Exercises Lecture Two: FOURIER SERIES

Exercise 3-3
(a) x1 (t) = cos2 (100πt) = 12 (1 + cos(200πt)) = 1
2 + 1
2 cos(200πt)

(b) x2 (t) = ej200πt = cos(200πt) + j sin(200πt)

(c) x3 (t) = sin(2πt) cos2 (10πt) = sin(2πt) 12 (1 + cos(20πt)) = 1

2 sin(2πt) + 1
2 sin(2πt) cos(20πt)

we then use sin(u) cos(v) = 12 (sin(u − v) + sin(u + v)), so:

1 1 1 1 1 1
x3 (t) = 2 sin(2πt) + 4 sin(−18πt) + 4 sin(22πt) = 2 sin(2πt) − 4 sin(18πt) + 4 sin(22πt)

(d) Can be ignored.

Exercise 3-4
Usually, first we make a sketch of the signal, to see what it looks like:
x(t)

− T20 T0
2 t
0

T0 −A
− T40 4

This signal is real and even, so in the Fourier series we only need the ‘cosine’-terms.
TR
0 /2
a0 = x(t)dt = 0
−T0 /2
TR
0 /2
2
am = T0 x(t) cos(mω0 t)dt
−T0 /2
!
2
R0 /4
−T TR
0 /4 TR
0 /2
= T0 −A cos(mω0 t)dt + A cos(mω0 t)dt + −A cos(mω0 t)dt
−T0 /2 −T0 /4 T0 /4
−T /4 2A T /4 T /2
= −2A
mω0 T0 sin(mω0 t)|−T00 /2 + mω0 T0
0
sin(mω0 t)|−T 0 /4
+ −2A
mω0 T0 sin(mω0 t)|T00 /4

2A
sin(mω0 T40 ) − sin(mω0 T20 ) + sin(mω0 T40 ) + sin(mω0 T40 ) − sin(mω0 T20 ) + sin(mω0 T40 )


= mω0 T0

2A
4 sin(mω0 T40 ) − 2 sin(mω0 T20 )


= mω0 T0 (*)
2π 2A
2 sin(m π2 ) − sin(mπ) .


(*) can be simplified by noting that ω0 = T0 , so am = mπ

The last term on the right is 0 for all values of m and can be discarded. When m is even, and for m = 0, the first
term on the right-hand side also equals 0, so am = 0. Furthermore:

For m = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . : sin(m π2 ) = 1

For m = 3, 7, 11, 15, . . . : sin(m π2 ) = −1

1
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Two (V1.0, Sep. 2012) 2

 4Am’s, see the definition of the trigonometric FS (3-6)!!

We only use the positive
 mπ : m = 1, 5, 9, 13, . . .
Concluding: am = :
 4A
− mπ : m = 3, 7, 11, 15, . . .
We see that we only need the odd coefficients, all even coefficients (and m = 0) are zero, which is the result of the
signal being half-wave odd symmetric, see Exercise 3-16(c).

Exercise 3-14
(a) y(t) = x(t − τ ), with τ a constant. In that case, see also Example 3-7 and the slides:

2π
Yn = Xn e−j2πnτ /T0 , with ω0 = T0 , we get:

Yn = Xn e−jnω0 τ .

(b) y(t) = ej2πf0 t x(t), with f0 a constant.

1 1
x(t)e−jnω0 t dt, and therefore also that Xn−1 = x(t)e−j(n−1)ω0 t dt. Then:
R R
We know that Xn = T0 T0 T0 T0

1 1
y(t)e−jnω0 t dt = ej2πf0 t x(t)e−jnω0 t dt
R R
Yn = T0 T0 T0 T0

1
e−j(nω0 t−2πf0 t) x(t)dt
R
= T0 T0

1 1
x(t)e−j(nω0 t−ω0 t) dt = x(t)e−j(n−1)ω0 t dt = Xn−1 .
R R
with ω0 = 2πf0 we get: Yn = T0 T0 T0 T0

Concluding: Yn = Xn−1 .

Exercise 3-16
Remember: an even function is a function where x(−t) = x(t), an example is the cosine function. An odd func-
tion is a function where x(−t) = −x(t), an example is the sine function.

(a) To prove: Xn is a real and even function when x(t) is real and even. Note that in this lecture series, all
signals are real, we don’t deal with any complex signal.
1 1
x(t)e−jnω0 t dt =
R R
Xn = T0 T0 T0 T0 x(t) (cos(nω0 t) − j sin(nω0 t)) dt
1
R R
Re(Xn ) = T0 T0
x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt, and Im(Xn ) = −1
T0 T0
x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt.
R R
Xn is real when its imaginary part is zero, so −1
T0 T0
x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = 0, or T0
x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = 0.

This relation should hold for an integration over an arbitrary period T0 . For a function to be ‘odd’ or ‘even’, its
behaviour for positive and negative time t is important, i.e., time relative to t = 0, so we take the integral to be
symmetric around t = 0:
TR
0 /2 R0 TR
0 /2
x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt + x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = 0.
−T0 /2 −T0 /2 0

In the integral on the left-hand side, we substitute σ = −t, or dt = −dσ, and the integral limits change as follows:
t = −T0 /2 → σ = T0 /2, and t = 0 → σ = 0:
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Two (V1.0, Sep. 2012) 3

σ=0
R TR
0 /2
x(−σ) sin(−nω0 σ)d(−σ) + x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = 0.
σ=T0 /2 0

Now, look at the part of the equation on the left-hand side: sin(−nω0 σ) = − sin(nω0 σ), reversing the interval
limits causes an additional minus sign, and d(−σ) = −dσ, so we get three minus signs on the left-hand side,
resulting in:
σ=T
R 0 /2 TR
0 /2
− x(−σ) sin(nω0 σ)dσ + x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt = 0.
σ=0 0
Then, we simply substitute σ = t on the left-hand side,1 and we obtain:
TR
0 /2 TR
0 /2
x(−t) sin(nω0 t)dt = x(t) sin(nω0 t)dt.
t=0 0

This equality holds when x(−t) = x(t), or in other words, when x(t) is even. This proves that when x(t) is even,
the imaginary part of the complex FS will be zero.

(b) To prove: Xn is an imaginary and odd function when x(t) is real and odd. This proof is very similar to
the one given just above. Xn is imaginary when its real part equals zero:
TR
0 /2 R0 TR
0 /2
x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt = x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt + x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt = 0.
−T0 /2 −T0 /2 0

In the integral on the left-hand side, we substitute σ = −t, or dt = −dσ, and the integral limits change as follows:
t = −T0 /2 → σ = T0 /2, and t = 0 → σ = 0:

σ=0
R TR
0 /2
x(−σ) cos(−nω0 σ)d(−σ) + x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt = 0, therefore:
σ=T0 /2 0
σ=T
R 0 /2 TR
0 /2
x(−σ) cos(nω0 σ)dσ + x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt = 0, just substitute σ = t on the left-hand side, and
σ=0 0
we obtain:
TR
0 /2 TR
0 /2
x(−t) cos(nω0 t)dt = − x(t) cos(nω0 t)dt.
t=0 0

This equality holds when x(−t) = −x(t), or in other words, when x(t) is odd. This proves that when x(t) is odd,
the real part of the complex FS will be zero.

(c) From the definition of the FS we know that:

1 1
x(t)e−jnω0 t dt =
R R
Xn = T0 T0 T0 T0 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt

R0 TR
0 /2
1 1
So: Xn = T0 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt + T0 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt.
−T0 /2 0

Again we choose the integration interval to be symmetric around t = 0. But now we substitute in the integral on
the left-hand side σ = t + T0 /2 (or: t = σ − T0 /2). Then dσ = dt and the integration limits change as follows:
t = −T0 /2 becomes σ = 0, and t = 0 becomes σ = T0 /2. We get:

1 This step raised many questions from students. Why do we first subsititute σ = −t in the step above, and here σ = t again. Well, the

answer is simple. Both substitutions have nothing to do with each other. We could also substitute σ = a in the second step, and call a the
running variable. The ‘name of’ or ‘symbol used’ for the running variable in the integral is arbitrary, so why don’t we take t? We are usually
dealing with time signals, and the second integral also uses t. We could also substitute t = σ in the second integral and then we get an equality
in σ, it does not matter at all. Note that a substitution is just a mathematical trick to (in this case) change the integral limits to make them more
convenient. We can use this trick as many times as we like, sometimes two or three times after each other. But each substitution at every step
has nothing to do really with any of the other substitutions, we just repeat substituting things until we are satisfied.
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Two (V1.0, Sep. 2012) 4

σ=T
R 0 /2
1
Xn = T0 [x(σ − T0 /2) cos(nω0 (σ − T0 /2)) − jx(σ − T0 /2) sin(nω0 (σ − T0 /2))]dσ
σ=0
TR
0 /2
+ T10 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
0

Now substitute in the integral on the left-hand side σ = t (we just change the variable, nothing fancy):
TR
0 /2
1
Xn = T0 [x(t − T0 /2) cos(nω0 (t − T0 /2)) − jx(t − T0 /2) sin(nω0 (t − T0 /2))]dt
t=0
TR
0 /2
+ T10 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
0

Use the half-wave symmetry property: x(t + T0 /2) = −x(t), so because the signal is periodic with T0 , x(t −
T0 /2) = −x(t) also holds, we then re-arrange:
TR
0 /2
1
Xn = T0 [x(t) (cos(nω0 t) − cos(nω0 (t − T0 /2)))−jx(t) (sin(nω0 t) − sin(nω0 (t − T0 /2)))]dt.(**)
t=0

Now: cos(nω0 (t−T0 /2)) = cos(nω0 t−nω0 T0 /2) = cos(nω0 t) cos(nω0 T0 /2)+sin(nω0 t) sin(nω0 T0 /2) (***),
with nω0 T0 /2 = n 2π
T0 T0 /2 = nπ. Then, for all n the sine-terms in (***) equal zero. For even n we obtain that
cos(nω0 (t − T0 /2)) = cos(nω0 t), and for odd n we obtain that cos(nω0 (t − T0 /2)) = − cos(nω0 t).

Similarly, sin(nω0 (t − T0 /2)) = sin(nω0 t − nω0 T0 /2) = sin(nω0 t) cos(nω0 T0 /2) − cos(nω0 t) sin(nω0 T0 /2)
(****), again with nω0 T0 /2 = n 2πT0 T0 /2 = nπ. Then, for all n the sine-term on the right-hand side of (****)
equals zero. For even n we obtain that sin(nω0 (t − T0 /2)) = sin(nω0 t), and for odd n we obtain that sin(nω0 (t −
T0 /2)) = − sin(nω0 t).

We substitute these results into our main result so far, equation (**), to see that, for even n:
TR
0 /2
1
Xn = T0 [x(t)(cos(nω0 t) − cos(nω0 t)) − jx(t)(sin(nω0 t) − sin(nω0 t))]dt = 0. qed
t=0

For odd n we get:

TR
0 /2
1
Xn = T0 [x(t)(cos(nω0 t) + cos(nω0 t)) − jx(t)(sin(nω0 t) + sin(nω0 t))]dt, so:
t=0
TR
0 /2
2
Xn = T0 [x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt.
t=0

Note that the ‘half-wave’ symmetry says nothing about the fact whether a signal is even or odd.2
2 From the proof in (c) we can also find another way to state the proofs in (a) and (b). We start with:

R0 T0 /2
R
1 1
Xn = T0
[x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt + T0
[x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
−T0 /2 0

In the first integral, we substitute σ = −t, so dt = −dσ and the integral limits change from (t = −T0 /2 to 0) to (σ = T0 /2 to 0):

R0 T0 /2
R
1 1
Xn = T0
[x(−σ) cos(−nω0 σ) − jx(−σ) sin(−nω0 σ)](−dσ) + T0
[x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
T0 /2 0

We re-arrange:

T0 /2
R T0 /2
R
1 1
Xn = T0
[x(−σ) cos(nω0 σ) + jx(−σ) sin(nω0 σ)]dσ + T0
[x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
0 0
And then substitute σ = t on the left-hand side:
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Two (V1.0, Sep. 2012) 5

Exercise 3-17
First of all, let’s closely look at Figure P3-17. From these figures we can already deduce that:
• ... all signals have average 0, so for all of them X0 = 0, and
• ... all signals are half-wave odd symmetric (x(t + T0 /2) = −x(t)), and therefore Xn = 0 for even n (see
Exercise 3-17(c)).

Second, furthermore we see that:

• Signal xa (t) is real and odd, so all its Fourier series coefficients are imaginary, we do not need the ‘cosine’-
terms.
• Signal xb (t) is real and even, so all its Fourier series coefficients are real, we do not need the ‘sine’-terms
(see also Exercise 3-4 where we compute the FS analytically).
• Signal xc (t) is neither odd, nor even, so its Fourier series coefficients are all complex.
• Signal xd (t) is real and odd, so all its Fourier series coefficients are imaginary, we do not need the ‘cosine’-
terms.
• Signal xe (t) is real and even, so all its Fourier series coefficients are real, we do not need the ‘sine’-terms.
• Signal xf (t) is neither odd, nor even, so its Fourier series coefficients are all complex.
So, we conclude with the following table:

Waveform
Property a b c d e f
Purely real coefficients X X
Purely imaginary coefficients X X
Complex coefficients X X
Even-indexed coefficients zero X X X X X X
X0 = 0 X X X X X X

Exercise 3-18
Given the waveform x(t) illustrated in Figure P3-18.

(a) The coefficient a0 represents the mean of a signal. In this case, since the mean of x(t) equals zero,
a0 = 0.

(b) The bm -coefficients belong to the ‘sine’-components in the trigonometric Fourier series. Since x(t) is a
real and even function, we do not need the ‘sine’-components to construct the signal model, and therefore all bm ’s
must be zero.

(c) Since x(t) is a real and even function, we only need the ‘cosine’-components in the FS to model this
signal, i.e., the am ’s. From equation (3-32a) we know the relation between the complex FS coefficients Xm and
the trigonometric (real) FS:
T0 /2
R T0 /2
R
1 1
Xn = T0
[x(−t) cos(nω0 t) + jx(−t) sin(nω0 t)]dt + T0
[x(t) cos(nω0 t) − jx(t) sin(nω0 t)]dt
0 0
T0 /2
R T0 /2
R
1
Re-arranging gives: Xn = T0
[x(t) + x(−t)] cos(nω0 t)dt − j T1 [x(t) − x(−t)] sin(nω0 t)dt
0
0 0
From which we can see that if x(t) is even, the right-hand side becomes zero, and when x(t) is odd, the left-hand side becomes zero. qed.
AE2235/AESB2020 Exercises Lecture Two (V1.0, Sep. 2012) 6

1

Xm = 2 (am − jbm ) : m>0
(3-32a)
1
2 (a−m + jb−m ) : m<0
Clearly, since all bm ’s are zero, Xm equals am /2 for positive m and a−m /2 for negative m. All am ’s are real, and
therefore also all complex FS coefficients Xm will be real. It is simply a consequence of the fact that x(t) is even.

(d) If it does, then x(t + T0 /2) must equal −x(t). From Figure P3-18 we can see that this is indeed the case.
As a consequence, all even-indexed coefficients in the FS will be zero (see Exercise 3-16(c) for the proof).