entropy

Review
The Scientific Contribution of the Kaniadakis Entropy to
Nuclear Reactor Physics: A Brief Review
Aquilino Senra Martinez and Willian Vieira de Abreu *

Instituto Alberto Luiz Coimbra de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Engenharia (COPPE/UFRJ), Programa de

Engenharia Nuclear (PEN), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-914, Brazil
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-21992455819

Abstract: In nuclear reactors, tracking the loss and production of neutrons is crucial for the safe
operation of such devices. In this regard, the microscopic cross section with the Doppler broadening
function is a way to represent the thermal agitation movement in a reactor core. This function usually
considers the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics for the velocity distribution. However, this distribution
cannot be applied on every occasion, i.e., in conditions outside the thermal equilibrium. In order to
overcome this potential limitation, Kaniadakis entropy has been used over the last seven years to
generate generalised nuclear data. This short review article summarises what has been conducted so
far and what has to be conducted yet.

Keywords: Kaniadakis entropy; Doppler broadening function; nuclear reactor physics

1. Introduction
In 2001, Giorgio Kaniadakis presented [1] a new one-parameter deformation for the
exponential function, which describes power-law asymptotic behaviour. He did this in
order to obtain a novel distribution that generalises the Maxwell–Boltzmann (MB) one.
This new deformed exponential is provided by:
Citation: Martinez, A.S.; de Abreu,
p 1/κ
W.V. The Scientific Contribution of
expκ ( x ) ≡ 1 + κ 2 x2 + κx , (1)
the Kaniadakis Entropy to Nuclear
Reactor Physics: A Brief Review.
where the κ parameter represents the level of deformation concerning the standard expo-
Entropy 2023, 25, 478. https://
doi.org/10.3390/e25030478
nential. Hence, when κ → 0 , the deformed exponential reduces to exp( x ).
The expκ ( x ), function obeys the following condition:
Academic Editors: Dionissios
T. Hristopulos, Sergio Luiz E. F. da expκ ( x ) expκ (− x ) = 1. (2)
Silva and Antonio M. Scarfone
By considering the deformed exponential function, one can obtain a new statistical dis-
Received: 15 December 2022
tribution, starting from a particle system in the velocity space and postulating a generalised
Revised: 12 January 2023
density of entropy, given by [1,2]:
Accepted: 1 March 2023
Published: 9 March 2023 Z
σκ ( f ) = − d f ln{κ } (α f ). (3)

With that, after some calculations, one can arrive at the following distribution func-
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. tion [1–3]:
MV 2
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
 
This article is an open access article f κ (V, T ) = A(κ ) expκ − , (4)
2kB T
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Entropy 2023, 25, 478. https://doi.org/10.3390/e25030478 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2023, 25, 478 2 of 16

where in nuclear reactor physics terms, M is the nucleus mass, V is the velocity of the
target nucleus, kB the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature of the medium, and A(κ ) is
defined as [2,3]:  
3 | κ | Γ 2|κ | + 4
1 3
|κ | M n/2
   
A (κ ) = 1+   (5)
πkB T 2 Γ 2|1κ | − 43

Two significant advantages of using deformed statistics, such as those of Kaniadakis

or Tsallis [4], are the capacity to describe systems with long-term time correlations [5] and
the capacity to describe physical phenomena outside thermal equilibrium [3].
Given this considerable versatility, one can find several scientific papers that have
applied the Kaniadakis-type deformed statistics. To illustrate this usefulness, one can
cite works in astrophysics [6], cosmology [7], DNA analysis [8], quark–gluon plasma [9],
game theory [10], error theory [11], information theory [12], random matrices [13], fractal
systems [14], dusty-type plasmas [15], gravitational physics [16,17], epidemiology [18],
Jeans instability of self-gravitating systems [19], and nuclear reactor physics [3,20–23].
In the present work, we will review the seven years of application of Kaniadakis
statistics in the nuclear reactor physics area, presenting the theories developed until now
and reflecting on their future prospects.

2. Microscopic Cross Sections and the Doppler Broadening Function

In nuclear reactors, the power generation is guided by neutrons being absorbed by
unstable nuclides (uranium, for instance), which, in turn, split into fast-moving lighter
nuclides. This fission process generates energy plus additional neutrons, which, again, split
other nuclides, starting the nuclear chain reaction.
To understand the neutron–nucleus reaction, it is necessary to present the concept of
microscopic cross sections, which are characterized by the probability that a certain reaction
will occur and is represented by σ.
Specifically, from a nuclear reactor physics point of view, one can think in cross sections
in the diversity of nuclear reactions, which occur inside a nuclear reactor. These reactions
are usually divided in two types. The first one is scattering, σs , which has the subdivisions
of inelastic scattering, σin , and elastic scattering, σe . The second division is the absorption
types, σa , such as radiative capture, σγ , (n, α) reactions, σ(n,α) , and, of course, fission, σ f .
Considering all the possible reactions, one can define a conception of a total microscopic
cross section, σt , which is, consequently, the sum of all of types and summarizes the
probability that any type of neutron–nuclear reaction will occur:

σt = σs + σa = σe + σin + σ f + σγ + σ(n,α) + . . . (6)

The nuclear cross sections will vary strongly according to the incident neutron energy
and weakly from the incident beam angle. For this reason, the beam angle is usually
ignored in nuclear reactor applications.
Of all these types of nuclear cross sections, the radiative capture, σγ , is significantly
relevant for nuclear reactor analysis since this is an important factor for removing neutrons
from the chain reactions. This process occurs when the incident neutron is absorbed by the
nucleus, forming a compound one. After this absorption, this new compound nucleus will
decay by the emission of high-energy gamma radiation.
The process of compound nucleus formation occurs only at those energies at which the
centre of mass (CM) incident neutron energy plus the neutron binding energy matches the
exact energy level of the compound nucleus. Due to this, by adding the Heisenberg’s un-
certainty principle considerations, one can obtain a resonance behaviour for the functional
dependence of the capture cross sections on the neutron kinetic energy.
In nuclear reactors, neutrons are generated in a highly energetic state in thermal
nuclear reactors, far from the ideal energy range to fission U235 nuclei. Consequently, it is
necessary to decrease the neutron energies. This process—called neutron slowing down—is
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 3 of 16

conducted by multiple collisions (scattering) in moderators, such as water, graphite, or

heavy water. Nevertheless, these scattering processes can lead to absorption, generating
undesirable neutron losses.
These absorptions occur in an energy range called the resonance region and are
represented by the neutron cross sections. These cross sections, in turn, depend on the
relative speed between the neutron and the nuclei. Considering that the nuclei are in
thermal motion, the relative velocity can be different (greater or less) than the neutron
speed. That fact causes a Doppler effect in the existent neutron cross sections in the
resonance region [24].
A way to represent this Doppler effect is by utilising the nuclear cross-section through
the single-level Breit–Wigner (SLBW) resonance cross section formula. Although there are
more modern methodologies, the SLBW method is easier to implement. Besides, it can
present analytical functions for reactor physics calculations and, consequently, produce
faster processing times [3,25].
One of the cross-section expression components is the Doppler broadening function,
which considers a medium in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T. Additionally, the
different velocities of the target nuclei are described by the Maxwell–Boltzmann (MB)
distribution [26]. The averaged capture resonance cross section formula using the Breit–
Wigner methodology represents the thermal nuclei movement and is expressed by [24]:
1/2
Γγ

E0
σγ = σ0 ψ( x, ξ ). (7)
Γ E

where:
Γγ /Γ ≡ the probability that, once formed, the compound nucleus decays to the ground
state of the original nucleus by gamma emission;

Γ
ξ≡  1 ; (8)
4E0 kB T 2
A

2
x≡ ( E − E0 ); (9)
Γ
A is the mass number, kB is the Boltzmann constant, σ0 is the value of the total cross
section, Γγ is radiative line width, Γ is total width of the resonance as measured in the
laboratory coordinates, E0 is the resonant energy, E is the energy of the incident neutron,
and ψ( x, ξ ) is the so-called Doppler broadening function.
The Doppler broadening function, after the Bethe and Placzek [27] approximation, can
be represented by:
+∞ " #
dy − ξ 2 ( x − y )2
Z
ξ
ψ(ξ, x ) ≡ √ exp (10)
2 π 1 + y2 4
−∞

where:
2
y≡ ( E − E0 ) (11)
Γ CM
and ECM is the centre-of-mass energy.
Its formulation usually takes into consideration the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.
By doing a formal analysis, it is possible to note that ψ(ξ, x ) is affected by the temperature,
i.e., the higher the temperature, the broader the resonance curve, with a peak attenuation,
resulting in a higher probability of loss of neutrons by absorption. This effect is represented
in Figure 1:
Entropy2023,
Entropy 25,478
2023,25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of 17
of 16

Figure 1.1.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperature rise
rise causes
causes the the Doppler
Doppler broadening
broadening effecteffect in a resonance
in a resonance curve
curve [28]. [28].
Source:
Source: de Abreu (2020,
de Abreu (2020, p. 14). p. 14).

As shown
As shown in in Figure
Figure 1, 1, there
there isis an
an enlargement
enlargement in in the
the energy
energy range—illustrated
range—illustrated by by the
the
variable—causedbybythe
x𝑥𝑥 variable—caused the temperature
temperature riserise
(T1(T1 to T2),
to T2), whichwhich affects
affects the curve’s
the curve’s width. width.
This
This leads
leads to thetoprobability
the probability
increaseincrease in absorption.
in absorption.
The Doppler broadening function is is
The Doppler broadening function also
also known
known as the
as the firstfirst Voigt
Voigt function.
function. It repre-
It represents
sents
an anfunction,
even even function, i.e., symmetry
i.e., it has it has symmetry with respect
with respect to the to the energy
energy variable,
variable, x. x.
The Doppler
The Doppler broadening
broadeningphenomenon
phenomenonis is of of
crucial importance
crucial importance for the
for control of ther-
the control of
mal nuclear
thermal reactors.
nuclear ThisThis
reactors. relevance
relevancecan can
be observed
be observedif one analyzes
if one analyzesthe the
expressions
expressions for
thethe
for average cross
average sections
cross sectionsof resonance
of resonance capture, Equation
capture, Equation(7),(7),
andand
scattering, given
scattering, givenby:by:

ΓnΓ𝑛𝑛 RR 22 (12)
σS 𝜎𝜎�=
𝑆𝑆 =
σ0𝜎𝜎0 Γψ(𝜓𝜓(𝜉𝜉,
ξ, x )𝑥𝑥)
++ σ0𝜎𝜎0 𝜆𝜆χ(𝜒𝜒(𝜉𝜉,
ξ, x )𝑥𝑥)
++4πR
4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 (12)
Γ λ0 0
where:
where:
Γ ⁄Γ ≡ the probability that, once formed, the compound nucleus decays to the
Γnn /Γ ≡ the probability that, once formed, the compound nucleus decays to the ground
ground state of the original nucleus by neutron emission;
state of the original nucleus by neutron emission;
χ𝜒𝜒(𝜉𝜉,
(ξ, 2x𝑥𝑥)) ≡ interference term;
≡ interference term;
4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 ≡ potential scattering
4πR2 ≡ potential scattering term. term.
Another way
Another way of
of realizing
realizing the
the importance
importanceofofthe theDoppler
Dopplerbroadening
broadeningphenomenon
phenomenon is
through the Doppler temperature coefficient. When the fuel
is through the Doppler temperature coefficient. When the fuel temperature of a thermaltemperature of a thermal re-
actor isisincreased,
reactor increased,there
thereisisaagrowth
growthininthe theenergy
energyrangerange ofof the
the nuclear
nuclear resonances.
resonances. Hence,
Hence,
there is a decrease in the probability of resonance escape (𝑝𝑝)
there is a decrease in the probability of resonance escape ( p), i.e., a reduction , i.e., a reduction in the
infrac-
the
tion of fission
fraction of fission neutrons
neutronsmoderated
moderatedto the thermal
to the range
thermal without
range without suffering resonant
suffering ab-
resonant
sorption. As the resonance escape probability decreases, the multiplication factor,
 
absorption. As the resonance escape probability decreases, the multiplication factor, k e f f ,
(𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
and,
), and, consequently, the reactivity, (𝜌𝜌), will also be reduced. This relationship is
consequently, the reactivity, (ρ), will also be reduced. This relationship is represented
represented in the fuelcoefficient—also
in the fuel temperature temperature coefficient—also
known as the Dopplerknown as the Doppler
temperature temperature
coefficient [29]:
coefficient [29]:
∂ρ 1 ∂p
αTf = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕= 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕, (13)
𝛼𝛼 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ∂T
= f =p ∂T f , (13)
𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓
where T f is the fuel temperature.
where 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 is the fuel temperature.

2.1. Literature Review of Doppler Broadening Functions Approximations Using the

Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 5 of 16

2.1. Literature Review of Doppler Broadening Functions Approximations Using the

Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution
Over the years, several methods have been developed to obtain approximations of the
Doppler broadening function using standard Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. Therefore, it is
relevant to make a brief review of the literature regarding the main methods used, as these
methods should also be natural candidates in obtaining generalized solutions.
To conduct this review, we focused on works that considered the approaches proposed
by Bethe and Placzek in the year 1936 and which were crucial for the development of the
deformed solution for ψκ (ξ, x ).

2.1.1. Beynon and Grant Methods (1963)

In 1963, T. D. Beynon and I. S. Grant published, in the journal Nuclear Science and
Engineering, an article that proposed two different methods for calculating the Doppler
broadening function and for the interference term (ψ(ξ, x ) and χ(ξ, x )), calculated with the
aid of a “digital machine”.
The first of these proposed methods use Chebychev polynomial expansions, while the
second uses the Gauss–Hermite method. According to the authors, this second method
was developed as an alternative to the first due to the excessive memory space spent [30].
Considering that this justification no longer represents a concern for most researchers due
to the advancement of technology, the present work will only present the first method,
which is more widespread in the literature [3,22,23,25,28,31].
As previously mentioned, the first method proposed by Beynon and Grant, in their
1963 work, carried out the expansion of the exponential part of the integrands of the
Doppler broadening function in Chebyshev polynomials. Once this was conducted, the
terms were integrated one by one. Before making the expansion, the authors presented the
following definitions:
ξ
a= (14)
2
b = ξ ·x (15)
Thus, the proposed series are represented as follows:
n√ 2
o 1 2
ψ( a, b) = a π ·cos( ab)·[1 − E2 ( a)]·e a + J ( a, b) ·e− 4 b (16)

where:
n o n o
2 4 6
J ( a, b) = 1 1
2! ( ab ) − 1
4! ( ab )
1
6! ( ab) · · ·  +
+ 1 1
( ab)4 − 6!1 ( ab)6 · · ·
a n 2a3 4! o (17)
√ 12n+1 Γ 2n+1 · 1 2n+1
+···+ πa 2 [2(n+1)]! ( ab ) · · · +···

and
Za
2 2
E2 ( a) = √ e−y dy. (18)
π
0

The Γ(z) term represents the gamma function, which is one of the most common
special functions in discussions of physical problems. One of the possible ways to express
this function is [32]:
Z∞
Γ(z) ≡ e−t ez−1 dt, Re(z) > 0. (19)
0

Still, in their article, the authors of the work argued that the proposed approximation
works well for values where b < 6. For values where b ≥ 6, the authors suggested using
the asymptotic expansions method [33].
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 6 of 16

The following method consists of the Taylor series expansion of the term 1/ 1 + y2

of the Doppler broadening function around y = x, given by [34]:

1 1 2x −1 + 3x2
2
= 2
− 2
(y − x ) + 2
( y − x )2 · · · . (20)
(1 + y ) (1 + x ) (1 + x 2 ) 2
(1 + x )

By substituting the above-mentioned equation in the approximation proposed by Bethe

and Placzek and then performing the integration of all terms, the expansion is obtained:
( )
2 −1 + 3x2 12 1 − 10x2 + 5x4



1
Ψ(ξ, x ) = 1+ + ··· . (21)
(1 + x 2 ) ξ 2 (1 + x 2 )
2
ξ 4 (1 + x 2 )
4

For large values of x, Equation (21) tends to:

1
Ψ(ξ, x ) ≈ . (22)
(1 + x 2 )

Through Equation (21), it is possible to obtain results for the Doppler broadening
function considering temperatures close to zero Kelvin [34].
The consideration of alternating methods for different ranges of b (b < 6 and b ≥ 6 ) is
a strategy that was applied in later works [22,31].
The tables of values for the Doppler broadening function and for the interference term
generated by the work of Beynon and Grant were essential for the reactor physics field,
being present even in two of the main books in this field [24,29].

2.1.2. Campos and Martinez Method (1987)

In 1987, Campos and Martinez published, in the journal Annals of Nuclear Energy,
the article “The dependence of practical width on temperature”. This work, among other
topics, presented a new procedure for calculating the Doppler broadening function. To
do that, the authors used the definitions of Beynon and Grant for the first Voigt function,
ψ(ξ, x ), and the interference term, χ(ξ, x ), also known as second Voigt function.
For this, the authors differentiated both the integral definition of the Doppler broaden-
ing function and the interference term in relation to x, arriving at the following differential
equation [31]:

4 ∂2 ψ(ξ, x ) ∂ψ(ξ, x ) ξ 2 h 2 2 2
i
+ 4x + 2 + ξ x + ξ ψ(ξ, x ) = ξ 2 (23)
ξ2 ∂x2 ∂x 4

subject to the following initial conditions:

√   
ξ π ξ2 ξ
ψ(ξ, x )| x=0 = ψ0 = e 4 1 − erf (24)
2 2

∂ψ(ξ, x )
= 0. (25)
∂x x =0
To solve the proposed differential equation, Campos and Martinez (1987) used the
power series expansion method, presenting the following result:
∞
ψ(ξ, x ) = ∑ cn x2n , (26)
n =0

with the coefficients generated from the recurrence formulas:

c0 = ψ0 ; (27)
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 7 of 16

ξ2 h 2  2  i
c1 = ξ − ξ + 2 ψ0 ; (28)
8
" #
4n + ξ 2 + 2 cn + ξ 2 cn−1


ξ 2
c n +1 =− (29)
4 (n + 2)(n + 1)
Similarly to Beynon and Grant, Campos and Martinez also used the alternation of
methods for different ranges of b (b < 6 and b ≥ 6), using the same Taylor expansion
method, demonstrated by Equation (21) for values of b ≥ 6.
Additionally, in this 1987 work, an expression for the temperature-dependent practical
width was developed, which, in turn, was used later in developing the Campos–Martinez
model for resonance integrals for isolated ones [31,35].

2.1.3. The Palma, Martinez, and Silva Method (2006)

In 2006, Palma, Martinez, and Silva published, in the Journal of Nuclear Science and
Technology, the article “The derivation of the Doppler broadening function using Frobenius
method” [36].
In this work, the authors solved Equation (23) using a different methodology from the
one proposed by Campos and Martinez: utilizing the Frobenius method for the resolution
of the homogeneous part of the equation and the method of variation of parameters to
obtain the particular solution.
Taking this into account, the solution for the obtained Doppler broadening function was:
√  2   2  
ξ π − ξ 2 ( x 2 −1) ξ x ξ x
ψ(ξ, x ) = e 4 cos 1 + Reφ(ξ, x ) + tan Imφ(ξ, x ) (30)
2 2 2

where
iξx − ξ
 
φ(ξ, x ) = er f (31)
2
To measure the method’s accuracy, the authors compared the results of Equation (30)
with results obtained from Padé’s four-pole method [37,38], which is widely used in
calculating the function of Doppler broadening and for calculating resonance integrals.
According to Palma et al., approximations of this type are better than using the Taylor
series to describe functions with poles.
This comparison concluded that the proposed solution presented relative percentage
errors lower than the Padé method [36].

3. Kaniadakis Entropy in the Context of Nuclear Reactor Physics

In the context of the current thermal nuclear reactors scenario, it is appropriate to
apply the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics to treat the nuclei velocities distribution. How-
ever, considering the perspective of a new generation of nuclear reactors with different
characteristics, the MB approach will not be enough, especially if one considers describing
situations outside the thermal equilibrium [3].
Guedes et al. [3] proposed using the Kaniadakis statistics to obtain an expression for
the Doppler broadening function, which could be capable of contemplating situations other
than the regular nuclear reactors, for instance, in the context of thermal non-equilibrium.
To do this, the authors proposed a new integral expression, ψκ (ξ, x ), starting from the
Doppler broadening function without any approximations, Ψ(ξ, x ), given by [3]:
r +∞ Z v( x)+vr (y)
2k B T dy
Z
Ψ(ξ, x ) ≡ π ξ dVV f (V, T ), (32)
M 1 + y2 v( x )−vr (y)
− Γ2 EO
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 8 of 16

where v is the neutron velocity, vr the relative velocity between the neutron and the nucleus,
and f (V, T ) is the chosen nuclei velocities distribution. By substituting the Kaniadakis
statistics, f κ (V, T ), into the equation above, one has [3]:
r +∞
MV 2
Z v( x)+vr (y)  
2k B T dy
Z
Ψ(ξ, x ) ≡ π A (κ ) ξ dVV expκ − . (33)
M 1 + y2 v( x )−vr (y) 2kB T
− Γ2 EO

After some algebraic manipulation to perform the integration of the V variable,

Guedes et al. [3] presented a new function, called iexpκ , since:
Z
expκ ( x )dx = i expκ ( x ) + C, (34)

where √ !
1 + κ 2 x2 − κ 2 x
i expκ ( x ) ≡ expκ ( x ); (35)
1 − κ2

Noting that:
lim i expκ ( x ) = e x , (36)
κ →0

Equation (33) becomes:

+∞     
dy 1 1
Z
ξ 2 2
Ψ(ξ, x ) ≡ √ B(κ ) i exp − M ( v ( x ) − v r ( y )) − i exp − M ( v ( x ) + v r ( y )) . (37)
2 π 1 + y2 κ 2k B T κ 2k B T
− Γ2 EO

where:  
 Γ 1
+ 3
3|κ | 2|κ | 4
B(κ ) = (2|κ |)3/2 1 +  . (38)
2 Γ 1
− 3
2|κ | 4

Finally, by using the Bethe–Placzek [27] approximations, Guedes et al. provided the
integral solution for the Doppler broadening function using the Kaniadakis distribution:
+∞ " #
dy − ξ 2 ( x − y )2
Z
ξ
Ψκ (ξ, x ) ≈ ψκ (ξ, x ) = √ B(κ ) i expκ . (39)
2 π 1 + y2 4
−∞

Noting again that, when κ tends towards zero, one can obtain the integral solution for
the Doppler broadening function using the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.
The primary behaviour with the usage of the Kaniadakis statistical distribution is
the peak attenuation for the resonance curves as the value of κ rises, as one can see in the
Figures 2 and 3 below:
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 Entropy 2023, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW
9 of 16
9 of 17

Entropy 2023, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure 2. The comparison
Figure 2.between the ψbetween
The comparison x ) 𝜓𝜓
κ =0.3 ( ξ,the (blue) and ψ(ξ, x ) (green) curves [28]. It is possible
𝜅𝜅=0.3 (𝜉𝜉, 𝑥𝑥) (blue) and 𝜓𝜓(𝜉𝜉, 𝑥𝑥) (green) curves [28]. It is pos-
sible to see
to see the peak’s attenuation. the peak’s attenuation.

Figure 3. The comparison between

Figure 3. The the ψ
comparison thex )𝜓𝜓𝜅𝜅=0.5
κ =0.5 ( ξ,
between (blue) and
(𝜉𝜉, 𝑥𝑥) ψ(ξ,
(blue) x ) 𝜓𝜓(𝜉𝜉,
and (green) curves.
𝑥𝑥) (green) It isIt possible
curves. is possibleto
to see the peak’s attenuation.
see the peak’s attenuation.

An animation of this behaviour for different values of 𝜅𝜅 is available at the following

link: “https://youtu.be/wAeBAETbU1c (Accessed on 01 march 2023)”.

4. Analytical Solutions for the Doppler Broadening Function Using the Kaniadakis
Distribution
Guedes et al. [3] presented the results of the integral formulation for the Doppler
broadening function using the Kaniadakis distribution, Equation (39), by using a numer-
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 10 of 16

An animation of this behaviour for different values of κ is available at the following

link: “https://youtu.be/wAeBAETbU1c (Accessed on 1 March 2023)”.

4. Analytical Solutions for the Doppler Broadening Function Using the

Kaniadakis Distribution
Guedes et al. [3] presented the results of the integral formulation for the Doppler
broadening function using the Kaniadakis distribution, Equation (39), by using a numerical
calculation, which, in turn, can present very high processing times when inserted into
complex systems of calculations, such as nuclear reactor simulations.
In the already existing computer codes for nuclear core design, the Doppler broadening
process requires a relatively long computing time to calculate Equation (10). Therefore,
more time will be needed to calculate the deformed function, Equation (39). One should
keep in mind that the Doppler broadening function for neutron cross sections should be
calculated for each energy mesh point, isotope, and temperature.
In order to surpass this potential problem, de Abreu et al. proposed an analytical
solution for the integral expression. To do that, the authors started by obtaining a dif-
ferential equation for ψκ (ξ, x ) from the integral expression, using the same methodology
by Campos and Martinez for obtaining an analytical expression for ψ considering the
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.

"
2 #
∂2 ψκ (ξ, x ) ξ 2 x κ 2 − 1 + 1 ∂ψκ (ξ, x ) ξ 2 h  2  i ξ4  2 
− + −2 κ − 1 + ξ 2 x2 + ξ 2 ψκ (ξ, x ) = − κ − 1 B (κ ). (40)
∂x2 2 2
(κ − 1 ) ∂x 4 4

One relevant thing to mention is that when κ tends to zero, the differential equation
proposed by Abreu et al. [21,22] becomes the equation proposed by Campos and Martinez,
proving the validity of the solution.
Initially, to solve the deformed differential equation using the Kaniadakis distribution,
the authors used the same method by Palma, Martinez, and Gonçalves, i.e., the Frobenius
method, for the homogeneous part and the parameter variation method for the particular
solution. However, to eliminate some of the approximations and assumptions made, a new
paper was published later using the dependent variable method to solve the homogeneous
part of the equation.
The solution of the deformed differential equation for ψκ is divided in two based on
the above-mentioned works of Beynon and Grant [30] and Campos and Martinez [31]: one
for | x ·ξ | < 6 and other for | x ·ξ | ≥ 6. The first one can be represented by:

ψk (ξ, x ) = Λ( x, ξ ) D (ξ, x ) + Ω g (ξ, x ) ,

 
(41)

where
D (ξ, x ) ≡ [∆(ξ )·cos(Θ)], (42)
Ω g (ξ, x ) ≡ Π( x, ξ )·[iΩ1 (ξ, x ) + Ω2 (ξ, x )]; (43)
 2  √
ξ − ξ 2 x2 ξ πB(κ )
Λ(ξ, x ) = exp · ; (44)
4 4
p  2
ξ 4 − 2ξ 2 κ 2 −κ
Π(ξ, x ) = 2 2
· exp ; (45)
−ξ + 2κ 2
 
2 − 2er f 2ξ
∆(ξ ) = . (46)
1 − κ2
h i
Ω1 (ξ, x ) = sin(Θ)· er f ( P1 )κ 2 − er f ( P1 ) + er f ( P2 )κ 2 − er f ( P2 ) ; (47)
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 11 of 16

h i
Ω2 (ξ, x ) = cos(Θ)· 2er f ( P3 )κ 2 − 2er f ( P3 ) − er f ( P1 )κ 2 + er f ( P1 ) + er f ( P2 )κ 2 − er f ( P2 ) ; (48)
p
−iξ 2 x + ξ 4 − 2ξ 2 κ 2
P1 (ξ, x ) = ; (49)
2ξ
p
−iξ 2 x − ξ 4 − 2ξ 2 κ 2
P2 (ξ, x ) = ; (50)
2ξ
p
ξ 4 − 2ξ 2 κ 2
P3 (ξ, x ) = ; (51)
2ξ
x
q
Θ(ξ, x ) = ξ 4 − 2ξ 2 κ 2 ; (52)
2
The solution for the | x ·ξ | ≥ 6 domain is obtained by the conduction of asymptotic
expansions in the Taylor series. Thus, the expression for ψκ (ξ, x ) in this case is:
" #
1 − 3κ 2 ξ 2 − κ 2 ξ 2 x4 + 4 − 12x2
ψκ J| x ·ξ | ≥ 6K ∼
= B(κ )· + +... (53)
(1 − κ 2 )(1 + x2 ) 2ξ 2 (κ 2 − 1)(1 + x2 )
3

In a more recent paper [25], the authors also calculated the computational processing
times. They obtained an average value of 4.6 for the ratio (numerical/analytical), confirming
the predicted faster processing times for the analytical solution.
In parallel with the development of analytical solutions, da Silva et al. [39] proposed
a method to establish a relation of equivalence among the standard Doppler broadening
function, ψ(ξ, x ), and the deformed one, ψκ (ξ, x ).
The effective medium temperature model consists of determining the temperature,
Te f f , which will have the Doppler broadening function from the perspective of the Maxwell–
Boltzmann distribution reproducing the same value for the function using Kaniadakis
distribution in the actual temperature (T) of the medium, that is:
 
ψκ ( x, ξ ) ∼
= ψκ x, ξe (54)

where:
Γ
ξe ≡  1/2 (55)
4E0 k B Te f f /A

and
Γ
ξ≡ (56)
(4E0 k B T/A)1/2
Applying the polynomial regression method optimised by the genetic algorithm
technique, the values of ξe and, consequently, of the effective medium temperature, Te f f ,
were obtained.
Thus, the deformed Doppler broadening function, ψκ ( x, ξ ), according to the Kani-
adakis distribution, can be obtained directly via the original Doppler broadening function
by replacing the medium temperature, T, with the effective temperature of the medium, Te f f .
According to the authors, the model proved to be a much faster and simpler method
for calculating deformed Doppler broadening functions concerning the numerical ap-
proach [39].
In this ‘twenty years of Kaniadakis entropy’ issue, a paper was published [23], apply-
ing the analytical solution for ψk to calculate deformed nuclear cross sections in the nuclear
data processing code FRENDY, developed by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency.
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 12 of 16

One of the contributions of this work was to study the relevance of the so-called
Gaussian error function, er f , in the proposed analytical formulation for ψk . The erf function
is defined by: Z x
2 2
er f ( x ) = √ e−t dt. (57)
π 0
Due to its complexity, many programming code libraries use approximations to calcu-
late these functions. These approximations, in turn, result in errors. The authors then used
the Faddeeva Package [28] to minimise these, especially for the tails (far from the resonance
peaks) regions.

5. Kaniadakis’ Entropy Validation in the Nuclear Reactor Physics

Other areas that employed the Kaniadakis statistics can validate its results through
observational data (stellar clusters, for instance). For an example of this validation, one can
present the high-quality agreement between the theoretical curves for cosmic rays’ flux
using the Kaniadakis distribution and observational data. As one can see in reference [2], the
Kaniadakis statistics represented the observational data better than the standard Maxwell-
Boltzmann one.
However, in nuclear physics reactors, this is not possible. Thus, one needs to find ways
to validate the applicability of this generalised entropy in the nuclear engineering area.
From this perspective, it is crucial—from a validation point of view—to verify the
existence of a pertinency in applying the Kaniadakis method in the reactor physics area.
Hence, one of the first necessary steps is to generate deformed nuclear data and compare it
to the Maxwell–Boltzmann results.
Nevertheless, before this step, it was necessary to validate the analytical solution itself.
Hence, in a 2020 work, de Abreu [28] generated the first deformed data using the following
equations for the deformed radiative capture cross sections obtained through the Doppler
broadening function considering the Kaniadakis distribution:
1
Γγ
 
E0 2
σγκ = σ0 ψκ (ξ, x ) (58)
Γ E

To calculate these cross sections, the authors used the parameters — illustrated in
Table 1—of the 238 isotope of uranium in the 6.67 eV peak resonance:
Table 1. Resonance data for the 6.67 eV line.

E0 (eV) Γn (eV) Γγ (eV) σ0 (b) Γp (eV)

6.67 0.00152 0.026 2.16 × 105 1.26
Source: Duderstadt and Hamilton [24] (1976, p. 335).

Using the above-mentioned data and Equation (58), the authors generated the de-
formed analytical data by using the numerical and analytical expressions for ψκ (ξ, x ) to
compare them with each other, as shown in Figure 4.
The results show a robust agreement between both solutions, which gives conditions
to proceed in the validation steps.
However, even with the results in conformity with the predicted behaviour concerning
the numerical results, applying the Kaniadakis distribution in a proper nuclear data gener-
ator tool is still necessary for certification purposes. In this sense, one needs to insert the
analytical solution into nuclear data processing codes, preferably into ones recognised and
used by peers around the world, for instance, FRENDY [28,29], NJOY [40], PREPRO [41],
or NECP-Atlas [42]. The advantage of using these systems is that they can process official
evaluated nuclear data libraries, such as ENDF, CENDL, JEFF, or JENDL.
 𝑬𝑬𝟎𝟎 (𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆) 𝚪𝚪𝒏𝒏 (𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆) 𝚪𝚪𝛄𝛄 (𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆) 𝝈𝝈𝟎𝟎 (𝒃𝒃) 𝚪𝚪𝒑𝒑 (𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆)
6.67 0.00152 0.026 2.16 × 105 1.26
Source: Duderstadt and Hamilton [24] (1976, p. 335).

Entropy 2023, 25, 478 Using the above-mentioned data and Equation (58), the authors generated the de- 13 of 16
formed analytical data by using the numerical and analytical expressions for 𝜓𝜓𝜅𝜅 (𝜉𝜉, 𝑥𝑥) to
compare them with each other, as shown in Figure 4.

Entropy 2023, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Figure 4. A comparison between the analytical and numerical results for the radiative capture cross-
and 4.
Figure usedA by peers around
comparison the world,
between for instance,
the analytical and FRENDY
numerical[28,29],
resultsNJOY [40],
for the PREPROcapture
radiative
sections using the Kaniadakis distribution [28]. Source: de Abreu (2020, p. 90, our translation).
[41], or NECP-Atlas
cross-sections [42]. The advantage
using the Kaniadakis of using
distribution these systems
[28]. Source: de Abreu is (2020,
that they can
p. 90, ourprocess
translation).
official evaluated nuclear data libraries, such as ENDF, CENDL, JEFF, or
The results show a robust agreement between both solutions, which gives conditions JENDL.
Therefore,
Therefore, a apaper
paperininthis
thistwenty-year commemorative
twenty-year commemorative issue
issue waswas published,
published, generat-
gener-
to proceed in the validation steps.
ing,ating, forfirst
for the the first
time,time, deformed
deformed datadata using
using thethe Kaniadakis
Kaniadakis distributionfor
distribution fortwo
twoimportant
im-
However, even with the results in conformity with the predicted behaviour concern-
ingportant nuclides:results,
technetium 99 and
theplutonium
Kaniadakis238, ascan
onesee
canin
nuclides: technetium
the numerical
99 and plutonium
applying
238, as one
distribution
insee in figures
Figures
a proper 5 and
5 and
nuclear 6. To
6.data
To do that,
theydo that,
chose they
the chose
FRENDY the FRENDY
nuclear nuclear
data data processing
processing code code [28,29].
[28,29].
generator tool is still necessary for certification purposes. In this sense, one needs to insert
the analytical solution into nuclear data processing codes, preferably into ones recognised

Figure 5. A plot of the deformed radiative capture cross section for plutonium 238 considering 𝑘𝑘 =
Figure 5. Athe
0.1 and plot of eV
9.98 thepeak
deformed radiative
generated by the capture
FRENDYcross
datasection for plutonium
processing de Abreu etk = 0.1
238 considering
code [23]. Source:
andal.the
(2022,
9.98p.eV
10).
peak generated by the FRENDY data processing code [23]. Source: de Abreu et al.
(2022, p. 10).
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 14 of 16
Entropy 2023, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

Figure 6. A plot of the deformed radiative capture cross section for gadolinium 155 considering 𝑘𝑘 =
Figure 6. A plot of the deformed radiative capture cross section for gadolinium 155 consider-
0.1 and the 95.7 eV peak generated by the FRENDY data processing code [23]. Source: de Abreu et
= 0.1 p.and
ingal.k (2022, 12).the 95.7 eV peak generated by the FRENDY data processing code [23]. Source:
de Abreu et al. (2022, p. 12).
By analysing the data, the authors found compatibility between the expected peak
By analysing
attenuation the data,
behaviour of thethe authors
deformed found
curves compatibility
compared between the expected
to the Maxwell–Boltzmann data peak
attenuation behaviour of
for different resonance peaks.the deformed curves compared to the Maxwell–Boltzmann data
These resonance
for different results represent
peaks.a significant step in validating the Kaniadakis statistics in the
nuclear
Thesefission area.
results represent a significant step in validating the Kaniadakis statistics in the
nuclear fission area.
6. Next Steps and Perspectives of Kaniadakis Entropy in the Nuclear Reactor Physics
6. NextMuch
Stepswork
and has
Perspectives of Kaniadakis
been conducted Entropy
on nuclear reactor in thewith
physics Nuclear Reactor Physics
the Kaniadakis de-
formed
Muchstatistics.
work has However, to proceed with
been conducted this investigation,
on nuclear there is still
reactor physics with a question to
the Kaniadakis
answer: which value (or range) of 𝜅𝜅 fits with current and future nuclear reactors?
deformed statistics. However, to proceed with this investigation, there is still a question to
answer:Inwhich
this sense,
valuefuture works will
(or range) of κneed to proceed
fits with with
current thefuture
and work inside
nucleardatareactors?
generation
codes and use its results of deformed nuclear cross sections in other nuclear reactor sim-
In this sense, future works will need to proceed with the work inside data generation
ulations to find the closest values of the deformation factor, 𝜅𝜅, in order to fit the standard
codes and use its results of deformed nuclear cross sections in other nuclear reactor simu-
nuclear reactor behaviour.
lations Another
to find the closest values of the deformation factor, κ, in order to fit the standard
possible and relevant step is implementing the Kaniadakis methodology in
nuclear
modern reactor behaviour.
theoretical methods, such as the multi-level Breit–Wigner and Reich–Moore
Another
methods. possible
With and relevant step
this implementation, is implementing
it would be possible, forthe Kaniadakis
instance, methodology
to generate a de- in
formedtheoretical
modern nuclear cross section such
methods, for other nuclides,
as the such as
multi-level the isotopes 235
Breit–Wigner andand 238 of ura- meth-
Reich–Moore
nium.
ods. With this implementation, it would be possible, for instance, to generate a deformed
nuclear cross section for other nuclides, such as the isotopes 235 and 238 of uranium.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S.M., W.V.d.A.; methodology, A.S.M., W.V.d.A.; writ-
ing—original
Author draft preparation,
Contributions: W.V.d.A.; writing—review
Conceptualization, and editing,
A.S.M., W.V.d.A.; A.S.M., W.V.d.A.;
methodology, supervi-
A.S.M., W.V.d.A.;
sion, A.S.M.; project administration, W.V.d.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
writing—original draft preparation, W.V.d.A.; writing—review and editing, A.S.M., W.V.d.A.; super-
version of the manuscript.
vision, A.S.M.; project administration, W.V.d.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
Funding:
version This
of the research was funded by Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho (FAPERJ/Pós-doutorado Nota
manuscript.
10 e Cientistas do Nosso Estado), grants numbers E-26/204.444/2021 (registration number
2021.00898.8)
Funding: This and E-26/201.090/2022
research was fundedand
bybyFundação
the Conselho Nacional
Carlos de Desenvolvimento
Chagas Científico
Filho (FAPERJ/Pós-doutorado
e Tecnológico,
Nota grant do
10 e Cientistas number
NossoCNPq/304.580/2019-8.
Estado), grants numbers E-26/204.444/2021 (registration number
2021.00898.8) and E-26/201.090/2022 and by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico, grant number CNPq/304.580/2019-8.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Entropy 2023, 25, 478 15 of 16

Acknowledgments: The first author thanks CNPq for the Productivity Grant and FAPERJ for the
Scientist of Our State Grant. The second author thanks FAPERJ for his post-doctoral grant.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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