melt. Melting of ice increases with the advent
of summers, which bring in more detrital input forming thicker layers whereas
during winters due to reduced snow melt, the layer of sediments are thinner.
368 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.46. Stratigraphy and luminescence chronology of Garbayang and

Goting deposits.
One can count such varves with ease and decipher the number of winters and
summers the area witnessed in the past.
The Garbayang sediments are equivalent to MIS stage 4 and are estimated
to be ~100 m thick. However, the steep cliffs make most of the succession
inaccessible and only the top 28 m accessible part is studied. The varves at
Garbayang are typical of layered deposition in a placid and calm lake already
formed, while the glacier existed (Fig. 7.47). This fact was confirmed by the
terminal moraine that proved to be much older than the lake sediments.
Mineral magnetism and palaeoclimate in Garbayang lake deposits:
Garbayang deposits reveal high frequency, but low amplitude fluctuations from
the base to the top (Fig. 7.48). The provenance of this lake is weakly magnetic
precluding the chances of high magnetic material entering the lake. Elemental
data was obtained for the upper 8 m of the sequence, which agrees well with
the magnetic data (Fig. 7.48) underscoring the immense utility of this technique
of being fast, inexpensive and reliable. The salient features of the study are:
(1) Dominance of varves and a decline in susceptibility values between 20±3
and ~18±3 ka represent LGM, (2) Magnetic susceptibility and sedimentalogical
data suggest that the period between 18±3 and ~13±2 ka witnessed high
frequency/low amplitude climatic oscillations, (3) A sudden drop in magnetic
susceptibility and elemental concentration of layers dated at 12–11 ka suggests
cooling associated with Younger Dryas, and (4) A 1.7 m thick sand body reflects
enhanced melt water discharge.
Figure 7.47. (a) Varve like laminations, scale is given alongside. (b) Dropstone (~10
cm horizontal axis) embedded in varve-like laminations. (c) Photomicrograph showing
dark winter and light summer lamina, horizontal scale at the bottom is 12 mm (Basavaiah
et al., 2004).
Figure 7.48. Magnetic susceptibility, S-ratio and elemental data plotted against the
litholog. Infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) ages are shown along side the
susceptibility curve. The IRSL ages of 12 ka (22 m height) and 11 ka (25 m height) are
interpolated ages (Navin et al., 2004).
370 Geomagnetism
Magnetic mineralogy and climate linkages in lake sediments: The property

of magnetism is temperature dependent and to exactly identify magnetic
minerals following techniques are employed: (i) low and high temperature
(–196° to 700°C) dependence of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility,
(ii) hysteresis parameters (saturation magnetization MS, saturation remanence
MRS, coercivity remanence HCR, and coercivity HC) and resistance to AF or
thermal demagnetizations. Based on stepwise thermal demagnetization of
SIRM, the Himalayan Garbayang lake sediments are found to contain Ti-rich
titanomagnetites with varying titanium content and pure hematite (Fig. 7.49a,b).
It is suggested that low temperature oxidation (LTO, maghematization) is more
advanced in samples (e.g. GB-854 in Fig. 7.49a) of drier phases (decreased
rainfall) expressed by alteration (oxidation) of titanium-rich titanomagnetite
to hematite. Samples (e.g. GB-906 in Fig. 7.49b) from wetter spells (increased
rainfall) show that LTO is less pronounced and titanomagnetites are still
preserved. The changes in magnetic mineralogy confirm its suitability in climate
related studies.
Figure 7.49. Typical thermal demagnetization curves of the normalized SIRM values
of the Garbayang lake sediments: (a) GB-854 sample shows a sharp decrease in
magnetization at ~675°C suggesting dominance of hematite. (b) Sample GB-906
indicates three magnetic phases, i.e. Ti-rich titanomagnetite, magnetite and hematite
(Juyal et al., 2004).
Mineral magnetism and palaeoclimate in Goting lake deposits:

Sedimentological evidences indicate the prevalence of two distinct climatic
regimes at Goting by infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating between
29 and 18 ka. The lower unit-I suggests enhanced sediment supply (dominated
by titanomagnetite) and higher surface water temperature, whereas the overlying
varve dominated unit-II indicates cooler condition punctuated by frequent warm
oscillations (Fig. 7.50). The Goting samples are characterized by F values
between ~11 and 17.5 (10-8 m3/kg). Warm condition prevailed with less frequent
oscillations between 29 and 18 ka; LGM is identified at ~18 ka (depth 34 m).
IX. Mineral Magnetism and Palaeoclimate in the Himalayan

Loess (Silt Deposits)
Loess is a glacial rock flour blown by
wind and deposited thousands of miles
away from its place of origin. These
are homogenous because winds can
carry particles of a particular size only.
On deposition, the carbonate content
binds them together to form huge
deposits. Loess sediments are
commonly found in China and
midwestern USA and are also a hall
mark of several European countries.
India has very few loess deposits, and
the first to identify them was R.K. Pant
from Kashmir valley in 1978.
Subsequently, in 1984, R.J. Williams
and M.F. Clarke reported loess from
Sone valley in central India. Pant and
his team were lucky to strike loess once
again at altitudes ranging from 1800
to 2500 m in the central Himalayas at
Dhakuri in Bageshwar district in Figure 7.50. Magnetic susceptibility of
Pindar river basin and Chopta in Goting varve deposits. Note a marked
Chamoli district in Alaknanda river low representing LGM in a saw tooth
basin of Uttarakhand (Fig. 7.51). pattern. LGM - last glacial maximum
(Basavaiah et al., 2004).
Figure 7.51. Map of the central Himalaya showing distribution of loess deposits
south of the glaciated terrain (Pant et al., 2005).
372 Geomagnetism
To estimate the age and duration of loess accretion and soil formation
episodes, IRSL and 14C techniques were used. IRSL determines the time elapsed
since the loess mineral grains were last exposed to sunlight. As the fine
sediments carried by the winds are deposited layer after layer, year after year,
the sunlight to older sediments becomes dearer. The IRSL ages ranged from
20±4 ka for loess at 200 cm depth and 1±0.3 ka at 20 cm depth (Fig. 7.53).
Dhakuri has a higher magnetic content and the anticipated source area is
postulated to be a granite terrain. However, granites are poor in Fe content;
hence, it is conjectured that they come from a far away place. Some have
obtained loess from the sea floor drill-cores. Alternatively, oxidation could
have enhanced the magnetic content, as the results suggest. Thermomagnetic
F-T runs between RT and 700°C and unblocking temperatures (SIRM-T) reveal
inflection in the heating curves at ~350 and 300°C, which are attributed to the
formation and destruction of maghemite due to oxidation (Fig. 7.52). The
magnetic properties of the sequences seem to be dominated by magnetite and
maghemite in palaeosols, whereas magnetite as well as hematite (with additional
maghemite) dominates the loess (Fig. 7.52).
Figure 6.52. (a) Thermal demagnetization of saturation isothermal remanent

magnetisation (SIRM) for palaeosol and loess samples. Normalized susceptibility versus
temperature curves for loess (b) and palaeosol (c) samples. Thick (broken) lines represent
heating (cooling) curves (Pant et al., 2005).
Variations in mineral magnetic properties (Fig. 7.53a-c) are in good

agreement with loess stratigraphy, where palaeosols S1 and S2 have higher F
and FFD% indicating secondary formation of ultrafine grained SP ferrimagnetic
minerals (maghemite and possibly magnetite). Lower F and FFD% and S-ratio
corresponding to loess indicate higher contribution of hematite. Variations in
F are attributed to pedogenic enhancement by inorganic and biogenic processes.
Loess accumulation and pedogenesis (soil formation) occur alternatively
because loess accumulation is greater during cooler and drier conditions,
whereas pedogenesis occurs during wetter conditions. These episodes are
interpreted in terms of changes in the strength of the Indian SW monsoon.
Thus, magnetic measurements reveal changes in mineralogy and concentration
of dominant magnetic minerals between the loess and palaeosols. Geochemistry
also corroborates magnetic data (Fig. 7.53d-e).
Figure 7.53. Plot of mineral magnetic parameters (a)–(c) of magnetic susceptibility

(F), frequency-dependence susceptibility (Ffd%) and a simplified S-ratio and geochemical
data (d)–(e) of Al2O3/SiO2 ratio and chemical index of alteration (CIA). In 2 m loess-
palaeosol sequence, six episodes have been identified (f), odd numbers (white vertical
bars) represent periods of loess accretion and the even numbers (shaded vertical bars)
represent episodes of weathering and pedogenesis. A close correspondence between
loess-palaeosol sequence and the oxygen isotopic data (g) obtained on Globerinoides
ruber from the Arabian Sea (core 74KL, Sirocko, 1996; Pant et al., 2005).
This study allows the following conclusions: (i) loess-palaeosol sequences

in the central Himalaya mimic changes in the regional climate including SW
monsoon variability over the last 20 ka, (ii) the region experienced a drier and
dustier climate from 20 to >15 ka, 12 to 9 ka and 4 to >1 ka, suggesting these
to be phases of weaker SW monsoon and (iii) enhanced SW monsoon existed
between ~16 and 12 ka and even stronger monsoon conditions existed during
9 to >4 ka, facilitating pedogenesis of loess.
Figure 7.54 reports a synthesis of monsoonal variability in the Indian
subcontinent. Loess accretion between 24 and 12 ka is reported from central
India, whereas the southern margins of Thar desert experienced enhanced dune
building activity during this same period (Fig. 7.54). The period 11 to 7 ka saw
the emergence of microlithic culture in the southern margin of Thar desert, and
the Ganga plain witnessed channel activity due to the strengthening of the SW
monsoon.
7.13 MAGNETOMINERALOGICAL S-RATIO AND

PALAEOCLIMATE IN SEDIMENTS
The foregoing sections and case studies prove the effectiveness of mineral
magnetic parameters like susceptibility and remanence, revealing climate and
environmental change features that are unresponsive to other proxy parameters.
Magnetic proxies are very effective in basaltic terrain, especially the S-ratio.
374 Geomagnetism
Figure 7.54. Synthesis of marine and terrestrial records of monsoon variability since
past 20 ka from Indian sub-continent (courtesy: Navin Juyal).
S-ratio is defined as the ratio of laboratory induced backfield IRM and SIRM
in fields of 300 mT and 1.5 T, respectively. An example of the use of mineral
magnetic lithostratigraphy in late Pleistocene and Holocene studies is shown
in Fig. 7.55, where S-ratio is plotted against depth for several sediment cores
and profiles covering peninsular and extra-peninsular regions. The mineral
magnetic fluctuations of the last 20 ka in S-ratio can be correlated with different
environmental (climatic) variations.
High (low) S-ratios occur in warm (wet) sediments indicating higher
proportions of ‘magnetite’ as opposed to ‘hematite’ minerals in cold (dry)
climates. This parameter essentially documents changes in the relative
abundance of two ionic states of Fe2+ and Fe3+. For example, the oxidation
state in magnetite is Fe2+, while that in hematite is Fe3+ (also see Fig. 7.49).
These oxidation states are primarily governed by weathering and water
saturation of soils, which in turn are sensitive to mean annual rainfall. That is,
during periods of reduced rainfall, the somewhat weaker magnetic rhombohedral
hematite (DFe2O3) forms due to oxidation of magnetite (Fe3O4) and Ti-rich
titanomagnetites. When there is increase in precipitation the opposite is true.
Extensive studies of sedimentary sequence in the Deccan trap region have
revealed that S-ratio has a low variation. For example, the S-ratio derived for
Godavari (Fig. 7.55) ranges between 0.90 and 0.96 attributed to different stages
of oxidation states of (titano)magnetite having varying amounts of Ti oxide.
To infer climatic events affecting the entire Indian subcontinent, one need to
have composite and multiple maps which can be relied upon more intimately
than on single or isolated maps of localized extent (Fig. 7.55). S-ratio has
enabled in identifying key events hitherto unreported from the Indian monsoon.
Figure 7.55. The stacked S-ratio as an accurate proxy of palaeomonsoon rainfall.

Variation of mineral magnetic S-ratios with depth in sediment cores from the entire
Indian subcontinent. High magnetic ratios corresponding to high ‘magnetite to haematite’
ratios occur in the wetter spell sediments and vice versa. Himalayan Dhakuri loess S-
ratio clearly outlines key climatic events over the past 20 ka revealing step-wise
improvement in SW monsoon since last glacial maximum, culminating in its
establishment around 9 ka (Basavaiah and Khadkikar, 2004).
These include identification of Younger Dryas, YD (11 ka), little ice age, LIA
(1780 AD) and reduced monsoon during 4000–3000 cal year BP.
Composite S-ratio map and palaeoclimate: Studies till date establish S-ratio
to be an effective tool in decoding the past monsoonal characteristics of the
peninsular and to a limited extent, the extra-peninsular region of India. For
example, the S-ratio record of Dhakuri loess site in the central higher Himalayas
clearly outlines key climatic events over the past 20 ka revealing step-wise
improvement in SW monsoon since LGM, culminating into its establishment
~9 ka (Fig. 7.55). The S-ratio trend depicts a prolonged dry spell along the
eastern (Iskapalli) and western (Nalsarovar) coast of India at ~3.5 ka back,
effectively bringing about the downfall of Harappan civilization (Fig. 7.55).
Little ice age from ca. 1400 to 1850 AD is sort of a repetition of the earlier ice
ages but with a smaller geographical extent and is identified from the analyses
of Godavari mangrove vibra-core samples. Also, a globally known cooler event,
the LGM, that occurred ~20 ka ago is identified from Goting/Garbayang
376 Geomagnetism
palaeolake sediments and Dhakuri loess sequences (Fig. 7.55). Environmental

geomagnetic studies have also identified YD cooling event that occurred ~11
ka back from the Himalayan lake sequences of Garbayang. Since these events
are global in nature, it is envisaged that the central higher Himalayan climate
was influenced by the northern hemispheric glaciation.
Also, a link between LTO of titanomagnetite and monsoon rainfall is
proposed from lake sediment studies of Thar desert playas, Tulsi, Mastani and
Nalsarovar. The ability of S-ratio to sensitively documents palaeomonsoonal
changes, especially reduction of monsoon rainfall in time with higher latitude
climate events of LGM, YD and LIA, imparts a great deal of confidence in
establishing its efficacy as an accurate proxy of climate change.
7.14 FUTURE STUDIES

I. Magnetotactic Bacteria
Biogenic processes are an important source of magnetic minerals. Bacterial
magnetite (BM) contribution is found in lacustrine, brackish and marine
sediments, rivers, salt marshes, ponds, terrestrial soils and stratified ocean
waters. For example, the importance of BM contribution in sediment cores can
be gauged from the Chatham Rise, SW Pacific Ocean which has documented
higher F and increased concentration of SD magnetic grains for interglacial
periods. It is interpreted that low productivity during interglacial periods
favoured oxic conditions at the sea bottom for longer periods producing more
magnetite, when compared to glacial periods. Small water bodies normally
have high nutrient levels and rates of productivity, hence the sediments are
commonly organic-rich and reducing. This is usually the case in temperate
climate water bodies as well as in saline playas of arid areas. Under such
conditions diagenetic destruction of bacterial magnetite is likely. The abundance
and distribution of magnetotactic bacteria are dependent on four environmental
factors, viz. organic matter, iron, oxygen and sulphide. It is very difficult to
identify magnetotactic bacteria or their extracts for the simple reason that they
are very tiny and elusive.
The magnetic particles formed by magnetotactic bacteria may contribute
significantly to the magnetic properties of sediments. Their presence can be
used as an indicator of microaerobic conditions that point to the oxic and anoxic
conditions, as well as the EMF direction, intensity and the environment at the
time of their existence. Also, any palaeoenvironmental or palaeoclimatic signal
that may be encoded by BM is determined by the ecology and subsequent
degree of preservation of the fine grained magnetite in the sediments indicating
the palaeoecological and palaeoredox conditions. Bacteria that produce equant
magnetosomes are abundant under more oxic conditions, while those that
produce elongate magnetosomes are more tolerant of less oxic conditions. Some
have also found greater abundance of magnetosomes in interglacial sediments,
because of thicker oxic zone enabling the magnetite-producing bacteria to
colonize for a longer period.
II. Mineral Magnetism and Pollution Studies

All particles are magnetic, though their individual intensity differs considerably.
Hence, nearly all atmospheric fall-out dusts, whether of natural or anthropogenic
origin, contain magnetic spherule particles. Spherules are formed through
transformation of iron impurities within the fossil fuel and appear to be
characterized by presence of both magnetite and hematite phases and relatively
large (>SP/SD) magnetic grain size. In urban and industrial areas, during
combustion of the coal, pyrite may be decomposed into elemental sulphur and
pyrrhotite and the latter will further break down into sulphur and iron. Finally,
the iron oxidizes to form a microscopic sphere of magnetite. Besides the
combustion processes, magnetic particles can also originate from road traffic
and also get deposited on the top surface of tree leaves. The distribution of the
pollutants depends on the direction and speed of the wind, atmospheric humidity,
precipitation, topography and vegetation. It is frequently possible to distinguish
between anthropogenic and natural dusts with regard to its origin. The industrial
dusts contain magnetic spherules that can be easily identified using
thermomagnetic and microscopic analysis. Compared to the magnetic properties
of natural dust, industrial dust that includes these magnetite spherules show
high values of SIRM/ARM ratio, low levels of frequency dependent F, low
ARM and dissociation from finer, clay sized components of the soil. This
provides an effective way to use magnetic methods to identify industrial
pollution. Pollution history (back in time) can be revealed from measurements
of depth profiles of soils and/or sediments.
III. Secular Variation Master Curves

Characteristic patterns of secular variation changes occur on a regional scale,
e.g. on the spatial scale of North America or Europe. These changes can be
recorded in rapidly accumulating lake sediments. The technique relies on
radiocarbon dating of lake sediments. These enable to date earlier SV changes
and can then be applied to other SV records from lake sediments in the same
region. It is envisaged to develop dated secular variation ‘master curves’ for
India. Also a study will be made to construct magnetostratigraphy for a wide
range of sediment sequences from the Cretaceous through the Quaternary to
the recent.
IV. Archaeomagnetism Studies

India has a rich cultural history which extends back more than 4500 years.
There are extensive Neolithic and Palaeolithic cultural sites which may extend
back more than 100 ka. Magnetostratigraphic studies will be undertaken to
better date archaeological sites, especially those with a stratigraphic sequence
of several cultural levels. The advantage of archaeomagnetic studies to
palaeomagnetism is the addition of new time series of magnetic field variation
for the South Asia over the last 4000 years.
378 Geomagnetism
V. Palaeoseismological Studies
Mineral magnetic investigations supplemented with particle size analyses will
be made towards the study of palaeoseismic record by analyzing stratigraphic
sections of fluvio-lacustrine sedimentary sequences. This work is expected to
yield useful data on earthquake recurrence intervals and develop quasi-empirical
techniques for earthquake predictions.
VI. Lonar Lake Magnetism

Lonar Lake has become a focal point of intense debate regarding its origin
(Fig. 7.56a). A section of Earth scientists and geophysicists feel it to have
formed by an impact of meteorite while others assign to it a volcanic origin.
Both these groups have strong evidences to back their claims. However, the
work carried out on Lonar is decades’ old and it needs to be revisited equipped
with state-of-art equipment and a new thought process (Fig. 7.56b). An
integrated approach is required to understand its geomorphological, geological
and geophysical characteristics. The entire basaltic terrain is formed by fissure-
type volcanic activity and Lonar study is taken up to provide a unique insight
into the magmatic extrusion on such a massive scale. Its impact origin provides
an opportunity to study extra-terrestrial material enhancing the knowledge about
the origin as well as the fundamental understanding of the universe. The planned
Mars and Moon expeditions will greatly benefit from these studies.
The Lonar Lake can play a major role in studying the modern and past
climatic conditions prevalent in central Indian region. This is the only lake in
central India with a long pre-anthropogenic record and therefore essential for
documenting the human impact on natural climate change. Further, the crater
has accumulated within its lake sediments of ~50 ka. It is thus a rich repository
of climatic and environmental change signatures that can be studied to
understand the monsoonal pattern. In conclusion, latest developments in
sedimentology, mineral magnetism, and geochemistry, especially the use of
microfacies analyses, XRF (50- resolution) and stable isotope (on microfossils
and organic compound specific isotope investigations) researches have made
seasonal scale climate reconstruction possible, necessitating the raising up of
lake bottom sediment cores from Lonar Lake.
Figure 7.56 (a) The magnificent Lonar Lake. (b) Mini boat and 1.2 m pneumatic
Mackereth sampler for recovering under water sedimentary cores from the Lonar Lake.
APPENDIX 7.1
Calculation of Geomagnetic or Palaeomagnetic Pole Position

Suppose that Dm and Im be the site-mean magnetic field direction which is
located at geographic latitude Os and geographic longitude )s. Here, Dm and Im
may be direct measurements of the field or may refer to the ancient field recorded
by a rock.
Let Op and )p be the geographic latitude and longitude respectively of the
geomagnetic or palaeomagnetic pole position. From the knowledge of spherical
trigonometry the magnetic colatitude p (i.e. the angular distance between site
and pole) is
p = cot-1 (tan Im/2)
= tan-1(2/tan Im)
Since p is the angular distance, it should be positive. If it comes negative,
then it should be added with 180°.
Now pole latitude is given by Op = sin-1 (sin Os sin p + cos Os cos p cos Dm)
The longitudinal difference between site and pole i.e. E = ()p – )s) is
related as
()p – )s) = sin-1 (sin p sin Dm/cos Op)
At this point in the calculation, there are two possibilities for pole longitude.
If cos p sin Os sin Op
380 Geomagnetism
Then )p = )s + E
If cos p < sin Os sin Op
Then )p=)s+180° – E
Refer to Table 7.1 for calculation of VGP of site A. Its Os and )s are 16.37°N
and 73.84°E respectively. The mean characteristic direction i.e. obtained after
magnetic cleaning are Dm = 155.1° and Im = 48.7°.
The magnetic colatitude p = tan-1 (2/tan Im)
= 60.35°
Pole latitude Op = sin-1 (sin Os cos p + cos Os sin p cos Dm)
= –38.08° (i.e. in southern hemisphere)
The longitudinal difference E between the site and pole
= sin-1 (sin p sin Dm/cos Op)
= 27.67°
As cos p > sin Os sin Op, hence )p=)s + E = 73.84° (E) +27.67° (E) =
101.51° (E)
Since Op = –38.08° thus gives the position of the pole in the southern hemisphere.
Conventionally palaeomagnetist calculates the north geomagnetic or
palaeomagnetic pole position. Thus the dipole magnet is rotated by 180° to
obtain the north geomagnetic pole.
Thus the pole longitude is
)p = )p + 180°
= 101.51° (E) + 180°
= 281.51° (E)
Thus the VGP of the site A is 38.1° (N) and 281.5° (E).
APPENDIX 7.2
Palaeomagnetic Data from India
Sl. Geological formation Age Co-ordinates Sampling details Mean remanents Polarity D95 Palaeolatitude Palaeomagnetic
No. and locality (m. yr) magnetic direction of Nagpur
21°N, 79° E
Lat. (N) Long. (E) No. of No. of
sites specimens D I Lat. Long.
1. Pavagadh acid tuffs 20-35 22° 28 71° 33 2 15 355 +17 N 7° 6° 30N 75°N 89°W
2. Pavagadh basic 50-60 22° 28 71° 34 8 69 351 -16 N 8° 9° S 58°N 91°W
3. Upper Deccan Traps
3A Mahabaleshwar 55-75 17° 55 73° 38 7 175 339 -57 N
3B Amba 55-75 16° 59 73° 46 3 54 355 -26 N
3C Nipani 55-75 16° 26 74° 22 3 74 338 -32 N
3D Gargoti 55-75 16° 19 74° 10 2 35 11 -46 N
3E Ajra 55-75 16° 3 74° 3 1 22 35 -70 N
3F Alandi dykes 55-75 16° 34 73° 35 2 41 346 -53 N
3G Panchmarhi 55-75 16° 27 78° 26 2 25 338 -47 N
3H Mumbai 55-75 16° 58 72° 49 3 71 328 -47 N
3. Mean Upper Deccan Traps 55-75 23 497 345 -44 N 10° 25° 30S 42°N 87°W
(8 localities)
4. Lower Deccan Traps
4A Mahabaleswar 70-90 17° 55 73° 38 20 339 157 +52 R
4B Khandala 70-90 18° 45 73° 22 16 233 147 +58 R
4C Linga 70-90 21° 58 78° 55 4 195 164 +48 R
4D Amba 70-90 16° 59 73° 46 5 109 144 +60 R
4E Nipani 70-90 16° 26 74° 32 2 44 168 +60 R
4F Neral dykes 70-90 18° 57 73° 19 5 65 139 +43 R
4G Neral flow 70-90 18° 57 73° 19 1 11 148 +40 R
4H Alandi 70-90 18° 34 73° 53 1 12 141 +66 R

381
(Contd.)
Palaeomagnetic data from India (Contd.)
Sl. Geological formation Age Co-ordinates Sampling details Mean remanents Polarity Palaeomagnetic
382
D95 Palaeolatitude
No. and locality (m. yr) magnetic direction of Nagpur
21°N, 79° E
Lat. (N) Long. (E) No. of No. of
sites specimens D I Lat. Long.
4I Buldhana 70-90 20° 33 76° 12 2 20 149 +53 R
Geomagnetism
4J Panchamarhi 70-90 22° 27 78° 26 4 52 156 +50 R

4K Kalyan 70-90 19° 13 73° 07 1 15 164 +56 R
4L Gargoti 70-90 16° 25 74° 14 1 28 159 +56 R
4M Chincholi 70-90 17° 29 77° 28 1 59 153 +62 R
4N Gulbarga 70-90 17° 19 76° 56 1 69 145 +58 R
4O Vikarabad 70-90 17° 22 77° 30 1 48 140 +60 R
4. Mean Lower Deccan Traps 70-90 65 1299 154 +53 R 10° 30° 30S 34°N 78°W
(15 localities)
5. Tirupati sandstones
5A Janam Peta 90-120 16° 46 81° 8 1 94 157 +51 R
5B Peddavegi 90-120 16° 48 81° 8 1 38 329 -59 N
5C Peddavegi 90-120 16° 48 81° 9 445 1 26 154 +62 R
5D Peddavegi 90-120 16° 49 81° 13 1 31 145 +55 R

5E Nayanapalli 90-120 16° 50 81° 12 1 47 153 +56 R
5. Mean Tirupati sandstones 5 153 +56 R 4° 34°S 28°N 73°W
(5 localities) 329 -59 N
6. Satyavedu sandstone 90-120 13° 30 80° 1 13 321 -58 N 4° 33°S 26°N 67°W
7A Sylhet traps 155-170 25° 91° - 80 332 -59 N 7° 35° 30S 16°N 60°W
7B Sylhet traps 155-170 25° 91° - 20 243 -60 N 16°
8. Rajmahal traps 155-170 25° 87° 51 120 323 -64 N 4° 44°S 13°N 69°W
9. Rajmahendari traps
9A Rajmahendari traps 155-170 17° 81° 46 - 30 310 -53 N
9B Rajmahendari traps 155-170 17° 81° 46 1 11 305 -45 N
9C Rajmahendari traps 155-170 17° 81° 46 1 9 305 -44 N
9. Mean Rajmahendari traps 50 307 -47 N 4° 25°S 22°N 48°W
10. Dykes from Palamau
Satpura and Surguja
10A 155-170 23° 83° 6 81 158 +52 R
10B 155-170 23° 83° 4 59 338 -33 N
11. Parsora sandstone 215-230 23° 26 81° 06 2 113 318 -40 N 2.5° 23°S 28°N 54°W
12. Kamthi sandstone
12A Jaipuram 245-260 18° 52 79° 35 1 55 303 -44 N
12B Jaipuram 245-260 18° 52 79° 35 1 87 306 -53 N
12C Rallapet 245-260 19° 7 79° 30 1 65 309 -47 N
12. Mean Kamthi sandstone 3 207 306 -50 N 2° 29°S 18°N 53°W
13. Himgir sandstone 245-260 22° 84° 1 31 332 -44 N 6° 22°S 30°N 58°W
14. Vindhyan sandstone
14A Upper Vindhyan sandstone 540-580 24° 37 83° 6 1 143 0 +30 N 6° 13°S 82°N 103°W
14B Upper Vindhyan sandstone 540-580 24° 37 83° 6 1 38 186 -30 R 7°
15. Malani Rhyolites 580-735 26° 73° 9 170 353 +56 N 10° 31°S 78°E 45°W
16. Mundawara complex, 650-850 25° 73° 1 25 329 -24 N 21°
basic rocks
17. Banded Hematite 750-950 24° 81° 1 5 270 -12 N 7° 9° 30S 2°N 3°W
quartzites, Porkhra
18. Banded Hematite Jasper, 750-950 24° 81° 1 5 289 -9 N 7° 7°S 15°N 25°W
Parkhuri
19. Bijiwar traps, Gwalior 750-950 26° 78° 11 25 70 +3 R 18°
20. Veldurthi Hematite 900-1200 15° 36 78° 4 170 133 -37 R 14° 24° 30N 45°N 3°W
21A Chitloor dyke 1100-1200 14° 36 79° 1 3 146 +11 R 19°
21B Chitloor dyke 1100-1200 14° 36 79° 1 3 296 -32 N 3° 14°S 20°N 36°W
21C Chitloor dyke 1100-1200 14° 36 79° 1 3 264 -29 N 4° 9° 30N 9°N 25°W
22A Cuddapah shales 1400-1600 15° 78° 1 5 295 -10 N 5° 2°S 23°N 23°W
22B Cuddapah sandstone 1400-1600 15° 78° 1 24 294 -6 N 8° 22°N 20°W
23. Hyderabad dyke 17° 23 78° 28 1 26 44 -3 N 5° 3°S 43°N 173°W
383
384
APPENDIX 7.3
Palaeo-, Rock- and Environmental Magnetic Parameters
HYSTERESIS PARAMETERS
Geomagnetism
Instrumentation: Molspin Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM); Princeton Measurements Alternating Gradient Force Magnetometer (AGFM)
Saturation Magnetization Ms [mAm2kg-1] Maximum induced magnetization at 1T and is calculated by extrapolating the high field magnetization
curve to the y-axis
Saturation Remanent Magnetization Magnetization retained even after complete removal of magnetic field following magnetization at 1T
Mrs [mAm2 kg-1] and in theory the same as SIRM on the Molspin spinner
Coercive Force, Hc [mT] The backfield that makes magnetization zero
Coercivity of Remanence, Hcr [mT] Measured as larger backfield strength required than Hc to return Mrs to zero
Reverse low field (Flow) or initial magnetic The slope of magnetization curve at the origin of a hysteresis loop within a small magnetic field and
susceptibility Fin [10-6 m3kg-1] is reversible, i.e. no remanence is induced
High field susceptibility Fhf [10-6 m3kg-1] Measured as the high-field slope of a hysteresis curve between 800 mT and 1 T. Fhf refers to
paramagnetic susceptibility Fpara and is used to calculate the ferrimagnetic component Fferri in the
total magnetic susceptibility Ftotal
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
Instrumentation: MS2 Bartington Susceptibility Meter and Dual Frequency Sensor (noise level 3 × 10-9 m3kg-1); Agico KLY-2 Kappabridge
(noise level 2 × 10-10 m3kg-1)
Volume Susceptibility N [dimensionless] Defined as N = M/H, M being volume magnetization induced to intensity of magnetizing field H
Specific susceptibility, F [m3 kg-1] Measured as the ratio of volume susceptibility to density F=N/U
Frequency dependent of susceptibility Variation in F between low (0.47 kHz) and high frequencies (4.7 kHz). Ffd indicates viscous grains
Ffd [percentage or m3 kg-1] at the superparamagnetic/stable single-domain boundary
MAGNETIC REMANENCE
Instrumentation: Molspin Spinner Magnetometer (noise level 0.1 × 10-5Am2kg-1); Agico JR-6 Spinner Magnetometer; 2G-Enterprises SQUID
Magnetometer (for 10 g samples, noise level 3 × 10-9Am2kg-1); Magnetic Measurements MMPM9 Pulse magnetizer, Molspin Pulse Magnetizer
Natural Remanent Magnetization Acquired in the Earth’s magnetic field either by cooling of a mineral through its Curie (blocking)
NRM [mAm2kg-1] point, crystal growth through the blocking volume or deposition and ‘fixing’ of detrital particles
Viscous (time-related) remanent Acquired on exposure to a new magnetic field and is time-dependent magnetization unrelated to
magnetization,VRM [mAm2kg-1] Earth’s magnetic field
Anhysteretic remanent magnetization An ideal magnetic remanence for being free from hysteresis and is imparted in a peak 100 mT AF that
ARM [10-5Am2kg-1] smoothly decreased to zero in a small DC field’s presence. ARM allows estimation of concentration
and presence of finer ferrimagnetic minerals. For example, SSD particles have high ARM intensities
per unit mass compared to MD particles
Susceptibility of ARM, FARM[m3kg-1] Normalized ARM for the strength of the steady field
Isothermal remanent magnetization Acquired in different DC forward and back fields (10 mT to 2 T or even up to 9 T) at a given
IRMs [10-5 Am2kg-1] temperature, commonly at room temperature
Saturation isothermal remanent Measured as the highest volume of magnetic remanence that can be produced in a sample by application
magnetization SIRM [10-5Am2kg-1] of a very high field (usually >1 T). SIRM relates to both mineral type and concentration
‘Soft’ IRM, IRMs [Units are same as Remanent magnetization after a magnetization either in a relatively low forward field of 20 mT, 30
for SIRM] mT, 40 mT or 50 mT or reverse fields ‘back IRMs’
‘Hard’ IRM, IRMh [Units are same as Difference between SIRM and IRM measured after magnetization in a field of 300 mT or difference
for SIRM] between SIRM and IRMs in a reverse field of 300 mT, i.e. HIRM = SIRM-IRM-300mT
(Contd.)
385
Palaeo-, rock- and environmental magnetic parameters (Contd.)
386
USEFUL PERCENTAGES AND QUOTIENTS (RATIOS): INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Ffd[%] ~10% or 5-10% would indicate a large fine viscous (magnetite) component of SP range
SIRM/F Useful to distinguish between different types of magnetic behaviour. For example, if both F and
SIRM are low, but SIRM/F is relatively high, there may be a large amount of hematite. If F is positive
Geomagnetism
but there is little or no remanence, then the magnetic minerals in the sample will probably be mostly
paramagnetic minerals
SIRM/F; ARM/F & ARM/SIRM High SIRM/F, ARM/F and ARM/SIRM values denote significant SSD (magnetite) grains
ARM/SIRM Low ARM/SIRM values indicate a large MD (magnetite) component
Backfield IRM/SIRM or S-ratio; S-ratio defined here as IRM-0.3T/SIRM recognizes samples with hematite to magnetite proportions
High field remanence HIRM because ferrimagnets are expected to saturate in fields below 0.1 T. Larger high field remanences,
HIRM are due to proportionally high imperfect antiferromagnetic components such as hematite and
goethite
Mrs/Ms ratio Indicator of magnetization state of a sample; ratio values of 0.5 represent SSD grains; less than 0.1
for MD and still lesser values for SP grains.
Hcr/Hc ratio Provides magnetization state of a sample; uniaxial SSD grains have ratio of 1.09, MD grains around
4.0 and SP grains in excess of 10.0
Upper Atmosphere Studies 387
8
UPPER ATMOSPHERE STUDIES
The Earth’s atmosphere occupies some million times greater volume than the
solid Earth. In this huge system, the charged plasma particles react strongly to
electric and magnetic fields. Hence, electrical processes in one part of the system
can influence the electrodynamical processes in another distant part. The
redistribution of the charged particles in turn can modify the existing electric
and magnetic fields in the atmosphere. Hence, an investigation of
electrodynamical processes in various regions of the atmosphere and their
coupling is very important for understanding the state of electrical environment
of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The region-wise electrodynamical study of the Earth’s atmosphere is not
feasible. The electric fields and currents do not care for human-designated
boundaries such as tropopause, stratopause, mesospause and ionosphere. They
propagate from one region to another and affect the entire electrodynamical
processes, hence cannot be studied in isolation. An integrated approach using
satellites and modern sophisticated instruments is required to advance the
knowledge about dynamics of the near-Earth environment. This approach
provides a framework for exploring interconnections and coupling of various
regions and also for explaining the solar-terrestrial-weather relationships. Some
of the important findings over the past few decades are reported in this chapter.
Little is known about the need for Earth to generate a large scale magnetic
field to shield it from the high-energy radiation and wind from the Sun. However,
it is now well known without the magnetic field, the atmosphere would be
exposed to ionization and erosion by the charged particles in the solar wind.
Thus, any form of early life would have been irradiated by the intense X-ray
and high-energy UV emission from the Sun (Fig. 8.1a). The principal
components of geomagnetic variations recorded by ground observations are
due to currents and fields in the near-Earth space starting from ~80 km from
the surface to the magnetopause and beyond. These are even intimately related
to the electric fields at much lower heights, where meteorological features
388 Geomagnetism
predominate. Thus, the purpose of upper atmosphere studies is to address the

phenomena occurring in the ionosphere, magnetosphere and beyond.
The Earth’s atmosphere extends up to the magnetopause, which acts as a
boundary between the Earth and the interplanetary medium and between the
solar wind and the magnetosphere (Fig. 8.1b). Here, the solar wind dynamic
pressure is balanced by the geomagnetic field pressure. The EMF is more or
less confined inside the magnetopause boundary. A schematic of the 2D view
of the magnetosphere (Fig. 8.1b) is correlated to 3D (Fig. 8.1c), which is the
view obtained by an observer from outside the magnetosphere. It shows various
important plasma regions, current systems and several effects due to the
interaction of the solar wind with the EMF. The EMF is pushed back by high
pressure solar wind into a characteristic shape known as the magnetosphere
(Chapter 3). A bow shock is formed ~3-4 RE ahead of the magnetopause, a
boundary inside which EMF is contained because of solar wind pressure. Some
particles of solar wind are captured by the EMF and are forced into a system of
radiation belts called Van Allen radiation belts that girdle the Earth. Other
familiar geomagnetic phenomena such as polar auroras and the communication
disrupting ionospheric disturbances associated with magnetic storms arise due
to the complex interplay between the solar wind and the Earth’s atmosphere
(Fig. 8.1a). Studies bear out that the radiation of Van Allen is highest over the
geomagnetic equator and diminishes towards the poles. Auroras occur most
frequently in concentric rings around the geomagnetic poles and diminish in
frequency towards the equator.
In recent times, there has been keen interest in understanding Sun-Earth
connection events. Magnetic storms are perhaps important components of space
weather effects on Earth (Fig. 8.1). Super-intense magnetic storms have the
largest societal and technological relevance, causing life-threatening power
outages, satellite damages, communication failures and navigational problems.
Thus, research on historical geomagnetic storms aids to create a good database
of preceding and imminent intense and super-intense magnetic storms. Such
study is carried to answer some basic questions: (1) how many super-intense
magnetic storms have occurred in the last 160 years and what were their probable
solar and interplanetary causes? (2) frequency of occurrence of super-intense
storms and under what circumstances? (3) is a prediction of certain number
(say 3) most severe magnetic storm during a solar cycle possible? (4) can the
possible damaging effect of super-intense magnetic storms on the modern
society be predicted in advance? and (5) what is the energetic effect of eruptive
phenomena on Sun and Stars. The correlations between selective features on
the Sun and surface magnetic field changes enable to predict the possibility of
the occurrence of violent geomagnetic disturbances.
The investigation of various processes in Earth’s magnetosphere responsible
for the generation of large scale electric field with the focus on magnetic
reconnection at the magnetopause and in the tail region is carried out analytically
as well as numerically. The study advances the knowledge about magnetic
reconnection, a basic plasma physics process, which converts magnetic energy

into the plasma heat and flow energy. Generation of geomagnetic pulsation
and their propagation to low latitude ground stations are investigated. Numerical
390 Geomagnetism
Figure 8.1. (a) Shelter from the storm. Clouds of hot gas called coronal mass ejections
(CEMs) are often ejected by the Sun, when there is a large solar flare. It takes ~3 days
for them to reach the distance of Earth’s orbit. If they collide with Earth, the impact
compresses and buffets Earth’s protective magnetic field and can produce spectacular
aurorae (Jardine, 2010). (b) Schematic polar cross sectional view of the Earth’s
magnetosphere, with its bow shock and the outflow of solar wind and interplanetary
magnetic field from the Sun (Rajaram and Pisharoty, 1998). (c) An overview of different
magnetospheric currents, which are setup in different regions by the charged particles
flow (http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/ presentation/cua_talk/sld004.html).
simulation codes are developed to study reconnection in 2D and 3D

configurations. Magnetic topologies containing magnetic nulls are most
susceptible to instabilities leading to reconnection.
I. International Magnetospheric Study

Upper atmospheric studies are not just restricted to the ionosphere, but extend
to far-off space as well. Two essential ingredients for the formation of the
magnetosphere are the EMF and the solar wind. The continuous flow of solar
plasma is blocked by the EMF, confining it to magnetosphere. This process is
vital to the existence of life on this planet. At the same time, this magnetic
cavity filled up by tenuous plasma offers an excellent natural laboratory, helping
throw up exciting new details by the world scientific community. Much is
learnt about the dynamic plasma region over the past 40 years from the direct
measurements by various spacecrafts (Chapter 3).
The solar wind carries the solar magnetic field out into space. Due to its
extremely large electrical conductivity, solar wind plasma and solar magnetic
field are tightly coupled, which means that the magnetic field is frozen into the
plasma flow. At Earth orbit, the mean magnetic field strength is of the order of
7 nT. As the Earth rotates underneath the magnetosphere, a ground based

observer sees different parts of the magnetosphere. Since the magnetosphere
varies in time and space, the separation of temporal and spatial effects is not
possible from a single location. Time variations are considerable and the
magnetosphere never reaches a complete equilibrium because of continual
flowing by solar wind. All models represent at best an interpretation of the
time-averaged quiet magnetosphere. Measurements on the magnetosphere at
different locations both in space and on surface are undertaken so that spatial
and temporal effects are resolved and optimum use made of data.
More useful information about the temporal variability of solar magnetic
activity is gained by the use of proxy data. Magnetic fields in the solar wind
modulate the cosmic ray flux entering the Earth’s atmosphere. These high-
energy particles lead to the production of radioisotopes including 10Be and
14
C, and so the abundance of these isotopes becomes a measure of solar magnetic
activity; the abundance is anticorrelated with solar activity. The isotope 10Be is
preserved in polar ice-cores and its production rate together with the sunspot
number is shown in Fig. 8.2. The figure clearly shows presence of the Maunder
minimum and that, although sunspot activity is largely shut off during this
period, cyclic magnetic activity continued with a period of ~9 years. The 10Be
record extends back over 50 ka and analysis of this record clearly shows
Figure 8.2. Comparison of the proxy 10Be data from the Dye3 ice core (measured
in 103 atoms/g) filtered using a low pass (6 year) filter, with the filtered (6 year)
sunspot group number as determined by Hoyt and Schatten (1998). Note that the 10Be is
anticorrelated with sunspot activity (Tobias, 2007).
392 Geomagnetism
continued presence of the 11-year solar cycle. Analysis also indicates that the
Maunder minimum is not an isolated event, but a regularly spaced minima
(termed grand minima) interrupting the record of activity with a significant
recurrent timescale of 205 years. The variations in 14C production confirm this
pattern of recurrent grand minima with a time scale of ~200 years. Moreover,
both of these radioisotope records show significant power at a frequency that
corresponds to roughly 2100 years. It appears as though grand minima occur
in bursts.
Particles, substorms, whistlers: The basic understanding of the
magnetosphere, combined with availability of high quality detectors for
charged particles, waves and fields, on rockets and satellites of high reliability
and with good telemetry, makes it timely to study numerous phenomena
quantitatively.
One major area of study is the transfer of charged particles and energy
from the solar wind into the magnetosphere. The major mechanism of energy
transfer from solar wind to the Earth’s magnetosphere is magnetic reconnection
(Fig. 8.3). If the interplanetary magnetic fields (IMFs) are directed opposite to
the EMFs, there is magnetic erosion on the dayside magnetosphere (by magnetic
connection) and magnetic field accumulation on the nightside magnetotail
region. Subsequent reconnection on the nightside leads to plasma injection at
these local times and auroras occurring at high latitude nightside regions. As
the magnetotail plasma gets injected into the nightside magnetosphere, the
energetic protons drift to the west and electrons to the east, forming a ring of
current around the Earth. The ring current causes a diamagnetic decrease in
the EMF measured at near-equatorial magnetic stations. The decrease in the
equatorial magnetic field strength is directly related to the total energy of the
ring current particles and thus a good measure of the energetic of the magnetic
storm.
Figure 8.3. A schematic showing the magnetic reconnection process.

The storage of particles in the reservoirs of the plasmasphere and the plasma
sheet and dynamics of these regions is another area of study. Propagation of
very low frequency (VLF) whistlers enables the plasmapause to be identified
and its movement followed. The substorm is an important natural perturbation
of the magnetosphere. Magnetic energy accumulated in the tail is suddenly
released and dumped in the auroral regions by charged particles. Substorms
can either occur in rapid succession at the rate of several an hour as part of a
magnetic storm (usually caused by solar flare induced effect) or separated by
several days. It seems that a substorm may be triggered by the IMF turning
southwards. During growth phase, the dayside boundaries are moved inwards
towards the Earth and thus project to lower latitudes (Chapters 3 and 5).
Wave particle interactions are also of importance in the magnetosphere.
The threshold electron energy for cyclotron resonance as a function of radial
distance in the equatorial plane is shown in Fig. 8.4. In the cyclotron resonance,
low energy waves propagating in the whistler mode resonate with trapped
electrons of the appropriate cyclotron frequency; the wave amplitude can
increase and the particles suffer pitch angle scattering so as to align their motion
more along the field and so down to the atmosphere where they are lost by
collision. While this theory of wave-particle interactions is incomplete, it does
demonstrate that very high energy particles may be unstable everywhere and
Figure 8.4. Threshold energy for unstable cyclotron resonance plotted against radial
distance in the equatorial plane in Earth radii (L). N is the plasma density in particles/
cm3 (Woolliscroft, 1978).
394 Geomagnetism
that electrons with over 10 keV are stable in the radiation belt. The transfer of
magnetospheric energy down to the ionosphere and the atmosphere with
possible effects on the weather is also studied.
Satellite use: Central to the success of the international magnetic study (IMS)
are about a dozen dedicated satellites, of which the most important is the
European space agency’s GEOS satellite. GEOS is making valuable
measurements on the magnetospheric plasma and waves. In particle terms
the significance of electrostatic waves is now apparent. Complimentary to
GEOS is the ISEE (international Sun-Earth explorer) spacecraft, apart from a
number of other satellites such as Hawkeye and S3-2 and 3, which are making
relevant measurements. Surface magnetic field measurements are also a valuable
tool to study the magnetosphere. Continuous monitoring of the magnetosphere
with magnetometers, unlike optical measurements, does not depend on the
weather and is relatively cheap and reliable. The magnetospheric current
systems, thus can be determined unambiguously with existing networks of
high resolution magnetometers in addition to the ~200 magnetic observatories.
In a similar manner, ground-based networks of ionosondes, riometers, low-
frequency radio wave receivers and optical instruments aid magnetospheric
study.
Two equatorial flights in April and Sept 1998 launched from the Indian
low-latitude station SHAR detected plasma bubbles restricted to a narrow
longitudinal extent. Plasma parameters are measured under two different
conditions in the post-sunset ionosphere, when the F layer is moving upward
(19:21 IST launch) and when the F layer is stationary (20:41 IST launch). Low
altitude bubbles during upwelling of the F region in pre-reversal current
enhancement phase are characterized by turbulent non-Maxwellian regions.
Transitional scale waves with k = 3.6 are observed in the bubbles. This flight
also detected strong sharp E layers during down leg and an intermediate layer
at 170 km. Night-time bubbles during almost stationary F layer conditions
show turbulent Maxwellian features with moderate cooling compared to the
undisturbed environment. Transitional scale in the bubble region shows a
spectral index k = 3.1. The spectral power is reduced by ~20 dB compared to
the sunset flight.
II. Boundary Layer Waves and Auroras

Plasmas are generally far from their thermodynamic equilibrium states, and
hence contain some amount of free energy, which can generate several kinds
of plasma modes in the magnetospheric boundary layers such as magnetopause
boundary layer, plasma sheet boundary layer, polar cap boundary layer (PCBL)
and others (Fig. 8.5).
Polar observations indicate the presence of intense broadband plasma waves
nearly all of the time (with ~96% occurrence frequency) near the apogee of the
Figure 8.5. A northern polar view of the mapping of polar cap boundary layer waves to
the low-latitude boundary layer (Tsurutani et al., 2003).
polar trajectory (~6-8 RE). The region of wave activity bounds the dayside
(0500-1800 LT) polar cap magnetic fields, and thus these waves are called
PCBL waves. The waves are spiky signals spanning a broad frequency range
from a few Hz to more than 20 kHz having a rough power law spectral shape.
The wave magnetic component appears to have an upper frequency cutoff of
the electron cyclotron frequency. The electric component extends well beyond
the electron cyclotron frequency. The waves are possibly a mixture of obliquely
propagating electromagnetic whistler mode waves and electrostatic waves.
There are no clear intensity peaks in either the magnetic or electric spectra,
which can identify the plasma instability responsible for generation of PCBL
waves.
The wave character (spiky nature, frequency dependence and admixture
of electromagnetic and electrostatic components) and intensity are quite similar
to those of low-latitude boundary layer (LLBL) waves detected at and
inside the low-latitude dayside magnetopause. Because of the location of PCBL
waves just inside the polar cap magnetic field lines, it is natural to assume
that these waves occur on the same magnetic field lines as the LLBL waves,
but at lower altitudes, where the most likely scenario is that field-aligned currents
396 Geomagnetism
or current gradients locally generate the waves. A strong relationship is found

between the presence of ionospheric and magnetosheath ions and the
waves near the noon sector. These waves may thus be responsible for ion
heating observed near the cusp region. Anti-sunward convection of these
freshly accelerated O+ ions over the polar cap during intense wave events
(occurring during southward Bz events) might lead to enhanced plasma sheet
O+ population. For magnetic storm intervals, this mechanism leads to a natural
delay between the main phase onset and the appearance of oxygen ions in the
ring current.
High time resolution waveform observations by plasma wave instrument
onboard the Geotail, Polar and FAST spacecrafts have shown broadband high
frequency plasma waves consisting of a series of bipolar solitary pulses. Various
models based on solitons/double layers and phase space holes are developed
to explain the characteristics of these solitary structures.
III. Ionosphere-magnetosphere Coupling Studies

One of the outstanding questions of magnetospheric physics is associated with
ionosphere-magnetosphere coupling. Ionosphere and magnetosphere are closely
linked together via magnetic field lines, e.g. cold ionospheric electrons and
ions (e.g. O +) drift into the Earth’s magnetospheric regions, namely
plasmasphere, plasma sheet and tail lobes. The change in magnetospheric ion
composition (especially increased O+ ions) can have large effects on some
important magnetospheric processes. The two missions, active magnetospheric
particle tracer explorers (AMPTE) and the combined release and radiation
effects satellite (CRRES) showed ionized oxygen escaping from the upper
atmosphere could play a critical role in electromagnetic processes in the near-
Earth space.
Several plasma instabilities are studied in presence of O+ ions in the Earth’s
plasma sheet and ring current region. A theoretical model is developed to study
Kelvin-Helmholtz modes driven by O+ in the Earth’s plasma sheet region
(Fig. 8.6). The role of these modes is investigated in magnetosphere-ionosphere
coupling processes, namely magnetic storm and substorm, and low-frequency
turbulence. It is found that the presence of ionospheric-origin O+ ion beams
with anisotropic pressure can excite helicon mode instability in near-Earth
plasma sheet region, provided their Alfvenic Mach numbers lie in certain range.
The helicon modes are easily excited under the conditions when the usual long
wavelengths fire-hose modes are stable. It is shown that the anisotropic O+
ions in the ring current can excite low-frequency quasi-electrostatic waves
(Fig. 8.7). The scattering of ring current particles by these low-frequency
electrostatic waves could lead to ring current decay and thus provides a
mechanism that is complimentary to charge exchange.
Figure 8.6. Variation of normalized growth rate J/Zoc with normalized parallel wave
number Ay for the shear flow instability driven by O+ ions in the plasma sheet region,
for the parameters; normalized wave number Ay = 600, ratio of proton to oxygen density
e = 2.0 and normalized shear S = 5, 8, 12, 15, Ay = 600, e = 2.0 (Kakad et al., 2003).
Figure 8.7. Comparison of growth rates for anisotropic index J for low frequency
waves (Singh et al., 2004).
398 Geomagnetism
IV. Numerical Modelling

Global studies have opened innumerable observations that need to be established
on theoretical platform. This can only be done through numerical modelling
by incorporating various complex parameters in the code explaining
observations in terms of associated physics related to transport of energy,
momentum and mass transfer between the solar wind and magnetosphere.
Plasma instabilities during sub-storm, which give rise to anomalous resistivity
leading to generation of parallel electric fields, are being numerically modelled.
The magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling during magnetospheric storms and
substorms as well as the generation mechanisms of magnetic pulsations and
their propagation to low latitudes is under close scrutiny (Fig. 8.8). Efforts are
also directed towards developing magnetohydrodynamic simulation codes for
investigating magnetotail dynamics that result in large scale electric fields in
the magnetosphere.
Figure 8.8. A schematic illustration of the respective paths into the magnetosphere
of oxygen ions from the dayside cleft and the nightside auroral ionosphere (Gazey
et al., 1996).
8.1 SPACE WEATHER EFFECTS

Modern society relies on technology, which is affected by conditions in space
environment. Space weather refers to conditions between the Sun and Earth
encompassing the solar wind, interplanetary space, magnetosphere, ionosphere
and thermosphere. These conditions can influence the performance and
reliability of space-borne and ground-based technological systems and can
endanger human life or health.
Space weather disturbances caused by enhanced stream of solar plasma

during solar flares and CMEs are known to disrupt communications, endanger
satellite payloads and introduce severe errors in a variety of tracking and
positioning systems (Fig. 8.12). The phenomena of geomagnetic storms are
the most obvious features of space weather disturbances. Consequently, the
geomagnetic response to differing solar conditions also varies to a wide extent.
Some of these effects noticed during the intense magnetic storms are described
in Figs 8.9–8.11.
I. Proton Flux Characteristics and Space Weather

Solar flares are the manifestations of the tremendous eruptions in the solar
atmosphere, producing sudden energy release. The magnitude of magnetic
energy thrown out in the solar chromospheres and corona during intense flares
range between 1028 and 1034 ergs, energizing electrons and ions up to MeV
and GeV respectively. During the high solar activity periods, active regions
produce large fluxes of energetic flare particles to CME related shocks, which
accelerate the solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Mass ejections play a
dominant role in driving large geomagnetic storms by causing sudden
commencements on the magnetic records produced by transient interplanetary
shocks. Geoeffective nature of the solar disturbances and the energy transfer
mechanism of the solar wind energy into the magnetosphere through the
reconnection of IMF, are seen to take place.
A major solar flare eruption (Fig. 8.9) occurred at 1620 UT on 4 Nov 2001
followed by strong solar radiation storm and proton event. This was recorded
Figure 8.9. Coronal mass ejection or solar flare (http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/

watchtheskies /july7_cme.html).
400 Geomagnetism
by SOHO and other interplanetary satellites. CME associated with the flare
event triggered an interplanetary shock, which affected the geomagnetic field
after ~33 hrs. The shock impact was quite intense to produce SSC magnitude
of ~100 nT in H in low latitude ground magnetic records followed by sharp
and deep main phase (DST < –250 nT) in the first stage, following the density
(NP) enhancement. High time resolution digital data from the equatorial and
low latitude stations in India analyzed the influence of various interplanetary
Figure 8.10. Proton flux intensities, as recorded by the ACE and WIND spacecraft,
proton density NP, IMF component Bz (ACE) and the variation in the H component at
Tirunelveli (TIR) during 5-6 November 2001. Three dashed vertical lines shown
represent the time corresponding to intense proton density enhancements (Alex et al.,
2005).
Figure 8.11. Shock effect in the equatorial, low and mid latitude digital magnetic records,
seen as the sudden commencement (~80 nT) at 01:50 UT on 6 November 2001.
Formation of intense main phase corresponding to the large BZ of magnitude -70 nT is
the salient feature of the event. Satellite data in time is shifted by 35 min. The first
vertical line corresponds to the SSC onset and the second one indicates the peak time
of development of substorm (Alex et al., 2005).
parameters on the intensity and duration of the magnetic storm. A double step
storm was found to be in progress caused by multiple injections. During the
period of recovery, after a lapse of 8 hrs, a third stage of depression in ground
magnetic field was set in, which corresponded to the southward directed BZ.
In order to understand the emission features of the particle energy
accompanying the solar energetic proton event of 4 Nov 2001, proton flux of
various energy levels from the ACE and WIND are given in the topmost panel
of Fig. 8.10. Vertical dashed lines are marked against the recurring trend of
enhancements in the particle flux densities during 5-6 Nov 2001. Following
the strong X-ray flare at 16:20 UT on 4 Nov, proton flux showed sharp increase
at all the energy levels as observed by WIND and ACE satellites (Fig. 8.10).
The NP as recorded by ACE satellite is considerably low on 4 Nov and a gradual
increase is seen in the early hours of 5 Nov. Around 19 UT, a sudden jump in
density is quite evident coinciding with second in NP flux.
402 Geomagnetism
Figure 8.11 brings out the shock effect and magnetic storm characteristics
as recorded from the interplanetary parameters by ACE and ground digital
magnetic data records from the equatorial, low and mid latitude locations for
5-6 Nov 2001. The arrival of shock is conspicuous at all the locations from the
SSC magnitude of ~80 nT, in the equatorial, low and mid latitude digital records.
The ring current intensity parameter ‘symH’ (WDC, Kyoto) indicated that the
symmetric component of ring current had a maximum magnitude of the main
phase intensity ~–300 nT. The magnetic variation at mid latitude station Ottawa
(OTT) given in the topmost curve, showed maximum negative deviation ~500
nT corresponding to the main phase period at the low latitudes. Second vertical
dashed line shown at 06:20 UT of 6 Nov, marks the second minima during the
recovery phase, which coincides well with the peaked positive value of ~20 nT
in BY with a lag of ~20 min.
II. Geomagnetic Storm Effects on Technology

The following are the space weather effects on the technological systems:
(i) Solar eruptions directed towards the Earth are potentially harmful to
advanced technology. Advancement in technology has been immense in
communication, navigation and space-borne satellite systems. Modern
instruments and links around the globe are increasingly dependent on electricity
and electronics. Technological systems in space and on the Earth’s surface are
subjected to adverse effects from geomagnetic disturbances. During such events,
the magnetospheric compression by the solar wind forces the magnetospheric
boundary inward past the geostationary satellite position (Fig. 8.12).
(ii) Geosynchronous communication satellites orbiting the Earth are many
in number. A large geomagnetic storm enhances the electrons and ions hitting
these satellites, leading to intense spacecraft charging that damages the
spacecraft.
(iii) Enhanced levels of solar radiation associated with intense flare activity
on the Sun also cause heating and expansion of neutral atmosphere and increase
the amount of atmospheric drag that a satellite experiences in an unpredictable
manner.
(iv) Auroral activity and intense substorm disturbances cause dropouts
and changes in paths of HF communication and increased scintillation
degradation of radio signals at high frequencies and disrupt surveillance tracking
of the satellite.
(v) The disturbance also induces extra currents in the wires of electrical
power grid, producing temporary overload. Such severe geomagnetic
disturbances induce DC currents in power lines and can cause destruction of
power station transformers.
(vi) Geomagnetically induced currents and voltages can also damage long
pipelines and communication cables. These currents affect the conductors used
for telecommunications.
Figure 8.12. Space weather effects on the technological systems ranging from
disruption in satellite communication to the destruction in power lines and underground
cable (Lakhina and Alex, 2003).
(vii) Very high energy (~1 MeV) charged particle fluxes released during
storms and substorms pose a serious retardation health hazard for astronauts.
Chapter 9 provides details for items (i) to (vii).
III. Infrastructure for Space Weather Research in India

Several institutes and university departments are participating on various
programmes associated with solar physics, interplanetary plasma and magnetic
field, magnetospheric physics, ionospheric physics and atmospheric physics
that form the backbone for space weather programme. Most of the scientists
utilize solar, interplanetary and magnetospheric data from various NASA
missions from 1970 onwards for modelling the medium and for the study of
dynamics and instabilities in the regions. On the experimental side, expertise
for HF Doppler radar, VHF, MST and partial reflection radars exists. Several
ionosonde and airglow experiments provide data to understand the ionospheric
irregularities. Excellent facilities for monitoring the Sun exist at solar
observatories in Udaipur, Ooty and Kodaikanal. A brief summary of the existing
infrastructure in India for space weather-related research activities is given in
Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Infrastructure available for space weather-related activities
404
Organizations/Universities Experiments Investigations/activities

Andhra University, Waltair Airglow photometer; Digital Ionosphere-thermosphere study; E- and F-region
ionosonde; HF Doppler radar dynamics
Banaras Hindu University Fabry-Perot spectro-photometer; Dual For measuring thermospheric temperature and winds, air
frequency microwave radiometer; ELF, VLF pollution; Whistler studies; Ionosphere magnetosphere
Geomagnetism
experiments by Whistler observations dynamics

Baraktulla University, Bhopal Radio beacon studies; Whistler measurements Plasma irregularities; Ground-based technique for
probing the inner magnetosphere
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Cerenkov telescope at Mt.Abu Study of gamma ray sources and the cosmic ray mass
NRL, Trombay composition
Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Digital magnetometer; Digital Ionosphere-thermosphere coupling; Solar-terrestrial
Bangalore Ionosonde relationships
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Network of 11 magnetic observatories; Digital Solar-Terrestrial physics; Magnetic storms and
Mumbai fluxgate magnetometer set-up at six substorms; Secular variations; Geomagnetic activity;
observatories; MF (1.98 MHz) radars at Forecasting and space weather; Theoretical and
Tiruneveli and Kolhapur; Radio beacon simulation studies on storm-substorms phenomena;
experiments; Scanning photometer; Tilting Mesosphere winds, tides and planetary waves; Plasma
photometer; All sky imaging camera at irregularities; Monitoring nightglow emissions at
Kolhapur; TEC deduced from GPS different wavelengths; Atmospheric gravity waves and
measurements; CRABEX Experiment F-region irregularities; Ionosphere-thermosphere
dynamics and Ionospheric tomography
ISRO Satellite Centre, Scanning sky monitor (SSM) for Indian To study the long-term variability in bright
Bangalore Astronomy satellite; Solar X-ray spectrometer X-ray sources for studies of variable stars; To study X-
for GSLV: CRABEX ray flux from Sun over 2 keV to 10 MeV energy range;
Ionospheric tomography
Kerala University HF Doppler radar data To study the ionospheric plasma drift
National Geophysical Magnetometers at two locations Studies related to low latitude magnetic variations
Research Institute
National MST Radar Facility MST (53 MHz) radar at Gadanki; Rayleigh Studies of long period atmospheric waves, ionospheric
(NMRF), Tirupati lidar system irregularities; Temperature profiles at 5-85 km altitude
range
National Physical Laboratory, Digital ionosonde; GPS, Radio beacon studies; Ionospheric plasma parameters and plasma irregularities;
New Delhi RPA experiment on SROSS-C2; SASCOM Total electron contents; Dissemination of data for global
Data Centre Lidar: Laser heterodyne system change related studies; Measurements of ozone, water
vapour. etc.
Osmania University, Hyderabad Ionospheric scintillation experiment Ionospheric irregularities
Physical Research Laboratory, High resolution IR Fabry-Perot spectrometer; Observations of bright diffuse nebulae associated with
Ahmedabad Ionosonde; All sky imaging camera; Fabry- star forming regions; Ionospheric plasma properties and
Perot spectrometer at Mt. Abu; Coherent radio ionospheric irregularities; Measurement of neutral
beacon experiment; Nd:YAG backscatter lidar thermospheric temperature and wind; Total electron
at Mt. Abu content (TEC), ionospheric tomography; Vertical
structure of atmospheric density and temperature around
90 km
Survey of India, Dehradun One permanent magnetic observatory at For studying the low latitude current system, Secular
Sabhawala variation pattern
Tata Institute of Fundamental Ooty radio telescope; GMRT Observations of high resolution interplanetary
Research (TIFR), Mumbai scintillations; Probing of inner heliosphere from 0.2-0.8
AU by IPS
Udaipur Solar Observatory GONG telescope; Sun photometer; Solar To probe interior of the Sun using helioseismology; To
of PRL, Ahmedabad X-ray spectrometer; Full disk telescope study solar eruption processes, the solar flares, CMEs,
etc.; Observations of soft X-rays from the Sun; HD
synoptic observation of solar activity
University of Rajkot, ELF, VLF measurements; Radio beacon Electromagnetic wave propagation in the ionosphere and
Gujarat experiments magnetosphere; Ionospheric irregularities
Vikram Sarabhai Space HF and VHF Doppler radar; Digital Measurements of Doppler velocities and spectral width
Centre, Trivandrum ionosonde; Langmuir probe measurements; to study the ionospheric irregularities; Ionospheric E- and
Rayleigh lidar F-region parameters; E-region plasma properties; Vertical

structure of atmospheric density and temperature from 5
to 85 km
406 Geomagnetism
8.2 IONOSPHERIC ELECTRODYNAMICS: SHORT

PERIOD FLUCTUATIONS
The ionosphere has day-to-day weather that affects technologies in navigation
and communication. A space weather modelling capability is useful for
mitigating technology impacts. Observations of the ionosphere are sparse. The
sparseness does not allow for a full ionospheric specification from data only.
Empirical models are based on rough averaging of these sparse data. But the
dynamic character of the ionosphere causes large differences between the
empirical model result and observations. Ground-based observations on
ionospheric scintillations, geomagnetic pulsations, partial radar and airglow
experiments are discussed below.
The solar radiation is capable of splitting the neutral atmospheric
constituents into ions and electrons leaving the atmosphere in an ionized state.
The ionization affects short wave radio communication. The free electrons in
the ionosphere are not uniformly distributed but form layers (Chapter 3).
Furthermore, clouds of electrons (known as travelling disturbances) may travel
through the ionosphere and give rise to fluctuations in the signal. The effects
include scintillation, frequency change, and micropulsations. All these effects
decrease as frequency increases. This ionized air moving across the EMF
favours a dynamo to generate daytime electric currents. Typical altitude profiles
of the mid-latitude electron density at day and night for years of minimum and
maximum solar activity are shown in Fig. 8.13.
Figure 8.13. Altitude profiles of electron density at 18°N, 67°W, September equinox,
representative of noon and midnight, solar minimum (solid lines) and solar maximum
(dashed lines), with F, E and D regions indicated (Richmond, 2007).
The ionosphere refracts, reflects, retards, scatters and absorbs radio waves
depending on wave frequency. Around the Earth, communications are possible
by utilizing ionospheric and ground reflections of waves at frequencies below
~3–30 MHz (10 to 100 m wavelength), depending on the peak electron density.
However, frequent collisions between electrons and air molecules in the D
region remove energy from radio waves, leading to partial or complete
absorption. At higher frequencies, radio waves penetrate entirely through the
ionosphere allowing radio astronomy and communications with spacecraft.
Nevertheless, such signals can still be degraded by refraction and scattering
off small scale density irregularities. In case of GPS geolocation signals, variable
ranging errors are introduced by ionospheric signal retardation. The retardation
is proportional to the total electron content (TEC) or height-integrated electron
density. A typical global pattern of TEC is shown in Fig. 8.14, which shows
TEC larger in winter than in summer, because of slower chemical loss in winter.
Radio waves of frequencies in the very high frequencies (VHF) or higher
ranges transmitted from satellites and received on the Earth, often encounter
ionospheric irregularities in their path. The intensity pattern produced on the
ground as a result of scattering of radio waves by the irregularities, results in
temporal variations or scintillations in intensity of the signal recorded by the
receiver. The phase of the wave also undergoes scintillations. Study of
ionospheric scintillations provides a relatively inexpensive tool for monitoring
the development of equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the equatorial spread
F (ESF), which has its origin in plasma instabilities. There is a great deal of
Figure 8.14. Global map of TEC at 12 UT, December solstice, solar maximum.
Local time increases with longitude as shown on the bottom scale. Contours are
spaced at intervals of 10×1016 electrons/m2. The thick solid line is the magnetic
equator (Richmond, 2007).
408 Geomagnetism
interest in the prediction of ESF which affects satellite communications and

cause loss of phase lock for GPS satellites, particularly in a period around
sunspot maximum (Chapter 9).
I. Ionospheric Irregularities and Radio Wave Scintillation

Ionospheric scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase, polarization,
or angle of arrival of radio waves. They are caused by irregularities in the
ionosphere, which change with time. The main effect of scintillation is fading
of signal. The fades can be quite severe, and they may last up to several minutes.
They impose hazards on communication system through degradation in analog
and bit rate errors in digital communications. The equatorial region comprising
±20° about the magnetic equator is particularly prone to scintillation activity
after sunset. The basic purpose of scintillation studies is to extract irregularity
parameters like amplitude of the density deviation, scale size and its distribution,
drift, anisotropy and spatial distribution of the irregularities. This knowledge
is used in developing models to minimize the problems due to fading of signals,
and provide sufficient signal margins.
A chain of VHF polarimeters and scintillation recorders are used to study
generation and movement of the ionospheric plasma irregularities, which cause
radio scintillation. The radio source used for these studies is the 244 MHz
signal from the ETS-2 satellite at 136°E for measurement of total ionospheric
electron content. Three-channel PC based data logger capable of sampling data
at 10 Hz is used in acquiring scintillation data. Typical scintillation records are
shown in Fig. 8.15.
Figure 8.15. Scintillation records collected at Tirunelveli on 14 August 2001.

Daytime scintillation associated with E region irregularities are generally

weaker than nighttime scintillations due to F region irregularities (range or
frequency spread-F). Nighttime scintillations are continuous near the dip
equator, but discrete patches of varying durations are seen at stations far off
from it. Figure 8.16 shows the onset of scintillation recorded at Tirunelveli,
Pondicherry and Mumbai on the night of 2 Dec 1995. A delay in onset time is
seen when one moves away from equator. Equatorial scintillations are inhibited
with increase in magnetic activity and this effect also shows seasonal and solar
activity.
Figure 8.17 shows effect of sunspot activity on the morphology of the
occurrence of scintillation. With an increase in sunspot number, mean percentage
occurrence of scintillations increases at both equatorial station and at temperate
station Mumbai. During low solar activity period from 1993 to 1996, percentage
occurrence is higher at Ujjain than at Mumbai due to mid-latitude generation.
Low-latitude scintillations can be either inhibited or triggered during storms
depending on the phase of storm and its local time of occurrence.
Figure 8.16. Example of scintillation onset on 2 December 1995 for three stations
situated at different latitudes (Banola et al., 2005).
410 Geomagnetism
Figure 8.17. Effect of solar activity on the occurrence of scintillations at equatorial

stations, Mumbai and Ujjain.
Fresnel frequencies deduced from the power spectra show transverse drift
velocities of irregularities to vary between 40 and 118 m/sec, while decorrelation
distance varied from 68 m to 188 m for the Indian region. Spectral indices vary
in the range from 2.9 to 6.21 with a mean spectral index of 3.4 corresponding
to scale sizes of 20–1000 m.
Boundary of equatorial scintillation is defined as dip latitudes, at which
the occurrence of scintillation is reduced to half of its value at the magnetic
equator. This is estimated for solar cycle 1989–2000 using analog scintillation
record of equatorial stations Trivandrum-Tirunelveli, Pondicherry-Karur and
Mumbai-Ujjain. The latitudinal extent of this belt is higher during d- and e-
months compared with that of j-months. There is a positive correlation between
the width of the belt and solar activity. Geomagnetic control on the width of
the scintillation belt is studied from latitudinal variations of scintillation
occurrence separately for geomagnetic quiet (Q), disturbed (D) and normal
(N) days and also for the groups of days with low, medium and high Ap values
(Fig. 8.18). It is observed from Table 8.2 that with increase in geomagnetic
activity, width of the scintillation belt decreases.
Table 8.2 Belt variation with geomagnetic activity
Year Sunspot Q D N Ap 5 5<Ap 20 A >20

number Low Medium High
1991 144 15 11 13.5 15 12 11
1996 8 9.5 6.5 7 7 7.5 6
Figure 8.18. Scintillation belt variation as a function of geomagnetic activity recorded

at different stations in 1991 and 1996.
412 Geomagnetism
II. Geomagnetic Pulsations

Geomagnetic pulsations or micropulsations are ultralow frequency (ULF)
plasma waves in the Earth’s magnetosphere. These waves have frequencies in
the range 1 mHz to >10 Hz and appear more or less as regular oscillations in
records of the geomagnetic field (Fig. 8.19). Geomagnetic oscillations or ULF
pulsations as they are also called can be identified in electric field measurements
in the ionosphere, magnetosphere and those made onboard spacecraft.
Figure 8.19. Geomagnetic pulsation of the Pc4 type, recorded at a magnetic observatory
in North Scandinavia. The Y-component of the geomagnetic field is displayed relative
to a quiet day period (Glaßmeier, 2007).
The lower frequency pulsations have wavelengths comparable to typical

scale lengths of the entire magnetosphere. They are also interpreted as eigen
oscillations of standing waves in the magnetospheric systems. The higher
frequency waves are usually identifiable as proton ion-cyclotron waves in the
magnetospheric plasma. The amplitudes of the lower frequency pulsations can
reach several tens to hundreds of nT in the auroral zone while the higher
frequency waves reach amplitudes of the order of a few nT.
Geomagnetic pulsations are classified into seven different types based on
their oscillation period and appearance in magnetograms as almost continuous
and more irregular pulsations (Table 8.3). The two classes, continuous pulsations
(Pc) and irregular pulsations (Pi), are usually divided into subclasses.
Micropulsation study is carried out to understand the mechanism by which
they appear at low latitudes and also to know the speed and density of the solar
wind and various characteristics of the ionized material present in the far away
regions of space where EMF continues to retain its identity and exerts its
influence in the magnetosphere. The study will provide clues to how the solar
wind, the Earth’s magnetosphere and its ionosphere are coupled with each
other on a global scale. These natural variations of the geomagnetic field can
also be used for exploring the electrical conductivity distribution within the
Earth to a depth of ~10 km.
Table 8.3 The IAGA classification of geomagnetic pulsations
Name Period range (sec)

Continuous
Pc1 0.2–5
Pc2 5–10
Pc3 10–45
Pc4 45–150
Pc5 150–600
Pc6 (during substorms this is known as Ps6) >600
Irregular
Pi1 1–40
Pi2 40–150
Pi3 >150
Some micropulsations seem to be caused by resonance of the field lines in

response to Alfven waves with certain frequencies which are generated in the
space environment even during quiet times. Examples of such pulsations from
the Indian Antarctic station are shown in Fig. 8.20. Other pulsations notably
Ps6 and irregular pulsations of the Pi type originate in the ionospheric and
Figure 8.20. Pc4 magnetic pulsation seen on magnetic records from the Indian Antarctic
station Dakshin Gangotri on 27 Jan 1988 (Rangarajan and Dhar, 1988).
414 Geomagnetism
Figure 8.21. Ps6 pulsation event in the H, D and Z components of the geomagnetic
field at auroral location Yellowknife on 16 Mar 1978 (Rajaram et al., 1990).
field aligned substorm currents which flow in the auroral regions during
magnetically disturbed conditions. Shown in Fig. 8.21 is an example of the
substorm associated Ps6 pulsation.
8.3 EQUATORIAL-LATITUDE ELECTRODYNAMICAL

COUPLING AND ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE
The influence of geomagnetic activity is felt on the weather and climate. Though
most of the currents associated with the geomagnetic field flow at altitudes far
above the regions which control the weather, intriguing results have emerged
from the studies of solar features, geomagnetic activity and meteorological
parameters like the circulation patterns, temperature, drought conditions,
rainfall, glaciations, etc. Scientists are working to identify a suitable catalyst
that enables transfer of energy from the Sun and interplanetary space through
the upper atmosphere to the lower regions. The mesosphere-stratosphere-
troposphere (MST) radar facility at Tirupati in south India measures neutral
winds (Table 8.1) and waves to high altitudes 80–10 km and even to 300–1000
km for studies of partial reflection radar (PRR).
I. Partial Reflection Radar

The partial radar (PR) operating in the medium frequencies (MF) yields useful
information on mean winds, planetary waves, tides and gravity waves in
thermosphere and lower atmosphere (60–100 km) region. The MF radar data
provide quantitative information on the spaced antenna parameters, namely,
the fading time, the lifetime of the ground pattern, the pattern scale and pattern
axial ratio.
The MF radar operating at Tirunelveli yields data on winds in the
mesosphere and lower thermosphere in the altitude region (68–98 km) since
1992. Simultaneous data on geomagnetic field variation available from the
nearby station, Trivandrum are made use to ascertain the range in the H
component, which is a measure of the strength of the total ionospheric current
flowing above the magnetic equator (Fig. 8.22a). The daytime (0700-1700
hrs) zonal winds between 84 and 98 km as determined by the MF radar for the
days, 23 Dec and 26 Dec eastward winds are observed at all times except in the
pre-noon hours at altitudes above 90 km (Fig. 8.22b). In the afternoon hours
eastward wind speeds in excess of 20 m/sec are observed at an altitude of 88
km. On 26 Dec westward speeds exceeding 90 m/sec around noon at altitudes
96 and 98 km are noticed (Fig. 8.22c). In less than 6 km, the velocity is observed
to change by more than 60 m/sec. Measurements on days with different
electrodynamical conditions as noticed in the ground geomagnetic field variation
indicate the influence of the equatorial current on the drifts measured by partial
reflection MF radar.
Figure 8.22. (a) Temporal variation of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic
field as measured on ground at the equatorial station, Trivandrum (TRD), on 23 and
26 Dec 1996. (b, c) Daytime (0700-1700) radar zonal winds between 84 and 98 km on
two days 23 December and 26 December 1996 (Gurubaran and Rajaram, 2001).
416 Geomagnetism
Further, PR data revealed a relationship between the tidal characteristics

and the occurrence of afternoon CEJ. A clear anti-correlation is seen between
the afternoon electrojet strength and amplitude of semi-diurnal tide in solstitial
months of June and July 1995. It also revealed the presence of 3.5-day ultra-
fast Kelvin (UFK) wave in mesopause region, at 84–98 km. Also, medium
frequency radar observations of 3.5-day UFK wave in 84–98 km mesopause
region over Tirunelveli for a period of ~3 years are monitored, wherein the
UFK wave revealed semi-annual variability at heights (~85 km) where the
mesopause semi-annual oscillation in the mean wind peaks. Large-amplitude
wave events preferentially occur during westward flow regimes of the
background wind. Mean eastward winds and their shears are qualitatively shown
to be associated with bursts of waves with moderate amplitudes. Vertical
wavelength estimates agree with earlier estimates based on satellite temperature
retrievals for a wave number 1 UFK wave.
II. Airglow Experiments

Airglow measurements are complementary to the partial reflection radar since
it yields mesospheric rotational temperatures at ~85 km during moonless clear
nights. The mesopause region acts as an interface between the mesosphere and
the lower thermosphere. It also represents the transition zone dominated by
photochemical processes (lower atmosphere) and transport processes (upper
atmosphere). One of the manifestations of this sort of transitional character is
the multiple airglow emitting layers situated close to one another. The three
most important airglow emissions from the mesosphere are: (1) vibrational
rotational bands of hydroxyl radical (OH), (2) atomic and molecular oxygen
emissions and (3) emissions from metallic atoms like sodium, magnesium,
etc. The main energy source is the solar UV radiation, which dissociates the
molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen, which in turn becomes chemically active.
Transport effects enable the downward flux of O towards mesopause where
O3, OH and active O2 are formed.
The technique uses measurement of the relative intensities of rotational
lines in the hydroxyl vibration rotation band at wavelengths of 733.7 and
740.2 nm using tilted filter assembly. The tilting filters enable correction for
background levels and provision is made for three additional filters that can be
used for other wavelengths like 630 nm, 557.7 nm and 589.6 nm so that wave
dynamical processes that modulate airglow intensities at different heights can
be studied. The optical photometer is used to study crucial problems dealing
with dynamical heating of the mesopause region through planetary waves,
tides and gravity waves. By monitoring airglow emissions from the ground, a
variety of quantitative information regarding chemical composition, wind
velocity and temperature of the upper atmosphere during quiet and disturbed
period is gained.
i. Mesosphere thermodynamics: Temperature of the mesosphere is an

important physical parameter in remote sensing investigations of the mesopause
thermodynamics and chemistry. At these latitudes, due to chemical reactions
in atmospheric constituents, airglow emissions are produced. These emissions,
if measured from ground-based instruments, infer the photochemistry and
dynamics of the respective regions. Simultaneous measurements of several
airglow emission lines from mesopause region provide important information
related to the propagation of gravity waves, since these emission layers are
situated between 80 and 100 km.
Measurements of hydroxyl rotational temperature for the (8,3) Meinel band
are reported from observations of the ratio of relative intensities of P1(2) and
P1(4) lines of the OH (8,3) band at Kolhapur (16.8°N, 74.2°E, dip lat 10.6°N)
during the period 1 Nov 2002 to 29 April 2003 using tilting-filter photometers.
Mean values of rotational temperature are computed for 60 nights. The monthly
mean value of temperature lies in the range 194±11 to 208±18K. The mean
rotational temperature obtained from all the measurements is found to be
202±15K. The results agree with other low latitude measurements of rotational
temperature using photometric airglow techniques. Quasi-periodic fluctuations
with ~1 to 2 hrs period are prominent on many nights. Furthermore, the results
show a general agreement between observations and model (MSIS-86)
predictions.
ii. Monitoring of gravity waves using all-sky imager: With the development
of cooled charge-couple device (CCD) detector, it is possible to detect spatial
and temporal variation of small-scale structures in airglow emissions more
accurately. The night airglow observations were carried out from Kolhapur
and Panhala (17.0°N, 74.2°E; height above msl 3200 ft) during Jan and Feb
2001, using tilting-filter photometers (630 nm and OH) and a CCD based multi
channel all-sky imager, respectively, on clear and moonless nights. The multi-
wavelength airglow imaging enables to study horizontal structures of small-
scale gravity waves at various heights in the region of emissions and to
investigate propagation of those waves in detail. Hydroxyl and OI 557.7 nm
images on the night of 18 Feb 2001 showed row-like structures moving from
north to south direction spanning over 500 km in the sky. The observed
horizontal phase speed of ~50 m/sec, wavelength ~25 km and wave period of
~8 min of the atmospheric gravity waves were determined from a set of
sequential images of OI 557.7 nm at 97 km and OH at 86 km observed at
Panhala (Fig. 8.23). These are the first observation of the signature of
atmospheric gravity waves using an all-sky imager in Indian region showing
perturbation in density in the 80 to 100 km mesospheric region. Signatures of
gravity waves are also seen at Kolhapur (Fig. 8.24).
Monochromatic imaging of large scale F-region plasma depletions
associated with equatorial bubbles present during ESF occurrence shows
simultaneous signature of depletions observed in OI 630 nm, OI 557.7 nm and
418 Geomagnetism
OI 777.4 nm. Also, the signature of midnight temperature maximum in OI 630

nm airglow is seen. An all-sky image (Fig. 8.24) depicts intense enhancement
in OI 630 nm intensity on the night of 7 Feb 2000 ~23:45 hrs during the main
phase of magnetic storm with minimum geomagnetic activity index Dst reaching
at –41 nT.
Figure 8.23. Signature of gravity waves observed by an all-sky imager at Panhala on

18 February 2001 (Mukherjee, 2003a,b).
Figure 8.24. Signature of gravity waves observed by all-sky imager at Kolhapur on

7 February 2000 (Mukherjee, 2003a,b).
8.4 ANTARCTIC MAGNETIC DATA

To establish its place in the global arena, Indian scientists are carrying out a
number of diverse experiments in Antarctica. India has been launching scientific
expeditions to the Antarctic continent since 1981 and has permanent magnetic
stations at Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri. The stations at Maitri and Dakshin
Gangotri, where the experiments are conducted, are at latitude 70°S and
longitude 12°E. Magnetic experiments are carried out to: (1) study the
magnetospheric influences on terrestrial magnetic field in the continent on a
long-term basis and to carry out systematic magnetic field variation, (2) establish
a link between the magnetic field variation in the polar and equatorial regions,
and (3) examine subsequently the subsurface structures of the continent using
magnetic field variations.
The magnetic field in the polar region gets directly connected to the IMF
and solar wind fluctuations, which are most easily communicated to these
regions. The diurnal variations in the magnetic field in the polar regions are
used to monitor the sector polarity of the IMF. At the same time, sector polarity
effects are discernable in low latitude magnetic field variations. Thus the
equatorial and polar magnetic field variations can be correlated or studied in
tandem for similar features. Also, since the fluctuations in the interplanetary
medium are communicated to the auroral ionosphere, these can be stored in
the magnetic records.
Direct deposition of solar wind energy occurs at latitudes exceeding 60°
geomagnetic latitudes, i.e. auroral and higher latitudes. The lower latitudes,
however, are shielded from such direct energy deposition by the closed magnetic
field configuration. It is the higher latitudes too, which experience the direct
effect of the Earth’s geomagnetic response to changes in the direction of the
solar magnetic field (the IMF) from northward to southward and vice versa.
The magnetic field variations are also used in natural resource exploration.
The rapidly dwindling resources of other oceanic and continental landmasses
necessitate delineation of these prized resources on the Antarctic continent,
though any exploitation of such resources is banned through many international
treaties. However, such probing is also important in understanding the geological
history of the Indian subcontinent. India broke away from the Antarctic continent
only about a hundred million years ago. Thus, the two have a shared geological
history, which can be unearthed by depth sounding along relevant coasts and
interior of the two continents. Initially only the total magnetic field was
measured using a PPM, but later on till 1989, a single-station fluxgate
magnetometer recorded variations in X, Y and Z components.
I. Geomagnetic Studies at Antarctica

The MO at Maitri yields information on physical processes at work in the
distant magnetospheric regions. Daily variations and pulsations (Pc2 and above)
in the X, Y and Z components at the stations show time lags. These are used to
420 Geomagnetism
derive the velocity and direction of the auroral current systems. Magnetograms
from the Maitri are used to understand the dependence of HF radio
communication on the electromagnetic state of the Earth’s ionosphere-
magnetosphere system. Also the local time and seasonal variations of the Pc3,
Pc4, Pc5 and Pc6 pulsations are studied.
II. Secular Variation Studies at Antarctica

The secular variation of the internal geomagnetic field at Maitri is currently
causing a very rapid drop in total field F (~120–150 nT/yr), and at the south
magnetic pole (~50 nT/yr). Specifically, studies on the characteristics of secular
variation in total F at Antarctica for the interval 1960-1995 are carried out
using contour plots of magnetic field variations. The period under investigation
is grouped into 5-yr intervals and the average field magnitudes were computed
and studied for each of these 5-yr zones (Fig. 8.25). The characteristics of
average dipole, quadrupole and octupole fields are determined and their
contribution to the total field variation is studied.
Antarctica shows absence of westward drift, which is a prominent feature
of secular variation at some other locations. A region of peak decrease in total
F lying in the Antarctic region is seen to be stationary. The rate of decrease of
this feature is in the vicinity of ~100 nT/yr and the magnitude of this decrease
is itself falling since 1980. The dipole field variation contributes less than 40%
to this feature and the quadrupole and octupole fields contribute to an increasing
Figure 8.25. Secular variation changes observed at Antarctica and different places
over the globe.
field in this region. This implies that a large geomagnetic contribution comes
from localized region. Recent studies of secular variation at the core-mantle
boundary have postulated that flux expulsion resulting from fluid upwellings
could be a cause of secular variation features in the southern hemisphere high
latitudes. The northern hemisphere also has a long-lived region of decreasing
total magnetic field, but this is located at the mid latitudes. This northern
hemisphere feature has a significant contribution from the decreasing dipole
field.
III. Magnetic and Atmospheric Measurements

Monitoring the changes in the geomagnetic field on a continuous basis yields
information on the electromagnetic state of the near and far space environment
of the Earth. Magnetic recordings are a comparatively inexpensive method to
monitor the signatures associated with large-scale currents generated in the
ionosphere and magnetosphere.
The atmospheric global electricity is provided by a difference in electrical
potential (~300 kv) between the highly conducting ionosphere and the Earth’s
surface, with the total current flow between the two of ~106 A. The air-Earth
current is one component that links electric fields and currents flowing in the
lower troposphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere and is part of a giant global
electrical circuit. The integrated approach provides a good framework for
exploring inter-connections and coupling of various regions of the atmosphere
and also for explaining the solar-terrestrial relationship. The results from such
studies will generate relationships between climate and solar sunspot cycle,
and also between solar wind and short-term weather changes.
Ground-based measurements of electrical parameters pose difficulties in
interpreting them in terms of the global air-Earth current since they are
essentially the superposition of currents from various sources, namely,
conduction current linked to the existence of vertical electric field, convection
current density, diffusion current due to the movement of charged particles,
lightning current due to rapid lightning over the measuring site and precipitation
current associated with showers. The sum of these currents is called the Maxwell
current. Different types of sensors are used for the measurement of air-Earth
current like Wilson plate, spherical sensors, and the horizontal long wire antenna.
Magnetometer and riometer data in both analog and digital form exists for the
study of a wide spectrum of polar geomagnetic problems.
Air-Earth Maxwell currents and atmospheric electric fields, which require
very clean conditions free from anthropogenic pollution, are measured at
Antarctica to study the global electrical circuit. It extends the understanding of
magnetosphere-ionosphere electrical coupling to the troposphere, an area most
important because of its relevance to solar-weather relations. Figure 8.26 depicts
Maxwell current density for a selected fair-weather day in the month of Feb
2002 observed at Maitri.
422 Geomagnetism
Figure 8.26. Air-Earth Maxwell currents observed at Maitri, Antarctica.
IV. Crustal Magnetic Anomalies

Studies of subsurface electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility from
the Antarctic data are a little difficult because the inducing source field of the
auroral electrojet is a sharply-bounded, non-uniform one. In the early years, a
PPM was used to carry out a ground magnetic survey along six profiles, each
10–15 km long. Contours obtained of the magnetic field values show a
pronounced magnetic low in the vicinity of the Indian Antarctic locations with
axis in the N-S direction; and this is interpreted as the continuation of a rift
valley below the ice-shelf.
Usefulness of Geomagnetic Research 423
9
USEFULNESS OF GEOMAGNETIC
RESEARCH
Geomagnetism has applications in navigation, communication, space travel

(manned or unmanned), power generation, in the search for minerals and
hydrocarbons, in dating rock sequences and in unravelling past geologic
movements such as plate tectonics. For studies related to different fields, suitably
located MOs are operated throughout the country (Fig. 1.14) and worldwide
(Fig. 5.1) to record strength, intensity, and direction of the geomagnetic field.
It varies spatially and temporally on a very wide frequency spectrum of signals,
whose characteristic times extend from geological to historical to millennial to
centuries to subsec intervals (Figs 5.3b and 9.1). The longer timescales, typically
those occurring over decades to millennia, are relevant to discern planetary
magnetism. The long-period SVs of the main field are used for studying the
dynamo action in Earth’s core and the overlying mantle as well as CMB. Short-
term variability finds several important applications related to Sun-Earth
connection as well as geophysical prospecting of the Earth’s deep interior. The
transient type of short-period variations are used for studying the mantle and
the crust (see EM induction methods). The small-scale anomalies which ride
on the expected magnetic field give information about the crust of the Earth
and the presence of petroleum and mineral deposits within it. The metal ores
are concentrated in rocks rich in magnetites that are highly magnetic.
Geomagnetism provides the cheapest geophysical exploration tool, but lacks
the precision of seismic methods. The discovery of EM induction provided yet
another technique for exploring the Earth’s interior. The experimental methods
which are employed for this are discussed in Chapters 6, 7 and 8. Variations on
timescales of second to many years also occur due to dynamical processes in
the ionosphere and magnetosphere (Figs 5.2 and 5.3).
424 Geomagnetism
Figure 9.1. Spectrum of the periods of characteristic geomagnetic field variation from
1/100,000 sec to 100,000,000 years (courtesy: Onwumechili, 1997).
9.1 OBSERVATORIES AND DATA ANALYSIS

The geomagnetism programme deals with monitoring of the EMF through a
network of MOs and conduct scientific analysis on the data collected (Chapters
1 and 5). Magnetic observatories in India have been running for more than 180
years. This network is ideal for studying equatorial, low and mid-latitude
geomagnetic phenomena (Chapter 5) and space weather (Chapters 3 and 8).
Geomagnetism is a cross-disciplinary science, hence observatories are run by
a wide variety of institutes, whose interests range from geology, mapping,
geophysics (including seismology and earthquake prediction), meteorology to
solar terrestrial physics and astronomy. The practical use of MO includes help
in space, ground navigation systems and monitoring earthquake activity. The

data at Shillong observatory are found sensitive to local earthquakes, providing
useful clues for earthquake precursory studies (Fig. 6.67). The data generated
at the observatory are passed through a series of quality control measures that
involve data processing. Final observatory products of 1-min means, hourly
means, annual means and K-indices are produced and disseminated by year-
books and CDs. The Indian geomagnetic observatory in Antarctica closely
reflects the history of the exploration of this mysterious and barely accessible
continent. Its data are particularly useful for southern auroral and polar cap
studies as well as tracking changes in the main field in this region (Fig. 8.25).
The geomagnetic field measured at MOs is a sum total of several fields
having source both internal to the Earth (main and crustal fields) and external
non-dipole field related to electric currents high in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Annual means of the geomagnetic elements recorded at observatories and those
determined at repeat stations contain a solar cycle related variation, which is
used to better describe individual observatories as regards the magnetic and
electric properties of the Earth’s interior; characteristic to the site with possible
consequences in improving the SV and the main field models.
I. Application in Communication
Magnetograms recorded at MOs give information on the relationship between
solar-terrestrial interaction and the geomagnetic fluctuations (Chapter 5). The
daily variations in the EMF allowed Stewart (Chapter 3) to postulate a
conducting layer (ionosphere) in the upper atmosphere. Since then,
geomagnetograms are used to monitor and even forecast the state of the
ionosphere and therefore possible disruptions in radio communication (Chapter
8). In the first half of twentieth century, radio communication was mainly
through wavelengths, which are grouped as long and medium waves (frequency
in kHz) and short wave bands (frequency in MHz). Such communication is
greatly dependent on the EM state of the Earth’s environment. Since the satellite
era of the 1960s, much of the international communication (both audio and
video) depends on the ultra-short wavelength band (frequency in GHz range).
Even satellite communication, which is less dependent on the EM state, is
affected by phenomena in the geo-atmosphere, e.g. plasma irregularities which
produce scintillation and which are governed by the structure of the geomagnetic
field and the upper atmosphere.
II. Application in Fundamental Research

The combination of data from magnetic survey satellites such as Magsat,
Oersted and CHAMP and observatories worldwide is providing a rich resource
for research into core processes. The observatory data are of great importance
because of information they give on the SV, providing the basis for estimation
of future values of the geomagnetic field at a given location. Observatories
426 Geomagnetism
also provide data on interactions that arise between the solar wind and
magnetosphere as well as the ionosphere of the Earth, generating EM
fluctuations with frequencies 1 Hz. Also, oscillations of the magnetosphere
generate small, almost sinusoidal variations of the geomagnetic field called
geomagnetic pulsations (Chapter 8). Inductive and magnetohydrodynamic
interactions between the ionosphere and magnetosphere modify these
fluctuating fields before they reach the Earth’s surface. The largest geomagnetic
field variations up to the order of a few hundred nT occur during magnetic
storms (Chapters 5 and 8). These frequency ranges are very effectively used to
arrive at the subterranean structure of the Earth (Chapter 6).
The EMF to a large extent resembles that of a central dipole. On the Earth’s
surface, the field varies from being horizontal with a magnitude of ~30,000 nT
near the equator to vertical with ~60,000 nT magnitude near the poles; the root
mean square (rms) magnitude of the vector over the surface is ~45,000 nT. The
internal geomagnetic field also varies in time on a timescale of months and
even longer, though yet unpredictable manner. Although this SV has a
complicated spatial pattern with a global rms magnitude ~80 nT/yr, some
evidence exists that these changes are cyclic with a period of 500 years.
Consequently, any numerical model of the geomagnetic field has to have
coefficients, which vary with time. These models also help to distinguish the
magnetic field contribution of internal source from the external ones.
Also, models like IGRF based on global magnetic data give a reasonable
approximation near and above the Earth’s surface to that part of the EMF,
which has its origin below the surface. However, errors in the coefficients lead
to errors in the resulting model field. Because of the time variation of the field,
really good models can only be produced for times when there is global coverage
either by satellites or through ground magnetic surveys and establishment of
MOs measuring the vector field. Appendix 9.1 gives the locations of north and
south dip poles and geomagnetic poles that are computed from the eleventh-
generation IGRF.
III. Application in Navigation and Geomagnetic Activity Index

Magnetic observatory serves as a singularly important site in a global network
of observing stations, whose combined data define the planetary magnetic field
and help track its secular change. Ground stations act as controls for field
modelling by harmonic analysis. They are essential reference stations for
airborne and satellite surveys and absolute calibration locations for field survey
instrumentation. They are also essential for a number of applications such as
production of angle D charts for navigation, removal of background fields
from magnetic survey data collected from ground, aeromagnetic and ship-borne
surveys and calculation of field lines and conjugate points for ionospheric and
magnetospheric studies, etc. The MOs often provide backup support for
temporary field stations and for purposes of calibration of field instruments.
The ionospheric and magnetospheric disturbance fields indicative of space

weather conditions are characterized by various geomagnetic activities. Each
of the Indian observatories provides data for the computation of the Kp-index.
Data generated at different observatories are also used to arrive at various
geomagnetic indices like the Dst, AU, AL, EEJ, Kp, AE, aa, PC, MT and so
on, to characterize the geomagnetic activity at a particular location.
IV. Other Applications

The data collected at MOs are often sent to the air-force, marine and military
installations for use in their operational models characterizing Earth’s near-
space environment as well as to scientific/technological establishments around
the world. These institutions actively produce models of the EMF that are used
in host of applications, including GPS receivers, military/civilian navigational
systems and in research for studies of the effects of geomagnetic storms on the
ionosphere, atmosphere, and near-space environment. India shares its
geomagnetic data with a legion of international agencies based in USA, Canada,
Japan, France, Brazil, UK and others as part of InterMagnet. The data are
made available to the worldwide community via www.wdciig.res.in. Also,
calibration of compasses the world-over is carried out at the MOs to account
for any changes in angles D and I of a particular region.
9.2 SOLID EARTH GEOMAGNETISM

The extraordinary wealth of information collected in the last few decades has
totally transformed our view of the Earth. The earlier notion of a static and
placid globe has been replaced by a dynamic Earth, whose core is rotating,
mantle convecting and crust drifting. The Earth’s crust forms at the spreading
mid oceanic ridges and floats on the convective mantle, making it amenable to
collisions with each other (Fig. 2.49). The study of this motion helps understand
plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanic activity and even emplacement of natural
resources. The mantle is studied, although indirectly, through magnetic field
measurements. For at its bottom, the mantle is coupled to the liquid core and at
top to the crust. The liquid core kinetically produces the magnetic field, whereas
the crust is a repository of potential magnetic field. Both these fields can be
measured easily and accurately from land, ocean and space because of which
their magnetic properties can be harnessed for understanding multidimensional
processes operating inside and outside the Earth.
Studies carried out through the spectrum of geomagnetism have three
aspects. The first pertains to the basic urge to know the structure of planet
Earth. Second relates to increasing need of the industrialized society for critical
estimate of natural resources, to know which, the dynamics of the Earth’s interior
and the mechanism of resource emplacement need to be understood. Third, the
nature of EMF and its variation with time give an opportunity to learn more of
the structure of other planets and also of stars.
428 Geomagnetism
The geomagnetic field has two internal sources: one due to electric currents
in the liquid (outer) core and the other from the crustal magnetization. The
former is dynamic and changing, whereas the latter is static and unchanging.
The crust has mainly induced magnetization and its magnetic field is often
referred to as crustal anomaly, which is caused by nonuniform distribution of
magnetic material. The detection of these anomalies forms an important practical
application of geomagnetism. Large-scale magnetic anomalies (extending over
some hundreds of km) are obtained from satellites, whereas smaller scale
anomalies are detected through ground and aeromagnetic surveys. Mathematical
and experimental techniques (discussed in Chapters 2, 6 and 7) help determine
the contributions from subsurface structures in the observed magnetic records.
I. Interdisciplinary Geomagnetic Techniques and

Earth’s Interior
The technological impediments in reaching physically down to depths of mantle
and core are partially removed by the access to this domain through different
instruments (Chapter 4). Certain properties (density, temperature, velocity of
seismic waves and so on) depend on physical characteristics, which are used
in arriving at many (and diverse) interpretations of the physicochemical realm
of the interior of the Earth, leading to an improvement in understanding the
formative processes of this planet. Thus, without going down to the core or
mantle, the composition of the core is deduced to be mostly Fe and Ni. The
dynamo processes are also well understood with an improvement in
instrumentation and computer simulation capabilities (Figs 2.40 and 2.45).
Earth’s inner realm is consistently under investigation through seismology,
terrestrial magnetism and geology. Seismology studies the propagation of
seismic waves and is the only method effective enough to delineate principal
inner subdivisions of the Earth. The nature of each of its units is identified by
its ability to propagate (or block) shear waves (Fig. 2.12). Large fractures and
polarity reversals of magnetization all along the mid oceanic ridges have
formulated concepts relating to plate tectonics, ocean floor formation and
continental drift. Induced and remanent magnetizations reveal polar wandering
(Fig. 7.8) and associated theories of crustal movement (Figs 2.50–2.52).
Traditionally, geology has been closely associated with the study of
tectonics through mapping (aerial photography) fold, fault trends and
geomorphological characteristics. In such cases, however, the dependence is
on surface expression of deep structural units and the picture obtained is
therefore incomplete.
Some geotectonic aspects are novel to India, like the drifting of Indian
plate, its subsequent docking with Eurasian landmass, associated Himalayan
orogeny and opening of the Indian ocean, extensive continental flood basalts
of the Mesozoic (Deccan and Rajmahal traps) and a complex geoelectric
structure (SIOCA) at the dip equator. Also, the physical, morphological,
geochemical environment of the peninsular and extra peninsular region give
an opportunity to study the ‘contrast’ in order to quantify magnetic and gravity

fields, global warming, climate change, monsoon variations and other interesting
topics.
Geophysics has injected the precision of exact sciences and methods of
mass data processing into geology and physics, making feasible the studies
related to seismology, geotherm, tectonophysics, structural and general geology.
Applied geophysics, on the other hand, has the character of an applied science,
which helps determine the micro and macro geological structures of the crust
and upper mantle, delineates raw material deposits and characterizes geological
activities pertaining to engineering geology, environmental geology, hydrology
and others. Applied geophysics is divided into individual disciplines depending
on field surveyed. The gravity field is studied by means of gravimetric methods,
the magnetic field by magnetometric methods, the geoelectric field by
geoelectrical methods, the field of elastic waves by seismic methods, the
radioactive field by radiometric methods and the thermal field by geothermic
methods.
The Earth’s crust is an inhomogeneous medium with different physical
properties of rocks and tectonic blocks (density, magnetic susceptibility,
resistivity, radioactivity and nuclear properties, electrical and thermal
conductivity and elastic parameters). The changes in the physical fields of the
Earth are used to determine crustal inhomogeneities (structure, occurrence of
raw-material deposits, etc.).
Geophysical data are interpreted through direct and inverse means. The
solution to a direct problem is sought by determining the effect of a disturbing
body of known size, shape, depth and physical properties on the corresponding
physical field (e.g. the effect of a regular geometric body of known differential
density and susceptibility on the gravity and magnetic field of the Earth). This
problem has a unique solution. There is no ambiguity. But the inverse problem
is usually ambiguous. In an inverse problem, one seeks to determine the
disturbing body corresponding to an anomaly in a physical field. This problem
is usually ambiguous. Hence to render it unique, several geophysical methods
or supplemental geological information are combined together.
Apart from academic research, magnetic and EM methods find practical
applications in: (1) locating mineral and hydrocarbon deposits, (2) in
understanding the evolution of the Earth’s crust and the dynamics of the mantle,
and (3) possible prediction of earthquakes through the effect of tectonic stress
within rocks. The potential uses of geophysical data are described below.
II. Geopotential Field Anomalies and Configuration of Crust

Configuration of the Earth’s crust is done by using principles of geomagnetism.
Changes in composition, subsurface temperature and thickness of the crust
and mantle cause magnetic anomalies, by identifying which internal Earth
features such as hot spots, rifts, seismic zones and tectonically active regions
(Figs 6.5 and 6.11) are isolated. Magnetic anomalies also map Curie isotherm
430 Geomagnetism
depth (a proxy for heat flow), delineate different metamorphic zones and
reconstruct tectonic evolution.
What satellite gravity and magnetic data sees: To build a model of the Earth’s
interior through magnetic measurements, the data are necessary to be global in
extent. Satellites provide global uniformly accurate data and since their
observation time is brief, secular drift corrections are not needed to apply.
Satellite measurements are made with a remotely placed sensor, hence these
data are extremely useful in bringing out large wavelength features of size
~1000 km. Remote observation has an advantage and a disadvantage as well.
The advantage is that small-scale features present in the ground data, which
make isolation of large-scale features difficult, get completely suppressed when
observations are made from space. The disadvantage is that the crustal signatures
get significantly reduced due to the great distance of the point of observation.
To get finer details of the structural blocks, space observations are supplemented
with ground, oceanic and aerial surveys.
Magsat satellite anomaly: Magsat anomaly maps (Figs 6.8a,b) have outlined
major geological and geophysical structures in the subcontinent. In general,
the anomalies depend primarily on the product of the magnetic susceptibility
and layer thickness (i.e. 400 m of material with a susceptibility of 0.05 gives
rise to almost the same magnetic anomaly as 2 km of material with a
susceptibility of 0.01). Further, the geological properties of the Earth’s crust
cannot be directly derived from magnetic anomaly maps because they are
masked by the changing inclination of the main magnetic field responsible for
induction. The anomaly is inverted to obtain the depth of the magnetic crust.
The crustal depths thus obtained are correlated with major geological
lineaments/faults and tectonic features (Fig. 6.11), especially to study similarities
and differences between continental and oceanic crusts.
The peninsular shield, the Ganga basin and the Himalayas are three different
geotectonic blocks, clearly reflected in the crustal magnetization maps
(Fig. 6.11). A thick magnetic crust under Aravalli, Singhbhum and Dharwar
suggests these are comparatively stable. In general, seismic, gravity and heat
flow data agree characteristically well with the magnetization estimates. It also
delineated the cause for unique features of steep rise and fall of the anomaly,
the depth structure of many geologic features (Figs 6.5 and 6.11) and the
continuation of continental type of crust for some distance on the west coast as
well as into the northern portion of Bay of Bengal (Figs 6.7 and 6.11). Magnetic
signatures are variable and they appear to depend on the age and conditions of
intrusion. The other applications include the creation of updated models of
internal EMF and study of fields due to ionosphere and magnetosphere currents.
These uses can be enhanced by acquisition of data from MOs and repeat stations
at the Earth’s surface.
Satellite gravity and isostasy: The satellite free-air gravity anomaly at ground
level (Fig. 6.2b) is used for studying the isostatic condition in many parts of
Indian peninsula in general and the Himalayas in particular. These studies

revealed that the peninsula is isostatically compensated, whereas the Himalayas
are isostatically overcompensated (Fig. 6.3). This result contradicts the positive
satellite gravity anomalies. It is stressed that the true nature and extent of isostatic
compensation of the Himalayas can only be decided by investigating both the
positive and negative anomalies resulting from the mountains and their roots.
Satellite residual gravity and magnetic anomaly: Stable cratonic areas like
shields, platforms and flexural basins including the Himalayan foredeep, are
overlain by relatively positive magnetic anomalies and negative free-air gravity
anomaly values (Figs 6.5 and 6.11). This combination of anomalies reflects
displacement of dense nonmagnetic mantle material by thick crustal material.
Rifts, aulacogen and rift related basins are generally associated with relatively
positive free-air gravity anomalies reflecting the presence of denser material
in the crust. High gravity and low magnetization anomaly over the eastern
ghats are modelled in terms of crustal thinning (as analogous to high heat
flow). Magnetic low values over the Arabian Sea seem to centre near Mumbai—
a region associated with local gravity high and also basic and ultrabasic dykes.
Other geological features with the axis of inverse correspondence between
magnetic low and gravity high are the Konkan coast, hot springs, the Cambay
rift and the Panvel flexure. Pinpointing exact locations of these tectonic blocks
requires that the satellite study be backed by aeromagnetic and ground survey.
Aeromagnetic studies: Long wavelength (regional) anomalies derived from
satellite magnetic and gravity data normally give information about the lower
crust. To better understand the overall geodynamics, aeromagnetic (wherever
available) and ground surveys are combined. Aeromagnetically limited surveyed
areas of the peninsula (Figs 6.13-6.15) show a thin exhumed southern granulite
terrain crust, which has a lithological/mineralogical change at ~22 km depth.
The inverted crustal model suggests alteration of charnockites into hornblende-
biotite-gneiss. This alteration is more towards the north than south, wherein
the process of retrogression is high. The exhumation of charnockites is more
between Cauvery fault and Salem-Attur fault.
Ground magnetic studies: Compared to Magsat data, ground magnetic
anomaly maps (Fig. 6.17) are not able to separate the geological provinces.
The distinct Magsat anomaly over the Himalayas and Narmada-Sone lineament
are indecipherable in ground data. This is because the strong features of local
extent mask the regional features. The results of three basins, viz. Mahanadi,
Krishna-Godavari (K-G) and Cauvery (Figs 6.20, 6.23 and 6.28) gave useful
information on the breakup of India from Gondwanaland. Curie isotherm depth
calculations for Cambay and K-G basins allowed inferring their hydrocarbon
bearing potential. A few magnetic-cum-gravity profiles provided information
on the basement configuration and the total thickness of sediments to pencil
out areas for further intensive studies by electrical resistivity, seismic and EM
methods.
432 Geomagnetism
III. EM Induction Methods

In gravity or magnetic fields, the anomalies are small perturbations over the
normal field, but in transient variations they can be greater than the normal
part by a few orders of magnitude. The causative process is the large electrical
conductivity contrast of 13 orders of magnitude (e.g. dry crystalline rocks have
conductivities <10–6 S/m, while ores have conductivities exceeding 106 S/m).
Electrical conductivity is a sensitive parameter for saline fluids, carbon grain-
boundary films, conducting minerals, high heat flow and partial melts (molten
rocks or aqueous solutions). This parameter is extensively used in GDS, OBM
and MT for mapping geoelectrical structures.
The EM method of GDS and MT types is found to be invaluable tool in
probing subsurface conductive structures from measurements carried out in a
selected band of frequencies (normally 103 to 10–4 Hz). A time-varying EM
field generated by thunder storm activity, micropulsations, polar substorms
and solar activity induces current in the conducting medium to give rise to an
associated secondary magnetic field. When the period-dependent spatially
anomalous EM fields are isolated, they are used to image structures and lateral
conductivity contrasts. For lower frequencies (long-periods), the depth of
penetration is more and for higher frequencies (short-periods), the depth of
penetration is less. Hence, by measuring the field at different frequencies (time
periods), the subsurface information at different depths is obtained.
Applied EM methods map conductivity patterns, which indirectly infer
temperature, structural and compositional variations from the crust down to
the upper mantle and help in understanding the Precambrian tectonics, crustal
evolutionary processes (Figs 6.41, 6.42) and the seismicity. GDS and MT are
two complementary geophysical methods; the former has a better lateral
(horizontal) resolution, while the latter has a better vertical resolution. The
effectiveness of MT data to provide constraints on tectonic configuration under
study increases on integrating its information with gravity, seismic wave velocity
and heat flow data (e.g. Fig. 6.45). Seismic methods fail to reveal the desired
subsurface information in complex sedimentary basins (Fig. 6.18). At such
places, MT methods are applied to locate hydrocarbon deposits hidden beneath
them. For example, MT methods are useful in Deccan volcanic (Figs 6.43 and
6.44), where the conventional geophysical and seismic methods fail because
of high velocity basaltic cover.
The data pooled from GDS and MT studies (Figs 6.30, 6.32, 6.33, 6.40
and 6.44) can synthesize electrical conductance distribution map for the entire
subcontinent, which not just demarcate thermally favourable zones of
hydrocarbon maturation, but also provide better insight into the seismic patterns.
Subsurface electrical structures below the ocean floor are mapped by OBM
array studies. The oceanic crust/upper mantle underlying the Bay of Bengal is
found more resistive than the one underlying Andaman arc region. This is
because the former is older and latter younger.
The Earth’s conductivity is also studied with the help of satellites (Magsat).
The apparent resistivity of the American and Pacific regions is similar, but it
differs in the European-African sector. The oceanic and continental apparent
resistivities are seen to differ most at short periods, indicating a possible
influence of induction in oceans. The apparent resistivities of the southern
hemisphere are significantly higher than those of the northern hemisphere at
all periods. This is an unexpected result, since the southern hemisphere is
dominated by oceans, and analyses of ocean bottom data with the Z/H method
and MT indicate lower resistivity of the oceanic mantle. In the Indian context,
magnetization and mass distribution (Figs 6.11 and 6.12) maps prepared from
satellite data are found to be consistent with the trans-Himalayan conductor
and the Palk strait conductor (Figs 6.32 and 6.33) identified by EM induction
methods. This correspondence between the two suggests that both these
conductors are associated with either high heat flow or low magnetic
susceptibility and density. The anomalous character of the lithosphere
immediately south of India is also indicated as low magnetization anomaly,
reflecting thin magnetic crust due to rise of the Curie isotherm.
Magnetic field changes originating in the Earth’s core cannot reach the
surface if their periods are much shorter than one year. Sudden geomagnetic
core events called jerks occur at the high-frequency end of the SVs. They last
only for ~1 year or so and are clearly observable at the Earth’s surface and
from satellites. Based on ground observations of the jerks, conductivities of
lower mantle are found between 1 and 103 S/m (Fig. 6.35).
IV. Earthquakes: Causes and Measurements (GPS Receivers)

Understanding earthquake generating processes, seismic character and
seismotectonics are the present topics of research. The ultimate aim and
objective however are to forecast earthquakes, since both society and economy
are impacted. Seismic zonation map (zones II to V) of India (Fig. 6.56) lists
seismic status of the areas and their susceptibility to earthquakes.
The major earthquakes, by and large, are associated with marked crustal
movements that lead to volumetric and mass changes aggravating build-up of
tectonic stresses. Observations of crustal movements (vertical and horizontal)
and deformations are done by GPS satellite receivers (Figs 6.74 and 6.75).
GPS data are also supplemented by ground magnetic and gravimetric data to
chart models regarding the earthquake preparation processes.
Build-up of tectonic stresses along faults and weaker zones lead to dilatancy
and diffusion of fluids; piezomagnetic effect induces temporary changes in
magnetic characteristics of rocks and sediments. These are few clues to an
impending earthquake (Figs 6.61-6.68). Continuing research showing
geomagnetic and geoelectrical precursory signals play pivotal role in earthquake
prediction programmes (Figs 6.32, 6.44 and 6.58). Repeat magnetic surveys
map distortions in SV trend (Fig. 6.54) in seismic areas due to accumulation of
434 Geomagnetism
stress. For example, magnetic anomaly contours (Fig. 6.59) in Koyna region
represent patterns showing displacement of magnetic rocks by faults and thrusts.
In geoelectrical investigations, GDS and MT surveys delineate lateral and radial
distribution of the subsurface structures, e.g. fault planes (e.g. Figs 6.58
and 6.60).
Past seismic activities also leave behind tell tale signs of their occurrence
in soft sediments in the form of seismites and other cataclysmic features
(Figs 6.69 to 6.72). These signs, with the help of palaeomagnetic methods, are
deciphered to date the relative time of their occurrence. Since earthquake activity
(in some cases) is seen to occur in time bound episodes, the dates acquired by
magnetostratigraphy can put a qualitative constraint on future occurrences of
seismic episodes at a particular locality.
V. Palaeomagnetism and Continental Drift

Palaeomagnetism revealed significant data about the geomagnetic field’s past
behaviour and many other aspects of geology and Earth history (Figs 7.1-7.3).
From NRM directions, the palaeolatitudes are worked out (Fig. 7.7), giving
the probable geographical location of sampling site in the past. The knowledge
has validated the hypothesis of continental drift. Alternatively, the position of
the pole in the past is calculated to account for the observed direction of
magnetization, establishing the theory of polar wandering (Fig. 7.8).
Palaeomagnetic studies show that the EMF has been prevalent for at least last
two billion years.
Magnetic reversal dating and magnetostratigraphy: Earth’s history is
chronicled through different methods like radiometric, isotopic, stratigraphic
and so on. The joint development of measurements of oceanic anomalies and
magnetic stratigraphy, both on oceanic piston cores and on land sections,
produced GPTS (Chapter 7). It is the first great synthesis of an absolute
chronology for the last 200 Ma in the history of the Earth (Figs 7.10-7.12).
Determination of polarity of the remanent magnetism in rocks compared to the
present magnetic field provides better scope to date dyke-intrusions in Deccan
traps (Fig. 7.13). The GPTS (magnetostratigraphy) documents the changing
configuration of continents and oceans as well as is an important method to
establish timeline for significant tectonic and geologic episodes. This gives an
advantage to date in relative terms the environmental or climatic patterns down
the geological ages (Fig. 7.14). Over past three-and-a-half million years, the
Earth’s magnetic poles shifted approximately nine times. Scientists do not know
how or why the magnetic poles reverse, nor do they know exactly what effect
this will have on life. The magnetic poles of the Earth reverse on an average
every 250 ka, but the intervals between such reversals vary from 10 ka to some
Ma. But the Sun reverses its magnetic poles fairly routinely: essentially every
11 years.Studies are also carried out to map details of the magnetic field during
polarity transition. Systematic departures from a simple dipolar structure during
a reversal are discovered. The non-dipolar character of the transitional field is

widely recognized as direct consequence of the systematic drop of dipole
intensity. A temporary reduction in the strength of the magnetic field allows
the Earth’s atmosphere to be less protected from the Sun’s lethal radiation.
This may cause climatic disruption, destruction of satellites, and eventually
loss of life, though not to the extent of extinction, since our ancestors have
successfully survived these flips (see Chapters 3 and 8).
Palaeomagnetists recently investigated the progressive evolution of
palaeomagnetic directions in two transitional lava flows. Each lava unit recorded
a complete sequence of directions going all the way from that of the underlying
flow to the direction of the overlying flow. These features are interpreted in
terms of very fast geomagnetic changes of 10° and 1000 nT/day. For
comparison, values typical of the present-day SV are of the order of 0.1° and
50 nT/yr, i.e. some 104 times slower. Recent data reveal that the slow variation
of the EMF and also a slow shift in the geographic position of the magnetic
poles are roughly cyclic over a period of 500 years. Syntheses of palaeomagnetic
records in the past decade yielded some controversial observations like the
existence of preferred longitudinal bands for VGP paths over the Americas
and eastern Asia, possibly in relation with the cold circum-pacific regions in
the lower mantle, outlined by seismic tomography. Such features imply some
form of indirect control of the reversal processes by the mantle, generating
heterogeneous fluid flow at the core-mantle boundary.
Palaeomagnetic studies have definite relevance for India, which happens
to be a fragment broken away from Antarctica and drifted northwards from
Gondwanaland (Figs 2.46 and 2.48). These studies yield evidence for or against
this hypothesis and these constitute one of the geological investigations taken
up by the Indian expeditions to Antarctica. On a much smaller time-scale
(a few ka), there is a steady drift of the magnetic north pole. The direction of
the magnetic field is frozen in pieces of pottery made at those times. That
knowledge is used to ‘date’ the pottery in archaeological studies; this aspect is
called archaeomagnetism, namely the study of the magnetic field in historic
times (Fig. 7.2).
AMS technique: The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) is a valuable
tool to decipher changing environmental conditions because it reflects various
accumulation regimes, e.g. variations of pathways and/or source regions
(Fig. 7.15). The AMS allows to discern reworked material from a suite of
material whose magnetic mineral content grew in situ. This new technique
along with observations of satellite imagery and structural geology is
successfully applied on the small Lonar crater (~1.8 km diameter) to evaluate
the projectile path of its impactor. The AMS data suggest that the target basalt
~2 km west of the crater is highly shocked due to oblique impact from the east
compared to the unshocked target basalt from an equal distance in the east
(Fig. 9.2).
436 Geomagnetism
Figure 9.2. Satellite map of Lonar crater showing distribution of impact stress. The
result is obtained by AMS study showing impactor direction from east and it had
trifurcated into southwest, west and northwest directions after the impact (Saumitra
et al., 2009).
VII. Geomagnetic Environmental Change

In recent years, laboratory-based environmental geomagnetism is fast catching
up with other established geophysical streams. This uses hysteresis cycle
(Chapters 2 and 7) of lumps of sediment, to obtain the parameters of coercivity
(remanence), and saturation (isothermal) remanence magnetization of the
ferri(o)magnetic component of the sediment. These parameters yield
information on the ‘domain’ structure, and hence are able to determine the
level of natural processes and human activity, which occurred over the years at
the site of the sediment.
Extreme cases of environmental disturbances such as floods in Mumbai,
hurricanes off the coast of America, heavy rains in south India and other similar
cases are all a manifestation of increased precipitation due to warm atmosphere.
Short-term climatological factors like the El Nino effect (periodic warming of
the Pacific waters) could influence seasonal climate even in regions far away
from the Pacific waters. The question whether global warming is to be blamed
for the vagaries of nature is debated. However, CO2 levels are substantially
higher now than at any time in the last ~800 ka, according to the latest study of
ice drilled out of Antarctica. As fears grow over global warming, modelling
and predicting climate change has become more important than ever. Such
issues of climate change and environmental processes (environmental change
and pollution) can be studied using environmental geomagnetism techniques.
The approach essentially links the magnetic properties of rock and soil with
changes in climate and the environment of natural and anthropogenic type.
In environmental geomagnetism, samples from lakes (wet and dry;
spanning ages from ~50 ka to present), sea, land and atmosphere are used,
where rock magnetic properties are tested with respect to their palaeoclimatic
(temperature and humidity) implications. India has diverse climatic and
environmental zones; the samples from which have improved understanding
of how the subcontinent’s complex climate (monsoon) system works and
deciphered the elements sensitive to change. The research has also played a
key role in predicting future climatic trends.
Rock magnetic properties can evaluate the remanence acquisition processes,
since magnetic minerals are both stable and unstable, though not at the same
time. Under a given set of physicochemical environment, magnetic mineral
remains stable and unchanged. However, exposure to the atmospheric realm
brings about transformations in them which enable palaeoenvironmental/
palaeoclimatic reconstruction (Figs 7.36–7.41; 7.43, 7.44 and 7.48–7.55).
Magnetic investigations also provide lithostratigraphy in addition to
chronostratigraphy, besides offering considerable potential for studying
correlation between marine and terrestrial sequences.
In some environmental contexts, there are strong links between the magnetic
properties of a sediment and pollution levels. It helps in finding out the
provenance of sediments (Figs 7.36–7.41) and performs studies on historical
and contemporary particulate pollution in storm water sewers, estuaries and
other coastal contexts. It is also a valid tool that brings out differentiation of
atmospheric dusts to aerosols and the historical records of their deposition into
lakes and mangrove sediments. By detecting magnetic materials within mudflat/
peat sediments, it has been possible to obtain detailed records of industrial
pollution over the last 200 years in a rapid and economical way.
9.3 UPPER ATMOSPHERIC STUDIES

With advancements in science and technology, the visit to Mars and other
planets is increasingly possible. But, there is a need to understand the
Earth-Sun connections to safely move out into space and inhabit other planets.
Hence, different experiments are designed to explore the fundamental physical
processes involved with the Sun, Earth, and other planets by collecting
438 Geomagnetism
information about the flow of energy within the solar system (Figs 8.1 and
9.3). The research will thus allow to prepare for the harsh effects the solar
environment can have on life and technology. Advances in technology help to
look deep into the internal workings of the Sun and understand how
magnetosphere and EMF work and respond to solar activity (Chapters 3 and 8).
Magnetograms recorded at MOs provide information on how solar plasma
interacts with the Earth’s upper atmosphere above 100 km, which is also a
plasma. The effects of this interaction appear as fluctuations in the magnetic
records (Chapters 1, 3, 5 and 8). Data from instrumented satellites together
with physical insight indicate the relationship between the solar-terrestrial
interaction and the geomagnetic fluctuations. Thereafter, the magnetic records
are used to monitor radio communication and even forecast space-weather, i.e.
the interactions of the solar and terrestrial plasmas in space (Figs 3.7, 3.13–
3.15, 5.5–5.22, 8.6–8.23). Forecast of such interaction, notably during periods
of storms in space is likely to assume great importance in coming years.
Evidence is gradually mounting that not only radio communication, which is
affected during such space-storms, but the pervading energetic wave and charged
particle radiations are also capable of causing total power breakdown in auroral
regions (Figs 9.4 and 9.5) and of causing corrosion in long pipelines through
their ability to induce electrical currents in long conductors on the Earth. These
radiations also present health hazards to astronauts and equipment aboard
satellites in geospace and in the interplanetary environment (Figs 9.6 and 9.7).
Figure 9.3. Early NASA photo showing just some of the elements in the EM spectrum.
The atmosphere blocks harmful waves.
I. Sunspots and Terrestrial Phenomena

The importance of research dealing with solar-terrestrial physics is immense.
Monitoring and prediction of the sunspot activity is being carried out for radio
communications. Sunspots and solar activity are studied to understand the
transfer of energy from the Sun to the Earth’s atmosphere (Chapters 3 and 8).
The number of sunspots is strongly related to the occurrence of number of
auroras (and violent magnetic storms in EMF) and variations in ozone
concentration. An inverse correlation is established between air-Earth
conduction current density and the sunspot cycle. The state of the ionized layer
in the upper atmosphere is affected very critically by solar activity (sunspot
number). The Sun’s role in altering the Earth’s weather and climate is a subject
of popular and practical interest. From historical records, the Maunder minimum
from 1645 to 1715 coincides approximately with the ‘Little ice age’. This high
latitude climatic event is also found in magnetic proxy records (Fig. 7.55) of
the mudflat sediment cores. Furthermore, a recurrent period of ~22 years is
identified in the pattern of droughts in the western US coinciding with the 22
year magnetic cycle (i.e. two 11 year sunspot cycles) of the Sun. These
correlations suggest that the sunspot activity can be used to predict changes in
electrical, magnetic and meteorological environment of Earth. Even the
satisfactory working of the communication satellite depends critically on the
solar activity.
II. Magnetic Storms and Society

The modern society is relying more and more on technology that is affected in
some way by conditions in the space environment. Magnetic storms form a
major component of space weather. The most dramatic events on the Sun are
solar flares and coronal mass ejections during solar maximum (Figs 8.9–8.11).
Intense and super-intense geomagnetic storms create hostile space weather
conditions that can generate many hazards to the spacecraft as well as
technological systems at ground (Figs 8.11–8.12). Several NASA missions
reported loss of instrument data and damage of two spacecraft instruments
during 30–31 Oct 2003 storms. The Swedish power grid reported failure of
transformer at some stations for several hours. Adverse space weather conditions
during intense magnetic storm can pose threat to astronauts and jetliner
passenger due to both high radiation dosage and loss of contact with the ground
station. Several trans-polar flights were cancelled during Oct–Nov 2003 intense
magnetic storms. There can be malfunctioning or even permanent damage to
spacecraft, e.g. one Japanese spacecraft was probably damaged beyond salvage
during Oct–Nov 2003 magnetic storms. The geomagnetically induced currents
(GICs) during intense magnetic storms can damage power transmission lines
and corrode the long pipelines and cables.
How GIC affect power systems: Geomagnetically induced currents are driven
by electric fields produced by magnetic field variations that occur during a
440 Geomagnetism
Figure 9.4. GIC flowing through the transformer winding (http:/

www.spaceweather.gc.ca/effects_e.php).
geomagnetic disturbance. Because of their low frequency compared to the AC

frequency, the GIC is reckoned by a transformer as a slowly varying DC current.
GIC flowing through the transformer winding produces extra magnetization
during the half-cycles and can saturate the core of the transformer (Fig. 9.4).
This results in a very spiky AC waveform with increased harmonic levels that
can cause misoperation of relays and other equipment on the system and lead
to problems ranging from trip-outs of individual lines to a total collapse of the
whole system.
Continental cable systems: On 4 Aug 1972, an outage of the L4 coaxial cable
system in the mid-western US occurred during a major geomagnetic disturbance.
An examination of this disturbance showed that at the time of the outage, the
EMF was severely compressed by the impact of high speed particles from the
Sun. The resulting magnetic disturbance had a peak rate of change of 2200 nT/
min and a rate of change of the magnetic field at the cable location estimated at
700 nT/min. The induced electric field at the cable was calculated to have been
7.5 V/km, exceeding the 7.4 V/km thresholds at which the line would experience
a high current shutdown.
Transformer heating in power systems: Saturation of the transformer core
produces extra eddy currents in the transformer core and structural supports
which heat the transformer. The large thermal mass of a high voltage power
transformer means that this heating produces only a negligible change in the
overall transformer temperature. However, localised hot spots can occur and
cause damage to the transformer windings (Fig. 9.5). Also, extra harmonics
generated in the transformer produce unwanted relay operations, suddenly
tripping out power lines. The stability of the whole system can also be affected
as compensators switch out of service. Such a sequence of events led to the
Figure 9.5. Damaged transformer (http://www.spaceweather.gc.ca/effects_e.php).
Quebec blackout of 13 March 1989, which left the whole province without
power for over nine hours.
III. Geomagnetic Hazards

The geomagnetic hazard to technology results from the strengthening of
magnetospheric and ionospheric current systems by the solar wind and by
CMEs. A common theme that emerges from a study of geomagnetic hazards is
a need for accurate geomagnetic storm forecasting in terms of onset time and
duration, maximum amplitude, and variation period (Chapter 5). The close
connection of geomagnetic hazard with solar activity is also clear. Some practical
applications of geomagnetic variations will clearly benefit from a thorough
physical understanding of the Sun-Earth magnetic interaction and in particular
accurate prediction of geomagnetic variations. For instance, the response of
the EMF to solar conditions is useful in investigating Earth structure using MT
(see magnetotellurics in Chapter 6), but it also creates a hazard. This
geomagnetic hazard is a risk to technology, rather than to health (Chapters 3
and 8).
Space weather effects on technology are far reaching and diverse as also
expensive. Astronauts are definitely at risk from bursts of ionizing solar energetic
particle radiation. Astronaut protection involves appropriate spacecraft shielding
relative to Sun. Modelling and predicting the changing morphology of the
geomagnetic field is important in determining, where charged particles may
enter into the lower atmosphere (Chapters 3 and 8). The overall space weather
effects can be summarized through Fig. 8.12.
442 Geomagnetism
IV. Satellite Operation, Navigation and Radio Communication

The ionosphere plays a significant role in VLF through to HF radio
communication and in navigation systems. Ionospheric conductivity is partly
affected by geomagnetic storms but more significantly by solar UV and X-ray
control of the ionospheric D, E and F layers (see Chapters 3 and 8). Solar
flares cause signal-phase anomalies and amplitude variations to occur (fades
and enhancements) and conditions can persist for minutes to hours. Solar flares
and CMEs are also important as sources of solar energetic particles, affecting
radio communications at high latitudes. Ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) radio
signals are central to the GPS that utilizes satellites in Earth orbit for precise
ground position determination.
Space weather effects on GPS: UHF waves pass largely unattenuated through
the ionosphere but the system accuracy is sensitive to variations in the TEC in
the path between ground and satellite. The TEC determines the signal
propagation delay. Varying propagation delays cause errors in the determination
of the range (or distance), or ‘range errors’ (Fig. 9.6). TEC variation occurs
during geomagnetic storms and these particularly degrade the accuracy of GPS
equipment. Geomagnetic storms also produce ionospheric irregularities and
scintillations. Ionospheric scintillation may cause problems such as signal power
fading, phase cycle slips, receiver loss of lock and degraded quality of satellite
navigation systems (Chapter 8).
Figure 9.6. Space weather effects on GPS ( http://www.spaceweather.gc.ca/

effectsgps_e.php).
Another GPS technique uses carrier phase tracking. In this technique, the
phases of individual cycles of the carrier waves are compared. However, if the
TEC along a signal path from a satellite to a receiver changes very rapidly as a
result of space weather disturbances, the resulting rapid change in the phase of
the radio wave causes difficulties for the GPS receiver in the form of ‘loss of
lock’. Temporary loss of lock results in ‘cycle slip’, a discontinuity in the phase
of the signal. Scintillations (<15 sec) are particularly troublesome for receivers
that are making carrier-phase measurements, resulting in inaccurate or no
position information. Code-only receivers are less susceptible to these effects.
From another viewpoint, the GPS system provides continuous routine
measurements of the TEC along the multitude of varying signal paths to each
receiving station in a regional or global network. These measurements permit
the mapping of variations in the ionospheric TEC over a region. Such
information can be useful for studying space weather phenomena.
Effects on satellites: Low Earth orbit satellites and space stations (up to ~1000
km altitude) experience increased air drag during geomagnetic storms. Satellites
operate in an environment filled with charged particles (Fig. 9.7). These particles
can affect satellites in a variety of ways, either directly by penetrating into the
satellite electronics, or indirectly through spacecraft charging with the resulting
discharge causing problems. For example, these processes can result in dummy
commands, damage to electronic devices, loss of control, and even satellite
failure.
Figure 9.7. Geostationary satellite swamped by charged particles.

444 Geomagnetism
Several satellites are disrupted since high energy particles (solar wind)
flow through sections of the satellites and damage their sensitive electronic
devices. For instance, in 1979, the Skylab space station prematurely re-entered
Earth’s atmosphere due to a malfunction caused by increased solar activity,
and consequently rained debris over the Indian ocean and parts of western
Australia.
Solar proton effects: When high velocity ions (Fig. 9.8) plough through
semiconductor devices of the satellites, they produce a large number of electrons
and holes that carry currents within these devices. Large numbers of electron-
hole pairs introduced into sensitive regions like memory cells can alter
information and result in phantom commands. Effects can be devastating if
ion impacts occur in control systems or decision-making circuits. In addition,
these impacts degrade semiconductor lifetimes.
Surface charging: Surface charging of spacecraft in a synchronous orbit can
occur due to incidence of a large incoming flux of electrons in the absence of
sufficient charge drainage by mechanisms such as photoemission. ‘Hot’
electrons with energies in the range of several keV are mainly responsible for
surface charging. Intense fluxes of these electrons are closely related to substorm
activities. Hence, surface charging occurs more often in the midnight to dawn
period. The differential charging of spacecraft surfaces can give rise to
destructive arc discharges, causing satellite operational anomalies.
Internal charging: The occurrence of highly energetic electrons with energies
>2 MeV represents adverse space weather conditions hazardous for
geosynchronous satellites. When this happens, there is an internal charging of
satellite components by energetic electrons with possible electric discharges,
resulting in malfunction of the satellite. Such an event was the likely cause of
a number of satellite operational anomalies in January 1994.
Figure 9.8. Solar proton effects on satellite devices (http://www.spaceweather.gc.ca/

satellites_e.php).
V. Magnetism in Power Generation

The use of magnetic and electric fields for power generation is likely to become
widespread in coming years. Such power generators are called
magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) devices. In these devices, energy of thermal or
kinetic nature is directly transformed into electricity. Magnetohydrodynamics
is the behaviour of electrically conducting fluids in electric and magnetic fields
at high temperature. Most of the MHD devices are still under research and at
present are used for small power requirements, but applications have already
commenced. There was recently a report of a ship having been developed in
Japan to operate on MHD power.
It was mentioned in Chapters 3 and 8 that the Earth’s magnetospheric tail
is a site, where energetic solar wind particles rush at very high speeds (few
hundred km/sec) through time-varying electric and magnetic fields. A NASA
satellite made several attempts to tap this power, which is dormant in distant
space. The idea is as follows. A space shuttle was to drag along with it a satellite
tethered to it by a 20 km long electrically conducting cable. As the cable
traversed the Earth’s magnetic field lines, an electric potential of ~5,000 V will
setup between shuttle and satellite—this attracts free electrons from the
ionosphere to the satellite. In order to close the circuit, astronauts were to fire
an electron gun from the shuttle to the ionosphere and an electric current flow
through the circuit. This is schematically illustrated in Fig. 9.9. Unfortunately,
the tether got stuck at a distance of 260 m from the shuttle and for fear of
losing the satellite, the astronauts reeled it back. As the whole setup is intact, it
is fairly certain that after a check-up, this experiment for generating power
Figure 9.9. Tapping power which lies dormant in distance space is likely to become
reality in the near future (Rajaram and Pisharoty, 1998).
446 Geomagnetism
from geospace will be flown again in the near future. If the idea should indeed
work, the possibilities for power on Earth are limitless.
VI. Conclusions
The household applications of magnetism are too numerous to be pointed out
here: the door-bell, the telephone, the television set, audio tapes, video cassettes.
The list is endless. Indeed much of today’s world just would not work if it
were not for magnets and magnetism. Our emphasis in this chapter has been
mainly on the applications of geomagnetism.
To conclude, it can be emphatically stated that geomagnetic studies are
not at all ‘ivory tower studies’. As shown in the foregoing sections, they have
very wide and useful applications. What a society can derive from such studies,
for economic and societal welfare, partly depends upon the degree of the nation’s
development in science. It also depends on the ability, mutual cooperation and
the attitude of the scientists and planners involved. The required attitude is a
cultural one. Geomagnetism also has many applications in defense especially
in missile technology. It is the intention not to elaborate on this aspect here,
since science and technology should be used for the benefit of humankind, not
for its destruction.
Medical applications: It is shown that many degenerative diseases are
connected with the disruption of normal iron homeostasis in the brain. Nanoscale
magnetic biominerals (primarily magnetite and maghemite) may be associated
with senile plaques and Tau filaments found in brain tissue affected by these
diseases. These findings have important implications for our understanding of
the role of iron in neurodegenerative diseases as well as profound implications
for their causes. In addition, the presence of biogenic magnetite in affected
tissue should also provide improved mechanisms for early detection through
modification of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) pulse sequences.
Recent evidence points to magnetic technique being more sensitive in
assessing lung contamination than the traditional methods like radiography.
Magneto-pneumography has been successfully applied to meet the needs of
many workers employed in places like shipyard and foundry, where metal
work is done. Nowadays, the magnetocardiogram is used as a supplement to
electrocardiogram. MRI has become a preferred tool over other traditional
methods like X-rays. MRI or NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance, is a technique
that involves subjecting certain atomic nuclei to very strong stationary magnetic
fields and then observing how they selectively absorb VHF radio waves. MRI
is a relatively hazard-free, non-invasive way to generate visual images of thin
slices of the body by measuring the characteristic magnetic behaviour of specific
nuclei in the water and fats of the body. MRI images show great sensitivity in
differentiating between normal, diseased and damaged tissues. This technique
works better in imaging brain, heart, liver, kidneys, spleen, pancreas, breast
and other organs. Thus, the applications and utilities of geomagnetism are many
(Appendix 9.2).
APPENDIX 9.1
Locations of the North and South Dip Poles and Geomagnetic Poles
North dip pole South dip pole North geomagnetic pole South geomagnetic pole
Epoch Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
1900 70.46 -96.19 -71.72 148.32 78.68 -68.79 -78.68 111.21
1905 70.66 -96.48 -71.46 148.55 78.68 -68.75 -78.68 111.25
1910 70.79 -96.72 -71.15 148.64 78.66 -68.72 -78.66 111.28
1915 71.03 -97.03 -70.80 148.54 78.64 -68.57 -78.64 111.43
1920 71.34 -97.39 -70.41 148.20 78.63 -68.38 -78.63 111.62
1925 71.79 -98.00 -69.99 147.63 78.62 -68.27 -78.62 111.73
1930 72.27 -98.69 -69.52 146.79 78.60 -68.26 -78.60 111.74
1935 72.80 -99.34 -69.06 145.77 78.57 -68.36 -78.57 111.64
1940 73.30 -99.87 -68.57 144.60 78.55 -68.51 -78.55 111.49
1945 73.93 -100.24 -68.15 144.44 78.55 -68.53 -78.55 111.47
1950 74.64 -100.86 -67.89 143.55 78.55 -68.85 -78.55 111.15
1955 75.18 -101.41 -67.19 141.50 78.54 -69.16 -78.54 110.84
1960 75.30 -101.03 -66.70 140.23 78.58 -69.47 -78.58 110.53
1965 75.63 -101.34 -66.33 139.53 78.60 -69.85 -78.60 110.15
1970 75.88 -100.98 -66.02 139.40 78.66 -70.18 -78.66 109.82
1975 76.15 -100.64 -65.74 139.52 78.76 -70.47 -78.76 109.53
1980 76.91 -101.68 -65.42 139.34 78.88 -70.76 -78.88 109.24
1985 77.40 -102.61 -65.13 139.18 79.04 -70.90 -79.04 109.10
1990 78.09 -103.68 -64.91 138.90 79.21 -71.13 -79.21 108.87
1995 79.09 -105.42 -64.79 138.76 79.39 -71.42 -79.39 108.58
2000 80.97 -109.64 -64.66 138.30 79.61 -71.57 -79.61 108.43
2005 83.19 -118.24 -64.55 137.85 79.82 -71.81 -79.82 108.19
2010 85.01 -132.66 -64.43 137.32 80.08 -72.22 -80.08 107.78
2015 86.07 -153.27 -64.30 136.74 80.36 -72.62 -80.36 107.38
Locations are computed from the 11th generation IGRF. (http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/poles.html)

448 Geomagnetism
APPENDIX 9.2A
Day-to-day Applications of Magnetic Force
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magforcon.html#c1)
APPENDIX 9.2B
Day-to-day Applications of Magnetism and Electricity
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/emcon.html#emco)
Perspective 449
10
PERSPECTIVE
The genius of people like Norman, Gilbert, Faraday, Oersted, Ampere and
Maxwell gave geomagnetism a strong footing to tackle fundamental problems
related to Earth and interplanetary space. These discoveries whetted the curiosity
of the inquisitive mind to unravel the causative agents and look for inter-
relationships between the Earth, the Sun and other planets or satellites and use
this knowledge to predictive purposes. Intricacies of changes in the geomagnetic
field are studied because they change over several timescales from few million
years to fraction of a second in several spectral bands. Each band of frequencies
is a goldmine of information indicative of various causative mechanisms with
sources in the Earth’s interior, near space or far space environment as outlined
in Chapters 1 to 8. Specifically, Chapters 5 to 8 list out applications of
geomagnetic measurements to understand the chemical, physical and dynamical
characteristics of the atmosphere and the interior of the planet Earth. In virtually
every case presented in this book, there is considerable scope for further
development in exploratory techniques, analysis, interpretation and application.
Prospects for the future, lie in further extension and refinement of established
approaches used in magnetic observatory, upper atmospheric and solid Earth
studies.
I. The Observatory
Most of the Indian MOs are equipped with digital magnetometers from where
the data are transported in real time to the central node and to the GINs. It is
expected to increase density of MOs to cover more latitudes and longitudes of
globe/India. Density of MO is to be particularly increased in the southern region
for Sq, EEJ and CEJ studies and in the north for Sq focus and seismotectonics.
The Shillong MO data are found sensitive to local earthquakes. This has offered
clues to undertake the installation of seismometers at all other planned and
existing MOs. This colocation of magnetic and seismic instruments will
450 Geomagnetism
gainfully allow execution of timely response needed in earthquake monitoring

studies. This would mandate inclusion of geomagnetism as a national
programme. Ground-based data acquired at MOs together with data from
magnetic survey satellites will provide ample opportunities for undertaking
the investigations related to: (1) regional magnetic anomaly and reference field
maps, (2) ‘secondary effects’ on Sq field, (3) induced currents associated with
EEJ, (4) transient variations and (5) low-latitude ‘bay’ structure.
II. Antarctic Magnetic Data

After analysing the experiments carried out at Antarctica, the book can
recommend widening of the scope of experiments to study: (1) magnetospheric
influences on terrestrial magnetic field on a long-term basis and to record
systematic magnetic field variation, (2) establish link between the magnetic
field variation in the polar and equatorial regions, and (3) subsequently examine
subsurface structures of the continent using magnetic field variations. Magnetic
measurements at Maitri confirmed a decreasing trend in geomagnetic field,
which needs to be incorporated in models depicting magnetic reversals. This
will also have a bearing on the role octupoles and quadrupoles play during a
reversal, since they are conjectured to maintain a semblance of geomagnetic
field, when the dipole field is vanishing. The high latitude continent is an ideal
place to study air-Earth Maxwell currents to extend understanding of the
magnetosphere-ionosphere electrical coupling. Permanent GPS stations are
setup for geodynamic meteorological and ionospheric studies. They also monitor
glacier and iceberg migration. Study on Antarctic climate and environmental
variability is initiated by conducting mineral magnetic studies on core samples
collected from the basinal features of Antarctica and its adjoining regions. These
can be correlated with subcontinental monsoon features for establishing
teleconnections in weather patterns of these far off continents.
III. Space Environment

The entire range of phenomena in the field of equatorial aeronomy and its
global connections between troposphere, stratosphere, magnetosphere and
interplanetary space form a part of space environment research. Beginning
with ground-based radio and optical probing of the upper atmosphere, the
research has developed into an integrated programme that combines ground-
based data with those obtained from balloons, rockets and satellites using a
variety of payloads. Satellites carry onboard radio beacons to monitor and
study ionospheric irregularities. Airglow measurements for wind and
temperature parameters need to be continued. Recommended programmes
include: the study of solar-terrestrial coupling, spread-F phenomena, EEJ/CEJ
current systems, trace gases/minor constituents of the middle atmosphere, role
of plasma in different interplanetary zones and space weather conditions.
To learn about the mechanism/origin and development/decay of spread-F,
Perspective 451
ground-based magnetometers, ionosondes, Fabry-Perot interferometers (for

6300 Å airglow radiation) and beacon satellite scintillation studies, are
recommended. The measurement of atmospheric electric fields/conductivities
needs to be carried out using balloon and satellite-borne equipment to study
stratospheric electrodynamics and global electric circuit.
Magnetosphere: Considerable work has been done on the exchange of energy
between solar wind, magnetosphere and its subsequent transport to various
parts of the magnetosphere-ionosphere system. The physical mechanism of
many of these phenomena, however, remains elusive. The coupled
magnetosphere-ionosphere system is highly complex/nonlinear and it is
impossible to construct realistic analytical models for the various properties
exhibited by this system. The advent of new generation fast computers and
subsequent progress in numerical analysis methods has offered a powerful
tool of computer simulation technique. Computer simulation techniques are
now an integral part of space plasma research. It is recommended to do computer
simulations to understand the: (1) role of ionosphere in substorm dynamics,
(2) energy transfer, (3) substorm dynamics, (4) effect of energetic particles on
spacecrafts, (5) auroral acceleration processes, (6) ionosphere, (7) ionospheric
irregularities, (8) ionosphere-neutral atmosphere interaction and (9) simulation
of geodynamo.
Sun, magnetic storms: The intricate picture of the connection between the
Sun and the Earth’s space environment has been uncovered in the last few
decades. However, understanding of the physical processes, which drive and
couple this complex plasma system, is still far from complete. Magnetospheric
substorms and major geomagnetic storms produce intense surges in energetic
particle populations that can adversely affect the functioning of modern
satellites, GPS and power grids on the ground. An outstanding problem in
solar-terrestrial physics pertains to predicting the evolution of physical processes
within the magnetosphere and Earth’s space environment. The space
environment is a natural plasma centre, where accurate in situ measurements
can be carried out. The validity of theoretical models and assumptions regarding
plasma dynamics can be tested on time and spatial scales far greater than
available in the laboratory. In fact, this knowledge can be applied to the study
of magnetospheres of other celestial bodies like planets, comets, pulsars and
the like.
Sun, interplanetary medium: Although it has long been suspected that
sporadic geomagnetic disturbances are due to eruptive events on the Sun, it is
only recently that research on the solar corona and interplanetary medium has
indicated the mechanism by which it occurs. This knowledge poses a further
challenge to understand the timing and location of solar eruptions and establish
whether individual solar events are likely to cause geomagnetic storms. Success
in forecasting a storm a day or more in advance will also depend on improved
knowledge and better monitoring of the Sun and the interplanetary medium. A
452 Geomagnetism
research project is proposed to study solar-terrestrial relationship as a

comprehensively coupled system that starts from the Sun, goes through the
interplanetary medium, magnetosphere, high/low latitude ionosphere,
mesosphere, stratosphere, troposphere down to the boundary layer and the
surface. This system also continues down into the shallow interior of the Earth,
where induced currents are produced by electric currents, which come in handy
for probes launched through electromagnetic induction studies.
10.1 SOLID EARTH GEOMAGNETISM

Improvements in instrumentation accelerated magnetic surveys: EM surveys
became routine affair, proton magnetometers are towed behind ships (air/water)
and satellites go to phenomenal heights with magnetometers. The sensitivity
and accuracy of instruments needed to monitor and record magnetic field in
the material domains of solid, liquid and gas (plasma) are getting better by the
day. These days, geomagnetists have automated laboratory equipments at their
disposal by virtue of which in a single day they can make more measurements
of the absolute palaeointensity of magnetic materials such as ceramics and
basaltic rocks than pioneer Thellier could do in a life time. Considerable
emphasis needs to be put on developments of inversion techniques and models
from the data gathered from MT, OBM, MOs, satellite data on plasma and EM
field, etc. Joint inversion of gravity and magnetic satellite/ground anomaly
data, incorporating constrains from laboratory density/susceptibility
measurements should be undertaken to estimate depth of the source field. The
satellite data will have to be inverted to better understand the lithospheric
dynamics.
The recommended thrust areas are: (1) probing the lithosphere through
the features of regional scale magnetic anomalies using ground, aeromagnetic
and satellite data, (2) delineating subsurface electrical conductivity features
using GDS and MT methods, (3) pool in all available MT-GDS survey data
and conduct additional surveys wherever necessary to prepare a ‘conductance
map’ for the country, (4) use OBM/OBE for MT/GDS studies on the ocean
floor in the adjoining seas, (5) palaeomagnetic and petrographic studies, (6)
reconstruct magnetostratigraphy of the sediment/rock sequences, (7)
characterize geophysically the Indian terrain to model folds, faults, lineaments
and suture zones, (8) develop methodology for identification of geomagnetic
and geoelectric precursors associated with earthquakes, (9) use of GPS for
precise baseline measurements in selected areas for monitoring crustal
deformation, (10) take up challenging topics in emerging areas like
environmental geomagnetism, archaeomagnetism, biomagnetism, and (11) take
up EM (conductivity) study through laboratory scale experiments.
I. Lithosphere Study through Magnetic Anomalies

Potentiality of remote sensing through satellite in determining structure of
geological significance and in identifying inhomogeneities in the lithosphere
Perspective 453
has been proved beyond doubt. Identification of seismically active zones,

hotspots, rifts, tectonically active belts due to mantle convection and resultant
stress changes that followed the collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian
plate from Magsat magnetization map is an excellent example of the importance
of satellite magnetic data. Low magnetization is encountered under Indo-
Gangetic plains and positive on either side of it. Inverse correspondence between
high gravity and low magnetization over petroliferous basins like the Assam
oil field, Bombay High and Cauvery basin, is also identified. Joint inversion of
gravity and satellite/ground magnetic anomalies incorporating constrains from
density/susceptibility laboratory measurements should be undertaken to estimate
depth of the source field. The satellite data need to be inverted at both the
global and regional (Indian subcontinent) level to be able to better understand
the lithospheric dynamics. This will entail massive data matrix inversion
requiring sophisticated computing facilities.
Recommendations to enhance the geologic utility of satellite geopotential
anomalies include: (1) Magsat data with <2°> anomalies had limited resolution.
Use of improved magnetic anomaly data may provide better anomaly maps for
crustal analysis, (2) obtain additional geophysical data to establish better
constraints on tectonic interpretations. This may include seismic or geothermal
data or gravity data that reflects improved areal coverage, (3) correlation analysis
conducted is qualitative. Quantitative correlations could be used to further
constrain tectonics analysis and modelling. This could involve separating
continental data from oceanic to compare the magnetization characteristics of
both the crusts, (4) the effect of lithospheric cooling on oceanic magnetic
anomalies, and (5) it is shown that the geopotential field anomalies are useful
for tectonic analysis. Improved data coverage, especially for gravity and lower
elevation magnetics, promises to provide more information for tectonic analysis,
particularly for the tectonically rich, relatively little known regions of Antarctica.
Combined gravity and magnetic data collected by NASA’s proposed GRM
satellite can provide such a data set. The Oersted and other satellite mission
data can also be used for lithospheric and electrojet variations.
To resolve structural complexities of the Indian plate and to be able to map
the source fields at different depths, magnetic anomalies at different levels
need to be looked at. Thus as an extension of the ground magnetic surveys, the
outings will be formulated to survey different tectonic blocks. This ground
data can be coupled with available aeromagnetic and satellite data. The
susceptibility of different rock types will provide the necessary constraints for
modelling. The aeromagnetic method has given a coherent view by integrating
surface and sub-surface features/tectonics of the major portions of the country.
Aeromagnetic data have established that Chitradurga divides the eastern and
western Dharwar, which has a bearing on prospecting ore and mineral deposits.
Thus a plan needs to be formulated for covering the shield areas by systematic
aerial surveys. This coverage can be complemented by ground magnetic data
over different metamorphosed zones and regions rich in iron deposits, viz.
Singbhum-Bastar area, Bababudan in Karnataka and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra.
454 Geomagnetism
II. Geoelectromagnetic Studies, MT/GDS/OBM

MT techniques are accepted as a useful tool in exploration studies, especially
in the Deccan trap as well as the low velocity sediment covered regions. Further,
they are inexpensive compared to their seismic counterparts. The efficacy of
these techniques in the area of oil exploration should be consolidated by
undertaking surveys in various unexplored sedimentary sequences of the
Godavari and Assam region. The ability of MT techniques in identifying
repository sites for nuclear waste can be used to demarcate places, where no
active faults are connected to the water table.
Earthquake monitoring activity is still in its infancy. MT studies can identify
active faults, which should be monitored for possible changes in seismotectonic
activity using MT or other similar EM methods. Efforts will be made to develop
inexpensive indigenous instrumentation for electrical tomography, which could
be of importance in continuous monitoring of electrical resistivity and ground
electric current and voltages, which are known to be useful earthquake
precursors. MT studies undertaken in geothermal regions to estimate the possible
extent of these resources, could be of importance in the future renewable energy
resource programmes. Groundwater location could also be detected by suitable
magnetic/electrical methods.
A model of the subcontinental conductosphere is planned to undertake
with magnetic array and MT measurements, which can be combined with heat
flow data and potential field measurements to target natural resources. MT
studies in geothermal regions can supplement the conventional energy resources.
They can also identify active faults that can be monitored for predictive changes
in EM signatures. Extending the EM work to marine environment will throw
light on the global dynamics of the lithosphere. In this light, OBM and OBE
studies will be very useful. The subduction tectonics at the Andaman arc region
have led to seismic and tsunamic activities in the past affecting the coastal
areas in many ways. The monitoring and recording of magnetic field changes
can forewarn the events. These studies can also map out hydrocarbon deposits.
The theoretical and software development for inverting and interpreting 2D/
3D EM structure, need augmenting, which would be suitably done in future.
Efficient robust algorithms and tensor decomposition schemes are developed
to minimize distortions in the response functions.
III. Earthquakes, GPS

Inexpensive indigenous instrumentation for electrical tomography is in different
stages of development to monitor electrical resistivity and ground electric
currents, which are useful earthquake precursors. At the same time, these
precursors should be clubbed with non-seismological deformation field
measurements—progressive and continuous stress field mapping, ULF/VLF
EM studies, EM response of radio wave propagation, ionospheric perturbations,
Perspective 455
infrared emissions in upper atmosphere, geochemical signal monitoring by

Rn, He, GEC/TEC measurements in ionosphere (electron contents) and others.
State-of-the-art GPS units monitor minute movement within the
subcontinental intracratonic and intercratonic areas and margins. The inferred
drift of different lithological units delineates earthquake prone regions. Repeat
surveys keep an eye on the changes in the geomagnetic field prior to (and
after) an earthquake forewarning a cataclysmic seismic event. New MOs at
Kolhapur, Silchar, Andaman and Nicobar islands will monitor co-seismic
signals. GPS is also used for detection of ionospheric perturbations (TEC)
associated with earthquakes. Two seismological observatories are established
at Rewa and Kolhapur, and multi-sensor geophysical observatories at Shillong
(Assam) and Port Blair (Andaman and Nicobar islands). The data will be
telemetered from these and other observatories either at a fixed timing or in
continuous mode to a central location, where the complete history of local and
regional changes of geomagnetic and geoelectric field will be continuously
analysed and collated with other precursory data to arrive at medium and short-
term forecasts of geomagnetic and earthquake activity.
Magnetic and petrological data will be collected over regions, where the
GPS data depict maximum plate movements. Resistivity measurements can be
taken in regions of maximum stress built up. Gravity and magnetic model will
be constructed to evolve comprehensive lithospheric dynamics with ultimate
objective of understanding earthquake processes. Areas thus covered will
include not only the Himalayan region but also cover seismically interesting
areas such as Bhadrachalam and Ongole/Bapatla regions of Andhra Pradesh,
parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
Palaeoseismology is fast gaining importance. Continued seismic activity
and loss to life and property has put strain on geoscientists and Government to
garner short-term earthquake prediction. Apart from all the techniques
enumerated above, prediction can be done by signatures left behind by the past
earthquakes in lakes and other soft sediments. The dating of these events gives
their cyclicity.
IV. Palaeomagnetism
The mechanism that causes ‘polarity reversal’ of the EMF needs considerable
thinking. There is no a priori reason why the EMF should have a particular
polarity and there is no fundamental reason why its polarity reversal should
not change. Reversal has been explained in a number of ways, each of which
lacks rigour. One amongst these suggests fluctuations in the distribution of the
cyclic convection cells in the core to lead to an abrupt reversal. Such cells are
randomly distributed and a reversal occurs when they attain a critical
configuration. The retardation/acceleration of the convection due to the
interaction at the core-mantle boundary leads to the observed secular changes
in the magnetic field. Monitoring the secular change at several strategic locations
456 Geomagnetism
on the globe can thus provide inputs to understand the electrodynamics of the
Earth’s interior, which is otherwise inaccessible. It is of paramount importance
to make better use of the palaeomagnetic probe to understand magnetic
properties of rocks. Special emphasis is envisaged to map details of the magnetic
field during polarity transition, discover more excursions (aborted reversals),
mapping systematic departures from the simple dipole structure, magnetic
polarity stratigraphy and the acquisition of sedimentary magnetization, secular
variation, palaeointensity and short-term geomagnetic field behaviour.
The Indian plate has migrated a phenomenal distance, whose journey can
be redrafted from magnetic signatures retained in the magnetizable materials
in rocks. The understanding of its tectonic history has considerably increased
with the palaeomagnetic studies of south and central Indian dykes, Deccan
basaltic rocks, and the Himalayan syntaxial sandstones/dolomites. The studies
have placed the upper and lower limits on Deccan volcanic activity and
established that the episode lasted for just about half a million years or so.
Earlier it was conjectured that this volcanic exhalation continued for quite a
long time. Some of the controversial problems on migratory path of the Indian
plate will be taken up for definitive answers. Efforts are on to draw apparent
polar wander path of India for better correlation with the one available
internationally. Palaeomagnetism will also be applied to learn the history of
microplates and other crustal fragments caught in evolving plate margins. There
is a need to start research to get seafloor information on stratigraphy and
tectonics.
The geomagnetic polarity record is central to the construction of geological
timescale, and provides the principal tool for calibration of marine and terrestrial
biozones. The polarity record continues to evolve with the recognition of brief
polarity subchrons, and the limitations to this evolution may lie with sedimentary
recording processes. In the Indian context, magnetostratigraphy of important
sedimetary basins, e.g. intermontane Kashmir and petroliferous basins will be
worked out, and a thorough comparison of biostratigraphic sequences made.
Data-base will come from deep-sea piston cores from Bay of Bengal fans and
neighbouring oceans. Rock samples from Tethys Himalayas and other regions
will be investigated. Their chemical and radiometric analysis will be undertaken
along with the preserved records of palaeomagnetic field.
V. Environmental Geomagnetism
Subtle changes in magnetic mineralogy, grain size, oxidation degree,
stoichiometry and strain state will be interpreted in terms of changing
provenance areas, climatic conditions, diagenetic regimes, and anthropogenic
pollution. The interpretive value can be enhanced by utilizing several magnetic
proxies together with a few geochemical proxies. Increased use of magnetic
proxies is foreseen as a consequence of methodological advances in unravelling
mixed magnetic mineralogy and further establishment of more quantitatively
based parameters.
Perspective 457
The ubiquity and environmental sensitivity of the magnetic mineralogies

provide a record of past and present environmental and climate change process.
Hence, most environmental magnetic studies aptly focus on environmental
interpretations. The measurements are also routinely used because of importance
of environmental magnetism to the range of palaeomagnetic application
including tectonic, geochronological and geomagnetic investigations. Data-
base will come from sediments and sedimentary rocks.
The value of mineral magnetic parameters derives both from the close
links apparent between mineral magnetic assemblages and soil forming
processes and from the relative ease with which these assemblages can be
characterized and distinguished even in very low concentrations well beyond
the reach of other techniques. Mineral magnetic studies of particulate flux
between terrestrial and fresh-water systems will offer new insights into climatic
variation and its bearing on erosion and sedimentation. A pattern underlying
the Indian monsoon has been deciphered, the resolution of which needs datasets
of longer-term, which can be provided by mineral magnetic studies. Most of
the sediment-based studies has revealed LGM, YD and brought about an
awareness of the climatic conditions prevailing over the Himalayan, western,
eastern and central portions of India during the last 20 ka. Magnetomineralogical
S-ratio is found to reflect monsoon quite well. Monsoonal changes can be
predicted and planned for future. A new study is planned to know how climate
change is magnetically reflected along the marine to continental (nonmarine)
gradient in areas of India and its immediate surroundings. In addition, the need
of making an inventory of existing magnetic methods and procedures, and
selecting the most appropriate ones for SW Indian monsoon study is already
underway for further optimization of mineral magnetic approach.
The apparent link between mineral magnetic properties and particulate
pollution as a result of fossil-fuel combustion and other industrial processes,
points the way to one urgent area of future study. The emphasis has been on
the use of magnetic measurements in monitoring heavy metal deposition.
Equally, the recent interest in the use of fly ash as a source of magnetite makes
magnetic characterization especially important since a quantifiable relationship
may be expected between magnetic susceptibility or SIRM and crystalline Fe
concentration in any given fly ash. Heavy metal pollution correlates with
magnetic enhancement, encouraging the use of magnetic measurements as a
surrogate monitoring technique and suggesting that variations in heavy metal
contents and mineral magnetic parameters indicative of changes in magnetic
assemblages will be of value in identifying aerosol and sediment sources.
Metropolitan areas like Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane and Raigad districts,
are screened for identification of pollution levels of contaminants in materials
of roadside dusts, soils, lake sediments and mangroves using mineral magnetic
techniques. This is now a fast emerging field and can be extended to other
metropolises. Data-base will come from beach sands, roadside tree leaves,
atmospheric dusts, fly ash, and mudflat and mangrove core samples.
458 Geomagnetism
10.2 CURRENT TRENDS/GEOMAGNETISM

Looking beyond the aforementioned themes, further applications in the
influence of geomagnetic activity on weather and climate, archaeomagnetism,
biomagnetism, medical and forensic science, are not difficult to envisage.
Idenitification of inhaled particulate type and sources should be possible from
lung tissue measurements as well as characterization of work environments in
terms of aerosol loadings and types.
I. Geomagnetic Activity, Weather/Climate

One of enigmatic field of research is the influence of geomagnetic activity on
weather and climate. Although most of the currents associated with the
geomagnetic field flow at altitudes far above the regions which control the
weather, intriguing results have emanated from studies of the solar features,
geomagnetic activity and meteorological parameters like the atmospheric
circulation patterns, drought conditions, rainfall, glaciations, etc. As it is
unimaginable that solar activity can provide the requisite amount of energy for
the meteorological changes, scientists are on the look out to identify some
form of catalyst that can trigger large scale transfer of energy from the Sun and
the interplanetary space through the upper atmosphere to the lower altitude
regions.
II. Secular Variation/Archaeomagnetism

High-sedimentation-rate marine and lake sediments have revolutionized our
understanding of the behaviour of the geomagnetic field. The presence of
ubiquitous short-lived (~5 ka duration) polarity subchrons or excursions in the
Brunhes and Matuyama chrons, coupled with high-quality relative
palaeointensity frequently accompanied by short-lived perturbations of the
direction of the geomagnetic field is now well established. The study of sub-
Milankovitch-scale palaeoclimate changes requires approximate stratigraphic
correlation at millennial-scale resolution. As correlation at this scale is not
easily achieved through traditional isotopic methods, geomagnetic
palaeointensity records and associated directional perturbations can well serve
this purpose. In addition, understanding this short-term geomagnetic behaviour
is important for constraining models of the geodynamo. There are two
immediate prospects for improving the dating of lake sediments. The
establishment of regional records of directions and intensities requires spatial
corrections to be applied to individual determinations. Such ‘master curves’
for directional studies are now available for several areas, particularly in Europe,
the Middle East, Japan, Australia and America. India does not have a SV master
curve and needs to develop it from lake sediments and archaeological materials.
The potential of mineral magnetism in archaeological studies has begun to
emerge from sites in south India, hence archaeological dating of ancient sites
in Maharashtra and Gujarat should be taken up. This development will permit
Perspective 459
dating of palaeomagnetic secular variation intensity records by matching with

previously established SV time series.
III. Biomagnetism
Geomagnetic study over the years has been responsible for many innovative
technologies in instrumentation to detect weaker and weakest magnetic fields.
Today, magnetometers based on superconducting materials can detect
fluctuations with astounding accuracy (one in a million). This has led to a new
branch of application called ‘biomagnetism’. Birds and animals use magnetic
field for their direction finding, although little is known about their physical
and biological skills in using this field. Many experimental studies are being
carried out to understand this phenomenon. Developments in biomagnetism
have also been significant even though a causal linkage still remains elusive.
Association between number of heart attacks or epilepsy and condition of the
Earth’s magnetic environment; effect of geomagnetic storms on migratory birds
do bring out association between man and his geomagnetic environment, though
the linkage in quantitative terms is missing. Consequently biomagnetism has
not attained the status of an exact science. Hence, biomagnetism will surely be
the next big step in environmental geomagnetic studies. Specifically, there is a
need to establish the quantitative significance of bacterial magnetite in
depositional environments, to specify more fully the conditions under which
authigenic and diagenetic processes are magnetically significant. In the course
of time, it is hoped to have the health check and diagnosis of human ailments
based only on passive magnetic measurements. Magnetotherapy is, nowadays,
an accepted alternative for several physiological problems.
As the Earth is, but an ordinary planet of the solar system and as the Sun
is, but an insignificant star in the milky way galaxy, it is the fond hope of
geomagneticians that their scientific quest will pave way for a better
understanding of the entire Universe, not just this planet Earth. The latest
initiation of regional centres at places like Tirunelveli and Allahabad, dedicated
to upper atmospheric studies and solid Earth geomagnetism respectively, can
go a long way in planning and executing research pertaining to fundamental
and applied aspects with the express aim of using the know-how for the overall
betterment of the society we live in.
460 Geomagnetism
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INDEX
Absolute instruments, 117-118 Astatic magnetometer, 131-132, 297, 299

Aeromagnetic, 75, 146, 175, 178-179, Asteroid, 69
191, 199-201, 203-208, 426, 428, Asthenosphere, 25, 34, 232, 237
431, 452-453 Astrolabes, 3
Airglow, 89, 111-112, 403-404, 406, 416- Astronauts, 403, 438, 439, 441, 445
418, 450-451 Atmospheric
Airy compensation, 32 condition, 277, 279
Airy-Heiskanen, 183 dust, 323-324, 437, 457
Alibag observatory, 15, 142, 145, 155, studies, 277, 390, 437, 459
163, 172 Atomic magnetic moment, 41
Alpine belt, 252, 254 Auroral electrojet, 109, 159, 167, 422
Alternating field (AF) demagnetization, Auroral zone, 4, 87, 113, 167, 412
65-66, 136-137, 321, 331, 343-344 Azimuth, 116, 175
Ambient magnetic field, 71, 121, 296
Ambiguity, gravity interpretation, 181 Backfield, 339, 341-344, 374, 384-386
Ampere’s law, 87 Bacterial magnetite (BM), 45, 376, 459
AMS, 62, 138, 320, 336, 435 Bagh, 316-317, 319
Ancient Baked, 292, 294, 298-299, 301, 321
latitudes, 305-306 Balance magnetique zero (BMZ), 118
geomagnetic field, 294, 296 Balloon, 87, 89-91, 111, 450-451
pole, 145, 304 Bangui anomaly, 189
Annual mean, 99, 144, 153-154, 425 Barometer, 89
Anomaly contour maps, 178 Basalts, 41, 51, 71, 182, 236, 245, 248,
Antarctica, 24, 77, 102, 148, 282, 285, 299, 317, 336, 356, 366, 428
419-422, 425, 435, 437, 450, 453 Basin
Antennas, 277-279 Cambay, 185, 187, 197, 215-216, 316
Antiferromagnetic, 41-42, 44, 51-52, 54, Cauvery, 197-198, 221-222, 453
57, 84, 324, 332, 336, 339, 341, 344 Krishna-Godavari, 218-220
Ap index, 167 Mahanadi, 216-218
Apparent resistivity, 127, 237, 239-241, Narmada, 316-317
271-272, 433 Bedrock, 280, 327
APW, 74, 291, 304, 306, 456 Bhadrachalam earthquake, 255
Archaeological, 132, 294, 298, 323, 348, Bhuj earthquake, 258, 275, 284
377, 435, 458 Bias, 6, 120, 337
Archaeomagnetic, 132, 151-152, 293-295, Biogenic, 47, 71, 351-353, 372, 376, 446
298-299, 312, 377, 435, 452, 458 Biomagnetism, 323, 452, 458, 459
ARM, 133-134, 137, 322, 337, 385 Biwa, 315
ARM/SIRM, 333, 348-349, 360, 386 Blake, 315
Artificial source survey, 174 Bloch wall, 60
478 Geomagnetism
Blocking temperature, 57, 64-65, 135-136 Cosmic rays, 91, 104

Bow shock, 106, 388, 390 Counter electrojet (CEJ), 89, 109, 161-
Brunhes, 298, 315, 458 162, 416, 449-450
Burmese plate, 235, 236 Cowling, 160-162, 166
Cretaceous basins, 302
14
C ages, 99, 312, 358 Crustal
Carbon dating, 360, 377 anomaly, 182, 205, 213, 428
Carbonates, 31, 39, 72, 198, 212, 362 deformation, 278, 281-284, 452
Carboniferous, 52, 307, 314 movement, 281, 283, 428, 433
Carlsberg ridge, 81, 266 thickness, 32, 178, 186, 194-195, 197
Catchment, 326, 351, 360 Cryogenic, 134, 353
Cenozoic, 185, 313 Curie isotherm, 177, 195,199, 223, 429
Chamoli earthquake, 256 Curie point, 40, 50, 71, 177, 297, 299
Characteristic remanent magnetization Curie temperature, 24, 40, 42-43, 50-51,
(ChRM), 299-300, 304, 320-321 57, 63, 137, 300, 336, 353-354
Charged particle, 67, 87, 89, 92, 101-105, Cyclotron, 167, 393, 395, 412
110, 154, 168, 387, 390, 392-393,
403, 421, 438, 441, 443 Dakshin Gangotri, 413, 419
Charnockites, 72, 206-207, 219, 221, 431 Data logger, 124-125, 127, 408
Chemical remanent magnetization, 297 Dating, 136, 260, 274-276, 291-292, 294-
Chronology, 301, 309, 327, 368, 434 295, 301, 309-311, 313-316, 321,
Chrons, 309-310, 313, 316-317, 319, 456 324, 328, 360, 370, 377, 423, 434,
Circum-Pacific belt, 259 455, 458, 459
Civilization collapse, 362 Dauki fault, 145-146
Climate change, 292, 327-329, 356, 360, Day plot, 347-348
376, 378, 429, 437, 457-458 DC demagnetization, 343, 346
Climate proxies, 326 Deccan trap, 71, 74, 182, 185, 198, 209,
Coal, 249, 267, 377 233, 242, 246, 212, 254, 257, 283,
Coercive force, 48, 52, 58-59, 343-344, 302-303, 305, 317, 374, 381-382, 434
346, 347-348, 384 Declination, 4-8, 14, 19, 116, 125, 142,
Coercivity, 48, 52, 55, 57, 59, 61-62, 65, 158, 161, 191, 293-294, 304, 307
135, 297, 333, 337-340, 342-344, Deep seismic sounding (DSS), 207, 218
346-348, 353, 370, 384, 436 Delta, 125, 212, 217, 355-358
Complex demodulation, 172, 229 Depositional environment, 330, 352, 354-
Component analysis, 165, 342, 352 356, 360, 362, 459
Composite S-ratio map, 375 Destructive plate margins, 81
Conductive, 30, 150, 177, 225, 228-229, Dharwar, 185-186, 197, 206-207, 221,
231-232, 235-236, 242, 245, 261 242-246, 253, 430, 453
Conjugate points, 426 Diagenesis, 54, 322, 324-326, 359
Conrad, 33, 185-186 Diamagnetic, 38, 59, 132, 330-332, 335-
Constructive plate margins, 82 336, 361, 392
Continental crust, 29, 32-33, 80, 187, 197 Dip
Continental drift, 7, 69-70, 72, 74-77, 79, angle, 7
291-292, 298, 308, 428, 434 equator, 109, 145-146, 149, 153, 159-
Continent-continent collision, 260 160, 162, 165-166, 409, 428
Convection current, 76, 79, 81, 292, 421 poles, 426, 447
Core field, 67, 150, 179, 190 Dipole
Core mantle bountary (CMB), 25-26, 29, axis, 17, 24
36, 83, 423 field, 24, 98, 100, 152, 304, 420-421
Coronal mass ejections (CME), 168-171, moment, 38-40, 152, 167
390, 399-400, 405, 439, 441-442 Dissolution, 322, 351, 364
Coseismic, 282 Disturbance storm (Dst), 167-168, 170
Index 479
Diurnal variation, 9-10, 21, 116, 150, 153, Ephemeris, 281

156, 158, 165, 201, 203, 214, 419 Epicentre, 245, 251, 256-259, 266, 271,
Domain 273, 284
formation, 60 Epoch, 76, 153, 204, 214, 309, 315, 316
states, 59, 62, 63, 331 Equatorial electrojet, 109, 144-145, 159
wall, 60, 62, 344-345 Equinox, 157-158, 406
Double layers, 396 Equivalent point source (EPS), 189, 194
Downward continuation, 180, 215, 217 Erosion, 43, 323-324, 326, 329, 333, 360,
DRM, 296-297, 299-300, 305 364, 387, 392, 457
Dyke, 181, 198, 210, 274, 276, 303, 315- Excursions, 315, 456, 458
319, 381, 383, 431, 434, 456 Exsolution, 44, 51
Dynamo action, 66-67, 107-108, 423 Extra-peninsular region, 374-375
Dynamo theory, 97 Extra-terrestrial, 324, 378
Extreme ultraviolet (EUV), 101, 155
Earth structure, 31, 177, 441
Earth’s Fabry-Perot interferometers, 451
atmosphere, 89, 90, 92, 107, 111, 277, Faraday’s law of induction, 286
387-388, 391, 425, 435, 439, 444 Faults, 81-82, 176-177, 181, 185, 200,
external field, 21, 142 206-207, 212, 215, 242, 249, 254-
internal field, 142 255, 259-260, 265, 267, 277, 282,
magnetic field, 16, 18, 19, 23-24, 66, 430, 433-434, 452, 454
Fe2+, 43-44, 57, 323, 374
77, 88, 187-188, 292, 295, 316,
Ferrimagnetic, 41-42, 48, 54-57, 62, 84,
385, 445
139, 323-325, 332, 352, 358, 366
interior, 24-26, 30, 34, 176, 177, 223,
Fe-Ti oxides, 43-45, 353
324, 423, 425, 427-428, 430, 449
Field aligned currents, 109, 148, 395
Earthquake
Fisher’s statistics, 72-73
activity, 142, 265-266, 273, 425, 434
Fisk, 100
intensity, 250
Flattening, 25, 180
of magnitude, 250, 271
Fluvio-lacustrine, 378
precursory, 175, 261, 264, 266, 268
Field line, 16-17, 19, 73, 89, 100-101,
prediction, 142, 266, 269-270, 274,
105-106, 109, 156, 159, 167, 395
378, 424, 433, 455
Flux density, 17-18, 23, 130, 286
Eastern ghats, 182, 185-187, 197-198,
Fluxgate magnetometer, 115, 117, 122-
217, 219, 221, 319, 431
123, 125, 127, 130, 133, 146, 148,
Eddy currents, 226, 440 201, 226, 404
Electrical conductivity, 24-25, 30-31, 34, Foraminifera, 313, 328, 359-360
92, 160, 222-223, 225-226, 230, 234- Forward model, 191, 194-195, 241
235, 239, 241, 261-262, 391, 413, Free-air gravity anomaly, 180, 182, 185,
422, 432, 452 430, 431
Electrical resistivity, 30, 174, 241, 264, Frequency dependent susceptibility
267-268, 272-273, 431, 454 (Ffd%), 61, 225, 228, 230, 359
Electrodynamics, 159, 164, 406, 451, 456 FTIR, 362
Electromagnetic (EM) induction, 30, 133,
198, 222-225, 242, 423, 432-433 Galvanometer, 12-13
Electron density, 90, 93, 155, 406-407 Gamma ray, 404
Environmental Geocentric axial dipole (GAD), 72-73,
change, 325-327, 356, 373, 378, 436 293, 304
magnetism, 131, 137, 323-324, 330, Geochronology, 301
344, 354, 356, 367, 457 Gauss, 9, 14, 17-18, 23, 76, 107, 117, 142,
pollution, 323 194, 281, 286, 316, 342
proxy, 334 Geochemistry, 321, 330, 372, 378
Eocene, 206, 313, 316, 319 Geodesy, 281-282
Eolian, 321, 334, 361-364 Geodynamics, 277, 281, 283, 431
480 Geomagnetism
Geodynamo, 67, 152, 451, 458 Halley’s map, 8

Geoelectric precursors, 268, 452 Harappan civilization, 362-363, 375
Geographic Harmonic analysis, 14, 161, 180, 426
latitude, 145, 304, 309, 379 Heat flow, 179, 197-198, 216, 223, 242,
north, 5, 7, 309 430-433, 454
pole, 16-17, 73, 309 Helmholtz coil, 119-120
Geoid, 180, 182 Hematite (D-Fe2O3), 27, 31, 41-45, 47-48,
Geological 52-54, 57-61, 65, 84, 298-299, 303,
history, 174, 301, 309, 336, 419 320, 324, 329, 332-333, 335, 337-
period, 305-306 338, 340-341, 343-344, 346-349,
time scale, 314 353, 356, 360, 362, 364, 370, 372,
Geomagnetic 374, 377, 383, 386
activity, 149, 156, 164, 167, 404, 411, High latitudes, 21, 109, 146, 149, 311,
414, 418, 426, 427, 458 421, 442
depth sounding (GDS), 126, 175, 223 Himalayas, 33, 72, 81, 180, 182-183, 186,
disturbances, 149, 388, 402, 451 189, 191, 197-198, 210, 227, 231,
indices, 427 241-242, 249, 256, 259, 261-262,
polarity time scale (GPTS), 313-315, 273, 282, 302, 328, 355, 366-367,
319, 321-322, 434 371, 375, 430-431, 456
storms, 107, 154, 167, 170, 172, 388, Holocene, 311, 324, 356, 358, 360, 367
399, 427, 439, 442-443, 451 Horizontal components, 125, 127-128,
Geomagnetism, 1, 6, 10, 14-15, 18, 58, 134, 227, 281, 287
109, 142-143, 321-322, 325, 424, Horizontal velocity, 284-285
427-429, 436-437, 446, 449-450 Host rock, 49, 301
Geopotential field methods, 177 Hydrocarbons, 174, 236, 423
Geospace, 148, 438, 446 Hydrothermal, 51, 127
Geothermal, 174, 233, 236, 283, 453-454 Hydroxides, 44, 57
Glacial movement, 282-283 Hypocentres, 243
Glaciation, 327, 358, 366, 376, 414, 458 Hypothetical event analysis, 229-230
Glacier, 285, 358, 366, 450 Hysteresis, 58-59, 62, 123, 136-137, 139,
Global climate, 366 331, 336-337, 343-349, 370, 384
Global electric circuit, 451
Global warming, 429, 437 Ice cores, 327, 391
Goethite (D-FeOOH), 41-42, 44, 52, 57- Igneous rocks, 30, 45, 48, 54, 57, 71, 338
58, 299, 324, 329, 332, 338, 341, IGRF, 8-10, 20, 146-147, 153, 166, 205,
347-349, 386 211, 213-214, 295, 426, 447
Gondwanaland, 77-78, 212, 217, 221, 431 Ilmenite, 31, 39, 45, 47, 51, 54, 84, 353
GPS, 3, 127, 129, 141, 175, 203, 277-285, Ilmenohematite, 44-45, 65, 349
404-405, 407-408, 427, 433, 442- IMF, 103, 111, 156, 168, 172-173, 392-
443, 450 393, 399, 400, 419
Grain size, 45, 48, 52, 59, 61-62, 64-66, Impedance, 128, 230, 239-241
131, 138, 299, 302, 321-322, 326, Inclination, 4-6, 8, 19, 72, 95, 116, 125,
331, 333-340, 344-349, 351-352 191, 193, 206, 293-294, 298, 304-
Granulite, 72, 177, 185, 197, 205-206, 307, 311-312, 319, 430
319, 431 Indian monsoon rainfall, 364
Gravity anomalies, 177-178, 180-184, Indian ocean, 81, 182, 186, 317, 366, 428,
199, 216, 220, 431 444
Bouguer, 186-187, 194 Indian plate, 74, 80-81, 89, 234-236, 245,
free-air, 180, 182, 185, 430-431 249-250, 254, 261, 266, 285, 428,
Gravity waves, 404, 414, 416-418 453, 456
Greigite (Fe3S4), 41-42, 47, 55-56, 324, Induced magnetization, 132, 194, 202,
332, 346-347, 349, 351 298, 334, 344-345, 347, 384, 428
Gutenberg, 35, 37, 251 Induction, 11, 13, 18, 30, 71, 110, 115,
Gyromagnetic ratio, 121 123-125, 128, 130, 133, 140, 161,
Index 481
163, 198, 222-226, 228-231, 238, Limonite, 27, 48, 52, 57

241-242, 286, 423, 430, 432-433, 452 Liquefaction, 274-276
Inner core, 25, 27, 29, 36 Lithosphere, 33-34, 43, 67, 177-178, 180,
Intermontane, 319, 456 188-189, 196, 199, 232-234, 237,
Intrusion, 210, 261-262, 301, 316-317, 258, 317, 433, 452, 454
430, 434 Lithospheric, 33, 74, 79, 83, 175, 179,
Inversion technique, 195, 452 196, 246, 261, 308, 452-453, 455
IOL, 182,184, 187, 197-198 Little ice age, 375, 439
Ionization, 91-92, 149, 154-155, 166, 387 Lodestone, 1-2, 5, 17, 115
Ionosonde, 93, 264, 394, 403-405, 451 Loess, 355, 371-373, 375-376
Ionosphere, 67, 92-93, 107-111, 145, 148- Lonar crater, 435-436
149, 150, 154-156, 159-161, 164, Long wavelength anomalies, 181, 184
166-167, 173, 188-189, 223-224, Long wavelength component, 179, 184,
274, 279, 387-388, 390, 394, 396, 186-187, 220
398, 404-408, 412, 419-421, 423, Lothal, 362-363
425-427, 430, 442, 445, 450-452, 455 Low latitudes, 114, 149, 162, 311, 353,
Ionosphere-magnetosphere coupling, 396 398, 402, 412
Ionospheric current, 107-108, 145, 159, Lower crust, 33, 177-178, 196-197, 237,
161, 169, 170, 188, 210, 223, 415 243, 261, 431
Ionospheric layers, 93 Lower mantle, 29-30, 34, 182, 223, 433
IRM, 66, 132-134, 137-138, 298-300, 322, Lowrie-Fuller test, 331
337-347, 349, 374, 385 LTO, 48, 353, 370, 376
IRM acquisition, 339-343, 346, 349
Island arcs, 33 Maghemite (J-Fe2O3), 41, 44-45, 47-48,
Isostasy, 32, 430 50, 52, 57-58, 84, 299, 323-324, 329,
Isotope, 100, 321, 327-328, 330, 378, 391 332, 353, 372, 446
Magma, 32, 43, 50, 71, 75-77, 296
Jabalpur earthquake, 258
Magmatic rock, 55, 316-318
Jacobsite, 45, 84
Magnetic
Jerk, 151, 153, 433
anomalies, 45, 57, 71, 177-179, 188,
Josephson effect, 126
190-191, 195, 200-201, 207, 210,
Jurassic, 212, 305-307
215-216, 221, 223, 261-262, 313,
Kappabridge, 137-140, 384 422, 428-429, 431, 452-453
Karewa lake deposits, 319, 321, 355 banding, 70, 75-76
Kelvin–Helmholtz, 396 crust, 197, 199, 207, 430, 433
Kennelly–Heaviside, 93 equator, 15, 17, 109, 161, 388, 407
KG basin, 219, 221 flux, 17, 18, 23, 130, 134
Koyna, 245, 249, 253, 256-257, 263-264, mineralogy, 44, 58, 131, 138, 178, 326,
283, 290, 434 335, 342, 349, 351-354, 356, 365
Kp index, 161, 167, 427 moment, 18, 24, 37, 40-42, 45, 52, 62,
Kurduvadi rift, 245, 255 75, 121-122, 131-133, 135, 151-
Kutch earthquake, 253, 256, 27 152, 196, 304, 313, 330-331
north, 5-7, 309, 435
Lake sediments, 296, 310, 323-325, 328, observatory (MO), 16, 20, 21, 124,
361, 368, 370, 377-378, 457-458 144-145, 169, 214, 292, 405, 412,
Landslides, 358, 366 425, 426, 449
Larmor precession frequency, 121 proxy, 328-330, 364, 439
Laterite, 48, 366 relaxation, 331
Latur earthquake, 255, 257 storms, 21, 67, 95, 101, 107, 144, 148,
Laurasia, 77-78 154, 167, 168, 170-172, 203, 224,
Lava flow, 295-297, 298-299, 435 388, 399, 404, 426, 439, 451
Lepidocrocite, 39, 48, 57, 84, 324, 332 susceptibility, 18, 38, 42, 45, 47, 55,
LGM, 368, 370-371, 375-376, 457 62, 63, 137-140, 196, 198, 268,
482 Geomagnetism
291, 298, 320, 322, 333-336, 342, Measurements

356-366, 368-371, 373, 384, 422, direct, 292-294, 379, 390
429, 430, 433, 435, 457 indirect, 294
Magnetite (Fe3O4), 1, 27, 30-31, 41-45, Medieval, 98
47-79, 51-52, 54-55, 59-63, 65, 84, Mediterranean sea, 253-254
177-178, 296-299, 302, 320, 323- Melting point, 25, 40
324, 329, 331-333, 335-340, 343- Mercalli scale, 250
344, 346-347, 349, 351-353, 356, Mesosphere, 91-92, 107, 111, 404, 414-
364, 370, 372, 374-377, 386, 423, 417, 452
446, 457, 459 Mesozoic, 210, 212, 259, 302-303, 313-
Magnetization map, 195-197, 430, 453 314, 428
Magnetochronology, 309 Metamorphism, 48, 72, 206, 300-301
Magnetogram, 20-21, 119, 160-161, 167- Meteorite, 40, 54, 69, 300, 378
169, 214, 412, 420, 425, 438 MHD devices, 445
Magnetometer, 17, 73, 107, 115, 117- Microfossils, 313, 378
134,137, 139, 146, 149, 188, 190, Micropulsations, 87, 89, 203, 224, 406,
199-203, 210-211, 226- 231, 235, 412-413, 432
238, 264, 297, 299, 341-342, 384- Mid-Atlantic ridge, 70, 81
385, 394, 404, 419, 421, 449, 451 Mid-oceanic ridges, 76, 235, 313
Magnetopause, 105, 107, 154, 167, 173, Mineral magnetism, 321, 330, 359, 368,
387-388, 394-395 370-371, 377-378, 458
Magnetosheath, 106-107, 113, 396 Miocene, 212, 366
Magnetosphere, 92, 102, 104-107, 111, Moho, 29, 32-33, 37, 177, 183, 185-186
113, 148-150, 154, 167-170, 172- Mono Lake, 315
173, 189-190, 223-224, 388, 390- Monsoon, 302, 320-321, 328, 356, 358-
360, 363-364, 366, 372-376, 429,
394, 396, 398-399, 404-405, 412,
437, 450, 457
420-421, 423, 426, 430, 438, 450-452
Moon, 3, 21, 69, 105, 154-156, 188, 378
Magnetostratigraphy, 275, 291, 302, 311,
Moraine, 366, 368
313-314, 316, 319, 321, 377, 434,
Mountain belts, 33, 181
452, 456
MT sounding, 237-241, 244
Magnetotactic bacteria, 47, 55, 323, 352
Mudflat, 359-360, 437, 439, 457
Magnetotail, 154, 167-168, 392, 398
Multi-domain (MD) grains, 43, 61, 331,
Magnetotelluric (MT), 30, 127-128, 175-
335, 345-346, 348, 386
176, 223, 236, 239, 441
MAGSAT, 144, 179, 188-191, 194-196, 90°E ridge, 182, 186, 197, 235
198, 209-210, 425, 430-431 433, 453 Navigation, 3, 6, 115, 142, 201-203, 277-
Main field, 24, 71, 87, 89, 150, 163, 166, 278, 388, 402, 406, 423, 425-427
190-191, 193, 195, 200, 205-206, Neel temperature, 41-43, 61-62, 299
210, 214, 296, 423, 425 Neogene, 174
Mangroves, 355-356, 358, 457 Neolithic, 377
Mantle, 25-37, 72, 76, 79, 81, 83, 150, Neotectonic, 249, 285
152, 174-175, 177-178, 181-185, Neutral point, 16, 87
191, 210, 222-223, 230-231, 234- NMR, 115, 446
235, 237, 246, 421, 423, 427-429, Normal corrections, 214
431-433, 435, 453, 455 Normal polarity, 305, 315
Marine magnetic anomalies, 207, 221, 313 North magnetic pole, 19, 24, 72, 307
Marine sediments, 57, 212, 296, 316, 327, North pole, 3, 11, 16-17, 73, 75, 145, 149
338, 352, 376 Northern hemisphere, 19, 24, 74, 108-109,
Master curves, 310-311, 377, 458 156, 158, 305, 421, 433
Maunder, 98-99, 391-392, 439 NRM, 44, 71, 292, 299, 307, 385, 434
Maxwell current, 421-422, 450 NSL, 189, 209, 431, 437
Maxwell’s equations, 13, 223, 225 Nuclear resonance, 17, 120
Index 483
Oblate spheroid, 25 Paramagnetic, 38-42, 45, 47, 54, 59, 62,

Ocean bottom magnetometer (OBM), 128- 132, 298, 324, 330-332, 335-337,
130, 175, 235, 261, 432, 452, 454 348, 353, 361, 366, 384, 386
Oceanic crust, 33, 179, 188, 194, 197, Parkinson vector, 229
212, 235, 245, 314, 430, 432 Partial IRMs, 341
Oersted satellite, 165, 188 Partial melts, 223, 432
Ohm’s law, 87 Pedogenic, 324-325, 333-334, 356, 359
Olivine, 30, 34, 39 Peridotite, 71,177
Optical pumping magnetometers, 117 Permanent magnetism, 6, 67
Orbital, 154, 156, 166, 180, 296, 315, 322 Petrofabric, 336
Organic, 38, 55, 274, 327, 329, 359-360, pH, 323
376, 378 Phase shift, 152, 166
Orogenic upliftment, 302 Photosphere, 94, 101
Orogeny, 222, 319, 428 Pilotage, 3
Outer core, 24-25, 27, 29, 35-36, 66, 83, Plane wave, 222, 224
150, 292, 428 Plasma, 87, 93, 100, 101, 107, 110-113,
Oxidation, 43-45, 48, 51-52, 56, 299, 329, 154, 159, 167, 172, 237, 387-389,
342, 344, 353-354, 364, 370, 372, 391-399, 403-405, 407-408, 412,
374, 456 417, 425, 438, 450-452
Oxygen ions, 167, 396, 398 Plasma instability, 395
Oxygen isotope ratios, 327-328 Plasma sheet, 107, 113, 393-394, 396-397
Oxyhydroxides, 57, 84, 299, 321, 324 Plasmasphere, 393, 396
Ozone, 405, 439 Plate boundaries, 82, 236, 249
Plate tectonics, 72, 79, 179, 249, 291, 308,
P wave, 29-30, 33, 36-37, 254 423, 427
Pacific, 31, 76, 166, 256, 259, 311-312, Playas, 355, 360-61, 376
376, 433, 435-437 Pleistocene, 299, 320-321, 374
Palaeo Pliocene, 212, 315, 321
climate, 323, 327, 354, 368, 370-371, Plumes, 35, 83
373, 375, 458 POGO, 163, 179, 188-189
climatic, 309, 323, 328-329, 354, 356, Polar cap, 394-396, 425
362, 366, 368, 376, 437 Polar wandering, 24, 291-292, 309, 428
environment, 323, 329, 376, 437 Polarity
geographic, 309, 362 changes, 311, 313
intensity, 150, 291, 295, 299, 338, 452 reversals, 70, 75, 292, 296, 309-311,
monsoonal, 376 313-314, 428
pole, 73-74, 306, 318 time scale, 313, 316, 321
Palaeocene age, 313 Polarization, 98, 159-160, 228-230, 240,
Palaeolithic, 362, 364, 377 286, 408
Palaeomagnetic Pole position, 74-75, 291, 304, 306-308,
applications, 322, 357 316-317, 319, 379-380
directions, 296, 319, 435 Pollution, 291, 323, 325, 377, 404, 421,
pole, 304, 306, 309, 317, 379-380 437, 456-457
Palaeomagnetism, 58, 62, 71, 131-132, Post-seismic, 282
137, 145, 291, 294, 296-298, 301, Power grid, 402, 439, 451
309, 334, 377, 434, 455, 456 PPM, 115, 124, 127
Palaeontological, 308, 313, 314, 322 Precambrian, 33, 43, 197, 236, 242, 245,
Palaeosecular, 299 248, 302-303, 314, 432
Palaeoseismology, 274, 455 Precipitation, 52, 87, 92, 326, 329, 358,
Palaeosols, 355, 372-373 362, 366, 374, 377, 421, 436
Palk Strait, 153, 198-199, 233, 433 Primary magnetization, 301
Pan-African thermal event, 319 Principal component analysis, 165, 387
Pangaea, 77-78 Proglacial lakes, 328
484 Geomagnetism
Proterozoic, 176, 212, 236, 314, 319 Ridge regression, 195-196

Provenance, 352, 355, 358, 363, 366, 368, Rift basin, 212, 316-317
437, 456 Ring current, 87, 107, 113, 150, 167-169,
Proxies, 326-328, 330, 373, 456 171-173, 392, 393, 396, 402
PRR, 403, 414, 416 RIS, 253, 256-257
Pseudo-gravity, 215, 220-221 Rock magnetic, 43, 45, 55, 131, 291-292,
Pseudo-single domain (PSD), 43, 61-64, 302, 320-321, 330-331, 341, 348,
340, 342-343, 346, 355-357 352-355, 437
Pure hematite, 370 Rockets, 87, 91, 105, 112, 121, 391, 450
Pyrite (FeS2), 27, 46, 48, 54-56, 377 Rupture, 82, 249-250, 255, 257, 267
Pyroxenes, 39
Pyrrhotite, 27, 41-42, 55-57, 84, 324, 338, S wave, 29-30, 33, 36-37, 249, 254, 392
349, 353, 377 Salinity, 326, 360-361
San Andreas fault, 82, 265, 271
Quadrupole, 67, 69, 150, 420, 450 Satellite anomaly, 210, 430
Qualitative interpretation, 182, 209 Satellite gravity anomaly, 180-182
Quantitative interpretation, 215 Satellite laser ranging (SLR), 282
Quantum, 115, 126, 327 Satellite payloads, 399
Quaternary, 291, 316, 363, 377 Saturation magnetization, 42, 48, 52-53,
Quiet day, 21, 108, 153, 155, 157, 161, 59, 84, 345, 348, 370, 384
166, 412 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 355
Schirmacher glacier, 285
Radiation belt, 104-105, 388, 394
Schmidt, 115, 117, 126, 314-315
Radio communication, 180, 406, 420, 425,
Schwabe, 95
438-439, 442
Scintillation, 89, 110-111, 402, 405-411,
Radio isotope, 391-392
425, 442-443, 451
Radio wave, 92-93, 110-111, 394, 407-
Seafloor, 32, 72, 76-77, 81, 130, 222, 235,
408, 443, 446, 454
287, 309, 456
Radiocarbon, 294, 321, 377
Secondary components, 136, 299-300
Radiometric ages, 302, 313
Rainfall, 323, 329, 356, 361, 363-364, Secular variation (SV), 21, 150-151, 166,
370, 374-376, 414, 458 264, 269, 292-293, 295, 299, 306,
Rajmahal traps, 302-303, 382, 428 310, 377, 404-405, 420-421, 456
Rayleigh wave, 249 Sediment cores, 314, 322, 374-376, 378
Redox, 324, 326, 329, 353, 376 Sediment source, 323, 325-326, 339, 351
Reduction to pole, 215 Sedimentary
Reference basins, 127, 179, 181, 199, 212-213,
curves, 309 229, 236, 354, 432
point, 305-306 formations, 274, 316
system, 132, 304 rocks, 30, 43, 48, 54, 71-72, 200, 296,
Regional climate, 373 300, 303, 457
Relaxation time, 50, 61-65 sequences, 275, 323, 377, 453
Remagnetization, 299, 301, 316-317, 319 Sedimentation, 212, 274, 297, 319-321,
Remanence coercivity, 59, 344 323, 326, 328, 356, 361, 457-458
Repeat survey, 203, 258, 264, 282, 455 Seismic
Residual Bouguer gravity, 186-187 activity, 146, 249, 254-257, 259, 263,
Residual free-air, 184-185 266, 268, 455
Resistivity method, 239 gap, 259-260
Reunion hotspot, 233 hazards, 257, 259
Reversals, 67, 70, 72-73, 75, 77, 83, 85, tomography, 35, 175, 435
128, 142, 151, 292, 296, 298-299, waves, 33, 36, 188, 249-250, 258, 428
309-311, 313-316, 424, 434, 450, 458 Seismicity, 231-232, 246, 249, 253-256,
Richter scale, 245, 250-252 259, 261-262, 432
Index 485
Seismology, 25, 31, 142, 225, 274, 405, S-ratios, 342, 344, 348-349, 374-375
424, 428-429, 455 SSD grains, 60-62, 66, 344-346, 386
Seismotectonic, 79, 82, 175, 254, 256, Stack plots, 228
281, 284, 433, 449, 454 Stacked S-ratio, 375
Self potential, 271, 273 Strain, 82, 179, 200, 249-250, 261, 265,
Self-reversal, 75 267-268, 281-285, 455-456
Serpentinite, 297 Stratosphere, 90-91, 107, 111, 414, 450
Shaded relief, 219, 285 Stress, 82, 243, 249-251, 254, 257, 261,
Shadow zone, 36 264, 268, 273, 281, 283, 285, 342,
Shear wave, 428 355, 429, 434, 436, 453-455
Shock remanent magnetization (SRM), Strike-slip, 82, 267
300 Subduction zone, 79, 81, 222, 235
Siderite, 27, 52, 56 Substorms, 67, 114, 168, 170, 224, 393,
Silicate, 31, 35, 39, 362 398, 403-404, 413, 432, 451
Singhbhum, 185, 197, 231-233, 253, 430 Sudden storm commencement (SSC), 107
Siwalik, 74, 242, 247 Sulphides, 30, 41, 43, 54-56, 84, 324
Skin depth, 223, 225, 227, 230, 237 Sunspot, 21, 23, 94-100, 104, 107, 154,
Solid solution, 45, 50, 52, 54, 321, 353 156, 171, 273-274, 391, 408-409,
Solar 411, 421, 439
activity, 98-101, 150, 154, 158, 162, Superconductivity, 134, 238
172, 391, 399, 405-406, 409-411, Superchron, 313-314
432, 438-439, 441, 444, 458 Superparamagnetic, 42, 62-63, 385
corona, 451 Surface waves, 250-251
eruptions, 402, 451 Suture, 176, 236, 247, 452
events, 451 SW monsoon, 320, 358, 366, 372-373
flare, 95, 101, 103, 154, 156, 168-169, Syntaxial, 247, 456
390, 393, 399, 405, 439, 442 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 281-282
magnetic activity, 67, 391
quiet-day variations, 157 TEC, 405, 407, 455
terrestrial effect, 148 Tectonics, 146, 177, 212, 243, 248, 281,
wind, 67, 87-88, 100, 108, 113, 150, 292, 428, 432, 453-454, 456
167-168, 170, 172-173, 224, 387 Tectonic plates, 34, 277
Soar-terrestrial, 148, 421, 425, 438 Tectonic activity, 33, 81, 185, 249, 262
Solid solution, 321, 345, 353-354 Tectonomagnetic, 258, 272
Solitary pulses, 396 Telemetering, 91
Southern hemisphere, 3, 15, 74, 109, 143, Telluric current, 223-224, 237, 241, 264
156, 165, 167, 305-306, 380, 421 TEM, 302
SP grains, 62, 334-335, 344-346, 386 Temporal variation, 126, 149-150, 200,
Space environment, 154, 168-169, 398, 210, 223, 269, 407, 415, 417
413, 421, 427, 439, 449-451 Tensor, 239-241, 254, 287, 454
Space weather, 111-112, 144, 149, 169, Tephra, 45, 312
388, 398-399, 402-404, 406, 424, Ternary diagram, 43-44, 353-354
427, 438-439, 441-444, 450 Terra rossae, 355, 363-364
Spacecraft, 169, 180, 390, 394, 396, 400, Terrestrial magnetism, 145, 297, 428
402, 407, 412, 439, 441, 443-444 Tertiary, 299, 302-303, 305-307, 316, 319
Spherical harmonic, 154, 180, 190, 293 Tethys sea, 81
Spinel, 41, 45, 48, 50 Thellier, 295, 299, 452
Spinner magnetometer, 73, 132-134, 137, Thermal
299, 385 conductivity, 429
Spontaneous magnetization, 39-41, 52, 57 demagnetization, 135, 300, 370, 372
Sq current system, 108, 146, 149, 156, 158 transformation, 329
Sq focus, 109, 149, 449, 156 Thermodynamic, 394, 417
SQUID magnetometer, 131, 134, 385 Thermomagnetic, 42, 53, 353, 372, 377
486 Geomagnetism
Thermoremanent magnetization (TRM), Very high frequencies (VHF), 407

54, 57, 65, 294-295, 298-299, 305 Very low frequency (VLF), 114, 237, 242,
Thermosphere, 92, 111, 398, 404, 414-416 283, 393
Tibetan plateau, 33, 185-186, 197, 255 VGP, 317-318, 321, 380, 435
Tides, 21, 107, 111, 155-156, 165-166, Vibra-core, 357, 375
358, 404, 414, 416 Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM),
Ti-magnetite, 346 137, 139, 384
Time domain, 223, 225, 228 Vindhyans, 180, 209
Time series, 144, 226, 229, 234, 237-238, Viscous, 34, 69, 298, 333, 335, 345-346,
377, 459 385-386
Time scale, 7, 15, 67, 143, 148, 168, 170, VLBI, 278, 282
296, 304, 311, 313-316, 321-322, Volcanic
326-327, 359, 392, 395, 423, 426, activity, 71, 303, 313, 378, 427, 456
449, 456 arc, 81
Titanohematites, 54 ash, 321, 325, 335
Titanomaghemite, 45, 51, 65, 338, 353 ridge, 234
Titanomagnetite, 41-42, 44-45, 50-51, 64- rocks, 51-52, 54, 72, 294, 297, 311
65, 320, 337, 347, 349, 353, 360, VPPM, 119
370, 374 VRM, 298
Topography, 32, 177, 180, 183, 210, 285
Torsion balance, 10, 116-117 Wagad fault, 284
Transfer functions, 226, 228-230, 287 Wasp-waisted loops, 346
Transform fault, 82, 185 Wavelength, 62, 93, 96, 98, 101, 110, 177-
Trans-Himalayan conductor (THC), 198, 179, 181-182, 184-188, 203, 206,
231, 233, 242, 247, 262, 433 208, 215, 220, 227, 396, 404, 407,
Tropopause, 91, 387 412, 416-417, 425, 430-431
Troposphere, 90-91, 107, 111, 279, 414, Weathering, 43, 46, 52, 57, 299, 324, 326,
421, 450, 452 329, 335, 352-353, 356, 363-364
Tsunami, 267, 277, 454 Weber, 14, 17-18, 23, 117
Wegener, 69-70, 74, 77-78
Ultrabasic, 44, 71, 198, 431 Western ghats, 180
Ultrafine, 329, 334-335, 337, 372 Westward drift, 420
Ultraviolet (UV), 89, 101, 155, 387 Whistler, 110, 114, 391-392, 393, 395, 404
Ulvöspinel, 45, 51-52, 54, 84 Winter monsoon, 366
Unblocking temperatures, 57, 372 World Data Center (WDC), 146, 172, 214
Universe, 1, 9, 100, 112, 378, 399, 459
Upper atmosphere, 67, 91, 93, 101, 146, X (geomagnetic north component), 19-20
148, 155, 161, 168, 223, 387-388, X-ray diffraction (XRD), 355
396, 414, 416, 425, 438-439, 450 X-ray, 89, 92, 101, 154, 355, 387, 401,
Upper crust, 243 404-405, 442, 446
Upward continuation, 215, 217, 219
Upwelling, 394, 421 Y (geomagnetic east component), 19-20
Uttarkashi (earthquake), 232, 256, 290 Younger Dryas (YD), 367-368, 375
Van Allen radiation, 104-105, 388 Z (vertical intensity), 19-20

Variometer, 115, 117-120, 125-126, 143 Zeeman effect, 96, 126
Varves, 296, 299, 328, 367-371 Zenith, 3
Velocity field, 285 Zero anomaly, 187, 210
Velocity vectors, 281, 284-285 Zijderveld plot, 300
Vertical intensity, 21 Zonal winds, 415
Vertical movements, 283 Zurich sunspot number, 95
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Internal Magnetic Field

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November, 2010 Nathani Basavaiah

1. The Historical Development of (Geo)Magnetism 1

4. Technique of Magnetic Measurements 115

6.30 Palaeosiesmology: Quasi-Empirical Earthquake

Select Bibliography 460

GDS Geomagnetic Depth Sounding

UFK Ultra Fast Kelvin

1.1 GLOBAL SCENE

I. Problem of Latitude and Longitude

II. Magnetic Compass—Declination and Inclination

The discovery of magnetic compass is over 1000 years old. A magnetic

Declination varies from place to place. It ranges over several degrees

suddenly gained weight and buckled under

III. Advent of William Gilbert

To arrive at this assertion, Gilbert

IV. Ordeal of Edmund Halley and Atlantic Declination Map

minds to comprehend and decipher this geomagnetic phenomenon theoretically

V. Geomagnetic Field Intensity

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL SIMILARITY BETWEEN

I. Serendipity of Hans Christian Oersted

II. Andre Marie Ampere Solves the Puzzle

III. Genius of Michael Faraday

Figure 1.8. Faraday made visible the magnetic lines of force.

IV. Faraday’s Experiment

VI. Contributions of Humboldt, Gauss and Weber

1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: NATIONAL SCENE

I. First Few Magnetic Observatories in India

which 50 magnetic stations sprang up generating copious D data facilitating

II. Colaba-Alibag Observatory

in and around Colaba made it imperative to either shift the observatory or to

1.4 GEOMAGNETIC FIELD ELEMENTS AND THEIR

II. Units of Measurement

Parameter MKS (SI) CGS (emu) CGS to SI

III. Geomagnetic Elements and Earth’s Magnetic Field

A freely-suspended magnet at a typical mid-latitude location in the northern

Thus, to completely define the geomagnetic field vector, any three

IV. What is a Magnetic Observatory Setup?

V. Earth’s External Field

time (Chapter 6). There are 15 permanent observatories currently in operation,

2.1 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH AND PHYSICAL

III. Density and Gravity

(m) contained in the sphere of radius (r) and it is expressed as g = G×m/r2 (G is

IV. Elastic Wave Velocities

Figure 2.5. The dilatation and compression in the propagation of