Projectile Motion: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and make

predictions?

 analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components, making the following assumptions:
a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity + zero air resistance.
 apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships between the following variables: initial velocity,
launch angle, maximum height, time of flight, final velocity, launch height, horizontal range of the projectile

1 2 2 2 1
SUVAT equations of motion: v=u+at , s=ut+ at , v =u +2 as , s= ( u+ v ) t
2 2
Projectile motion: is any object that has been launched or thrown in a particular direction from some point moving
in parabolic arcs. After a projectile is launched there is no forward force acting upon it, only gravity ( F g=mg)
which is constant and always acting directed vertically downwards (freefall).
 When a ball falls at free fall and other in a parabolic motion they will reach the ground at the same time.
 Galileo: argued that projectile motion was a compound motion made up of a horizontal and vertical motion.
Launch velocity thus needs to be separated into two independent motions.
- Vertical motion: which is subject to acceleration due to the force of gravity. When hit horizontally the
vertical velocity is 0.
- Horizontal motion (steady speed and fixed direction): which experiences no acceleration- no influence
of gravity and therefore the horizontal velocity is constant (= to the launch velocity)

As the launch angle increases the max height increases. The range is the same for complementary angles e.g., 30 and 60 degrees. The furthest
range is 45 degrees. As the initial velocity increases both the range and height of the projectile increases.

Circular Motion: Why do objects move in circles?

 conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular motion, the relationships that exist between:
centripetal force, mass, speed, radius
 solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations,
using the following relationships:

As an object travels in a circular path its speed is constant, but the velocity is changing (because of direction).
The velocity at any given moment is tangential to its path. The time taken to travel once around a circle is
called the period (T), and the number of rotations each second is the frequency (f). Tf =1 . The average speed
2 πr
of an object moving in circular motion is V = (Convert from frequency to period e.g.,
t
revolutions per minute
=f Note: To convert from kmh-1 to ms-1, divide by 3.6.
60
 2 2
v 4π r
o AC = or a c = 2
: Centripetal acceleration. Since the velocity is constantly changing an object accelerates towards
r T
the centre of a circle. The object will never however get any closer to the centre (because direction is changing).
Acceleration always points towards the centre, perpendicular to the tangential velocity. V = tangential speed; R = radius of
the circular path
2 πr
o v= : Tangential velocity (v); using the formula for speed.
T
Forces that cause circular motion: follows from Newton’s second law that there must be net unbalanced force continuously acting on it. The
net unbalanced force that gives objects its acceleration towards the centre of the circle (centripetal force) e.g., via tension, gravity, friction.
When the unbalanced force ceases to act there is no longer a force causing the object to change direction, thus causing the object to move in a
straight line tangential to its circular path as predicted by Newtons first law.
2 2
mv 4 π rm : Centripetal force; objects experience a force towards the centre of the circle. It is
o F C= ∨F c = 2
r T
described as substituting AC into F = ma. Can be caused by gravitational attraction (moon and earth) or static friction or
tension.
∆θ
o ω= : Angular velocity- the rate of change of angular position of a rotating body. To convert from degrees to radians
t
180 l(arc length)
× . The angle can also be calculated using Δθ= .
π r (radius)
o s=rθ : angular displacement.
 analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations, for example: cars moving around
horizontal circular bends, a mass on a string, or objects on banked tracks

Banked corners: when a car travels in circular paths of horizontal roads

they rely on the force of friction between the tyres and the road to
provide the sideways force that keeps the car turning in a circular path.
A car travelling around a circular path has acceleration and net force
towards the middle of the circle. The normal force and that of gravity are
also balanced. The force of friction (unbalanced) = net force. Banked
tracks reduce the need for a sideways frictional force and allows cars to
travel faster without skidding off the road. On a banked track it is
possible for the car to travel at a speed so that there is no sideways
frictional force dependent on the angle. Since the car is still accelerating towards the centre of the circle there must be an unbalanced force. At
F NET ( force acting towards the centre) 2
v The
the design speed the angle of track can be found using: tanθ= and tanθ= .
F g (force due¿ gravity ) rg
velocity can be found using V = √rg tanθ . The normal force on a banked track is larger than that on a normal track.

 Relationship between the total energy and work done on an object executing uniform circular motion.
Uniform horizontal motion: in theme park rides you experience strong forces. If a person is moving in a straight line with a constant speed
weight force balances the normal reaction from the seat (non-unbalanced forces). The normal force changing causes:

 Travelling through dips (feel forces pushing you down): a person has a centripetal acceleration towards the centre of the circular
path (in a roller coast vertically upwards). Since the normal force and the weight force are not balanced (normal force > weight force).
 Travelling over humps (feel yourself lifting off your seat): a person will have centripetal acceleration which is directly downwards
towards the centre, and the net force will be downwards (unbalanced forces)  seat pushes with less force.

1 2
Kinetic energy: K= mv (an object undergoing uniform circular motion has constant kinetic energy) and the potential energy:
2
ΔU =mgΔh.
Conservation of mechanical energy: potential + kinetic energy of an object = mechanical energy and this is constant unless work is done by an
external force. The total mechanical energy is said to be conserved if the final energy is equal to the initial energy. Sometimes energy is
dissipated or transformed into heat, light etc. ( E m )initial=( E m )final thus K inital + U inital =K final +U final. Energy is transformed from kinetic
energy to gravitational potential as the object goes up and from gravitational potential to kinetic energy as it goes down.

Work: transfer of energy from one object to another or the transformation of energy from one form to another. Is defined by
W =F∥ s=Fs cos θ ,where W is the work done by the force (J), F is the magnitude of the constant force (N), s is the displacement (m) and
θ is the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector. Work is only done when a force or a component of a force is applied in
the direction of displacement. An object moving in a circular path in a horizontal plane is constantly accelerated by the centripetal force but
does no work because the force is perpendicular to displacement.

 investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the applied torque.

τ =r ⊥ F=rF sin θ: Torque (Nm): twisting or turning force that tends to cause rotation around an axis. When a turning effect is applied on
an object, there must be a pivot point around which the object will
rotate, there must be a force applied to the object in such a way as to
cause the object to rotate (force applied must not be aligned with the
pivot point). Forces applied directly away or towards a pivot point will
not cause a wheel to turn. Maximum torque is achieved when the
force is applied 90 degrees to a line drawn from the pivot point to the
point of application. E.g., longer spanners = greater torque.
Motion in Gravitational Fields: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?

 apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:

GMm
o determine the force of gravity between two objects F= 2
r
Newtons law of universal gravitation: any two bodies (with a mass) in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional
GMm
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (always attractive). F= 2 (inverse
r
square law) where F is the gravitational force (N), M is the mass of object 1, m is the mass of object 2, r is the distance between the centres of
objects (m) and G is the gravitational constant. Gravitational forces over billions of years have created solar system motion.

Gravity: according to Newton’s third law of motion, forces occur in action-reaction pairs e.g., the earth (accelerates towards the Earth) exerts a
gravitational force on the moon and the moon exerts an equal and opposite force on the Earth. Newtons 2nd law of motion, the effect of the
gravitational force of the moon on the earth will be much smaller than the corresponding effect of the earth on the moon because of the
earth’s larger mass. Since the acceleration of the moon is much greater, the moon orbits the earth.

Gm g= Gm
o investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength g= 2
OR 2
r (r earth + altitude)
o predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at the surface of a planet.

Gravitational fields: region in which a gravitational force is exerted on all matter within that region. e.g., the solar system involve several
objects that are exerting attractive forces on each other at the same time. Every object has a gravitational field around them. The space
between gravitational lines indicates the relative magnitude of the field strength (parallel lines indicate a uniform magnetic field).

Gravitational field strength: gravitational fields extend into space. The magnitude of the gravitational force decreases with the square of
Gm
distance, the force ends up becoming so weak it almost becomes negligible. Note: 1 Nkg-1 = 1 ms-2. The gravitational field strength is g= 2
r
where g is the gravitational field strength (Nkg-1), M = mass of an object , G is the gravitational constant and r is the distance from the centre of
M. The gravitational field from space is not uniform and becomes weaker as it gets out to space.

 investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the relationships between the following quantities:
gravitational force, centripetal force, centripetal acceleration, mass, orbital radius, orbital velocity and orbital period.
 Newtons thought experiment: a satellite (object in a stable orbit around another object). Newton released gravitational force of attraction
towards the Earth that determined the motion of a falling apple and the motion of the moon. Newton proposed that the Moon was falling
towards the Earth without getting any closer. He used a cannon being shot out at a top of a high mountain, if it was fired at a low speed, the
cannonball would not travel a great distance before gravity pulled it to the ground. He reasoned at a certain speed (air resistance ignored) it
could travel around the Earth and reach the place it started (continues indefinitely).

Natural satellites: have existed for billions of years e.g., moons. A satellite mores into orbit both kinetic/gravitational potential energy increase.
 predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of situations, including near the Earth and
geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses.

Artificial satellites (6000 have been launched): is an object that people have made and launched into orbit using rockets. Higher satellite =
smaller orbital velocity. Satellites are used for a multitude of different purposes with 60% for communication.

 Low orbit (180-2000km): includes most satellites e.g., Hubble telescope: used to view objects at the edge of the universe.
 Medium orbit (2000-36000km): most common satellites in this region are the Global Positioning system (GPS) used for navigation.
 High orbit (36000km +): e.g., Optus satellites for communications and MTSAT-1R satellite: deep-space weather pictures.
Geostationary satellites: sit at an altitude of about 36000km and orbit with a period of 24 hours. Most communication.
Features Low Earth orbit Geostationary
Altitude 250-2000km 35,000km
Period 1.5-5 hours 24 hours
Orbital speed 27,900 km/h (7.8km/s) 3.075km/s or 11,300 km/h
Shape of orbit Circular (elliptical) orbit (mostly circular) Circular geosynchronous
Decay and orbital decay Significantly affected by atmospheric decay and orbital decay. Not significantly affected
Position relative to Earth Polar: orbits over poles; position changes as Earth spins Stationary: orbits above the equator
Application and uses Military spying, Hubble telescope. Communication, meteorological, INTELSAT
FOR Can communication with Earth more quickly (minimal time Suffers less damage from orbital decay due to the less air in
delay) due to the lower altitude. the higher atmosphere. Stays fixed above a particular
position on Earth allowing for constant communication.
AGAINST Doesn’t stay in a fixed position above Earth’s surface. Higher altitude causes delays in information transfer.
Experiences greater air resistance causes decay (causes it to Expensive to launch.
crash/burn up)/damages requiring regular maintenance
(expensive). Sometimes flies out of orbit.
Earth satellites can have different orbital paths depending on their function:
 Equatorial orbits: where the satellite always travels above the equator + Inclined orbits: which lie between both.
 Polar or near-polar orbits: where the satellite travels over or close to the North and South poles as it orbits.

All objects travelling in circular motion require centripetal force. Artificial (are equipped with propellant however to squirt if orbit needs
adjustment) and natural satellites are not propelled by rockets. They orbit in free fall and the only force acting on them is the gravitational
attraction between themselves and the body about which they orbit. Gravitational attraction = centripetal force of the satellites motion. The
satellites have a centripetal acceleration = gravitational field strength of their location.

Geosynchronous orbit e.g., Circular orbit. Altitude: 37000 km. Velocity (orbital): 17,000 m/h
Indian Astra 1C Advantages: earth station is a fixed target (transmission power doesn’t have to be high). Ideal for broadcasting.
Middle Earth orbit e.g., Near circular orbit with low eccentricity. Altitude: 20,200km from the earth’s surface. Velocity (orbital): 27,000 km/h
GPS, Galileo Advantages: historically used for GPS/navigation, deliver low-latency, high bandwidth data connectivity to service providers.
 investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on, and the total energy of, planets in circular
and non-circular orbits using:
2 πr 3
∧r
o T Gm
v= 2
= 2
T 4π
Kepler’s laws: analysed the motion of the planets in orbit around the sun.
1. The planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus (elliptical shape).
2. The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. As the object moves towards the sun, its
gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (KE)- law of conservation of energy. The increase in KE results in an
increase in velocity as it approaches the
sun (stronger gravitational pull
from the sun). Moving away it
loses velocity (KE  GPE).
3 3
r r
3. The law of periods: 2
= 2
T T
Satellite speed: can be calculated from its
motion for one revolution (assume orbital
paths are circular).
 2 2
distance 2 πr v 4 π r GM
v= = . Satellites are in free fall therefore the only force acting is gravity. a c = = = 2 =g , where v is the
time T r T
2
r
speed of the satellite, r is the radius of the orbit, T (s) = period, M = central mass, g = gravitational field strength and G = constant. The direction
will always be towards the centre of the circular motion. Satellite has no effect on any of the orbital properties.
2 3
4 π r GMm r GM GM
Deriving Kepler’s law: F g=mg=m 2
= 2 therefore 2 = 2 . For any central mass, M the term 2 is constant.
T r T 4π 4π
 derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a
variety of situations, including but not limited to:

o the concept of escape velocity v ⅇsc=

√ 2GM total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U =−GMm
r
,
−GMm
r
o total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U + K = + ¿energy changes that occur when satellites move
2r
between orbits + Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Gravitational potential energy: U =mgh where U in (J), m (mass of the object), g = gravitational field strength, h is the height of the object
1 2
above the reference point. AND K= mv .
2
 Energy in a non-constant gravitational field: Earths gravitational field increase close to the ground and weaker at high altitudes (for
−GMm
satellites and moons). U = ,where U is the gravitational potential energy (J), m is the mass of the object (kg), M is the
r
mass of the Earth (or central body), G is the gravitational constant, r is the radius of the orbit of the object.
 Gravitational potential energy of a satellite is considered zero when it has escaped the gravitational field of the Earth. As the satellite
moves closer to the Earth (less than the reference level) the potential energy becomes a negative value.
 Gravitational potential energy is negative because the gravitational field performs work in bringing mass from infinity (work done
against gravity to bring a mass to a given point in space). Because of the inverse square nature of gravity force, the force approaches
zero for large distances and it makes sense to choose the zero of gravitational potential energy at an infinite distance away.

Total energy in a non-constant gravitational field: E=U + K . A satellite has kinetic and gravitational potential energy. Centripetal force =
2
GMm m v 2 GMm
force due to gravity. If this is combined with Newton’s second law then F= 2
= therefore mv = . Therefore
r r r
GMm GMm −GMm
E=K +U= − = , where E (total energy- J), U- potential energy (J), K- kinetic energy, m is the mass of an object,
2r r 2r
M- mass of the Earth, G is the gravitational constant, and r is the radius. The total energy of a satellite remains constant throughout its orbit. A
planet’s gravitational potential energy is greatest when it is at its aphelion (point on its orbit when it is furthest from the Sun). According to
Kepler’s second law, the velocity of the planet will increase as it approaches the sun. This means that the kinetic energy of the planet will
increase in a way that exactly balances the decrease in gravitational potential energy (total energy constant- upholds the law of conservation of
mechanical energy).

Energy changes in a non-constant gravitational field: ΔU =mgΔhis developed assuming that work is done against a constant force of
gravity: ΔU =W =F ∥ S (DOES NOT hold true for objects like satellites that move to altitudes at which the gravitational field of the planet
becomes significantly diminished). E.g., a meteor falling to Earth getting closer it is subjected to a higher gravitational field. Work done by the
−GMm
meteor has to be found using U = . The meteor energy change will be the same regardless of whether the meteor falls directly
r
towards the planet or follows a more direct path.
Escape velocity: initial velocity (which an object must be propelled in order not to return to the body under the influence of gravity) needed by
a projectile to rise vertically and just escape the gravitational field of the planet.

 Since an object that has escaped a gravitational field has a potential energy of U=0, due to conservation of mechanical energy the
escape velocity occurs when the kinetic energy of the object is equal in magnitude to its gravitational potential energy. When -K=U

then
1
2
2
m v ⅇsc =
GMm
r
therefore v esc =
√ 2 GM
r
where M (mass of the Earth), G = constant, and r is the radius. Note that the

escape velocity is independent of the mass of an object regardless of how heavy it is.

Conservation of momentum: within some problem domain, the amount of momentum remains constant (neither created nor destroyed, but
only changed through the action of forces as described by Newton's laws of motion). Momentum is not conserved when there is gravity,
friction, or net force. Momentum ( ρ ) = mass x velocity