Diesel Engine Repair

TCL036 Diesel Engine Repair
Participant Guide
SERV1896
Caterpillar Apprentice Service Technician Training Program
TCL036
Diesel Engine Repair
Published by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd.

1 Caterpillar Drive
Tullamarine Vic 3043
AUSTRALIA
Version 5.0; 2013
Copyright © 2013 Caterpillar Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work

without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.
Request for permission or further information must be
addressed to the Caterpillar Learning Manager, Australia.
This subject material is issued by Caterpillar Inc. on the

understanding that Caterpillar Inc., its officials, author(s) or any
other persons involved in the preparation of this publication
expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious or other form
of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in
respect of the publication and any consequence arising from its
use, including any omission made buy any person in reliance
upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication.
Caterpillar Inc. expressly disclaims all and any liability to any

person in respect of anything and if the consequences of
anything done or omitted to be done by any such person in
reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of
the contents of this subject material.
Acknowledgements
A special thanks to all concerned for their contribution in the
construction of this program, in particular:
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Caterpillar engineers and instructors
Caterpillar dealer engineers and instructors
Business Training by Design Pty Ltd
Olga Stergiou Graphic Design
Fionna Yao - Graphic & Web Design
Contents
TOPIC 1 Engine Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Removal Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
topic 2 Engine Disassembly Procedures

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Intake Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exhaust Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Water Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Valve Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Rocker Arm and Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Pushrod System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Valves and Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Flywheel and Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Vibration Damper and Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Camshaft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oil Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oil Pan and Oil Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Front Gears and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Idler Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Cluster Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Plate Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Camshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Final Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
topic 3 Cylinder Blocks

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Parent Bore Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Advantages of Parent Bore Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Dry Sleeve Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Wet Sleeve Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Advantages of Sleeved Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cylinder Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Reconditioning Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Measuring Cylinder Bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Precise Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Measuring Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Installing Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
topic 4 Camshafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Camshaft Lobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Visual Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Procedure to Measure Camshaft Straightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Thrust Washer Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Camshaft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Camshaft Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Causes of Crankshaft Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Before Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
After Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Inspection Using the Magnetic Field Fluorescent Method . . . . . . 71
Crankshaft Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Main Bearing Journals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Polishing Crankshafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Crankshaft Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Installing Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Measuring Oil Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
topic 5 Friction Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Friction Bearing Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Function of a Friction Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bearing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Bearing Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Main and Connecting Rod Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Normal Bearing Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Irregular Shape of Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Bearing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Course Particles in the Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Improper Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Overspeeding and / or Long Idle Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Improper Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Cold Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Lack of Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Coolant in the Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Surface Reaction Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chemical Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Cavitation Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Thrust Bearing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
The Thrust Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
topic 6 Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fractured Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Standard Connecting Rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Servicing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Crankshaft Bore (Big End). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Parting Line Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Connecting Rod Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Serrated Edge Parting Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Seat Areas for Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Repair Of Bolt Seat Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Piston Pin Bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Area for the Piston Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Shank Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Reconditioning the Shank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Hardware (Bolts And Nuts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Bushing Installation And Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Storage Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
topic 7 Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

General Inspection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Initial Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Visual Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Pitting of the Piston Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fuel Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Top of the Ring Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Ring Band, Ring Grooves and Ring Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Procedure to Inspect Pin Bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Two-piece Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Reconditioning Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Discoloration and Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Embedded Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Ring Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Piston Ring Breakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Ring Groove Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Piston Cooling Jets And Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Piston Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Compression Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Oil Control Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Piston Removal And Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Piston Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Pistons and Connecting Rods Disassembly / Assembly . . . . . . . 146
Pistons and Connecting Rods – Install . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
topic 8 Lubrication Pump and Oil Coolers
Lubrication System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Piston Cooling Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Lubrication (Oil) Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Oil Filtration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Lubrication Pump Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Inspecting and Measuring the Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Servicing and Reassembling the Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . 157
Installing Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Inspecting and Servicing the Oil Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Servicing Oil Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
topic 9 Cylinder Head and Valves

Cylinder Head Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Valve and Valve Insert Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Cylinder Head Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Injector Sleeve Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Valve Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Valve Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Grinding Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Valve Seat Insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Valve Seat Grinding Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Valve Seat Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Valve Springs, Spring Retainers and Keepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Valve Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Valve Bridge Service (Crosshead) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Reassembling Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Installing Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Valve Train Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Servicing Rocker Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Assembling Rocker Arm Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Pushrods or Push Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Cam Follower (Cam Roller) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Installing Valve and Injector Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Valve Bridge Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
topic 10 Flywheel Housing, Flywheels and Timing Covers

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Inspecting, Servicing, And Installing Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . 193
Aligning and Measuring Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Inspecting and Servicing Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Installing Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Inspecting And Servicing Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Installing Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Inspecting And Servicing Crankshaft Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Inspecting Vibration Damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Installing the Vibration Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Topic 1
Engine Removal
Contents
Engine Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Removal Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
© CATERPILLAR 1 Version 5.0 2012

Participant Guide TCL036 Diesel Engine Repair
Engine Removal
Safety
Figure 1 – Personal Protective Equipment
When removing and disassembling an engine, it is necessary for personal protective

equipment to be worn (Figure 1). When working with any machinery that is fitted with
implements, whether they are mechanically or hydraulically operated, it is essential that these
implements be lowered to the ground or, if they need to be raised for reasons of access to the
engine; they need to be secured as per manufacturer’s specifications.
When selecting lifting equipment, ensure proper inspection is performed and the weight of the
item being lifted is ascertained.
Removal Procedure
Various vehicles and machines are configured differently; consequently it is not possible to list
a procedure that will cover all applications regarding engine removal and installation. Refer to
manufacturer’s specifications (Service Information System – SIS) for each particular vehicle.
If this information is not available, the following list should be used as a guideline only.
1. Visually inspect the engine for its overall condition. This should be conducted prior to any
cleaning and after cleaning to give you an insight as to the condition of the engine. Prior
to cleaning the engine, cover all electrical components.
2. Remove the battery, then remove and secure any electrical cabling or connections
to the engine. Inspect, repair if necessary and tag these components to enable quick
reassembly. It may be necessary to remove or secure hydraulic lines or equipment so
they do not interfere with the removal of the engine. Again, inspect, repair if necessary
and tag these components to enable quick reassembly.

3. Drain lubrication and cooling systems (be aware of contamination control requirements).
Wait for the engine to cool before removing coolant from the cooling system. If it is
hot, draining the cooling system could cause engine damage and/or personal injury.
Disconnect the fuel line to the engine fuel system ensuring that, if needed, the fuel
system is drained first. Bleed any air in the braking system to ensure that pressure is not
present in the airline from the compressor.
4. Remove:
Any hoses (coolant / heating / power steering). Any mechanical controls
Tubing or hoses to and from the turbocharger (if fitted)
Coolant, oil filter, fuel filters and air cleaner (these may be removed after the engine is
taken from the chassis and placed on an engine stand)
Exhaust pipes
Transmission (if necessary)
Where necessary, inspect all items for serviceability and tag them to enable quick
reassembly.
5. Ensure all openings, hoses and tubing is covered as per the contamination control
guidelines to ensure they are protected from the ingress of dirt or other foreign materials.
6. Clean the area around the engine to ensure any lifting devices are not obstructed.
7. Connect the lifting apparatus to the proper lifting points as per manufacturer’s
specifications.
Figure 2 – Lifting Equipment
8. Whenever possible, an adjustable lifting beam should be used. If a chain (Figure 2, left),
cable or sling is used it must be as near to perpendicular as possible to avoid damage
to the engine or components. Proper lifting brackets or collared eyebolts (Figure 2, right),
with a Safe Working Load stamped on them, should only be used and screwed into the
proper access holes as designated by the manufacturer. Ensure the thread of these
brackets or collared eyebolts are screwed in at least to a depth of 1.5 times the diameter
of the bolt to ensure proper load distribution on the thread.
9. After positioning the lifting device, take up the slack and remove the engine mounting
bolts. Begin lifting and check the load is balanced and that no obstructions are present.
Stay clear of the load and if necessary, tilt the engine slightly and guide it to remove it
from the chassis. Lower the engine to a few centimeters above the ground and then move
it to the work area.

Placing the Engine on a Stand
You may need to remove components from the engine prior to mounting it on a stand, e.g.
mounting brackets, clamps or belts. This should be conducted with the engine as close to
the ground as possible and with safety stands under the engine. Remove components in a
systematic order and place them in racks or trays in the same order they were removed. This
will make for easy reassembly. Clean and inspect each component removed for serviceability.
Bolt any recommended mounting adapters to the engine and place the engine in the stand.
Ensure mounting bolts are properly secured before removing the lifting device.

Topic 2
Engine Disassembly Procedures
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Intake Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exhaust Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Water Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Valve Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Rocker Arm and Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Pushrod System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Valves and Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Flywheel and Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Vibration Damper and Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Camshaft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oil Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Oil Pan and Oil Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Front Gears and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Idler Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Cluster Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Plate Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Camshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Final Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Introduction
Points to remember when disassembling any engine, or any other major component:
1. Any item removed should be cleaned, inspected and placed in trays or shelving in a
logical order. If necessary they should be tagged. The reason for the inspection is to
ensure that all components are serviceable. If not, a proper parts order can be made and
submitted.
2. If the components are placed in a tray or shelf in a logical order, it will make the assembly
of the engine much easier, for example, if the components are placed down in an order of
left to right, when reassembling the engine, components are picked up and replace in the
reverse order, that is, right to left.
3. Tagging of components will make it easier to identify components and their location,
especially if the service technician is not familiar with the engine.
4. Always use the proper hand or power tools for the job
5. When using lifting equipment, always check the weight of the load and inspect the lifting
gear prior to use to make sure the Safe Working Load is sufficient for the job and the
lifting equipment is serviceable.
6. Always remember contamination control guidelines. Cover any orifices, hoses or tubing
with the proper bungs, plugs or plastics. Keep components clean by washing them in
proper wash bays/troughs.

Procedure
Intake Manifold
Figure 3 – C15 Engine
Some engines now have the inlet manifold integral with the cylinder head and they cannot be
removed (Figure 3), but the piping from the turbocharger will need to be taken off.
If the engine is fitted with a standard intake manifold, it will be bolted to the cylinder head and
is normally a cast iron or aluminum alloy one-piece unit. Inlet manifold bolts should be undone
sequentially according to manufacturer’s specifications to avoid warpage. Care with these
types of manifolds is essential. Any unnecessary bumping or even dropping the manifold will
result in breakage or cracking.

Turbocharger
Figure 4 – Sectionized View of a Turbocharger
Before removing the turbocharger, it will be necessary to disconnect the oil inlet and
outlet lines. The next step is to remove the turbocharger mounting bolts and remove the
turbocharger (Figure 4). Be aware of:
7. Contamination control guidelines
8. The weight of the turbocharger
9. Latent heat present, especially on the exhaust side of the turbocharger (chances are the
heat will not be present at this stage, but be aware some may still be there)

Exhaust Manifold
Figure 5 – C15 Sectionized Exhaust Manifold
Exhaust manifolds are manufactured from cast iron alloys that will withstand high
temperatures and temperature changes without cracking or distorting. Exhaust manifolds
may be one piece or in sections as shown in Figure 5 above. Remove the nuts or bolts
sequentially to prevent warpage or distortion and remove the manifold from the cylinder
head(s).
Some manufacturers use a steel gasket between the exhaust manifold and the cylinder
head(s), but do not be surprised to see that one is not present. Some manufacturers rely on
the mating surface and the buildup of carbon to seal the manifold to the head(s).

Water Pump
Figure 6 – Location of Water Pump
The location of the water pump on a C16 engine is shown in Figure 6 above. For removal of
the pump, refer to SIS. If a standard belt driven pump is fitted, ensure all hoses and belts are
removed. Remove the water pump bolts, remove the pump and inspect for cavitation or other
damage as per manufacturer’s specifications.
Fuel Injection Pump
For engines fitted with mechanical injection units (MUI and NSFS), remove the high-pressure
lines and the line to the secondary filter. Remove the Fuel Injection Pump mounting bolts lift
the pump from the engine. Refer to SIS before removing the items.
For engines fitted with EUI and HEUI fuel systems, components should be removed as per
manufacturer’s specifications (SIS).
Remember contamination control guidelines. Cleanliness of fuel injection components is
essential for proper engine operation. Store the pump and components in a contamination
free environment.

Valve Cover
Figure 7 – Valve Cover Bolts fitted to a C15 Engine
The valve cover can be made from cast iron, aluminum or plastic. Remove the bolts (Figure
7) and remove the cover. Valve cover bolts can be very small – ensure they are placed in a
location where they can be easily found.
Rocker Arm and Shaft
Overhead Camshaft
Figure 8 – Overhead Camshaft
If an overhead camshaft is used, remove the camshaft assembly. In this process it is vital to
release the rocker arm tension evenly. Valve spring force will be forcing the camshaft upward;
therefore bolts must be loosened one after the other, a little at a time.
In this design, special hollow hex bolts may be used to allow the passage of oil from the
cylinder block to the cylinder head; enabling lubrication of the rocker arm and camshaft
assemblies. Mark their location before removal to ensure they are placed in the proper
position upon reassembly.

Pushrod System
Figure 9 – Pushrod System
In the pushrod type system shown in Figure 9 above, remove the rocker arm, but be aware of
valve spring tension. The engine should be rotated so that both valves are closed and there is
no spring tension on the rocker arm. Once the rocker arm is removed, remove the pushrods
and place them in a holder to ensure that they are in the order of removal. This ensures
that during assembly, pushrods are replaced in the same position that they were originally
removed from. (Wear patterns on rocker arms and lifters means that valve train assemblies
should be reassembled in the position as they were previous to disassembly). If the engine if
fitted with valve bridges, remove them before removing the pushrods.

Cylinder Head
Figure 10 – Caterpillar C12 Engine fitted with three cylinder heads
Engines may be fitted with one complete cylinder head for all cylinders or a number of
cylinder heads (For example: The Caterpillar C12 engine as shown in Figure 10 above has
three cylinder heads).
Check manufacturer’s specifications for bolt tensioning sequencing of cylinder head bolts
before removing cylinder heads. The sequence for undoing cylinder head bolts should be the
reverse of the tensioning sequence. This ensures that the possibility of warpage or distortion
of the cylinder is minimized. Ensure the engine is cool when removing the cylinder head
– removing cylinder head bolts from hot cylinder heads tends to distort the cylinder head
regardless of bolt removal sequence.
Depending on the weight of the cylinder head, there may be a need to use a lifting device.
If this is the case, ensure that the ‘seal’ between the cylinder head and the engine block is
broken before attempting the lift. If the seal is not broken, do not drive a screwdriver or chisel
between the block and the head. This will tend to damage both surfaces. Tap the cylinder
head with a soft faced hammer or tap a block of wood with a normal hammer to break it
loose.
Once the cylinder head is removed, an inspection of the combustion chamber can then
be conducted. The inspection can often reveal the cause of many engine failures. With the
cylinder head removed, inspection of the pistons, cylinder liners and block can also be
conducted.
When removing the cylinder head, special care needs to be taken to ensure that damage
does not occur to the cylinder head, cylinder block, studs or alignment dowels. After removal,
place the cylinder head in a safe, secure place; preferably in a holding fixture. If no holding
fixture is available, place the head on its side.

Valves and Injectors
Valve Springs
Figure 11 – Valve Removing Tool – C15
Figure 11 above shows the tooling required to remove the valve springs fitted to a Caterpillar
C15 engine. Each manufacturer has different methods for conducting this exercise and
specifications should be referred to prior to attempting removal.
Throughout removal, valve springs should be placed in order in a holding fixture to ensure
installation in their proper location during reassembly.
Electronic Injectors
Figure 12 – Electronic Unit Injector Removal
Figure 12 shows the sequence for removal of electronic injectors for Caterpillar engines.
Refer to manufacturer’s specifications for individual injector removal; it will differ depending on
injector type.
Once injectors are removed, they must be kept in numerical sequence and placed in a
position where they will not be damaged. When using pry bars to remove injectors, place it
close to the injector and ease the injector out evenly to ensure the injector come straight out
of the bore. There may be a need to use penetrating oil if the injector is tight due to carbon
build up or corrosion.

Flywheel and Flywheel Housing
Figure 13 – Flywheel Removal
Before removing the flywheel (Figure 13), ensure the lock tabs on the flywheel bolts are bent
free. Remove two of the top bolts and insert the alignment studs. Fit the lifting brackets to the
flywheel as shown in Figure 13 and attach the lifting device. Remove the remaining flywheel
bolts, then remove the flywheel. Ensure the weight of the flywheel has been determined to
ensure the proper lifting equipment is used.
At times the flywheel may be ‘stuck’ to the crankshaft. It may be necessary to use two bolts
threaded along their entire length to act as ‘jack screws’ to loosen the flywheel. Before
conducting this procedure, make sure the weight of the flywheel is taken by the lifting device
to ensure that no personal injury will occur if the flywheel ‘pops’ off.
Place the flywheel in a position where inspection of the surface can take place.
Once the flywheel has been removed it should be possible to remove the flywheel housing
Vibration Damper and Pulley
Figure 14 – Vibration Damper and Pulley 3046E Engine
Again, different engines will have differing vibration damper and pulley configurations. In
Figure 14 above the engine shown is a Caterpillar 3046E. In this instance, the vibration
damper (3) and pulley (2) are two separate items.

To remove the vibration damper, remove bolt (1) and place in a guide stud. Remove the
remaining bolts and the damper should come off. Then remove the pulley.
If the vibration damper is stuck there may be a need to use a puller. When removing the vibra-
tion damper, a puller that fits into the bolt holes is to be used. Never use a puller with outside
claws or use a hammer to remove the damper; otherwise damage to the damper will occur.
Camshaft Gear
Figure 15 – Camshaft Gear Removal
The camshaft can be removed as one unit. Position Number One cylinder at Top Dead
Centre. Confirm that the timing mark on the camshaft gear aligns with the timing mark on the
housing (Figure 15, left). Remove the top bolt and fit the guide bolt into position (Figure 15,
right). Remove the remaining bolts and lift off the timing gear.
Oil Cooler
Figure 16 – C15 Oil Cooler
The weight of the oil cooler (Figure 16) should be checked before removal. A lifting device
may be needed to hold the oil cooler whilst undoing the bolts. Ensure contamination control
guidelines are followed.

Oil Pan and Oil Pump
Figure 17 –Tier 4 C27 Caterpillar Engine
With the engine on a stand, turn the engine over. Remove the oil pan (sump) (Figure 17) and
ensure bolts are in a secure place. The oil pan should be cleaned and placed in a position
where it will not be damaged.
Figure 18 – Oil Supply Tube, Suction Bell and Tube Assembly
Referring to Figure 18 above, remove the oil supply tube and then the suction bell and
tube assembly. Remove bolts and lift out the oil pump, remembering contamination control
guidelines. If the pump is ‘sealed’ on its mating surface, tap the pump with a soft-faced
hammer. Some oil pumps may have aligning dowels and/or shims between the mounting
surface and the pump. Take care when removing the pump from its mounting.

Timing Gear Cover
Figure 19 – Timing Gear Cover
Before removing the Timing Gear Cover (Figure 19), in most instances it will be necessary to
have the following components removed:
Camshaft gear
Vibration damper and pulley
Engine oil pan
Fan drive
Fuel transfer pump
Ensure that all bolts to the front of the timing gear cover and to the rear of the cover are
removed. Refer to manufacturer’s specifications for location of specific bolts. Once all bolts
are removed, lift the timing cover off the locating dowels. The timing cover will need to be
cleaned prior to inspection and then placed in a secure place.
Front Gears and Plate
Timing Gear Drive
Figure 20 – Timing Gear Drive
Remove the bolts and thrust plate (Figure 20, left). Remove seal assembly and adapter
(Figure 20, middle). Remove the O-ring from the seal assembly (Figure 20, right)

Adjustable Idler Gear
Figure 21 – Adjustable Idler Gear
Remove the bolts, the plate and the adjustable idler gear (Figure 21, left). Check the condition
of the bearing (Figure 21, right) in adjustable idler gear. If the bearing is worn or damaged, it
is to be replaced
Idler Gear
Figure 22 – Idler Gear
Remove bolts, plate and idler gear (Figure 22, left). Check the condition of the bearing (Figure
22, right) in the idler gear. If the bearing is worn or damaged, it is to be replaced.

Cluster Gear
Figure 23 – Cluster Gear
Remove bolts, plate and cluster gear (Figure 23, left). Check the condition of the bearing
(Figure 23, right) in the cluster gear. If the bearing is worn or damaged, it is to be replaced.

Plate Assembly
Figure 24 – Engine Front
Referring to Figure 24 above:

Shaft assemblies (19) and (20) must be removed in order to remove plate (23).
If the nuts and the bolt for shaft assembly (19) are loosened, or if shaft assembly (19) is
removed or moved in any way, the backlash for the camshaft gear and adjustable idler gear
will need to be readjusted at assembly. The backlash will also need to be readjusted if the
cylinder head was replaced.
Check the condition of shaft assembly (19). If the bearing diameter of the shaft is worn or
damaged, remove the nuts and the bolt and replace the shaft assembly (19).
Check the condition of shaft assembly (20). If the bearing diameter of the shaft is worn or
damaged, remove the nuts and the bolt and replace the shaft assembly (20).
Check the condition of shaft (21). If the bearing diameter of the shaft is worn or damaged,
remove bolts (22) and replace the shaft (21).
Remove bolts (24) that hold plate (23) to the cylinder block. Remove plate (23).
Remove any gaskets, seals or O-ring seals from the cylinder block.
Camshaft
Camshaft configuration will differ from engine to engine. Some will be in an overhead
configuration or a pushrod style configuration (internal of the engine block). It is best to refer
to manufacturer’s service manuals for the proper procedure to remove camshafts.

Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly
Cooling Jet
Before pistons can be removed, the cylinder head, oil pan and the oil pump must be removed
from the engine.
Figure 25 – Cooling Jet
Prior to removing pistons and connecting rods, the cooling jets (Figure 25) must be removed.
Simply remove the bolt and lift the cooling jet from the engine block.
Big End
Figure 26 – Big End Bolts
Turn the crankshaft until two pistons are at the bottom center.
Remove the carbon ridge from the top inside surface of the cylinder liner.
Remove the big end bolts (Figure 26) and the connecting rod bearing caps. Place the big
end caps in sequence on a bench and leave enough room for the corresponding piston to be
placed next to it.
Push the connecting rod and piston until the piston rings are out of the cylinder liners.

Figure 27 – Removing Piston
Remove pistons (Figure 27) and connecting rods from the cylinder liners. Repeat the above
steps in order to remove the remainder of the pistons and connecting rods.
NOTE:
Bearing caps and connecting rods are mating pairs. Bearings caps should be placed loosely
on the connecting rod to ensure they are not swapped over. Ensure also that the bearing cap
is placed on the connecting rod in the proper position – not 180° from the original position
and mark the cap and rod as necessary. Most manufacturers have distinct markings on these
components to ensure they are fitted correctly.
Crankshaft
Figure 28 – Main Bearing Caps
Ensure the engine is turned so that the bottom of the engine block is facing up. Also ensure
that the crankshaft front and rear seals are removed. Mark the bearing caps to ensure they
are installed in their correct position during assembly. Starting from the front of the engine,
remove No 1 through No 7 main bearing caps (Figure 28). Remove the thrust plates from the
No. 4 main bearing.
NOTE:
Some manufacturers recommend and special main bearing cap removal tool.

Use protective hooks to lift the crankshaft out of the engine block and place the crankshaft on
‘V’ blocks.
Figure 29 – Crankshaft Gear
For Caterpillar engines, the crankshaft gear (Figure 29) can be removed using a puller.
Remove the bearing shells from the engine block. Check the crankshaft immediately for signs
of significant damage that will not be repaired during reconditioning.
Cylinder Liners
Figure 30 – Cylinder Liner
A hammer, pry bar, punch, chisel or any other impact device should not be used to remove
cylinder liners. The correct puller, as shown in Figure 30, should be used.
When using the cylinder liner puller, follow manufacturer’s instructions, but generally the lower
section of the puller is twisted on to the lower part of the sleeve and clamped into position.
Once the clamp is in position, turn the screw to remove the liner.
If a liner is to be removed from a cast alloy or aluminum block an easier method may be to
immerse the block into hot water (nearly boiling) or force the hot water through the water
jackets. Once the block has expanded, the liners should be easier to remove.

Final Stages
Check the block for any components that may be left, e.g. camshaft bearings, starting motor
or dipstick. Realistically, all engine components should be cleaned prior to a full inspection
and the following procedure is a guide:
1. Ensure that all seals, gaskets, plugs and heavy dirt deposits are removed from the
engine block and disassembled components.
2. Disassembled components should be steam cleaned and dried using compressed air.
Any components that have been exposed to the internal parts of the engine, e.g. oil
pan, timing cover, gears, oil coolers etc., should be cleaned immediately after removal to
ensure that a collection of foreign substances does not occur.
3. If a glass bead cleaner is available, it may be used on such components as valves,
pistons, water pumps etc. Care should be taken that sensitive metals are not exposed to
a bead cleaner for too long as this may cause irreparable damage.
4. Assemblies should be cleaned in a hot tank as a complete component. If they are
disassembled, they should be placed in a wire basket or similar to ensure items are
not separated. If using a hot tank, check with manufacturer’s specification for solution
concentration and recommended temperatures.
5. Ensure that all engine block coolant passages and oil galleries have been thoroughly
cleaned and that all sections of the block, internally and externally are free of scale.

Topic 3
Cylinder Blocks
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Parent Bore Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Advantages of Parent Bore Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Dry Sleeve Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Wet Sleeve Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Advantages of Sleeved Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cylinder Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Reconditioning Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Measuring Cylinder Bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Precise Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Measuring Cylinder Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Installing Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Introduction
Cylinder blocks fit into two general types – one where cylinder linings cannot be replaced
(parent bore engine) and one where cylinder liners are replaceable.
Parent Bore Engine
Figure 31 – Parent Bore Engine
A parent bore engine (Figure 31) has the cylinders cast as an integral unit with the block. If
the cylinder wall is damaged or worn, the cylinder must be bored oversize and an oversized
piston must be used. Parent bore engines are not usually susceptible to cavitation erosion.
Sleeved engines refer to those engines where the cylinder liner can be replaced and are
broken into two categories:
Advantages of Parent Bore Engines

1. Usually cost less because the manufacturing process includes integral cylinder bores that
only require sizing and honing.
2. Parent bore blocks tend to be lighter and stronger than its counterpart sleeved engine of
the same size.
3. Parent bore blocks have less likelihood of developing internal coolant leaks.

Dry Sleeve Engine
Figure 32 – Dry Sleeve Engine
Dry Sleeve Engine – an engine design where the cylinder sleeves are pressed into the bore
of the engine block (parent bore).
There is no coolant flow around the sleeve (heat is transferred to the coolant via the parent
bore) and life is equivalent to parent bore engine designs. Overhaul costs benefits are often
lost due to the fact that sleeves are difficult to remove and replace.
Wet Sleeve Engine
Figure 33 – Wet Sleeve Engine
Wet Sleeve Engine – a wet sleeve engine uses removable sleeves for the cylinder walls
(Figure 33). The sleeves form the cylinder bore on the inside of the sleeve, and the coolant
cavity on the outside of the sleeve. O-rings at the top and bottom of the sleeve seal the
coolant passages at the top and bottom of the block.
A scored or worn sleeve can be replaced, creating an entirely new cylinder. Wet sleeves are
prone to cavitation pitting on the coolant surface that can result in complete failure of the
sleeve and coolant loss into the cylinder or oil pan. Special wetting agents are needed in the
antifreeze mixture to reduce cavitation.

Advantages of Sleeved Engines
Engines with replaceable cylinder liners can be easily overhauled ‘in chassis’. This is
particularly important in on-highway truck and marine applications.
Special wear resistant and heat treated alloys that produce better results than the parent
metal of the cylinder block can be used to manufacture cylinder liners.
Cylinder Block
Inspection
Prior Preparation
Figure 34 – Cleaning a Cylinder Block
Prior to inspection, the cylinder block needs to be thoroughly cleaned (Figure 34) and dried.
Once it is dry, move the cylinder block to a flat surface where access is predominantly waist
height. A complete inspection of the cylinder block will determine if it should be scrapped or it
can be refurbished.
Drying the cylinder block with compressed air is an acceptable method, but it is best left in a
dry warm area for at least 24 hours prior to inspection.

Inspection
Figure 35 – Ready for inspection
Make sure that all solutions used to clean the block and any paint is not present (Figure 35).
Check that all the scale has been removed from the coolant passages and that openings
have not been damaged by corrosion. Check for pitted water holes and evidence of cavitation,
especially around the coolant inlet and outlet to the cylinder block. Pitted water holes, scale
and results of corrosion will damage surfaces and may mean that sealants, gaskets and
O-rings will be unable to perform their correct function.
Testing
There is a need to check for cracks, porosity and leaks. Leaks can normally be detected by
stains developing on the cylinder block and may have even been detected prior to engine
cleaning before removal from the chassis.
There are a number of methods used to check for cracks and porosity. The most common
and cheapest to use is a dye penetrant, where a dye is placed over a suspected area then
wiped clean. A light coating of a chalk like substance is then applied over the suspected area.
If there is a crack or porosity present, the dye that has imbedded itself will seep out into the
chalk. A solid or dotted line will appear.
Figure 36 – Cylinder Block Crack
Cylinder blocks tend to crack between the cylinder bores (Figure 36), between the coolant
passages and the crankcase and between the coolant passages and oil passages and
wherever the thickness of the base metal is thin and subject to combustion pressures, inertia

forces or cavitation and corrosion. Cracks may occur because of overheating, extreme high
friction, improper cylinder head torqueing, vibration or casting damage due to failure of
components.
Figure 37 – Pressure testing a Cylinder Block
It is recommended that pressure testing of the cylinder block (Figure 37) be conducted prior
to any servicing taking place. When pressure testing, seal all coolant openings with plates,
gaskets, seals or O-rings. If wet liners are used, they must be inserted. Fill the block with
coolant and anti-freeze at the correct concentration for the engine being tested. Anti-freeze
will lower the surface tension of the coolant, allowing it to penetrate into small cracks and the
color of the anti-freeze will make it easier to see.
Refer to manufacturer’s specifications for the correct pressures and time needed for correct
pressure testing of cylinder blocks.
Another method for testing cracks is to immerse the pressurized cylinder block (no anti-freeze
in the coolant) into a heated water tank (just below boiling point) and watch for air bubbles.
Check all mounting surfaces for flatness using a straight edge. Be sure to check around bolt
and stud holes. If needed, repair surfaces according to manufacturer’s recommendations.
Inspect all internal and external threads. If required, restore any damaged threads using taps
and dies. If it is not possible to restore threads, there will be a need to replace studs or drill
out internal threads and either replace with thread inserts or resize the hole, depending on
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Figure 38 – Cylinder Block top surface
Using a flat edge, physically check the top surface of the cylinder block (Figure 38) for
flatness. The top surface should be checked longitudinally, transversely and diagonally. The
results are to be compared to manufacturer’s specifications.
If the measurements exceed manufacturer’s specifications, the surface must be ‘shaved’
to within specifications otherwise it will be difficult to maintain sealing of oil, coolant and
compression pressures. Do not refinish the block to a height less than that designated by the
manufacturer – it may cause pistons to contact the cylinder head or at the least it will increase
compression pressures to a point where damage may occur to crankshaft and connecting rod
bearings due to an excess of force.
Figure 39 – Sleeve Counter Bore
Inspect the cylinder bores and sleeve counter bores (Figure 39) for corrosion or wear. The
cylinder block should be scraped if these areas cannot be cleaned, refinished or resleeved.
Engines fitted with dry cylinder liners rely on good sleeve to bore contact since the transfer
of heat from the combustion chamber to the coolant relies upon conduction. Excessive
clearance or cylinder bore distortion will reduce heat transfer, therefore, before measuring the
bores for out of roundness or taper, clean the bores using an adjustable rigid hone.
Reconditioning Cylinders
When an engine is rebuilt, the cylinders usually need attention. Wear tends to create taper
in the upper part of the cylinder that can reduce ring sealing and increase blowby and oil
consumption if not removed. The cylinder may also be out of round, scored or have other
damage that requires correcting before a new set of rings will seal properly.

Honing
The main objective when refinishing the cylinders is to make the walls as straight as possible
(no taper), the bores as round as possible (minimal distortion, which is especially important
with today’s low tension rings), to have the right amount of crosshatch for good oil retention
and ring support and to produce a surface finish that meets the requirements of the rings.
Figure 40 – Honing Tool
This is done by boring and/or honing the cylinders (Figure 40) in one or several steps with
various types of abrasives (vitrified or diamond).
Honing is defined as a cutting process with a multi-edge tool of bonded grain, under constant
surface contact and pressure between the component and the tool. It improves the size,
shape and surface finish of a pre-machined component.
Besides rotational movement, the rotating honing tool also carries out longitudinal movement.
Figure 41 – Crosshatch Pattern
This means the surfaces produced have a parallel crosshatch pattern (Figure 41).

Figure 42 – Honing Stones
The honing process also comprises the expansion of honing stones (Figure 42) or diamond
ledges fitted onto the honing tool. This means the material is cut steadily and the surface is
smoothed over the entire length of a bore. It is because of the quality of finish that honing has
been used as a finishing method of piston bores in cylinder blocks by the automotive industry
for many years.
The basics of honing cylinder blocks hasn’t changed much in recent years, but what has
changed are the type of abrasives being used by many engine builders. Silicon carbide
and aluminum oxide honing stones of various grits have long been used in power honing
machines and portable hones to finish cylinder bores. These types of abrasives are popular
with engine builders because of their flexibility and low cost.
But in recent years, a growing number of performance engine builders and custom engine
builders have started using the same type of honing stones that production engine rebuilders
and OEMs use: diamond abrasives.
After honing, the cylinders need to be cleaned to remove residual abrasive and metallic debris
that’s left in the bores. Washing and scrubbing with warm soapy water will remove most of the
unwanted material. Washing alone will not loosen or remove surface ‘swarf’ such as torn or
folded metal that can wear rings and delay ring seating.
Figure 43 – Polishing the Bore
The only way to get rid of this material and smooth the bores is to ‘polish’ the bores after
honing with some type of flexible abrasive brush (Figure 43).
Brushing after honing not only helps clean the bores, but can also plateau the surface
depending on the characteristics of the abrasive used. Brushing sweeps away the torn and

folded metal as well as the sharp, jagged peaks; leaving a much smoother surface. The result
is a better bore finish with little extra effort.
One of the advantages of a plateau bore finish is that it preconditions or ‘breaks-in’, the
cylinders. This reduces the time it takes to seat a new set of piston rings, initial ring wear,
blowby and oil consumption. The engine delivers good compression virtually straight away,
there’s no blue smoke in the exhaust, emissions and oil consumption are reduced and the
piston rings last longer because they haven’t had to wear to conform to the bores. A plateau
bore surface also provides increased area to support the rings while retaining enough depth
in the crosshatch for good oil retention and lubrication.
NOTE:
Wet sleeves are best honed while they are in the cylinder block. Clamping them in a vice while
honing will result in the bore being out of round.
NOTE:
Honing will cause debris build up. Wash the bore or sleeve and allow time for the block to cool
down prior to measuring.
Boring Cylinders
Figure 44 – Boring
If a cylinder bore does not meet specifications, the dimension of the bore must be increased
to allow the fitting of oversized pistons. This is accomplished by using a special precision
cylinder boring machine (Figure 44) or a portable boring bar. This is a specialist task and
requires the operator to complete comprehensive training courses. This task is normally
outsourced to specialist machine shops, but when they return to the workshop, ensure that
the cylinders meet manufacturer’s specifications for maximum boring allowable and that all
sharp edges have been removed and the bore has been honed prior to fitting new pistons.
New oversized pistons should be marked as such with a specific measurement on them.
Make sure they match the size of the rebored cylinder.

Measuring Cylinder Bores
Before measuring the cylinder bores, they should be cleaned with soap and water. Dry the
cylinder and then smear a fine coating oil in the cylinder. Remove the oil with a cloth or paper
towel until no oil is present. This ensures a clean area and provides a surface that will give a
correct measurement.
Figure 45 – Measuring Cylinder Bores
To measure the inside diameter of the cylinder bore, use an inside micrometer or a telescopic
bore gauge (Figure 45). When using a telescopic bore gauge, it must be set and adjusted to
the bore’s maximum diameter by using an outside micrometer. If you are measuring cylinders
sleeves, they are best measured whilst they are installed in the cylinder block.
To obtain information regarding cylinder roundness and taper, the bore needs to be measured
in at least four areas and consideration will need to be made for maximum wear areas.
Figure 46 – Maximum Wear
Maximum wear (Figure 46) will be found at right angles to the length of the block below the
ring groove in each cylinder (maximum thrust is felt when the piston is just below Top Dead
Centre (TDC) of the power stroke).
Consequently, measurements will need to be taken just below the ring groove, transverse
to the block and at 90° to this measurement (longitudinal). Another two measurements are
made on the cylinder at the bottom of piston travel, transverse to the block and at 90° to this

measurement. These measurements will give you information to calculate ovality and taper of
the cylinder bore. These outcomes need to be compared to manufacturer’s specifications.
If the measurements do not come within specifications, in the case of a sleeve, it will need to
be replaced. In the case of a parent block, the cylinders will need to be rebored and oversized
pistons used. Different manufacturers have differing specifications for this and recommended
will need to be followed.
Precise Measurement
Cylinder Liner Protrusion
Figure 47 – Measuring Cylinder Liner Protrusion
Before conducting any measurements, ensure the cylinder liner is sitting as is should in
the bore. The best method of measuring cylinder bore liner protrusion is shown in Figure
47 above. Make sure the cylinder block and top of the liner surface is clean. Compare
measurements to manufacturer’s specifications. Some manufacturers produce ‘Go – No Go’
type gauges and they simply give an indication of the measurement between the cylinder top
deck and the top of the liner. If the measurements do not match specifications, refer to the
recommendations of the manufacturer. In some instances there may be a need to replace or
remove shims between the cylinder top deck and the cylinder liner.
Main Bearing Caps and Bores
Before checking main bearing caps and bores, ensure all components are clean and free
of wear, gouges or burrs. Remove any bearing shells from the main bearing cap. Check the
main bearing caps for any signs of bearing shell rotation or burn marks. Burn marks may
indicate a blocked oil hole and the bearing has been running at excessive temperatures.
Ensure the correctly identified main bearing caps are in the proper position. The machined
surface of the cap must rest fully on the mating surface otherwise the main bearing cap will
be distorted during tightening.

Figure 48 – Measuring Main Bearing caps
Tighten the main bearing caps to manufacturer’s specifications. Measure the main bearing
bores (Figure 48) in three positions, vertical, horizontal and diagonally at 45°.
Figure 49 – Main Bearing Cap Alignment
If the main bearing caps are within specifications they then need to be checked for alignment.
Alignment can be checked with a master bar or a boring bar (Figure 49). Remove the caps,
place the bar into the cylinder block and retighten the main bearing bolts to specifications.
Ensure there is lubrication on the bar. Check the alignment of the main bearing journals as
per manufacturer’s specifications.
If the main bearing journals are not aligned correctly it can result in overheating, vibration,
broken crankshaft and other severe stress. If the main bearing bores are out of alignment and
well outside specification, the cylinder block should be scrapped. Check specifications for
tolerances that allow for main bearing journal re-boring.
Camshaft Bearings and Bores
Normally during a major engine overhaul, it’s common practice to replace the camshaft
bearings. Depending on engine design, the camshaft may be located in the crankcase area,
the upper part of the cylinder block or in the cylinder head if it is an overhead camshaft
configuration. The camshaft bearing (bushing) oil clearance differs with each manufacturer
and specifications should be referred to.
Camshaft bearings come in a standard size but are normally available in oversize
configurations. To ascertain the clearance, measure the inside diameter of the bearings.
Measure the outside diameter of the camshaft journals and compare the measurements to
obtain running clearance.

Figure 50 – Removing Camshaft Bearings
When removing camshaft bearings:

1. Remove bolts from rear cover (Figure 50). Inspect the O-ring seal and replace the O-ring
seal if it is worn or damaged.
Figure 51 – Camshaft Bearing Removal Tool
2. Install the small end of the Tooling (Figure 51) in the camshaft bearing.
3. Place the Positioning Tooling on to the Tooling.
4. Use the Tooling to remove camshaft bearing from the cylinder head.
5. Remove the Positioning Tool from the Tooling and remove the camshaft bearing.
6. Repeat all steps and remove the remaining camshaft bearings. Once the camshaft
bearings have been removed, visually inspect the camshaft bearing bores and check for
nicks, burrs and cracks.

Figure 51 – Measuring Camshaft Journals
Measure the camshaft journals. This may be conducted using a telescopic gauge (in
conjunction with an outside micrometer) or an inside micrometer (Figure 52). Measurements
should be taken vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the bore. Refer outcomes to
manufacturer’s specifications.
Figure 52 – Cam Bearings Fitted
When refitting camshaft bearings to an engine block, use the same tooling used for the
removal. Refer to manufacturer’s specifications.
Ensure that the inside of the cylinder head is clean. Inspect the camshaft bore for metal burrs.
Put a thin film of clean engine oil on the inside of the camshaft bearing bores and on each
camshaft bearing prior to installation.

Cylinder Liners
Figure 53 – Cylinder Liner
It is necessary to remove the cylinder liners (Figure 54) in order to conduct an external
inspection. Check the lower and upper sealing surfaces, the coolant passages, counterbore
and lower cylinder bore. If circumstance requires that the liners remain in position, check the
liner and the block for vertical and horizontal cracks, scoring, excessive wear and heat marks.
Liner protrusion and inside diameters should also be checked.
Inspection and Reusability
Below are some the common problem associated with cylinder liners. Failures generally result
because of two reasons; result of parts not being serviced correctly or incorrect installation or
secondly, failures caused by an unbalanced condition between the coolant and temperature,
i.e. by chemical or mineral content in the coolant, coolant system failure or incorrect coolant
system maintenance.
Figure 54 – Score Mark
Figure 54 shows a cylinder liner with a score mark on the inside surface. Possible causes of
this are:
1. Ring scuffing

2. Piston scoring
3. Improper cold start
4. Honing debris
5. Dirt in the intake air
6. Broken ring or ring land
7. Sleeve seating rings installed incorrectly
8. Cylinder block bore distortion
Figure 55 – Corrosion
The cylinder liner shown in Figure 55 above indicates corrosion on the outside surface of the
cylinder liner. Possible causes of this condition are:
1. Incorrect coolant treatment, including corrosion resistance and chemical content
2. Long storage without draining the coolant

Figure 56 – Abrasives in the coolant
Figure 56 above is showing a cylinder liner that shows signs of abrasives in the coolant.
Possible causes of this can be sand or abrasives in the coolant (possibly left over from the
casting process).
Figure 57 – Cracking around the liner flange
Figure 57 above shows cracking of the cylinder liner around the flange. Some of the reasons
for this may be:
1. Improper machining of the flange counterbore
2. Improper fitting
3. Improper shimming of the flange counterbore area
4. Over torqueing of the cylinder head
5. Improper protrusion of the cylinder liner
6. Upper block distortion.
If the cracking is on the lower part of the liner, then it may be due to improper fitting of the
packing rings, overheating, hot spots, corrosion or scoring.

Figure 58 – Cavitation
Figure 58 above is showing signs of initial cavitation marks. Possible causes of this may be
aerated coolant, liner movement, high coolant temperature, inadequate coolant treatment or
even low coolant flow.
Figure 59 – Fretting
Figure 59 above shows some fretting around the liner flange. Possible causes of this include
improper torqueing of head bolts, uneven liner protrusion, loose liner, damaged or worn head
gasket.
Figure 60 – Vertical Crack
A vertical crack in the liner is shown in Figure 60 above. Possible causes

for this includes handling damage, severe cavitation, improper cooling or

even the result of piston seizure
Figure 61 – Discoloration
Figure 61 above is showing a cylinder liner with discoloration. Light or medium grey is the
normal color. Dark coloring normally indicates overheating.
Figure 62 – Crack on the inside of the Liner
Figure 62 above is showing a crack on the inside of the cylinder liner. Possible causes of this
may be:
1. Improper machining of the flange counterbore
2. Improper fitting
3. Improper shimming of the flange counterbore area
4. Over torqueing of the cylinder head
5. Improper protrusion of the cylinder liner
6. Upper block distortion
7. Result of scoring
8. Improper cooling

Measuring Cylinder Liners
Cylinder liners should be measured with the liner fitted to the engine. It should be measured
in two directions. Firstly; parallel to the crankshaft and then secondly; at 90° to the original
measurement. A measurement should be taken just below the ring groove at the top of
the liner; another approximately half way down the cylinder and another at the bottom of
the liner (in this location there will probably be no piston travel so honing cross hatching
should be present and measurements should indicate the original size of the liner). Proper
measurement will give an indication of ovality and taper of the liner.
Check manufacturer’s specifications for liner measurements. If the cylinder liner is within
certain specifications and it is found to be serviceable when inspected, it may only need
rehoning prior to fitting to the engine.
Installing Liners
When installing wet or dry liners refer to the manufacturer’s service manuals for
recommended procedures. Particular emphasis should be on clearances and packing rings
for wet liners and the press fitting procedures for dry liners.

Topic 4
Camshaft and Crankshaft
Inspection
Contents
Camshafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Camshaft Lobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Visual Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Procedure to Measure Camshaft Straightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Thrust Washer Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Camshaft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Camshaft Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Causes of Crankshaft Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Before Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
After Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Inspection Using the Magnetic Field Fluorescent Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Crankshaft Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Main Bearing Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Polishing Crankshafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Crankshaft Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Installing Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Measuring Oil Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Camshafts
Figure 63 – Camshaft wear
If the engine is well maintained and consequently always operates with clean oil, wear on
camshaft journals and lobes will be minimal (Figure 63).
Camshaft Lobe
Figure 64 – Camshaft Lobe
Camshaft lobes have what is called ‘lift’ (Figure 64). This lift is what provides the movement for
the opening and closing of valves and in some instances camshaft lobes are used to operate
injectors.
To measure lobe lift, firstly, take a measure from the nose to the base of the camshaft lobe.
Secondly, measure the base circle of the lobe. To find lobe lift, subtract the base circle
measurement from the nose to base measurement. Most manufacturers will specify maximum
and minimum lobe lift and allowable wear. If measurements fall outside of specifications,
including rebuild specifications, scrap the camshaft.

Visual Inspections
Cleaning
If the camshaft has integral oil galleries there will be a need to remove any end plugs and
clean the galleries (normally with compressed air).
Clean the camshaft with a high-pressure wash, steam, solvent, a degreaser, or a caustic
solution and rinse.
Inspection
After cleaning the camshaft, visually inspect each camshaft lobe for damage. If the camshaft
will not be inspected within an hour after being cleaned, apply a layer of engine oil to the
journals and lobes in order to prevent corrosion.
Any camshaft that contains corrosive damage to the lobes, minor damage from debris, or
pitting from fatigue needs to be polished before determining reusability.
Inspect the surface of the journals and lobes for any markings (scoring / heat / burrs etc.).
Inspect keyways and thrust journals. If there is significant damage to journal, lobes, keyways
or thrust surfaces, the camshaft should be scrapped.
Irregular Patterns
Figure 65 – Micro Pitting
Do not reuse camshafts that show signs of micro pitting (Figure 65). Deep micro pitting is
unacceptable in any camshaft. The camshaft should be replaced if micro pitting exists.

Figure 66 – Deep micro pitting
Deep micro pitting exists on the intake lobe or the exhaust lobe (Figure 66).
Figure 67 – Severe micro pitting
Severe micro pitting exists on the intake lobe or the exhaust lobe (Figure 67).
Figure 68 – Micro pitting on injector lobe
Deep micro pitting exists on the injector lobe (Figure 68).

Normal Contact Patterns
Figure 69 – Normal wear patterns
Figure 69 shows normal wear patterns from contact of the roller follower on the camshaft. The
shiny areas are acceptable for a camshaft and the camshaft may be reused.
During visual inspection, make sure that every lobe of the camshaft is thoroughly inspected. If
one lobe of the camshaft is damaged, the camshaft cannot be reused.
For operation of pushrods, some engines are fitted with rocker roller type lifters and some
are fitted with solid or hydraulic operated lifters. Check with manufacturer’s procedures for
inspection of cam lifter (followers).
If the journals, lobes, keyways or thrust surfaces are serviceable, the camshaft should be
checked for runout. To do this, place the camshaft on V blocks and check the runout using a
dial indicator.
Procedure to Measure Camshaft Straightness

Every camshaft must be checked for maximum allowable runout for the journal. The
maximum allowable runout for the journal is specified in the manufacturer’s service manuals
and is designated in a reading of millimeters or inches of length of the camshaft between the
nearest bearing journal at the end and the journal that is being measured.
Figure 70 – C-15 Specs from SIS
An example of the measurements that are used to determine the straightness of the camshaft
is in Figure 70 above:
(5) 127.00 mm (5.000 inch)
(6) 254.00 mm (10.000 inch)

Figure 71 – V Blocks
Place the supporting V blocks under the first bearing journal and the last bearing journal that
is shown in Figure 71.
Using a dial indicator, place the probe on the camshaft journals, zero the gauge and rotate
the camshaft to measure runout. Refer to specifications to ensure runout is within tolerance.
Thrust Washer Groove
Figure 72 – Thrust Washer Groove
The dimensions for the groove as shown in SIS or a C15 engine are in Figure 72 above. As
an example, the specifications for this engine, as written in SIS are:
The width of the groove for the thrust washer for new parts should be 12.00 ± 0.05 mm
(0.472 ± 0.002 inch). The maximum width of the groove for the thrust washer must not
exceed 12.09 mm (0.4760 inch).
Camshaft Gear
Inspect camshaft gears for wear, nicks, cuts or burrs that may affect the serviceability of the
component. Backlash should be checked and it is best conducted prior to disassembly of the
engine.
Camshaft Installation
Refer to manufacturer’s specifications for camshaft installation.

Crankshaft
Causes of Crankshaft Failure
Figure 73 – Crankshaft
If the crankshaft (Figure 73) is installed correctly and is operated under normal conditions, it
will rarely fail. If failure occurs, the reason for the failure should be determined and corrective
measures taken. Some conditions that will cause crankshaft failure are:
Not enough, improper grade or contaminated oil created because of negligent engine
service or maintenance scheduling.
Inappropriate storage or handling
Engine over speed – this can produce excessive crankshaft vibration
Incorrect radii at the journal fillet (Figure 73) and oil holes. This tends to create fatigue
cracks
A loose vibration damper or crankshaft balance weight. In these circumstances the
crankshaft vibration cannot be controlled and creates torsional stresses at the connecting
rod journals.
Inappropriate bearing cap fittings – loose or an obstruction between the bearing cap and
the upper surface of the bearing insert.
A combination of abrasives and heat can destroy a main bearing, meaning the crankshaft
will be unsupported, creating a bending stress on the crankshaft.
Improper mounting of the engine into the chassis, causing the engine block to twist.
Main bearing bore misalignment, high shaft runout or worn bearings. These tend to cause
the crankshaft to bend and crack.
Torque converter or transmission misalignment will cause excessive side load on the rear
main bearing and consequently, on the connecting rod journals.
Excessive end thrust
Improper oil supply.
Uneven mounting.
Prior to determining if a crankshaft (Figure 73) should be reground or scrapped, a preliminary
inspection should occur.

The sidewalls and journals should be checked for:
Chatter marks
Bearing smear
Embedded materials
Scratched or discolored journals
Metal displacement
If a journal has been overheated it will normally show a dark bluish discoloration. Visually
check for cracks on the journals, around oil holes and at the fillets. Inspect for wear steps
and corrosion on thrust faces and look for damaged or loose counterweights, keyways and
gearing. Look at oil seal surfaces for excessive wear (grooves).
Figure 74 – Moving the Crankshaft
When a crankshaft is removed, installed, or moved, be very careful not to damage journals.
Check the weight of the crankshaft and where possible, use a sling assembly or two 1.5 m (5
ft.) nylon slings with the correct capacity (Figure 74). The crankshaft should be placed on V
blocks to allow for safety and easier access.
Place the slings into position around two main or rod journals equal distance from the ends
of crankshaft. Make certain nothing metallic comes in contact with bearing journal surfaces,
fillets, or other important machined areas. If the crankshaft is lifted by any other method,
some type of protection (thick rubber hose, plastic tubes, or soft brass) must be put at the
point of contact with the journals. These protective materials must be checked regularly for
signs of wear and/or embedded metal particles.
Before Visual Inspection

Before conducting a full in-depth visual inspection, the following should be conducted:
1. Immediately after crankshaft has been removed from the engine, look for any clear signs
of heavy damage that cannot be corrected by reconditioning.
2. Clean the outside of the crankshaft with a high-pressure wash, steam, solvent, degreaser,
or caustic bath and rinse.
3. If crankshaft cannot be inspected immediately (less than one hour after it is cleaned),
coat journals with a layer of engine oil to prevent corrosion.

Visual Inspection
The following graphics will give some guidelines on what to look for when inspecting
a crankshaft. Refer to manufacturer’s specifications and service manuals for individual
inspection procedures
Broken or Cracked Crankshafts
Figure 75 – Cracked crankshafts
Typical examples of broken and/or cracked crankshafts are shown at Figure 75. Do not use
again.
Journal Hardness
Use crankshafts only if journal hardness is acceptable and if there is enough material on
the journal surface to grind it undersize. For procedures to check the hardness and journal
dimensions, see the relevant manufacturer’s guides.
Figure 76 – Heat and moving materials
Journals indicating signs of heat and moved material are shown in Figure 76.

Journal Profile and Polishing
The following crankshafts can be used again after the journal is polished and only if the
profile and surface finish are acceptable. For measurement of profile and surface finish, see
manufacturer’s guides and recommendations.
Figure 77 – Lightly scratched bearing journals
Examples of lightly scratched bearing journals are shown in Figure 77.
Heavy Scratches and Dents
Figure 78 – Heavy scratch
The journal shown in Figure 78 has a single heavy scratch on its circumference.
The exert from the SIS regarding C-15 engines reads as:
The figure above shows a journal that has been scratched. Use again if scratch is 0.5 mm
(0.020 inch) or less in width, is not in a fillet and does not go through the oil hole. Remove
all burrs with a Polishing Stone and then polish the journal. After the journal is polished,
the crankshaft must meet specifications in Guideline for Reusable Parts SEBF8041
‘Specifications for Crankshafts in Caterpillar Engines’.

Figure 79 – Small dent
Figure 79 is showing a small dent in the rod journal.
Figure 80 – Deep scratch
A deep scratch is shown on the rod journal in Figure 81 above.

Figure 79 and 80 show dents and scratches on the journal. Use again only if the dent (or
scratch) is shorter than half the journal width, does not go beyond the bearing width (as
shown in Figure 81), or does not go into a fillet. Remove burrs with a Polishing Stone and
then polish the journal.

Smearing
Figure 81 – Smearing
Typical examples of smearing are shown at Figure 81 above.

Journals with smearing can be used again after journal is polished and all smearing is
removed.
Steps
Figure 82 – Steps
Wear steps that can be seen and felt on the journal surface are shown in Figure 82 above.
Exert from SIS for 3400 Series engines:
Crankshaft journals with a wear step that can be seen and felt or that measures more than
0.005 mm (0.0002 inch) must be ground to an acceptable profile. See Guideline for Reusable
Parts SEBF8054 ‘Procedure to Measure and Straighten Bent Crankshafts’.
On 3412 crankshafts, it is acceptable to grind the rod journals using a ‘double plunge’
process, where each half of a given rod journal is independently ground. The dimensions of
this wear step cannot exceed a maximum height of 0.0177 mm (0.0007 inch) or a maximum
width of 0.89 mm (0.035 Inch). Other than this ground step feature, all normal surface finish
requirements apply. See Guideline for Reusable Parts SEBF8042 ‘Procedure to Grind and
Polish Crankshafts’.

NOTE:
As long as the step resulting from the ‘double plunge’ grinding process meets these
requirements, it is in no way detrimental to the performance or durability of the crankshaft.
Erosion
Figure 83 – Erosion
Typical examples of erosion are shown in Figure 83 above.

Use crankshafts with evidence of erosion only after the journal it is polished and the
corrosion completely removed. If pitting remains after the journal is polished, grind the journal
undersize.
Water Marks
Figure 84 – Watermarks
Typical examples of a water mark are shown in Figure 84 above.

If there are water marks on the journal surface, use the crankshaft again only after the journal
is polished and measured and comes within specifications.

Depressions
Figure 85 – Depressions
Figure 85 above depicts a normal number of depressions on a bearing journal surface and
a normal number of depressions in the fillet. Use again if there is a very small number of
depressions on the bearing journal surface.
Do not use again if there is a high concentration of depressions on bearing journal surface.
Chatter
Figure 86 – Chatter
Signs of chatter on a bearing journal surface are shown in Figure 86 above. Use again only
if the chatter can no longer be seen after the journal is polished. If the chatter marks remain,
the crankshaft must be reground.

Embedded Metal Parts
Figure 87 – Embedded metal particles
Embedded metal particles (and burrs) on the journal bearing surface are shown in Figure 87
above.
Journals with embedded metal particles can be used again after the journal surface is
polished and if all embedded metal particles and burrs are removed. Measure the journal. If it
is not acceptable, the journal must be reground.
Oil Hole
Figure 88 – Oil hole
An oil hole with sharp edges is shown in Figure 88 above.

Oil holes with sharp edges can be used again after the sharp edges are removed and the oil
holes is polished. Oil holes should be thoroughly flushed to remove any debris.

Fillet
Figure 89 – Bearing material in the fillet
Signs of bearing material in the fillet is shown in Figure 89 above. Use again after the fillet is
polished and all bearing material is removed. The same will apply if pitting occurs in the fillet.
Figure 90 – Fillet contour
If there is a need to regrind the fillet, there may be a change in contour (shape) low in the
fillet. Do not use again unless changes in the contour are above the point shown in Figure 91.
Ensure the fillet blends smoothly with the journal surface.

Keyways
Figure 91 – Keyway
Keyway groove has rough, sharp edges (Figure 91). Use again after the rough and/or raised
edges are completely removed with a small file or emery paper. If there are burrs on the
tapered shaft, only use again after the burrs are removed with a Polishing Stone.
Gears
Figure 92 – Gears
Do not re-use gears that have broken teeth and/or show heavy pitting (Figure 92).

Seal Surface
Figure 93 – Seal surface
A groove along the circumference of the seal surface can be easily felt (Figure 93).
Damaged seal surfaces can be reconditioned by installing a wear sleeve over the groove, or,
if possible, installing the seal to one side of the wear. For wear sleeve installation, see the
manufacturer’s guideline.
Oil Thrower
Figure 94 – Oil Thrower
The oil thrower surface (Figure 94) must be free of scratches, burrs or grooves.

After Visual Inspection
After a visual inspection is completed ensure that all Allen head plugs and core plugs are
removed and all oil passages have been thoroughly cleaned.
Oil Passage Cleaning
Figure 95 – Cleaning oil passages
A brush group used to thoroughly clean oil passages is shown in Figure 95 above.
Warning!
Install the brush on a variable speed drill. Operate the drill at 300 rpm. Never operate the
drill unless the brush is inside the oil passage.
Long Term Storage
Figure 96 – Long term storage
For long periods of storage, place a thin layer of rust inhibitor on the crankshaft and keep it
stored in a wooden box (Figure 96).

Damage other than corrosion can also be a problem during storage. For extended periods of
storage, place plastic plugs in all oil holes and heavily oiled cardboard between all journals
and rack supports.
Inspection Using the Magnetic Field Fluorescent Method
Figure 97 – Ultraviolet light glow
When the magnetic field fluorescent method is used, the crankshaft is sprayed with a special
fluid containing magnetic fluorescent particles. These will glow under a black (ultraviolet) light,
as shown in Figure 97 above. Refer to manufacturer’s procedures when using this method.
Crankshaft Measurement
Connecting Rod Journal
Figure 98 – Using a Micrometer
Each connecting rod journal should be measured using a micrometer as shown in Figure 98
above.

Figure 99 – Measurement locations
Take two separate sets of measurement. The second set of measurements should be at 90°
to the first (Figure 99). The difference between these measurements will determine the ovality
(out of roundness) and taper of the journal. Measure each journal until the smallest diameter
is obtained.
Main Bearing Journals
Figure 100 – Main Bearing Journals
The measurement of the main bearing journals is conducted the same the connecting rod
journal measurements.

Thrust Flange
Figure 101 – Measuring the Thrust Flange for Wear
Measure the thrust flange for wear by using an inside micrometer to measure the thrust
surface distances, as shown in Figure 101 above.
Crankshaft Runout
Figure 102 – Measuring Crankshaft Runout
When measuring crankshaft runout, place V blocks (lubricated) under the end journals and
place a dial indicator onto the center main journal as shown in Figure 102 above. Set the dial
to zero and slowly rotate the crankshaft and read the dial. Ensure the dial indicator is securely
mounted and that the arm is resting on a part of the journal that will not cause the rod to
enter an oil hole.
Results should be within manufacturer’s specifications. Depending on the measurement,
some crankshafts may be straightened and this procedure is normally conducted by an
outside agency that specializes in this process.

Polishing Crankshafts
Procedure to Polish Journals
The following procedures for polishing journals are from the Caterpillar SIS WEB and are
used as an example.
The following procedures should be used for polishing crankshaft journals:
1. Inspect the journal according to manufacturer’s specifications and specifications. Be sure
to polish ONLY those journals that need to be polished.
2. Install the crankshaft on the polishing lathe or crankshaft grinder so that the crankshaft
will turn in the same direction as it would in the engine. (Normally, this direction is anti-
clockwise as seen from the flywheel end of the crankshaft.)
3. If the oil holes have sharp edges, use the cartridge roll, mandrel and drill to remove burrs
and polish the oil hole radius. Polish the oil hole until all sharp edges are removed.
Figure 103 – Direction of polishing belt in relation to rotation of crankshaft
4. After all the oil holes are inspected and polished, polish the bearing journal surface with
the weight of the high-speed polisher on the Polishing Belt. The direction of the polishing
belt MUST be as shown in Figure 103. The belt does not need to be ‘broken-in’ (special
treatment) before use and can be used wet or dry.
5. On large engines, the first polishing operation should use a rotation opposite of the
final grind operation. Crankshaft rotation shall alternate with each succeeding polishing
operation.
6. Polish the journal only during rotation of the crankshaft. During rotation, move the
polishing belt slowly and evenly across the journal surface into the fillets. Do not polish in
the same place for more than 15 seconds.
Generally, the journal will be polished in 15 to 120 seconds. If, after this time, the journal
surface finish is still more than 0.25 micrometer (10 micro inch), the original journal surface
was too rough.
After the crankshaft has been polished, remove the crankshaft oil plugs and clean the oil
passages with solvent and brushes.

Crankshaft Grinding
Figure 104 – Crankshaft grinding
Crankshaft grinding (Figure 104) is a specialist field and normally conducted by specially
trained personnel using specialist equipment. Because of the cost of training and machinery
it is cheaper for generalist workshops to send crankshafts to these specialist shops to
conduct this operation.
Installing Crankshaft
NOTE:
Ensure the correct bearings are selected for the crankshaft installation as per manufacturer’s
specifications. Check to make sure for journal size to block crankshaft bore size, especially if
the crankshaft has been ground.
The following procedures for installing a crankshaft are from the Caterpillar SIS WEB
instructions for a C-15 engine and are used as an example only.
Figure 105 – Crankshaft
Referring to Figure 105 above:

1. Install pin (5) in the crankshaft.
2. The maximum length of the dowel out of the crankshaft face ... 6.4 mm (0.25 inch)

3. Install dowel at the crankshaft gear face end in the crankshaft.
4. Protrusion of dowel from the crankshaft face ... 4.1 ± 0.5 mm (0.16 ± 0.02 inch)
5. Raise the temperature of crankshaft gear (6). Install crankshaft gear (6) on the crankshaft
with the keyway in alignment with dowel. Timing Mark ‘V’ should face away from the
crankshaft.
NOTE:
Do not raise the temperature of crankshaft gear (4) above 205 °C (400 °F).
6. Install the upper halves of the main bearings in the cylinder block
NOTE:
Install the main bearings dry when clearance checks are made. Refer to Disassembly and
Assembly, ‘Bearing Clearance – Check’. Put clean engine oil on the main bearings for final
assembly.
7. Attach a suitable lifting device to crankshaft (3). The weight of crankshaft (3) is
approximately 159 kg (350 lb.). Install crankshaft (3) with Mark ‘V’ on the crankshaft gear
in alignment with Mark ‘V’ on the cluster gear.
8. Install the connecting rod caps.
Figure 106 – Main Bearing Cap
9. Place main bearing caps (Figure 106 - 1) in position. Install bolts (Figure 107 - 2) for the
main bearing caps.

Measuring Oil Clearance
Measurement Procedure
Figure 107 –Plastic Gauge
To measure oil clearance, a flexible measuring tool called Plastic Gauge (or Plastigauge)
is used (Figure 107). This Plastic Gauge comes in various colors and is used to measure
clearances of differing dimensions, namely:
1. Green – for measurements between 0.025 to 0.076 mm (0.001 to 0.003 inch)
2. Red – for measurements between 0.051 to 0.152 mm (0.002 to 0.006 inch)
3. Blue – for measurements between 0.102 to 0.229 mm (0.004 to 0.009 inch)
4. Yellow – for measurements between 0.230 to 0.510 mm (0.009 to 0.020 inch)
NOTE:
The measurements should be within specifications and the correct bearings should be used.
If the crankshaft journals and the bores for the block and the rods were measured during
disassembly, no further checks are necessary; however, if the technician still wants to measure
the bearing clearances, the Plastic Gauge is an acceptable method. Plastic Gauge is less
accurate on journals with small diameters if clearances are less than 0.10 mm (0.004 inch).
The technician must be very careful to use Plastic Gauge correctly. The following points must
be remembered:
Ensure that the backs of the bearings and the bores are clean and dry.
Ensure that the bearing locking tabs are properly seated in the tab grooves.
The crankshaft must be free of oil at the contact points of the Plastic Gauge.
1. Place a piece of Plastic Gauge on the crown of the bearing that is in the cap. Do not
allow Plastic Gauge to extend over the edge of the bearing.
2. Use the correct torque-turn specifications in order to install the bearing cap. Do not use
an impact wrench. Be careful not to dislodge the bearing when the cap is installed. Do
not turn the crankshaft when the Plastic Gauge is installed – the Plastic Gauge will be
‘smeared’ over the bearing cap and a proper reading will not be obtained.

Figure 108 – Measuring the Plastic Gauge
3. Carefully remove the cap, but do not remove the Plastic Gauge. Measure the width of the
Plastic Gauge while it is in the bearing cap or on the crankshaft journal (Figure 108).
4. Remove all of the Plastic Gauge before installing the bearing cap.
NOTE:
When the Plastic Gauge is used, the readings can sometimes be unclear. For example, all
parts of the Plastic Gauge are not the same width. Measure the major width in order to ensure
that the parts are within the specification range. Refer to Specification Manuals for correct
clearances.
Once all the above has been completed, ensure that all bearing caps are clean, lubricate the
journals and replace the bearing caps in the correct sequence and to the correct torque, as
per manufacturer’s specifications. Check to see if the crankshaft will rotate.
NOTE:
Caterpillar does not recommend the checking of the actual bearing clearances; particularly
on small engines. This is because of the possibility of obtaining inaccurate results and the
possibility of damaging the bearing or the journal surfaces. Each Caterpillar engine bearing is
quality checked for specific wall thickness.
NOTE:
Check the sequence for installing front and rear crankshaft seals. Different manufacturers
require the seals to be installed prior to fitting the crankshaft and some require fitting after
installing the crankshaft. Check with manufacturer’s recommendations for the fitting procedures
for these seals.

Topic 5
Friction Bearings
Contents
Friction Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Friction Bearing Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Function of a Friction Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bearing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Bearing Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Main and Connecting Rod Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Normal Bearing Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Irregular Shape of Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Bearing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Course Particles in the Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Improper Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Overspeeding and / or Long Idle Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Improper Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Cold Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Lack of Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Coolant in the Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Surface Reaction Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Electric Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chemical Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Cavitation Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Thrust Bearing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

The Thrust Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Friction Bearings
Figure 109 – Bearings
Bearings are divided into two main categories; friction bearings and anti-friction bearings
(roller type bearings) as shown in Figure 109 above. Both types of bearing can be used in a
diesel engine.
Friction bearings are used to support the crankshaft, connecting rods, camshaft, the fuel
injection pump camshaft, rocker arms and in some instances, idler gears or pulleys.
Anti-friction bearings can be found in various applications such as the cooling system fan,
belt tensioners, fuel injection pumps, flywheel and alternator.
Friction Bearing Design and Construction
Figure 110 – Friction Bearing
Friction bearings have a strip of steel on the back to provide strength. Softer linings are
bonded onto the steel strip and they are necessary for conformability and to ensure proper
embedding of the bearing to the rotating shaft (Figure 110).
There are a number of combinations for bearing construction and examples of metals bonded
to the steel back include:
Solid aluminum and a flash tin plate over the entire bearing
Bronze inner layer with a lead based, tin based or indium overlay
Multiple copper lead inner layers and a thin lead alloy overlay
Sintered copper alloy inner layer, a barrier plate, a lead alloy overlay and overlay tin over
the entire bearing

NOTE:
Most bearings have a thin layer of copper or nickel that is used as a bonding agent between the
layers.
Function of a Friction Bearing

To be able to perform its function properly, the friction bearing must be held firmly in place
and the back of the bearing must have full contact with the supporting bore. It must be
capable of protecting the shaft, resist extreme pressures and heat and at the same time,
must be able to absorb harmful foreign objects. There is also a requirement for the bearing to
maintain a film of lubricant between moving and stationary components.
Figure 111 – Friction Bearings
The method usually adopted for holding a bushing position is to press it into the supporting
bore. A locking tab (Figure 111) is used to hold the bearing into position during assembly. This
locking tab fits tightly into a slot, ensuring proper alignment and prevents the bearing from
spinning or moving.
To ensure a precise fit and full contact with the supporting bore, the bearing is spread so it
is slightly larger than the bearing bore. Bearing crush is also designed into the bearing, that
is, when the bearing is placed into the bearing support, the ends of the bearing will protrude
slightly above that of the bearing support (this may be as little as 0.00025 inch or 0.006 mm).
When the bearing cap is placed onto the bearing support and correctly torqued, these slight
protrusions will ensure that there is full contact with the back of the bearing and the bearing
support. Insufficient bearing crush will mean that the bearing is likely to move or slip in the
bore, thereby reducing heat dissipation and causing excessive wear.

Bearing Requirements
A bearing should have:
1. Load Carrying Capacity – to resist loads without metal flaking or cracking, either on the
bearing surface or on the bond lines.
2. Conformability – it must be able to mold itself to the bearing or bore so that any
imperfections are distributed over the total bearing surface.
3. Embedability – the surface must be soft enough to absorb minute particles.
4. Resistance to Corrosion – because chemicals and water from combustion will enter the
crankcase.
5. Resistance to Seizure – under certain conditions, there may be metal-to-metal contact.
6. The Ability to Conduct Heat – to be able to conduct heat from the rotating shaft to the
bearing support where it can be removed by oil or the cooling system.
7. A High Temperature Strength – its construction and composition must not weaken
because of heat
Bearing Action
Figure 112 – Oil clearance
A bearing must have an oil clearance (a film of oil) so it can lubricate properly, remove heat
and form a wedge to enable centering of the journal during rotation (Figure 112).

Figure 113 – Stationary Shaft
When an engine is stationary, the journal will rest on the lower part of the bearing surface as
shown in Figure 113.
As the shaft rotates, the journal lifts and climbs the bearing and oil, under pressure, will be
forced to move under the load area. In the case of a crankshaft, the oil film thickness will
not remain the same for all operating phases of the engine. More pressure will be exerted
on the crankshaft journal during the compression and power strokes of adjacent pistons;
consequently, the thickness of the oil coverage will vary. There is a tendency for some oil
molecules to stick to the metal surfaces and it must be remembered that during extreme
operating conditions, only this oil sticks with the metal and will, at times, permit metal to metal
contact.
Oil holes and grooves are normally placed on the lower half of the bearing shells. These
holes and grooves are used to ensure that there is a total spread of oil over the total bearing
surface.
Evaluation
Main and Connecting Rod Bearings
Evidence can be obtained from proper examination of bearings. The extent of their wear and
tear will give an indication of the whole engine’s condition.
The cause of excessive wear and tear on engine bearings can be divided into four main groups:
1. Ingress of dirt (approximately 45%)

2. Lubricant failure (25%)
3. Installation and operation failures (15%)
4. Surface reaction failures (15%)

Normal Bearing Wear
Figure 114 – Normal wear
The bearings shown in Figure 114 above would be considered to have ‘normal wear’. Under
normal operating conditions, the tin lead overlay coating will wear off, exposing the copper,
nickel or aluminum lining. The pattern of wear is toward the center of the bearing.
As a rule of thumb, if this pattern exists when the engine has completed less than 2000 hours
or 100,000 miles (162,000 km), the wear would be considered as abnormal and there is a
suggestion that some sort of abrasive has entered the oil. This may be caused by such things
as improper lubrication filtration, overfuelling (excess of carbon in the combustion chamber)
or the infiltration of fine dirt during the build, rebuild or carelessness of filter changes during
service.

Irregular Shape of Journals
Figure 115 – Irregular shapes
Irregular shape of journals, such as hourglass shape, tapered or barrel shaped (Figure 115)
will cause abnormal wear of the bearing surface. If any of these conditions are present,
engine life will be reduced considerably.

Bearing Failure
Course Particles in the Oil
Residue from moving engine components may cause an ingress of course particles into the
engine lubricant. The improper handling of lubricants or oil filters may also cause this.
Figure 116 – Deep scratches
The bearing shown in Figure 116 above has long deep scratches and will have the tendency
to fail completely because it will decrease the efficiency of the lubricating oil and reduce heat
dissipation. The visible particles of displaced metals (aluminum) will add to the abrasion and
will likely cause a heat buildup and melt the lead surface.
If the bearing has fine scratches and shows the effect of fine embedded particles, but the
bearing surface is smooth, then it may be reused.
Improper Contact
Figure 117 – Improper contact
Small or large particles left between the back of the bearing shell and the bore will prevent
proper seating of the bearing. This will cause localized overheating and excessive wear on

the bearing above the embedded particle as shown in Figure 117 above. Large embedded
particles in the high load areas of the bearings will cause excessive overheating and eventual
bearing failure.
Figure 118 – Improperly positioned bearing shells
Improperly positioned bearing shells, as shown in Figure 118, will create shortened engine
life. Bearings will fail because of oil hole misalignment, consequently causing the bearing
shells to seize and/or rotate in the bore.
Crush
Bearing shells that are improperly torqued will have inadequate crush. This will cause
the bearing to become ‘out of round’, resulting in increased friction and insufficient heat
dissipation. In this instance the bearing is often destroyed.
If the back of the bearing is loose in the bore, it will normally display a shiny appearance and
show signs of fretting. Fretting is the transfer of metal from the steel back to the bearing bore.
Looseness of bearing shells can result in out of round or enlarged bores or they may cause
bores to become distorted from overloading.
An incorrectly assembled connecting rod (cap placed on in the reverse position) may not
have proper crush or the oil holes may be misaligned. This could result in breakage of the
bearing or, in extreme cases; the bearing may spin in the bore.
Overspeeding and / or Long Idle Periods

During overspeeding there will be an increased load on the bearing and a decrease of
lubricant to the bearing, creating a metal to metal scenario. With an overspeeding problem,
the lower half of the connecting rod bearing and the upper half of the main bearing journal
are noticeably worn more.
During long idle periods, the engine temperature tends to drop below operating temperature
and unburnt fuel tends to mix with the lubricating oil, thereby affecting viscosity.
Both instances will eventually cause bearing failure.

Improper Starting
If the engine is started and revved immediately above 1000 rpm, the bearings may be without
lubrication. Some residual lubrication will be present, but the engine lubrication system will
normally take between 15-30 seconds before full engine oil pressure is gained. High surface
speed, lack of lubrication and load on the bearing will cause deep scratches in the bearing
surfaces that will eventually cause the bearings to fail.
Cold Starting
Bearing failure due to cold starting would normally be restricted to areas where the ambient
temperature is below 200°F (60°C). Low ambient temperature reduces the amount of oil
supplied to the bearing during and immediately after start up. This is normally indicated by the
bearing furthest away from the oil supply pump wearing considerably more than the bearing
closest to the pump.
It is important at all times, but during cold weather it is particularly important that the engine
be given time to reach operating temperature before being placed under load.
In cold weather, before starting the engine, check the dipstick. If oil runs off the end of the
dipstick, it is safe to start the engine. If oil does not run off the dipstick, the engine oil should
be heated before starting.
Lack of Lubrication
Figure 119 – Lack of lubrication
There may be many reasons as to why lubrication oil does not reach bearing or running
components. Damage caused may be from light wear to total destruction as shown in Figure
119 above. Good maintenance programs can normally prevent bearing failure because of a
lack of lubrication.
Fuel dilution of lubricating oil can be classified as lack of lubrication. Good maintenance
programs will pick up if the engine oil level is ‘increasing’ rather than slowly decreasing.
Engines with poor compression, defective injectors or incorrect timing will allow unburnt fuel
to enter the crankcase.

Coolant in the Lubricant
Coolant leakage can come from a damaged head gasket, seal failures, oil cooler damage,
injector tubes, cylinder liners, damaged gaskets or a multitude of areas within an engine,
consequently can be difficult to find. If it is a serious problem, coolant may be coming from a
cracked cylinder head, liner or engine block.
If engine oil becomes grey or a milky color, it is indicating an ingress of coolant into the
lubricant. Some agents in the coolant, such as ethylene glycol or antifreeze form a gummy
substance. If there appears to be coolant in the oil, do not start the engine. Check to
ensure that the water in the lubricant is not due to condensation in the engine because of
temperature changes.
Misalignment
Figure 120 – Misalignment
The bearing wear in Figure 120 above is an indication that the cylinder block is warped or
the crankshaft is bent. The main bearing bores of the cylinder block must be checked for
proper alignment and the crankshaft must checked for straightness and the problem must be
rectified before the engine is reassembled.

Surface Reaction Failures
Electric Current
Figure 121 – Electric current failure
Bearing damage may be the result of electrolysis (electric current) and will be indicated by
small pits in a defined pattern, as shown in Figure 122 above. The pitting patterns may be
different in various engines because of different electrical sources and the type of metal being
attacked.
The damage may be the result of improper earthing of the engine or it may originate from
current leaks in relays, motors or switches. It is important to note that improper grounding of
welding equipment while welding on a vehicle may cause this type of damage to bearings.
The ground lead of welding equipment should be adequately attached to the vehicle frame.
Chemical Corrosion
Figure 122 – Chemical corrosion
Pitting, discoloration, surface roughness and fatigue cracks are caused by gaseous chemicals
in the air (Figure 122). Standard air filters do not filter out chemicals and this problem can be
solved by using special air cleaners.

Cavitation Corrosion
Figure 123 – Cavitation corrosion
Cavitation damage (Figure 123) only occurs on the surface layer and does not normally affect
the copper, bronze or aluminum lining. This type of failure is normally caused by aeration
of the lubricating oil. Check the inlet side of the lubrication pump for loose connections or
any other area where air could enter the lubrication system. Also check where the machine
normally operates. Machines operating on the side of a hill sometimes will have cavitation
erosion on bearing surfaces.
Thrust Bearing Failure

Crankshaft thrust bearings are made from the same materials as that used for other engine
bearings. Generally, thrust bearings are not subject to serious failures. They normally occur
if crankshaft end play is incorrect or if there is a clutch problem (operator riding the clutch or
clutch adjustment). Some failures are shown in the following graphics:
The Thrust Surface
Figure 124 – Scratched surface
Figure 124 left shows the thrust surface has scratches, but the edges are smooth – use
again. Figure 124 right shows heavy damage to the aluminum on the thrust surface – do not
use again.

Figure 125 – Light damage
Figure 125 shows light damage to the aluminum on the thrust surface. There are no high
edges that come in contact with the crankshaft – use again.
Figure 126 – Cracks
Figure 126 left shows a crack in the thrust flange – do not use again. Figure 126 right shows
light damage on the edge of the thrust flange. There are no high edges that can come into
contact with the crankshaft – use again.
Figure 127 shows normal thrust surface wear at three different points – use again.

Figure 128 – Wear on face of the oil groove
Figure 128 left shows wear has extended across the complete face to the oil groove – do not
use again. Figure 128 right shows heavy thrust surface wear (scuffed and smeared metal) –
do not use again.
Figure 129 – Damaged thrust surface
Figure 129 left shows a damaged thrust surface – do not use again. Figure 129 right shows
normal wear on the back of the thrust plate is at three points – use again.

Topic 6
Connecting Rods
Contents
Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fractured Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Standard Connecting Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Servicing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Crankshaft Bore (Big End) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Parting Line Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Connecting Rod Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Serrated Edge Parting Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Seat Areas for Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Repair Of Bolt Seat Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Piston Pin Bushings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Area for the Piston Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Shank Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Reconditioning the Shank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Hardware (Bolts And Nuts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Bushing Installation And Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Storage Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Connecting Rods
Connecting rod failure may be caused by stress fatigue, overspeeding, seized pistons, a
hydraulic lock or foreign material in the cylinder, worn bearings or incorrect assembly.
Reboring and rehoning of connecting rod big end and small end journals is normally left up to
a specialist machine shop and extensive training is conducted for personnel conducting these
tasks.
Inspection
This guideline shows visual examples of connecting rods that were used in Caterpillar
engines. Some examples can be reused and some examples cannot be reused. This
guideline contains a list of servicing information for reconditioning connecting rods.
Parts that are used in the same application should be expected to give normal performance
until the next overhaul. The connecting rods may be reused only if the connecting rod meets
the manufacturer’s specifications and recommendations.
Fractured Connecting Rods
Figure 130 – Fractured Connecting Rod Assembly
In a Fractured Connecting Rod (Figure 130), the joint between the connecting rod and the
connecting rod cap is produced by fracturing.

Figure 131 – Mating surfaces
The connecting rod assembly must be handled with care in order to avoid damage to the
mating surfaces and it must be replaced if any damage occurs to these surfaces (Figure 131).
New connecting rod assemblies come with the connecting rod caps bolted to the connecting
rod.
Use only a soft-jawed vice to hold the connecting rod assembly when removing the
connecting rod cap bolts. Use only a soft-faced hammer to tap the connecting rod cap when
separating the connecting rod cap from the connecting rod. Failure to use a soft-jawed vice
and a soft-faced hammer may result in damage to the connecting rod assembly.
Caterpillar uses a fractured connecting rod design in some of its engines. The fractured
uneven surface helps locate the connecting rod end and the rod is able to accept higher
loads because the joint surfaces are precisely matched. Fretting on the joint face has been
eliminated with the fractured connecting rod. The reduced machining steps and the controlled
process of machining has produced a higher quality of processing.
Figure 132 – Differing connecting rods
A typical fractured connecting rod is shown in Figure 133 above (top) and the connecting rod
at the bottom is a connecting rod used in Caterpillar’s 3500 series engine. Note that in this
connecting rod, the parting line between the rod and the cap is not straight across.

Standard Connecting Rod
Figure 133 – Standard Connecting Rod
A typical standard connecting rod, where the rod and cap ends are not fractured is shown in
Figure 133.
Servicing Information
Some important information regarding the servicing of connecting rods is listed below:
1. Do not use glass beads on the big end bore, the thrust face or the piston pin bore.
Figure 134 – Reference numbers
2. Connecting rods and connecting rod caps come in sets. Use connecting rods and caps
that have the same reference number. This number is stamped on the connecting rod and
end cap. If the big end bore needs to be machined, the connecting rods and connecting
rod caps should be put back together and the ground area marked with an electric scribe.
The correct ground area of a connecting rod is shown in Figure 134 above. Do not put a
stamp on the connecting rod or the connecting rod cap for identification and do not place
a mark on the connecting rod in the shank area. This has a tendency to alter the balance
of the connecting rod.
3. Be careful removing, installing, and cleaning connecting rods in order to prevent damage.
4. Reuse the connecting rod once the dimensions are correct. Refer to manufacturer’s
specifications for the correct dimensions.

5. Clean the connecting rod in order to remove dirt, oil and light rust before the inspection or
before the measurement.
6. Once measurement is completed, apply a thin layer of clean oil over the connecting rod
as protection against corrosion.
Visual Inspection
Crankshaft Bore (Big End)
Figure 135 – Light wear
The crankshaft bore shown in Figure 135 above contains material that has been pushed into
the surface and it has some light wear. The connecting rod can be reused if it is reconditioned
to the correct specifications. In this instance a cleaning of the surface with light emery would
suffice.
Figure 136 – Small nick on the thrust face
The connecting rod shown in Figure 136 has a small nick on the thrust face. Remove any
high areas on the connecting rod with a polishing stone and it can be reused.

Figure 137 – Remove light rust
Use a cleaning disc or light emery in order to remove any light rust from the crankshaft bore
or the thrust face of the connecting rod (Figure 137). Be careful not to remove any metal from
the connecting rod. The connecting rod can be reused.
Figure 138 – Deburring
The connecting rod shown in Figure 138 has light deburring at the parting line. These marks
are acceptable if the area is small and smooth. The marks must be limited to the parting line
in order to be used again. Use the connecting rod again.
Figure 139 – Dark areas
If boring the connecting rod did not clean up the dark area inside the crankshaft bore, the
connecting rod should only be used again if no more than 15.0 mm (0.60 inch) of dark area
appears on both sides of the parting line (Figure 139). If the connecting rod falls within
manufacturer’s specifications, use the connecting rod again.

NOTE:
Never use a connecting rod that shows heat discoloration caused by a failure such as
connecting rod bearing failure. The connecting rod metal structure may have been damaged
because of the heat.
The connecting rod shown in Figure 140 has discoloration around the crankshaft bore. Do not
use the connecting rod again.
Figure 141 – Heavy bore damage
In Figure 141 above, the connecting rod has heavy damage in the crankshaft bore. Do not
use the connecting rod again
Figure 142 – Damaged bolt hole
The connecting rod shown in Figure 142 has damage to the bolt hole. Do not use the
connecting rod again.

Figure 143 – Heavy thrust face damage
The connecting rod shown in Figure 143 above has heavy damage to the thrust face. Do not
Parting Line Areas
Body of the Connecting Rod
Figure 144 – Inspect parting line
Inspect the parting line of connecting rods (Figure 144). If necessary, machine the connecting
rod according to the correct salvage operations recommended by the manufacturer. If it falls
within guidelines, use the connecting rod again.
NOTE:
Caterpillar recommends that no more than 0.03 mm (0.001 inch) is to be removed from the
parting line of the connecting rod.

Figure 145 Typical wear
Visually inspect the body of the connecting rod at the point of contact with the connecting rod
cap. The wear step (Figure 145) on the side of the body of the connecting rod should be no
more than that recommended by the manufacturer.
The connecting rod shown in Figure 145 above has typical wear on the body. Use the
connecting rod again if the wear step is within manufacturer’s specifications.
Figure 146 – Brush and adapters
A connecting rod with a wear step less than manufacturer’s specifications can be polished
with a brush and adapters similar to those shown in Figure 147 above.

Connecting Rod Cap
Figure 147 – Connecting Rod Cap
Inspect the parting line of connecting rod cap (Figure 147). Machine the connecting rod
cap according to the correct salvage operations recommended by the manufacturer. The
connecting rod may be used again.
NOTE:
Caterpillar recommends that not more than 0.15 mm (0.006 inch) is removed from the
connecting rod cap.
Figure 148 – Typical wear on the parting line
The connecting rod cap shown in Figure 149 above has typical wear at the parting line. Use
the cap again if the wear steps are within manufacturer’s recommendations. As an example,
Caterpillar’s recommendation is no more than 0.03 mm (0.001 inch).
Serrated Edge Parting Line

Some connecting rods may have a serrated edge parting line. These edges are designed
to allow the contact of more surface area and provides for better gripping of the cap to the
connecting rod and the better dissipation of heat.

Figure 149 – Serrated Connecting Rod
The serrated connecting rod shown in Figure 150 has a small amount of polishing on the
parting line. Use the connecting rod again if the wear step cannot be felt with the fingernail.
NOTE:
Caterpillar does not recommend grinding the serrations or the parting line area of serrated
connecting rods. Use oversized bearings in the salvage operation for these connecting rods,
but only if the parting line areas are not damaged. Refer to parts manual for the correct part
numbers and size
Seat Areas for Hardware

The area for the bolt seat on the connecting rod cap should be visually inspected for fretting
or galling. Do not use the connecting rod again if there is any evidence of fretting or galling
in the area on the bolt seat. In some cases, the connecting rod can be used again. The
information for reconditioning the connecting rods is in the ‘Repair of Bolt Seat Areas’ section
of this module.
Figure 150 – Fillet area
The fillet around the bolt holes of the connecting rod and the cap are carefully machined and
the fillets are then shot peened. Shot peening releases the stresses that are caused by sharp
corners. No damage is acceptable in the fillet or the blended area indicated in Figure 151
above.

NOTE:
Shot peening is a cold working process in which small spherical media called shot bombard the
surface of a part. During the shot peening process, each piece of shot that strikes the material
acts as a tiny peening hammer, imparting to the surface a small indentation or dimple. To create
the dimple, the surface of the material must yield in tension. Below the surface, the material
tries to restore its original shape, thereby producing below the dimple, a hemisphere of cold-
worked material highly stressed in compression.
Figure 151 – Smearing
Smearing in the seat area of the connecting rod is acceptable if the smearing cannot be felt
with the fingernail (Figure 151). The connecting rod can be used again.
Figure 152 – Nick on the counterbore
The connecting rod shown in Figure 153 above has a large nick on the top of the counterbore
of the seat area. The connecting rod cannot be repaired. Do not use the connecting rod again.

Figure 153 – Fretting or Galling
If the seat area of the connecting rod is fretting or galling as shown in Figure 153 and the seat
cannot be machined, do not use the connecting rod again.
Repair Of Bolt Seat Areas
Figure 154 – Fillet area of the cap
In some cases of galling, the area of the bolt seat can be reconditioned by spot facing the
damaged area. Do not machine the fillet of the area for the bolt seat. The fillet (Figure 154)
has been carefully shot peened after machining in order to relieve stress.
Figure 155 – Counterbore area
Refer to Manufacturer’s specifications for the counterbore diameter dimensions for the
area for the bolt seat (Figure 156). As an example, for the 3500 series engines, Caterpillar
recommends that no more than 0.75 mm (0.030 inch) material should be removed from the
area for the bolt seat over the whole life of the connecting rod.

Piston Pin Bushings
Figure 156 – Bushing
The area for the piston pin has cracks along the edge of the bushing (Figure 157). Use the
connecting rod again after installing a new bushing.
Figure 157 – Nicks in the bushing
The area for the piston pin has high areas and nicks in the bushing (Figure 157). Use the con-
necting rod again after installing a new bushing.
The area for the piston pin has discoloration on the bushing (Figure 158). The connecting
rod is reusable if no marks from scoring or seizure can be felt with the fingernail. Use the
connecting rod again if the discoloration was not caused by rotation of the pin bushing in the
bore. Discoloration that is caused by oil is acceptable if the bushing is still smooth. Install a
new bushing.

Figure 159 – Turned bush
Damage to the bushing was caused by incorrect installation of the piston pin bushing or the
bushing turned in the bore (Figure 159).
If no scoring or fretting can be felt with the fingernail, and the measurement of the bore for the
bushing is acceptable, the connecting rod can be used again after installing a new bushing.
Area for the Piston Pin
Figure 160 – Shank junction
The junction of the shank and the area for the piston pin bushing is not damaged (Figure
160). Use the connecting rod again.
Figure 161 – Damage
The connecting rod has some damage that was done before shot peening (Figure 162).
Do not use the connecting rod again if the damaged area has not been shot peened at the
factory.

Figure 162 – Shank junction
The junction of the shank and the area for the piston pin bushing is damaged (Figure 162).
Do not use the connecting rod again.
Figure 163 – Damage below piston pin bushing
The area below the piston pin bushing on the connecting rod is damaged (Figure 163). Do not
Figure 164 – Inside edge
The area below the piston pin bushing on the inside edge of the shank on the connecting rod
is damaged (Figure 164). Do not use the connecting rod again.

Normal operation caused heat discoloration on the connecting rod (Figure 166). The
discoloration in the area for the piston pin of the connecting rod is permitted. Perform a proof
test on the connecting rod before the connecting rod is used again. Refer to manufacturer’s
specifications and procedures for connecting rod eye bushing Installation and removal for
more information regarding
Shank Area
Figure 166 – Marks on the shank area
The connecting rod has marks on the shank that are not a result of engine failure (Figure
166). Use the connecting rod again only if the area has been shot peened at the factory.

Figure 167 – Small nicks
The connecting rod has small nicks on the edge of the shank after shot peening (Figure
167). Improper handling will cause this type of damage. Use the connecting rod again only
after the shank has been reconditioned. Refer to manufacturer’s procedures to ensure this is
completed correctly.
Figure 168 – Small nick on the shank edge
The connecting rod has a small nick on the edge of the shank (Figure 168). Use the
connecting rod again after reconditioning. Refer to manufacturer’s procedures to ensure this is
completed correctly.
Figure 169 – Nick on the shank
The small nick on the shank of the connecting rod shown in Figure 169 was made after the
connecting rod was shot peened at the factory. The dull surface on the remainder of the
shank shows shot peening that was completed to give strength to the connecting rod. Do not

Figure 170 – Heavy damage
The connecting rod has heavy damage on the shank after shot peening (Figure 170). Do not
Figure 171 – Heavy damage on shank
The connecting rod has heavy damage on the edge of the shank after shot peening (Figure
171). Do not use the connecting rod again.
Figure 172 – Bent connecting rod
The connecting rod shown in Figure 172 has been badly bent. Bent or twisted connecting
rods cannot be used again. Refer to manufacturer’s guidelines for information on connecting
rods that are bent or twisted.
NOTE:
The connecting rods should be inspected for bent areas or twisted areas. Visual inspection of
the connecting rod is not enough.

Reconditioning the Shank
Some small nicks in the shank of the connecting rod can be removed. Remove the small
nicks from the shank with sharpening stones. The recommended stone is made of aluminum
oxide. The combination of stone with a coarse grit and a fine grit is recommended.
Follow these steps in order to recondition a connecting rod:
1. Remove any sharp nicks and edges from the connecting rod.
2. Make sure that the surface of the connecting rod is smooth to the touch.
3. The area that was reworked needs to be shot peened after the nicks are removed.
Figure 173 – Reconditioned connecting rod shank
The shank of the connecting rod in Figure 174 has been reconditioned. Use the connecting
rod again.
NOTE:
Never use any connecting rod that has failed due to a severe event unless the connecting rod is
inspected for cracks. Also refer to the manufacturer’s guidelines for information on connecting
rods that are bent or twisted.
Hardware (Bolts And Nuts)

If there is no obvious damage, the hardware might be able to be used again. If the hardware
did not loosen during operation, it might be able to be used again. Follow the procedures and
the specifications that are given in service manuals in order to tighten hardware. Excessive
torque can result in damage to the connecting rod. Do not tighten the hardware more than the
recommendations in the service manual.

Figure 174 – Polishing the serrations
Normal operation can polish the serrations of the hardware (Figure 174) for the connecting
rod. Use the hardware again if the mark at the connecting rod parting line cannot be easily
felt with a fingernail.
Figure 175 – Corrosive pitting
The shank area of the hardware has corrosive pitting (Figure 175). Do not use the hardware
again.
Figure 176 – Nuts
Some of the nuts will have polished areas or shallow grooves (Figure 176). The contact
surface of the nuts is still smooth and flat. Use the hardware again.

Figure 177 – Damaged bolt and nut
The bolt threads are damaged (Figure 177). The flats on the nut are damaged. Do not use the
hardware again.
Figure 178 – Damaged shank
The shank of the bolt is heavily damaged (Figure 178). Do not use the hardware again.
Figure 179 – Nick on serrated section
The serrated section of the bolt has a nick that can be easily felt with a fingernail (Figure 179).
Do not use the hardware again.

Figure 180 – Fretting and smearing
The bottom of the bolt head has fretting and smearing (Figure 180). Do not use the hardware
again.
NOTE:
Use the correct installation procedures and lubricant at all times to keep fretting to a
minimum.
Figure 181 – Smeared, galled and fretted nuts
The nuts have heavy smearing, galling and fretting (Figure 181) and material has been
transferred. Do not use again.

Bushing Installation And Removal
Each manufacturer has their own ideas on installation and removal of connecting rod
installation and removal to the piston. It is best to refer to manufacturer’s specifications for this
activity.
Figure 182 – Connecting Rod Alignment Fixture
There are many differing connecting rod alignment fixtures on the market. One of the more
reliable alignment tools is shown in Figure 182. Direct measurements for bend, twist and
connecting rod length can be taken with this tool.
Storage Procedures
Proper protection of the connecting rods from corrosion is very important. Corrosion will start
in as little as one hour after the connecting rods have been cleaned.
Figure 183 – Protecting components
When the connecting rods will not be inspected for one hour or less the connecting rods
should be coated with a rust or corrosion inhibitor or coated with clean engine oil. The
connecting rods should be individually wrapped in order to prevent contamination and the
connecting rods should be stored in a protected area in order to avoid damage (Figure 183).

When the connecting rods will not be inspected in two days or more the connecting rods
should be coated with a rust or corrosion inhibitor or coated with clean engine oil and the
connecting rods should be individually wrapped. The wrapped connecting rods should be
placed in a container that is clean and structurally solid. The container should be covered or
wrapped in plastic in order to prevent damage and contamination to the connecting rods.

Topic 7
Topic Name
Contents
Pistons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
General Inspection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Initial Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Visual Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Pitting of the Piston Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fuel Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Top of the Ring Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Ring Band, Ring Grooves and Ring Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Procedure to Inspect Pin Bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Two-piece Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Reconditioning Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Discoloration and Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Embedded Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Ring Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Piston Ring Breakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Ring Groove Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Piston Cooling Jets And Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Piston Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Compression Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Oil Control Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Piston Removal And Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Piston Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Pistons and Connecting Rods Disassembly / Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Pistons and Connecting Rods – Install . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Pistons
Engine reconditioning does not necessarily result in the installation of new pistons as part
of the process of reconditioning. Pistons that meet manufacturer’s specifications and other
applicable guidelines can be expected to have the same performance in the same application
until the next overhaul.
Compare the pistons from this module with the pistons that are removed from the engine.
Technicians should refer to manufacturer’s specification before reusing a piston. Some
pistons should not be salvaged. Piston failure can be due to poor engine performance. Always
correct the true cause of the original failure.
Figure 184 – Piston
The piston shown in Figure 184 above is from a Caterpillar 3114 or 3116 engine and its
component parts are listed below:
1. Crown 7. Top Land

2. Crater 8. Ring Lands
3. Ring Band 9. Skirt
4. Ring Grooves 10. Cooling Jet Relief
5. Pin Bore 11. Skirt Relief
6. Snap Ring Grove

Figure 185 – Pre-combustion Chamber Piston
Figure 185 above is a piston from a typical pre-combustion chamber engine.
1. Crown 9. Third Ring Land

2. Valve Pocket 10. Skirt
3. Heat Plug 11. Pin Bore
4. Crater 12. Snap Ring Groove
5. Ring Band 13. Top Ring Land
6. Top Ring Groove 14. Second Ring Land
7. Middle Ring Groove 15. Cooling Jet Relief
8. Oil Ring Groove 16. Skirt Relief

Figure 186 – Piston coated in graphite
Figure 186 is showing a one piece piston with a coating of graphite. Graphite improves the
wearing state and reduces the gap between the cylinder and piston. Graphite has a very high
melting point. Most materials’ intensity well gradually become weaker under high temperature,
but graphite’s intensity will double when heated to 2000℃.
NOTE:
The piston and piston pin must be identified and marked with the cylinder number and
orientation in reference to the front of the engine.
NOTE:
Do not mix and match pistons and piston pins from different cylinders. Ensure that the pistons
and piston pins are oriented properly to the front of the engine upon reassembly. If the pistons
and piston pins have been worn together, mixing the parts can possibly lead to pin rotation
issues.
General Inspection Procedures

Follow these guidelines in order to determine if a piston is reusable:
1. Make a visual check of the overall condition of the piston.
2. Clean the piston thoroughly.
3. Reinspect the piston after cleaning for the following:
Cracks
Scuffing
Holes
Additional visible damage

4. The following areas of the piston should be inspected before reusing:
Ring Band
Ring Groove
Ring Land
Skirt
Pin Bore
Snap Ring Groove
5. Measure the piston according to manufacturer’s specifications.
Initial Inspection
Make a quick visual inspection of the piston before cleaning. If no obvious faults are found,
clean the piston according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Visual Inspections
Top of Piston
Small cracks around the heat plug are normal. To measure these cracks, use manufacturer’s
specifications. Caterpillar recommends using a piece of 34 gauge wire that has a diameter of
0.15 mm (0.006 inch) as a gauge. A microscope and microlite can also be used.
Figure 187 – Small cracks
If there are small cracks that are less than 0.15 mm (0.006 inch) wide around the heat plug
(Figure 187), the piston can be used again.

Figure 188 – Wider cracks
Figure 188 shows cracks wider than 0.15 mm (0.006 inch). Do not use the piston again.
Figure 189 – Microscope and Microlite
If necessary, use a Microscope and Microlite to measure the size of the cracks around the
heat plug (Figure 189).
Figure 190 – Crack across valve pockets
In Figure 190, the crack goes across the area between the valve pockets. Do not use the
piston again.

Figure 191 – Cracks in the crater
Figure 191 is showing that the cracks in the crater are not above specifications, not wider
than 0.15 mm (0.006 inch), so the piston can be used again.
Figure 192 – Crack in the valve pocket
In Figure 192, crack (A) goes into the valve pocket. Callout (B) shows cracks that are
connected to each other. If either type of crack is found, do not use the piston again.
Figure 193 – Valve contact
Figure 193 shows light marks caused by contact with the valves. Find the cause of the
contact with the valve, but do not use the piston again.
Do not reuse the piston if the piston shows signs of contact with a valve or valves.

Figure 194 – Heavy valve contact
The heavy marks shown in Figure 194 above are caused by contact with the valves. Correct
the cause of contact but do not use the piston again.
Figure 195 Light pitting
Figure 195 shows an acceptable level of light pitting on the piston crown and in the area of
the valve pockets.
Figure 196 – Piston cracks
The cracks in the piston shown in Figure 196 are outside the allowable area for cracks. Do not
use again.

Figure 197 – Raised edges removed
Use the piston again after the raised edges are removed and the piston is cleaned and
completely inspected (Figure 197).
Figure 198 – Light damage to piston crown
Figure 198 shows light damage to the edge of the piston crown. The piston can be reused.
Figure 199 – Raised area
In Figure 199, use the piston again after the raised areas have been removed and the area of
the ring land is checked carefully.

Figure 200 – Light pitting
Figure 200 shows light pitting in the area of the valve pocket. The piston can be reused.
Figure 201 – Heavy pitting
Do not reuse the piston that has heavy pitting on the entire crown as shown in Figure 201.
Figure 202 – Light erosion
The light amount of erosion shown in Figure 202 is allowable and the piston can be reused

Figure 203 – Maximum amount of erosion
The piston displays the maximum amount of erosion that is allowable. Do not reuse a piston
that is displaying the severity of erosion that is more than the amount that is shown in Figure
203.
Figure 204 – Loose heat plug
Figure 204 is showing a loose heat plug and it is uneven with the surface of the crater. If the
plug requires tightening, do not reuse the piston.
Pitting of the Piston Crown
Figure 205 – Light pitting
In Figure 205 the piston is showing light pitting and can be reused.

Figure 206 – Deep pits
The piston crown shown in Figure 206 has numerous deep pits. This piston should not be
reused.
Fuel Erosion
Figure 207 – Light erosion caused by fuel
The crater of the piston shown in Figure 207 is showing light erosion that is caused by fuel.
The piston may be reused.
Figure 208 – Erosion caused by fuel
The crater of the piston shown in Figure 208 has numerous areas of erosion that is caused
by fuel. The piston may be reused, but if the piston has more erosion than is shown, then the
piston should not be used again.

Figure 209 – Deep erosion
The crater of the piston shown in Figure 209 has multiple points of deep erosion that is
caused by fuel. Do not use the piston again.
Top of the Ring Land
Figure 210 – Carbon scratches
The piston in Figure 210 shows normal carbon scratches. The scratches are common on
pistons with offset pin bores and can be reused.
Figure 211 – Heavy carbon scratches
In Figure 211, the piston is displaying heavy carbon scratches in the top ring land and the
piston should not be reused.

Ring Band, Ring Grooves and Ring Land
Figure 212 – Separation of the ring band
The piston in Figure 212 is showing separation of the ring band. Check below the ring band
and above the ring band. The piston is not reusable if there is the slightest separation in the
ring band.
Figure 213 – Broken pieces
The piston in Figure 213 has had pieces that are broken out of the top land and the ring band
and should not be reused.
Figure 214 – Damage to piston groove
The piston in Figure 214 has damage to the piston groove and should not be reused.

Figure 215 – Crack in the ring land
The piston in Figure 215 has a crack is in the ring land of the piston and should not be
reused.
Figure 216 is an example of a piston with normal wear on the skirt. The area that is grey has
many small scratches and the piston is reusable.
Figure 217 – Evidence of seizure
The piston in Figure 217 is showing evidence of seizure. The piston has significant damage
and should not be reused.

Figure 218 – Vertical line
The location of the vertical line in the piston at Figure 218 is at the transition line of the piston
skirt. Do not use the piston again.
Procedure to Inspect Pin Bores

During the visual inspection of the piston pin bore, carefully inspect the snap ring groove of
the piston for damage or wear. Do not use the piston again if the groove is excessively worn
or damaged. The piston should be checked in the snap ring groove for undetected wear by
making a comparison between the fit of the snap ring in the old piston and fit of the snap ring
in a new piston. The piston should not be reused if the effort to turn the snap ring in the used
piston is significantly less than the new piston.
Figure 219 – Light damage
The piston in Figure 219 has light damage to the pin bore and skirt. Use the piston again after
the raised material is removed with a file and the piston is cleaned and fully inspected.

Figure 220 – Damage to the snap ring groove
The piston in Figure 220 has damage to the snap ring groove and should not be reused.
Two-piece Pistons
Figure 221 – Two-piece piston
Figure 221 is a schematic of a two-piece piston.
Reconditioning Procedure
There are several methods for reconditioning minor damage to the piston crown and the
piston skirt. Use the method for cleaning that is least aggressive during the process for
reconditioning of the piston.
A depression results when a part is scratched, nicked, or dented. The scratch, the nick, or the
dent can also result in an area that is raised.
Carefully remove the raised metal area that is caused by nicks, dents and scratches. In order
for the piston to be reused, the piston must be cleaned and the area of metal that is raised
must be removed from the surface of the piston.

The raised areas of the piston can be removed by several methods. The most common
methods of removing raised metal are a file, a polishing wheel or a Scotch-Brite abrasive
disc. The file is the most aggressive method for removing raised material and is generally
recommended for small areas on the surface for material that has been raised more than
0.20 mm (0.008 inch). Use caution to ensure that only the raised material is removed. Be sure
that no indentations are left behind from the reconditioning procedure.
The polishing wheel and the Scotch-Brite abrasive disc are used to remove small scratches
in larger areas. The piston skirt is made from aluminum. In order to reduce the risk of damage
to the piston, manual buffing is preferred to a polishing wheel to remove scratches and
imperfections.
Scuffing
Scuffing is not permitted on the piston skirts that are going to be reused. Scuffing is a
combination of scratching and embedded material. Do not reuse skirts that have evidence of
scuffing.
Figure 222 – Scuffing
The piston in Figure 222 has a scuffed area that is small and material is also embedded in
the surface. Do not use again.
Figure 223 – Moderate scuffing
The piston in Figure 223 has moderate scuffing but should not be reused.

Discoloration and Markings
Figure 224 – Discolored pistons
The pistons in Figure 224 have discoloring. The horizontal markings on Figure 224 left does
not affect the reusability of the piston. Figure 224 right has discoloration due to a cleaning
solution Use the pistons again after they have been polished.
Embedded Material
There must be no embedded material in the piston. Embedded materials normally appear as
dark hard particles in the surface of the skirt that can scratch the cylinder wall. Embedded
material can also appear as light particles on a dark piston. Do not reuse any piston skirt that
has embedded material.
Figure 225 – Embedded material
Even small amounts of embedded material, as shown in Figure 225, are unacceptable. Do
not use the piston again.
NOTE:
The piston skirt that is shown in Figure 226 has scratches that can be smoothed through
buffing. The piston skirt has embedded material so the skirt should not be reused.

Ring Scuffing
The major cause of power loss, high oil consumption, hard starting, piston scoring and
cylinder wall etching is ring scuffing.
Ring scuffing may originate because of a number of reasons, not in the least:
1. During engine assembly
a. Because of improper piston or ring clearance to the cylinder bore
b. Allowing an ingress of dirt or other foreign materials
2. Improper preventative maintenance, namely lubricant, coolants and air intake filters.
3. Thermostat failure or blocked radiator, causing the engine to overheat.
4. Improper adjustment of the fuel pump, allowing too much fuel to enter the cylinder
thereby increasing the amount of carbon deposits.
5. Turbocharger failure where foreign materials enters the cylinder. Service Technicians
need to be aware that if a failed turbocharger is replaced, the cylinders must be checked
for foreign materials.
6. Improper engine use or engine break-in period where constant high speeds and heavy
loads are applied to the engine prior to the rings bedding properly with the cylinder liner.
7. During cylinder head overhauls, the cylinders must be kept clean of foreign matter. Any
dust or debris allowed to enter the cylinder will reduce the life of piston rings.
8. Ring sticking, caused by running the engine when it is too cold, long intervals between oil
changes or engine overheating.
Piston Ring Breakage

Excessive detonation of the fuel charge will cause damage to the piston crown and the piston
lands. The damage to piston lands will invariably cause piston ring breakage.
Most piston ring breakage occurs because of incorrect installation. There is a need to check
manufacturer’s specifications to ensure the correct ring gap clearance of the piston rings and
ensure there is no damage to the ring lands during ring installation or installation of the piston
into the sleeve.
Ensure the ring ridge at the top of the cylinder sleeve is removed before piston installation.
This ring ridge can cause the upper piston ring to break.

Ring Groove Wear
Figure 226 – Ring groove wear
The piston ring grooves must be checked for wear (Figure 226). Refer to manufacturer’s
specifications and check the ring groove wear using feeler gauges or a wear gauge at several
points around the piston circumference. Normal wear will be found in the first and second
ring groove. If the ring groove is above manufacturer’s specifications the piston should be
replaced.
Piston Cooling Jets And Nozzles

The piston of an engine that is not fitted with a turbocharger will normally be cooled by oil
thrown from the main and connecting rod bearings, oil scraped off the cylinder wall or by
an oil passage in the connecting rod. Because of the higher combustion temperatures, this
type of cooling is not adequate for a turbocharged engine; consequently these engines are
normally fitted with a jet or nozzle to direct oil, under pressure, to the underside of the piston
crown. This oil cools the piston and lubricates the piston (gudgeon) pin.
Figure 227 – Oil Jet
The Caterpillar 3500 series engine uses one additional oil jet as shown in Figure 227. These
jets spray oil into a vertical piston passage that then directs the oil to a groove in the piston
crown.
The important aspect to remember with piston cooling nozzles is their position. If the nozzle
is damaged or deformed, it should be replaced and not straightened. Alignment is critical and
any straightening may put a slight kink in the tube, thus reducing oil flow from the nozzle.

Piston Rings
Compression Rings
Figure 228 – Compression rings
The types of piston compression rings are shown in Figure 228 above. In this row are the
type used for top compression rings and the second row are the type used for the second
compression ring. The type of materials used in the manufacture of compression rings means
that they all have an intrinsic tension. This provides a seal between the moving piston and
the cylinder wall. To assist with this sealing process are compression pressures, combustion
pressures, exhaust pressure and crankcase pressure. Too much tension causes piston ring
scuffing and scoring and the subsequent excessive wear.
Oil Control Rings
Figure 229 – Oil control rings
Oil control rings do exactly that. They limit the amount of oil film present on the cylinder
walls to provide adequate lubrication of the compression rings to the cylinder (Figure 229).
Insufficient lubrication would mean metal-to-metal contact, creating scuffing and scoring.

Figure 230 – Oil control ring types
Some of the types of oil control rings used are shown in Figure 230 above.
For diagnostic purposes, blue smoke from the exhaust is a good indicator of the condition of
compression and oil control rings.
If the vehicle is blowing blue smoke out of the exhaust during acceleration or under load
(climbing a hill), indications are that the compression rings are worn.
If the vehicle is blowing blue smoke out of the exhaust during deceleration or coasting down a
hill, indications are that the oil control rings are worn.
This should not be confused with the symptoms of when an engine is idling for a time and
blue smoke is present when the engine is accelerated. This is normally an indication of worn
valve stem seals.
Piston Removal And Installation

When it comes to piston removal and installation, each manufacturer has tooling and
procedures to suit their product. The following procedure is used for a Caterpillar C15 Truck
Engine, but can be referred to as a general procedure for piston removal and installation.
Check the manufacturer’s service manuals prior to conducting this exercise.
Piston Removal
NOTE:
Keep all parts clean from contaminants. Contaminants may cause rapid wear and shortened
component life.
NOTE:
Care must be taken to ensure that fluids are contained during performance of inspection,
maintenance, testing, adjusting and repair of the product. Be prepared to collect the fluid
with suitable containers before opening any compartment or disassembling any component
containing fluids. Dispose of all fluids according to local regulations, mandates and
Contamination Control Guidelines

Figure 231 – Connecting Rod Bolt
1. Turn the crankshaft until two pistons are at the bottom center.
2. Remove the carbon ridge from the top inside surface of the cylinder liner.
3. Remove bolts (1 in Figure 231) and the connecting rod bearing caps. Push the
connecting rods and pistons until the piston rings are out of the cylinder liners.
Figure 232 – Removing Piston
4. Remove pistons (2 in Figure 232) and connecting rods from the cylinder liners.
5. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 in order to remove the remainder of the pistons and connecting
rods.
After each piston is removed, ensure it is placed in a safe location and in order, that is,
pistons 1 through to 6 are in order. This will ensure that the proper piston is replaced in the
right location in the engine during assembly.

Pistons and Connecting Rods Disassembly / Assembly
Disassemble One-piece Piston
Figure 233 – Disassemble One-piece Piston
1. Referring to Figure 233, remove bearings (5) from connecting rod (4) and connecting rod
cap (6).
2. Use circlip pliers to remove retaining ring (2).
3. Remove pin (3) and separate piston (1) from connecting rod (4).
4. Use a ring expander to remove the piston rings from piston (1).
Assembly One-piece Piston
Figure 234 – Assemble One Piece Piston
1. Referring to Figure 234, use a ring expander to install the piston rings on piston (1) (. To
reduce the amount of compression gas blowby, position the rings so the gaps are 120
degrees from each other.
2. Position piston (1) to the connecting rod (4) and install pin (3).

3. Use circlip pliers to install retaining ring (2).
4. Install bearings (5) in connecting rod (4) and connecting rod cap (6).
Disassemble Two-piece Piston
Figure 235 – Disassemble Two-piece Piston
1. Referring to Figure 235, remove bearings (16) from connecting rod (12) and connecting
rod cap (17). Remove dowel (18) from connecting rod cap (17)
2. Use circlip pliers to remove retaining ring (14)
3. Remove pin (15) and connecting rod (12) from the piston
4. Use a ring expander to remove piston rings (7), (8), and (9) from the piston
5. Separate piston crown (11) from piston skirt (13)

Assemble Two-piece Piston
Figure 236 – Assemble Two-piece Piston
1. Referring to Figure 236, install a new piston pin bearing (10) in the connecting rod (12)
and remove the old piston pin bearing, as follows:
NOTE:
The connecting rod must be heated for the installation of the piston pin bearing. Do not use a
torch.
Figure 237 – Connecting Rod
a. Referring to Figure 237, heat length (Y) of the connecting rod (12) to a temperature of
175° to 260°C (347° to 468°F).
b. Using a hydraulic press and appropriate attachments (refer to manufacturer’s
specifications), remove the old bearing and install the new bearing at the same time.
The tooling adapters should make full contact with the surfaces of the connecting rod.
c. Allow the connecting rod and bearing to cool to room temperature.
2. If necessary, use a pin boring machine to machine the bore of the piston pin bearing to
the correct diameter

Figure 238 – Piston ring end clearance
1. Referring to Figure 238, check the clearance between the ends of piston rings (7), (8),
and (9). Refer to Manufacturer’s Specifications.
2. Before installing piston rings on to the piston, check ring gap. Insert each ring into the
cylinder and push it half way down the bore using a piston. Ensure the ring is square
to the bore and measure the gap between the ends using feeler gauges. Check
manufacturer’s specifications for the correct measurement.
3. Install oil ring spring (9) in the oil ring groove of the piston.
4. Position oil ring (9) over the oil ring spring. Position the oil ring so that the gap is 180
degrees from the joint in the oil ring spring. Install the oil ring on the piston with a ring
expander.
5. Use a ring expander to install intermediate piston ring (8) with the side that has the
identification ‘UP-2’ toward the top of the piston.
6. Use a ring expander to install top piston ring (7) with the side that has the identification
‘UP-1’ toward the top of the piston.
7. Position piston rings (7), (8), and (9) so the gaps are 120 degrees from each other.
8. Position piston crown (11) on piston skirt (13).
NOTE:
Ensure that piston pin bearing (10) is in the correct position in connecting rod (12).
9. Position the piston on connecting rod (12). Apply clean engine oil to piston pin (15) and
install the piston pin. Install retainer rings (14) with circlip pliers. Make sure that the
retainer rings are fully seated in the grooves of the piston.
10. Install connecting rod bearings (16) in connecting rod (12) and connecting rod cap (17).
Make sure that the bearings are installed so that the bearing tabs fit into the notches in
the connecting rod and in the connecting rod cap.
11. Install dowel (18) in connecting rod cap (17).

Pistons and Connecting Rods – Install
Installation Procedure
Apply clean engine oil to the cylinder liner bore, to the piston rings, and to the outer surface of
the piston.
Figure 239 – Ring compressor
Use a ring compressor (Figure 239) to install the piston (2) and the connecting rod in the
cylinder liner. Ensure the bearing journals are aligned to the crankshaft journals and if there is
a need to gently ‘tap’ the piston into the cylinder, use a soft faced hammer or a wooden block.
Before removing the ring compressor, ensure that all piston rings are inside the cylinder.
Figure 240 – Connecting rod bolt
Install connecting rod bolts (1 of Figure 240) and the bearing caps. Refer to Specifications, for
the correct torques and tightening procedures.

Topic 8
Lubrication Pump and Oil Coolers
Contents
Lubrication System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Piston Cooling Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Lubrication (Oil) Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Oil Filtration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Lubrication Pump Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Inspecting and Measuring the Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Servicing and Reassembling the Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Installing Lubrication Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Inspecting and Servicing the Oil Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Servicing Oil Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Lubrication System Design
The modern diesel engine relies on the lubrication system to reduce friction and engine
temperature. It is also used to clean internal engine components and to assist sealing
between the piston rings and the cylinder wall. The lubrication system must be capable of
moving a volume of oil that will do all of these jobs.
Figure 241 – Basic lubrication system
The basic lubrication system shown in Figure 241 above comprises of an oil pan, an inlet
strainer, oil pump, pressure relief and/or bypass valves, oil filter/s, oil pipes and hoses that
connects the system to the engine. Other components may include such items as an oil level
indicator (dipstick) and a pressure gauge or indicator.
In some instances, manufacturers may include an electric or pneumatic drive pump that
allows the operator to bring the engine to full oil pressure prior to starting the engine. This
ensures proper oil flow to those components where the oil has drained off over a period of
time between start-ups. The purpose of this system is to increase engine life. This type of
system is fitted to the Caterpillar 3600 series engines.

Piston Cooling Jets
Figure 242 – Piston Cooling Jet
Most diesel engines use a cooling jet (Figure 242). Pressure oil is normally squirted to the
underside of the piston to assist with piston cooling.
Lubrication (Oil) Pumps

Engine manufacturers will tend to use one of two types of oil pumps for engine lubrication
systems, that is, a gear type or rotor type pump.
Gear Type Pump
Figure 243 – Gear type pump
The gear type pump (Figure 243) has two closely meshed gears inside a cast housing. This
type of pump is a positive displacement pump and oil from the inlet will flow between the
gear teeth and the housing. Oil for this pump comes directly from the oil pan (sump) via the
strainer. Oil from the pump will pass through the oil cooler (if fitted) and/or bypass/pressure
relief valves and filter to the engine.

Rotor Type Pump
Figure 244 – Rotor type pump
The rotor type pump is also a positive displacement pump. Oil from the inlet is trapped
between the outer gear and inner gear and as the pump rotates, oil is forced out of the outlet
port and into the lubrication system.
Oil Filtration Systems

Two types of lubrication oil filtration systems are used in modern diesel engines; the full flow
filtration system and the bypass filtration system.
Full Flow System
Figure 245 – Full Flow Oil Filtration System
The most common system used is the full flow system (Figure 245). All oil will flow through the
engine under normal operating conditions but if cold weather causes the oil to become too
thick (too high a viscosity) or the filter becomes blocked, oil will pass through the relief valve
and allow unfiltered oil to flow to the engine. Proper maintenance of oil filter and oil change
schedules for this type of system are critical to ensure that the oil passes through the filter
before entering the engine.

Bypass System
Figure 246 – Bypass Oil Filtration System
The bypass oil filtration system (Figure 246) allows 10% of the lubricating oil to enter the filter,
while the remainder of the oil goes to the engine components without filtration. Again, proper
maintenance is critical in this type of lubrication system.
Lubrication Pump Disassembly

Before the pump is disassembled, it is vital to clean the pump assembly to ensure no dirt is
present. Remove the oil screen, drive gear and pump cover. Mark the teeth of the pump gears
to ensure that when it is reassembled, the gears are meshing in the same location. Remove
the drive gear along with the drive shaft and remove the idler shaft (driven component).
Remove the relief valve assembly and wash all the components thoroughly in the proper
cleaning fluid.
Inspecting and Measuring the Lubrication Pump

Check the pump face and the side of the gear for burrs, scoring or grooving. Refer to
manufacturer’s specifications for the allowable wear of the pump. If it is beyond the
specifications, the pump must be replaced. Check specifications for shaft and bushing
wear tolerances. Also check the wear pattern on the pump intake side and compare it to
specifications.

Figure 247 – Teeth clearance
Another way to check the amount of wear is to measure the clearance between the gear
teeth and the pump body using feeler gauges (Figure 247). This measurement should fall
within manufacturer’s specifications.
The pump body and cover must be clear of scoring or scuffing marks. This indicates that
there is too much movement of the pump components under pressure and if the bushings are
not worn, then the pump should be replaced.
Using a depth micrometer you can also measure the height of the gears and the height of
the housing. The difference is the clearance between the pump gears and the cover. This
measurement should also fall within manufacturer’s specifications.
Servicing and Reassembling the Lubrication Pump

Any nicks or burrs should be removed from gears, shafts, keyways, splines and cover plates.
Check to see if the bushings need replacing. If so, press the old bushing out and press in
a new replacement bushing to the depth indicated in specifications. Refer to specifications
regarding oil clearance between the shaft and the bushing.
Check for broken or loose filter screen wires.
Clean and polish the relief valve bore and plunger. Check the relief valve spring height. If it
is not within specifications – replace it. Do not stretch relief valve springs as this could affect
relief valve pressure. Ensure the relief valve does not stick in its bore.
Lubricate all components of the pump and assemble in the reverse order of disassembly.
If new pump teeth are used – check the backlash with feeler gauges to ensure it is within
specifications.

Installing Lubrication Pump
Figure 248 – Lubrication Pump
Before installing the lubrication pump (Figure 248), check manufacturer’s specifications
regarding backlash and backlash adjustment. The pump is fitted to its location and the bolts
torqued to specifications. The pick-up tubes are to be placed in the correct locations.
Larger engines commonly use a scavenge pump that is integral with the lubrication pump.
The scavenge pump draws oil from the rear end of the oil pan and places it near the pick-up
of the lubrication pump to ensure there is always sufficient oil for engine lubrication.
Inspecting and Servicing the Oil Pan

The oil pan has two main functions:
1. Hold enough oil to allow proper engine lubrication
2. Cool the engine oil by dissipating heat
Ensure the oil pan is clean of road grime and tar to allow the oil pan to properly dissipate
heat. Thoroughly clean the oil pan and inspect to ensure that there is no old gasket material
on the mounting surfaces. Check the oil pan for dents, cracks or loose baffles. Inspect also
the condition of the flanges, bolt holes or, if fitted, the condition of threaded bores. Make any
repairs required. If repairs cannot be made, replace the oil pan.
Installing the Oil Pan
Check manufacturer’s specifications for any recommended sealing compounds.

Ensure the mating surfaces are clean and the gasket is in place (there may be a need to
place a small amount of grease on the gasket to hold it in place). Line up any guide lugs that
may be present and fit the pan to the engine block. Fit all bolts finger tight, and then torque
the bolts in the recommended sequence.

Servicing Oil Cooler
Figure 249 – Oil Cooler
Before disassembling tube type oil coolers (Figure 249) for service, consider filling the cooler
with a mineral spirits to loosen any residue and contaminants in the cooler. This will make it
easier to disassemble the cooler.
Leave the mineral spirits in the oil cooler until foaming and bubbling have stopped, then
remove the cleaning fluid with hot or warm water. Be aware of contamination control
measures.
To remove the cooler element, refer to manufacturer’s specifications and also check the type
and strength of cooler cleaning fluids to be used. If, during inspection, there has been metal
particles found, the cooler should be replaced and investigation as to where the metal came
from should commence.
Inspecting and Testing the Oil Cooler
Dry the cooler with compressed air and flush the tubes with light engine oil. Inspect for
damaged tubes or cores and be aware of flared ends of the tubes, plus corrosion and for weld
or solder cracks. Inspect for damaged threads and check for any nicks, gouges or cracks.
Inspect the bypass valve and spring for corrosion or damaged surfaces and, if necessary,
replace them.
To check for leakage, seal both ends and connect an air hose to the drilled or tapped holes.
Using an air pressure regulator for control, pressurize the core to the recommended pressure.
Immerse the core in warm water and if air bubbles rise; mark their location. Refer to
manufacturer’s specifications for the repair of coolers or replacement of damaged tubes.
NOTE:
Engine oil coolers should not be reused if it is fitted to an engine that has a failure. Even if
cleaned out, metal filings will still remain in the cooler and they will damage a new engine.

Topic 9
Cylinder Head and Valves
Contents
Cylinder Head Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Valve and Valve Insert Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Cylinder Head Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Injector Sleeve Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Valve Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Valve Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Grinding Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Valve Seat Insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Valve Seat Grinding Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Valve Seat Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Valve Springs, Spring Retainers and Keepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Valve Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Valve Bridge Service (Crosshead) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Reassembling Cylinder Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Installing Cylinder Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Valve Train Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Servicing Rocker Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Assembling Rocker Arm Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Pushrods or Push Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Cam Follower (Cam Roller) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Installing Valve and Injector Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Valve Bridge Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Cylinder Head Failure
Service records indicate that cylinder head and valve train failures often occur due to
inadequate service, poor adjustments, and poor maintenance.
Improperly torqued cylinder head bolts can distort the valves or cause the Injector nozzle to
stick, from which misfiring or timing change would result. In either situation, one side of the
valve would seat earlier than the other and the contact side would cool more quickly. The
seating force would then be higher on the contact side, and since the remainder of the seat
area would then be open, hot combustion gases would escape, the valve fillet would expand
and the valve opening would increase. It follows that the valve would fail.
Cracks between the valve port and the injector, or between valve ports, are often due to
overheating and/or overfuelling, hot shutdown, and loss or reduction in coolant flow. Cracks
also can result from defective casting, improper machining, improper installation or the
excessive use of ether for starting.
Figure 250 – Cylinder head damage due to foreign material
The damage to the cylinder head shown in Figure 250 is the result of foreign material
entering the combustion chamber. The material may have come from a damaged valve,
broken valve insert, broken piston, or broken ring land and/or piston ring.
Valve and Valve Insert Failure

Excessive valve face wear is caused by improper valve spring tension, loose valve
adjustment, high speed or high engine temperature. When such wear is found only on the
intake valves and inserts, it is the result of dirt being taken in on the intake stroke.
A warped valve is caused by improper seating, carbon and/or varnish accumulation,
inadequate cooling, air intake restriction, high exhaust temperature due to overloading the
engine, overfuelling, turbocharger failure, tight valve adjustment or a weak valve spring.

Figure 251 – Left, white ash deposit, right, carbon accumulation
Deposits of white ash or carbon on valve fillets are shown in Figure 251. This usually results
from burned engine oil residue. This oil could come from the crankcase because of a broken
piston, worn oil control ring, damaged sleeve, or simply because there was originally too
much oil in the crankcase. It can also come from the rocker arm side of the cylinder head as a
result of excessive clearance of rocker arm bushings, improper positioning of the rocker arm
shaft, worn valve guides or worn valve stems.
Figure 252 – Varnish accumulation
The valve shown in Figure 252 has a poor seat and varnish accumulation on the fillet. These
problems arise from improper valve adjustment, incomplete combustion, exhaust restriction,
long low idle period at low ambient temperature, extended time between oil and filter changes
or contaminated oil.
Figure 253 – Damage due to excessive heat
The damage to the valve shown fit Figure 253 can be due to excessive heat, low coolant
and/or reduced coolant flow, overfuelling, improper injection timing, overloading the engine,

air intake restriction, or a damaged turbocharger. Continuous operation under any of these
conditions can lead to overheating of valve inserts as well as valve burning or channeling.
Valve channeling can also be caused by a broken insert, bent valve, out of round valve or
valve seat insert, worn valve guide, damaged injector nozzle, deposits on valve seat, and/or
improper adjustment, which prevents the valve from seating properly. When more than one
valve insert is cracked, it is usually due to overheating. When only one insert is cracked, the
cause may be improper installation, an improperly machined insert bore or an insert loose in
its bore.
Figure 254 – Damage due to contact with the piston
The defective valve shown in Figure 254 contacted the piston. This does not happen often,
but when it does, look for a broken valve spring, a valve sticking in the guide, the possibility
of insufficient lubrication, a bent valve stem, a weak valve spring, or carbon deposits on the
valve stem or guide. A valve can also come in contact with the piston from overspeeding the
engine, a bent valve bridge guide pin, improper installation, a worn valve keeper, or worn
grooves.
Abnormal valve guide wear is caused by abrasives in the lubricant, inadequate lubrication,
overheated engine, valve or valve insert being out of round, a bent valve spring, or an
improperly ground rocker arm arc contacting the valve stem end at an angle. Inadequate
valve guide lubrication can originate from incorrect clearance between valve guide and valve
stem, low oil level, low oil pump pressure (due to a worn pump), pressure relief valve sticking,
or lubricant contamination.
Cylinder Head Service
Figure 255 – Cleaning cylinder head
After removing the valves, plugs, cups, and cooling tubes (or nozzles, if used), steam clean
the cylinder head. First use a wire brush (Figure 255) to remove carbon deposits. If steam

cleaning does not remove the lime or scale formation, the cylinder head must be cleaned by
the hot tank method.
After thoroughly cleaning the cylinder head, visually inspect it for damage. Pay particular
attention to the valve guides and the fuel and lubrication passages and, when necessary,
clean them with a suitable wire brush.
Also check the cylinder head for cracks, especially between the valves and injector tube,
using the magnaflux method. Inspect the cylinder head surface for scratches and corrosion.
Measure the surface for flatness with an accurate straightedge and feeler gauge and
compare these measurements with those in the service manual for maximum longitudinal
and transverse allowable warpage. Should the cylinder head be warped or scratched deeply
through a critical scaling area, then the head must be resurfaced. Most machine shops use
either a surface grinder or milling machine for their procedure.
Figure 256 – Sealing grooves on a cylinder head
Some engines use a sealing groove in the cylinder head. After resurfacing this type of head,
new scaling grooves must be machined into the head (Figure 256).
Air Testing Cylinder Head
Connect an air hose to the tapped cover plate. Using an air regulator, pressurize the cylinder
head to approximately 40 psi (275.8 kPa), then submerge the cylinder head in hot water.
Check for air leakage, especially around valve seats and injector sleeve locations.
Water Testing Cylinder Head
One method of water testing is to connect a water hose to the cylinder head and pressurize it
to approximately 40 psi (275.8 kPa). Steam clean the cylinder head to raise the temperature
of the head and water to approximately 180°F (127°C). Blow dry with compressed air.
Check carefully around the valve seats and injector sleeve locations for cracks. It is neither
recommended nor worthwhile to repair a cracked cylinder head.
Injector Sleeve Service

There are many types of injector sleeves (tubes) used to seal the cylinder head coolant
passage; however, some cylinder heads have the cylinder walls or bores integrally cast. Many
sleeves require very little servicing and are simple to replace.

Figure 257 – Sectional view of cylinder head with injector sleeve
To remove an injector sleeve (Figure 257), tap a thread into it, screw a suitable eye bolt into
its threads and with a hammer puller, withdraw the sleeve. Clean the sleeve bore thoroughly.
Steam clean the cylinder head until its temperature is approximately 180°F (127°C). Coat the
new sleeve with an oil and water sealer, then using the appropriate driver, drive the sleeve
into place. Most injector sleeves must be reamed after installation to ensure proper injector
cooling and nozzle seating.
Because the tools and procedures for replacing injector sleeves vary with each engine
design, it is important to consult the service manual for the particular type of engine for
specific information.
Valve Guides
Figure 258 – Potential valve and valve guide problems
Replaceable valve guides are often used on diesel engines (Figure 258). They are made of
a cast iron alloy which has superior wear and is more corrosion resistant than the alloy used
in the cylinder head. These guides are usually half the length of the valves. When inserted
into the cylinder head, they are flush with the ports (valve throat) to prevent turbulence of
the incoming air or outgoing exhaust gases. The inner surface is often treated to increase its
resistance to chemicals and corrosion. Some valve guides are grooved or knurled to reduce
friction and to increase lubrication control. As a result, the service life of the guide, as well
as the service life of the valve, is increased. Often the exhaust guides are counterbored to
prevent carbon buildup and to reduce heat transfer which could damage the valve stem.

Valve Guide Service
After an engine has been operated for a considerable time, its valve guides will show signs of
wear.
Before measuring the guide, using a small bore gauge or dial gauge, check it visually for chip
burrs, or cracks. When carbon is present remove it using a wire brush connected to a power
tool. To check the guide for wear, adjust the bore gauge diameter to maximum allowable
guide wear.
Figure 259 – Bell-mouthed valve guide
Check at several points along the valve guide, especially at the valve head and stem end
(Figure 259). If the bore gauge is loose at any point in the guide, the guide must be or
replaced.
Replacing Valve Guides
To remove the valve guide, you should press or drive it out from the cylinder head flat side.
After removal, check the valve guide bore. If the bore is damaged, it must be reamed to
accommodate a new oversize valve guide. To install a new guide, use a mandrel to press the
guide into its bore to its specified height above the valve spring seat surface. When no height
specifications are given in the manual, the usual instructions call for pressing the guide flush
with the valve port. Although honing or reaming the valve guide after installation is sometimes
recommended, some manufacturers simply suggest checking the inside diameter.

Valve Service
Figure 260 – Major valve check points
Clean the valve with a buffer and polish the stem with cloth. Use a glass beader to remove
heavy carbon deposits from the fillet, face, and valve head, but do not use it on the stem
as this would accelerate wear on the valve guide. Check the valve to determine if it can be
reused. If it is cupped (dished), cracked, pitted, or burned, it must be replaced. When the
valve margin is smaller than specified, the valve cannot be reground; therefore it must be
replaced. Magnaflux the valve, especially if it consists of two metals, to reveal hidden flaws.
When the valve stem has nicks, pitting, or scuff marks, or the keeper (retainer) grooves are
damaged, the valve must be replaced. If the valve stem tip is excessively worn, it must be
replaced because the case hardening is no longer present (Figure 260).
Measure the diameter of the valve stem at various points along the guide bearing surface,
and refer to specifications for allowable maximum wear.
Figure 261 – V blocks and dial indicator
Measure the valve stem straightness with a runout indicator or by using V blocks and a
dial indicator as shown in Figure 261. The valve must be replaced if the runout exceeds
specifications.

Grinding Valves
Check the valve grinder by inspecting the drive belt tightness (if fitted), the condition of the
bearing lubricant and the coolant level. Make particularly sure that the chuck is clean.
Select a grinding stone that is correct for the valve being refaced. Select the appropriate cool-
ant and install the dressing tool.
Warning:
Do not use water or soluble oil when grinding sodium filled valves. Use kerosene. Kerosene will
not explode as a result of being mixed with sodium should the sodium core be exposed during
grinding.
Turn on the coolant and slowly move the facing tool back and forth across the stone. To
prevent roughness, avoid cutting too deep or moving across the stone surface too rapidly.
Figure 262 – Refacing a valve
After dressing the stone, remove the facing tool and adjust the chuck angle to the desired
degree (Figure 262). Adjust the carriage stop so that the valve stem cannot contact the
grinding stone. If the valve cannot be centered within the limits of the runout, or if the valve
head is warped, the stem is bent, or the stem wear exceeds specification (assuming the valve
grinder is not worn), the valve must be discarded because the margin would be uneven after
grinding. This would result in uneven temperature on the valve head and early valve failure.
Lightly cut across the valve face to determine if the valve can be ground. Grinding may
remove too much surface and result in a margin less than half of the original width. This
check will also indicate warpage of the valve head that did not show up previously.
To avoid valve overheating, take only light cuts, move the valve slowly across the full stone
face and apply cutting oil generously. When the valve face surface is smooth and free of
pitting – check the margin. If the amount removed is greater than anticipated, the margin
will probably be too small and/or the valve head will be lower in the cylinder head than the
specified maximum.
NOTE:
Do not move the valve face beyond the stone during the grinding operation. This will cause
the stone to ridge or groove and the grinding surface to become round. Also be careful not to
damage the valve fillet area.

Sometimes it becomes necessary to redress the stone in order to maintain a smooth, even
surface and a uniform valve seat angle during the grinding of one valve. This need can arise
because of the heat scale on the valve or because the grinding stone was not appropriate for
the hardness of the valve.
NOTE:
Make certain when reusing valves that each valve is placed in its original guide.
Figure 263 – Grinding the contact surface of the valve stem
After all the valves are ground, service the valve stem end using an attachment (shown in
Figure 263) to support and hold the valve in position. Turn the micrometer feed until the valve
stem end contacts the stone. Start the grinding wheel motor and position the cooling stream
to the valve stem end. Turn the micrometer feed slowly toward the stone to ensure a clean
cut surface. Note the amount of metal removed so that you do not remove more surface than
specified and thereby eliminate tile surface hardening and accelerate wear.
When all stem ends are ground, it is sometimes necessary to grind a new chamfer. Do not
grind too large a chamfer as this will reduce the contact area of the stem end and may quickly
deteriorate the rocker arm surface.
Final Checks of Valves
After refacing and cleaning all the valves, recheck the margin. Check the refaced valve on the
runout indicator. The valve face runout should not exceed manufacturer’s specification. If it
does, check the general condition of the valve refacer; it may need to be cleaned or repaired.
Check and remeasure the valve stem to determine if it is the cause of the high runout.
NOTE:
New valves must also be checked, measured and, at times, reground (resurfaced) if they have
been damaged during shipping or handling.

Valve Seat Insert
Figure 264 – Schematic view of valve and valve seat
A valve seat insert is a metallic ring which is lodged inside the cylinder head to increase the
service life of the valve and valve seat (Figure 264). The cast iron alloy from which the seat
is manufactured will vary to suit various operational conditions. It may be of regular cast iron
with the normal amount of carbon, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur, or a cast iron alloy with
additional elements such as chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, copper, cobalt and
tungsten. It is important for the insert to seat firmly in the counterbore to ensure good heat
transfer and to prevent distortion.
Valve Seat Insert Checks and Service
Check the valve seat insert for cracks or looseness by lightly tapping the cylinder head
near the insert. Check the seat area width against that specified. If the width exceeds this
specification and cannot be narrowed down by regrinding, the insert must be replaced. If
grinding brings the valve head below the specified measurement, the insert must also be
replaced. Carefully check the valve head height or depth against the manual specification.
When the valve head (depth) is too high, it may interfere with the piston which would
cause valve and piston damage. When the valve head is too low, a loss of compression is
unavoidable. The valve and/or the valve insert must be replaced. If no insert if used and the
valve seat is damaged beyond regrinding, a valve seat insert must be installed.

Figure 265 – Removing a valve seat insert
To remove an insert, use a puller similar to that shown in Figure 265. Do not use a pry bar,
punch, or chisel, because the hardened material shatters like glass and serious face or eye
injury could result. If a valve seat insert puller is not available, run a couple of welding beads
on the inside of the insert.
NOTE:
Protect the valve guide and do not weld the cylinder head.
Then, after the insert has cooled, it can easily be removed by hand or with pliers. Upon
removal, check the counterbore for burn, cracks, or rough edges. If these defects are present,
remove them. Some manufacturers do not approve of replacement with the same size insert;
rather they suggest boring the counterbore to accommodate an oversize insert.
Use a driver to press the insert down tightly into the counterbore. Some manufacturers
recommend peening the insert with a special tool or a round-nose punch to force the metal
around the outer insert chamfer edge.
Valve Seat Grinding Tools
Figure 266 – Valve seat grinding tools
A variety of valve seat grinding tools are shown in Figure 266.

Defective valve seat grinding tools should be repaired and worn out tools replaced. A valve
seat, improperly ground, can cause compression losses, combustion changes, increased
fuel consumption, burned valves, or valve head breakage. A valve seat must be ground to a

precise angle and be concentric with the valve guide. The seat area must be smooth, and the
width must be within specification.
Valve seats must be ground to a precise measurement. The tools required are:
1. A valve seat grinder and stone dresser
2. A pilot, the same size as the valve stem diameter, to center the grinder
3. A dial gauge to measure the concentricity of the valve seat
4. Various grinding stones of different angles to grind the valve seat to a narrower width.
The stones must also be of the correct width so that they do not interfere with the walls of the
combustion chamber or cot a shoulder in the valve seat. They must be made of a material
that will grind either the hardened insert or the cast iron alloy of the cylinder head. The valve
guide must not only be clean, it must conform to specified dimensions; otherwise the pilot
will not be square to the valve seat. The valve seat and surrounding area must also be free of
carbon and oil to ensure maximum cutting efficiency of the grinding stones.
Stone Dressing
Refer to the manufacturer’s manual regarding the use of individual stones and cutters used in
your workplace.
Interference Angle
Some manufacturers recommend grinding the valve seat ½° to 1½° larger, to achieve a
narrow line of contact. Such an angle is known as an interference angle. The purpose of the
interference angle is to permit a narrow leak free valve seat when the engine is first started.
As the valve gets hot, the valve head curls slightly and expands to a full seat contact (see
Figure 265).
Valve Seat Grinding (Refacing)
Before grinding a valve seat, make sure that the valve guide is clean. Then apply a light coat
of engine oil to the pilot and insert and secure it in the valve guide.
Figure 267 – Grinding a valve seat
Clean the bore of the valve grinder and place the grinder over the pilot. Support the valve
seat grinder and start the drive motor (Figure 267). Feed the stone gently to the seat. This will
ensure a smooth seat surface. Too much force on the stone will produce a rough seat.

Remove only enough surface metal to produce a pit free continuous seat. Dress the stone as
frequently as needed.
Figure 268 – Measuring valve-seat runout
Before narrowing the seat in order to position the valve face seat contact, measure the valve
seat for concentricity. This can be done by using a dial gauge as shown in Figure 268. When
the gauge is installed and the dial stem adjusted, rotate the upper half of the tool to measure
the valve seat concentricity.
The maximum runout should not exceed 0.002 in. (0.050 mm). If the valve seat runout
exceeds maximum allowable tolerance, recheck the valve guide, pilot, and valve seat grinder
for wear. If the excessive tolerance is not due to wear of any of these parts, you must regrind
the valve seat.
Locating Valve Face and Valve Seat Contact
To check seat contact, wipe a thin film of ‘Bearing Blue’ on the valve seat and rest the valve
momentarily on its seat. (Do not rotate the valve.) A thin, continuous line should be evident on
the valve face. The contact area must be at the correct height and the valve seat must be the
recommended width.
Figure 269 – Pencil marks on the valve face
Another method of checking the concentricity and condition of the valve seat is to pencil
mark the valve face as shown in Figure 269. Then place the valve against the valve seat and
rotate it about 10 degrees. Remove the valve and check your pencil marks. The seat and
concentricity are satisfactory when all pencil marks are broken.

Measuring Valve Head Height
Figure 270 – Measuring valve head height
An important step before installing the valve is to measure and compare the height of the
valve with the cylinder head surface using a straightedge and feeler gauge as shown in
Figure 270. Check the measurement against the manufacturer’s specification. If the valve
head is too high, the seat or the valve must be reground to lower it. If the valve head is too
low, the valve and/or insert must be replaced. The last step is the valve seat test.
Valve Seat Testing

Most manufacturers recommend testing the valve seat for leakage before installing the valves.
A leaking valve can cause considerable damage if it is not detected prior to engine startup.
The simplest valve seat leakage test is to place a suction cup onto the cylinder head surface
over the valve and insert; then squeeze the bulb while positioning the suction cup. If the
suction cup stays on the surface of the cylinder head for about 15 seconds after the bulb is
released, the valve seat and the insert are airtight.
Valve Springs, Spring Retainers and Keepers

The steel alloy used for a valve spring usually includes carbon, manganese, phosphorus,
sulphur, and silicon. It must be resistant to high temperature and corrosion and must maintain
its strength throughout the compression and expansion cycles to control the sealing force.
The valve spring is designed to ensure valve alignment with the spring retainer and valve
keeper.
To control valve vibration or valve flutter at the time of closure and to reduce valve seat and
valve seat insert wear, variably spaced springs are used.

Figure 271 – Valve springs:
When the valve lift and/or the engine speed is high, two springs are used (Figure 271) to
ensure adequate force and prevent valve vibration and flutter. The coils usually are wound in
opposite directions to prevent the valve springs from rotating.
Figure 272 – Sectional view of a Caterpillar 3500 Series cylinder head
A spring retainer made of steel or cast iron alloy stabilizes the valve spring and locks it to
the valve stem through a set of keepers (Figure 272). Valve keepers have internal grooves
or recessed areas which match with the raised area or grooves on the valve stem. When the
two keepers are placed on the valve stem, the outer surface forms a cone and matches with
the contour of the valve spring retainers. Sometimes a lower valve spring seat (retainer) is
used to act as a heat sink and as a wear washer preventing the spring from wearing into the
cylinder head.
Valve Spring Service
Clean with solvent any valve springs that have been coated for protection to maintain their
resistance to corrosion. After properly cleaning and drying with compressed air, visually check
them for rust, pitting or fractured coils. Check both spring ends; they must be flat and must

have a smooth, tapered surface. If any one of these defects is present the spring must be
replaced. Check both ends for squareness by placing the spring on a flat surface.
Figure 273 – Checking valve spring alignment
Slide a combination square close to the valve spring and then rotate the spring slowly (Figure
273). The spring should remain parallel to the edge of the square.
Measuring Spring Height and Force
Figure 274 – Checking valve spring alignment
Position the spring between the two anvils of the valve spring tester (Figure 274) and let the
movable anvil rest lightly on the spring end. From the tester scale, read the free length of the
spring. If it is below specification, the spring must be replaced.
Compress the spring to the specified height. By doing this, force is put onto the lower anvil
and recorded onto a dial calibrated in pounds (kilograms). If the compressed valve spring
force is less than specified, the spring must he replaced. An average force variation of 5 per
cent is allowable.
Valve Rotators
To extend the valve and valve seat life, the exhaust and/or intake valves of some engines
are equipped with positive or non-positive valve rotators. The non-positive valve rotator has a

Belleville spring (cone spring) between the two piece valve spring retainer, and a coil spring
above the cone spring. As the rocker arm forces the valve down, the valve spring force is
momentarily removed from the valve. This gives the valve momentary freedom allowing it to
rotate to a different position.
Figure 275 – Positive valve rotator
A positive rotator (Figure 275) is similar in design to the non-positive except that the cone
spring is replaced by a number of small steel balls. They lie in a ramp like groove and are
held there by small coil springs. As the rocker arm moves the valve down, the cone spring is
compressed. This forces the balls to move in their inclined ramps and the valve to rotate. As
the rocker arm force is removed, the cone spring force is released. The balls are then forced
by their coil springs to return to their starting position.
Valve Rotator Service
It is not possible to check the function of a valve rotator when it has been removed. At this
point your only alternative is to thoroughly clean and visually inspect the rotator for external
damage. It can easily be checked when the engine is running by making a chalk mark on the
rotor retainer and retainer body. When the valve rotator is operating, the retainer mark should
rotate away from the spring retainer mark.
Valve Bridge Service (Crosshead)
Figure 276 – Schematic view of Valve Bridge installed
Visually check the surface of the rocker arm lever and the valve stem contact area for
excessive wear or cracks. Check the adjusting screw and bridge threads for wear and
distortion. With a small bore gauge, measure the inside of the bore at several points for out of

roundness and taper. When the contact surfaces are worn, the valve bridge must be replaced
because of resurfacing problems. When the bridge bore is worn beyond specification, it can
be reamed to accommodate an oversize valve bridge guide pin (Figure 276).
Replacing Valve Bridge Guide Pin
With a micrometer, measure the outside diameter of the guide pin and compare the
measurement to the manufacturer’s specification. Using a square, check the guide pin for
straightness. If the pin must be replaced, use an adapter attached to a slide hammer and pull
the pin free from the cylinder head.
To install the guide pin, use a guide mandrel to press the pin into the bore to the specified
protrusion. After installation, recheck the guide pin for straightness.
Valve Seal
Some engines utilize valve seals to prevent oil from passing into the combustion chamber
through the intake or exhaust guides. These seals, made of Teflon, are placed either over the
valve guide or on the valve stem below the valve keeper. The valve seals effectively control oil
losses caused by vacuum, gravity, and inertia at the intake and exhaust valves.
Reassembling Cylinder Head

After all the abrasives are removed, the head dried with compressed air and all plugs
reinstalled, swab the valve guides with an oil saturated brush. Dip the valve stems into clean
lubricant (oil) and place them in the valve guides. Make certain each valve is inserted in the
valve guide in which it was tested.
Place the lower spring seat over the valve guide onto the cylinder head and the valve stem
seal over the stem and then over the valve guide. Next, press the valve spring into position
and insert the upper valve spring retainer or valve rotator over the valve spring.
NOTE:
Install the valve spring with the closed coil end toward the cylinder head.

Figure 277 – Valve spring compressor
Compress the assembly with a valve spring compressor (Figure 277). Place the two half
keepers onto the valve stems and then release the applied force. Tap the valve stems to
determine if the keepers are correctly positioned.
NOTE:
Some manufacturers recommend checking the force required to open the valves using a
special spring tool.
Installing Cylinder Head

Make certain that the machined surfaces of the cylinder head and cylinder block are clean.
Do not forget to check the cylinder bores. Make sure there is no oil at the bottom of the
cylinder head or threaded bolt holes. This could cause a hydrostatic lock when the cylinder
head is in place or the head bolts are torqued.
Be sure that the water nozzle or cylinder head cooling let tubes are in place and pointing in
the correct direction. Install the necessary guide studs to position the cylinder head gasket
and to ensure trouble free head installation. Place the head gasket with the side marked top
facing up on the cylinder block. If used, install the oil and coolant grommets (seal rings) and
fire ring.
Hoist the cylinder head into position. Make certain that the cylinder head is parallel to the
cylinder block when placing it in position and that the head gasket and grommets are correctly
positioned. When multi-heads are used, install all cylinder heads, then with a straightedge or
special tool; align the cylinder head and/or manifold and/or water manifold mounting surfaces
before tightening the head bolts.
Immerse the entire cylinder head bolt in the recommended lubricant. Remove it and allow the
excess oil to drip off. If thrust washers are used, place them on the cylinder head bolts and
insert the bolts, according to their length, into their respective bores.

Figure 278 – Typical torque sequence (1) tighten to 50 ft. lb. (67.7 Nm) (2) advance to 100 ft.
lb.
(135.5 Nm) (3) advance to final torque of 280 ft. lb. (379.4 Nm)
Tighten the head bolts in the recommended sequence and to the recommended torque in
increments of 50 ft. Ib. (68 Nm) (Figure 278).
Valve Train Mechanisms

Valve train mechanisms require smooth movement of rocker arms, cam followers to the cams,
and well-adjusted valves and valve timing. This chapter covers failure modes, disassembly
and inspection procedures, replacement instructions, reconditioning procedures and
reassembly and reinstallation procedures for valve train components. The chapter covers the
correct method of timing adjustment of a 6-cylinder engine.
Servicing Rocker Arm
Figure 279 – Exploded view of a valve operating mechanism
Very little damage or wear will be found in the valve train operating mechanism, especially
if the engine is not abused or other parts of the engine haw not failed. However, insufficient
lubrication, contaminated oil, or incorrect installation of valve train components could damage
the bushings, shafts, or other valve train components (Figure 279).

Before disassembling the rocker arm assembly, check each rocker arm and rocker shaft
bracket for identification. Although some rocker arms look alike, their rocker arm angles may
be slightly different to give centralized contact on the valve stem or bridge. Disassemble one
rocker arm assembly at a time to prevent interchanging components.
Remove the end pipe plugs, or when cup plugs are used drive them out with a pointed punch
and pry the plug from the shaft. In all cases place the shaft in a V block rather than in a vice,
to prevent damage to the shaft.
Clean all the components in solvent and dry with compressed air. Use a wire brush to clean
the oil passages in the rocker arm, if so equipped. Check the rocker arms and rocker arm
shaft for damage and also measure them for wear using a micrometer. Check the shaft ends
for any damaged threads and the sealing cup counterbores for damage.
Check the rocker arms for possible cracks and the adjusting screw threads and the threads in
the rocker arms for distortion. Check the adjusting screw ball end with a radius gauge. If the
adjusting screw threads or ball ends are damaged or flattened, replace them.
Figure 280 – Grinding rocker arm to valve bridge contact surface
Check the rocker arm surface where it contacts the valve stem or bridge. If it requires
resurfacing, be sure to maintain the same contour radius so that the valve is forced straight
downward. Do not remove more than 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) from the surface, otherwise
you may remove the surface hardening. Use the attachment tools of your valve refacer to
resurface the rocker arm (contact) surface.
NOTE:
Some rocker arms have replaceable inserts to provide a self-aligning contact, thereby
prolonging the life of the valve, guide, and rocker arm.
Measure the rocker arm bushing for wear. When the rocker arm is new, the average running
clearance is about 0.001 in. (0.025 mm). When the bushing exceeds specification, press it
out, and then press a new one in. Carefully align the bushing oil holes with the rocker arm.
Since some rocker arm bushings have no oil holes, they must be drilled after installation.
To attain alignment and the correct inside diameter, the bushing may be honed or burnished
with a burnishing tool. Burnishing is a procedure which seats the bushing and also sizes the
bore diameter to specification. Check the rocker arm bracket mounting surface for flatness
and cracks as well as for a smooth side seat surface. Make sure that the oil supply holes are
clean.

Assembling Rocker Arm Shaft
Figure 281 – Rocker arm assembly
Lubricate the rocker arm bushing and shaft and assemble them onto the shaft in the
sequence in which they were removed. Do not forget to install end plugs or cup plugs.
Position the rocker arm shaft so that the oil holes in the shaft align with the supply holes in
the rocker shaft bracket (Figure 281), that is, with the rocker shaft oil holes positioned toward
the cylinder head rather than facing upward.
Incorrect positioning can allow too much oil to pass by the bushings. As a result, the valve
guides cannot control the oil and it will find its way into the combustion chamber. When one or
more special rocker shaft bracket bolts are used as the oil supply link to the rocker shaft, take
care to screw them into their correct locations. When installing the rocker arms, remember
that some rocker arm assemblies get their lubricating oil through the center of one or more of
the rocker arm assembly hold-down bolts.
Pushrods or Push Tubes

Pushrods or push tubes are made of special steel to withstand the great stress and force to
which they are subjected. The advantage of using a push tube is that it has less inertia than
the solid pushrod.
Figure 282 – Pushrod damage and cam follower damage
The pushrod damage in Figure 282 is not common, but it is a good example of damage
resulting from overspeeding an engine.

There is usually a ball on one end of the pushrod rocker arm linkage and a socket on
the other end to reduce friction and to maintain alignment. Consequently, when motion is
transmitted to the rocker arm, it moves in a semicircle.
Servicing Pushrods or Push Tubes
Check the straightness of each pushrod by rolling it on a flat surface or by placing the
pushrod in V blocks and using a dial indicator to measure the out-of-roundness. Pushrods
which are bent beyond specification must be replaced; those within specification should be
straightened.
Check the ball ends for looseness and check them for wear with a radius gauge. To check the
socket end wear, use a new rocker arm adjusting screw, blue the ball surface, rotate the ball
in the socket, and then check the contact surface.
Cam Follower (Cam Roller)
Figure 283 – Some typical cam followers
Cam followers and tappet rollers are made from cast iron or iron alloy, which has a high
resistance to wear and corrosion (Figure 283).
Although the external appearance varies with engine design, all cam followers or rollers
reduce friction and evenly distribute force onto the camshaft lobe during opening and closing
of the valves or when operating the injector. The cam followers usually slide up and down
in their bores as they follow the eccentricity of the camshaft lobes. The cam follower bores,
which are usually in the cylinder block, can become worn or damaged. Careful inspection of
the cam follower bores should be made, and any damaged or worn bores should be bored
and relined at this time.
Either a socket which accepts the pushrod ball end is machined into the follower or else a
replacement socket is pushed into the follower. Some engines, because of the difference in
camshaft location and action, have neither a pushrod nor the conventional cam follower.

Figure 284 – Schematic view of an overhead camshaft valve
The rocker arms with the valve adjustment mechanism are placed directly over the valves,
and the camshaft lobes act directly on the rollers to actuate the rocker arms (Figure 285).
Servicing Cam Follower
The wear limit of the cam follower bushing, pin, roller, and bores must be checked very
carefully. The cam follower’s surface condition must be free of galling, pitting or scoring. The
rollers should be checked for flat spots since any slight defect will affect valve and/or injector
timing.
Valve lifters having a flat surface instead of a roller should be checked for excessive wear and
pitting. If the damage to the flat surface is not too severe, the lifter can be restored by using a
valve refacer. The grinding procedure is the same as that used when refacing the valve stem
end.
NOTE:
To retain surface hardness, do not remove more than 0.010 in. (0.25 mm).

Installing Valve and Injector Mechanism
Figure 285 – Valve train operating mechanism
Before installing the valve train operating mechanism (Figure 285), turn all valve adjusting
screws to maximum clearance. This will prevent the valves from being forced against the
piston as the rocker arm shaft is torqued down. Lubricate the bores and cam followers before
placing the cam followers into the bores.
NOTE:
The oil holes in the bottom of the cam follower must be placed toward the trailing side of the
camshaft.
Lubricate the rocker arm bushing and shaft. Slide the rocker arm shaft through the rocker
arm bushings. Position a rocker arm bracket to each end of the shaft and, if a valve bridge
is used, install it on the guide pin, making certain that the ends rest squarely on the valve
stems. Tilt the rocker arm assembly into position and insert the cap screws through the
rocker arm bracket and shaft. Start the cap screws into the cylinder head and torque them to
specification.
Valve adjustment: On any type of engine, precise valve clearance is essential. A two-cycle
diesel engine is more adversely affected by improper valve clearance than a four-cycle engine
because its cycle is completed in one revolution and exhaust valve cooling is about 50 per
cent less. Remember too, that an increase or decrease in valve clearance will alter the time
(in degrees) of the strokes.

NOTE:
If servicing has disturbed the valve clearance, back off all tappet adjusting screws so that the
valves cannot contact the piston when the engine is cranked over. Service manuals list valve
clearance specifications for a cold engine and a hot engine; therefore set the valve clearance
twice: once before starting the engine and again when it has reached its operating temperature.
Readjustment is necessary because the valve and valve train components may expand at
operating temperature. This can cause a change in the valve clearance.
The following procedure assumes work has been done on a six cylinder engine with a firing
order of 1-5-3-6-2-4. Remember that the valves are closed when the piston is at TDC on the
compression stroke. When setting all valves with one crankshaft revolution, first record the
firing order, that is, place the last three cylinder numbers under the first three, as follows:
1-5-3
6-2-4
In this example, No. 1 cylinder is on compression stroke at TDC, and therefore No. 6 cylinder
is also at TDC but has completed its exhaust stroke, and the intake and exhaust valves are
open (overlap).
At the same time, No. 5 cylinder is 120° BTDC and on compression stroke. No. 2 cylinder
is also 120° BTDC but on the exhaust stroke. The No. 3 cylinder is 120° ATDC on its intake
stroke, and No. 4 cylinder is also 120° ATDC but on its power stroke.
At this point set both intake and exhaust valve clearances of No. 1 cylinder, the intake valves
of Nos. 2 and 4 cylinders, and the exhaust valves of Nos. 3 and 5 cylinders.
To adjust the valve clearance, insert a gauge of the correct thickness between (1) the valve
bridge and rocker arm, (2) the valve stem and rocker arm and (3) the camshaft and follower.
Loosen the locknut and turn the adjusting screw downward (clockwise) to decrease the
clearance or upward (counter clockwise) to increase the clearance between the two feeler-
gauge contact points. The clearance is correctly set when the feeler gauge passes with a
slight drag between the two surfaces. When using a no-go feeler gauge, the no-go thickness
will not pass between the two surfaces.
When the clearance is correctly set, hold the adjusting screw stationary and tighten the
locknut. Recheck the adjustment to ensure that after tightening the locknut, the valve
clearance has not changed. Each adjusted valve should be promptly identified so that none is
overlooked.
Rotate the crankshaft 360° so that No. 6 cylinder is on TDC compression stroke. Adjust the
valves of No. 6 cylinder, the intake valves of Nos. 3 and 5 cylinders, and the exhaust valves of
Nos. 2 and 4 cylinders.

Valve Bridge Adjustment
Figure 286 – Schematic view of Valve Bridge installed
To adjust the valve bridge, clamp the bridge in a vice, loosen the adjusting screw lockout, and
turn the adjusting screw counter clockwise. Position the bridge on the valve bridge guide pin
(refer to Figure 286). With light finger pressure on the rocker arm contact surface, hold the
bridge in contact with the valve stem end opposite to the stem end of the adjusting screw.
Using a screwdriver, turn the adjusting screw until it contacts its mating valve stem end. To
compensate for thread looseness, advance the adjusting screw an additional one eighth of a
turn and finger tighten the locknut. Remove the bridge and clamp it in a vice. Hold the screw
in position and torque the locknut.
To check the adjusted valve bridge, place the bridge in position. Next check the valve bridge
contact, the clearance between the valve spring retainer and the bridge. When forcing the
valve bridge down, both shim stocks must be equally tight. If the adjustment is not correct,
that is, if there is uneven force on the shim stock, remove the valve bridge and repeat the
procedure previously outlined.

Topic 10
Flywheel Housing, Flywheels and
Timing Covers
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Inspecting, Servicing, And Installing Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Aligning and Measuring Flywheel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Inspecting and Servicing Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Installing Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Inspecting And Servicing Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Installing Timing Gear Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Inspecting And Servicing Crankshaft Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Inspecting Vibration Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Installing the Vibration Damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Introduction
The flywheel preserves rotational energy called inertia. The flywheel housing may enclose the
flywheel, timing gears, and a system to improve crankcase ventilation.
Inspecting, Servicing, And Installing

Flywheel Housing
In order to inspect and service the flywheel housing, you must first remove the seals and
gaskets. Next, clean the cover (or the flywheel housing) and dry it with compressed air. Check
it for cracks and/or damaged mounting surfaces.
Measure the bores, bushings, and shafts for wear and check them for pitting and grooving.
Where necessary, remove nicks and burrs or replace components where warranted. Using a
straightedge, measure all mounting flanges and sealing surfaces for straightness. Check all
threaded holes, especially those of the rear engine mount.
Use the following method to install the rear cover of the flywheel housing. If the rear oil seal
is located in the flywheel housing of cover, install it into its bore and install the auxiliary shaft
seals, if used. Lubricate the seal and the timing gears with clean engine oil. Install, when
necessary the O-rings and/or gaskets which seal the cylinder block to the flywheel housing.
Figure 287 – Sealant application
If recommended by the manufacturer, apply a thin film of sealant to the mounting surface
(Figure 287).
NOTE:
A heavy flywheel housing should be lifted into position with a suitable hoist.

Figure 288 – Installing flywheel housing
To protect the rear seal as the flywheel housing is placed in position, push a seal sleeve
over the crankshaft before installation. Install pilot stud bolts to the cylinder block to improve
alignment and aid installation (Figure 288).
Position the flywheel housing over the aligning bolts, onto the dowel pins, then onto the
cylinder block (Figure 288). Some flywheel housings are secured with hex bolts of various
sizes and lengths and may use flat washers, sealing washers, or lock washers under the
bolts. Be sure the flywheel housing bolts and washers are in their proper places. Tighten the
hex bolts in sequence and to the recommended torque.
Aligning and Measuring Flywheel Housing

When installing a new flywheel housing, position it to permit the center of the crankshaft to
be concentric with the flywheel housing bore. To check the position of the flywheel housing
screw an indicator holder or place a magnetic base onto the crankshaft.
Figure 289 – Measuring flywheel housing bore runout
Attach a dial gauge to it so that the pointer rests squarely on the surface of the bore (Figure
289). Zero the dial, then turn the crankshaft one complete revolution. Record readings at
90° intervals. The reading at any point must not exceed an average concentricity (runout)
tolerance specified by the manufacturer.
Tap the housing into alignment and tighten the hex bolts. The next check should be the
flywheel housing face runout. To make this check, relocate the dial gauge so that the pointer
rests against the flywheel housing flange. Force the crankshaft forward to remove end play,

then zero the dial. Turn the crankshaft one complete revolution and record readings at 90°
intervals.
If the flywheel housing is misaligned, the existing alignment dowels must be removed
from the cylinder block or flywheel housing. Then realign the housing. The housing bolts
should then be torqued and the alignment should be checked once more. If the alignment is
acceptable then ream the dowel holes oversize and drive in new dowels.
Inspecting and Servicing Flywheel

Begin inspection and service of the flywheel by checking all flywheel mounting surfaces for
nicks, burrs or scoring. Inspect all bores and threaded holes for damaged bores or pulled
threads. Check the drive lugs of the intermediate clutch drive plates for wear and, using a
square, check their alignment. Use a straightedge to check the clutch contact surface for
straightness.
Figure 290 – A typical flywheel
Although score marks, grooves, and heat checks are always present to some extent, when
the marks are too deep or the clutch surface is tapered beyond specification, the surface
must be refaced.
Replacing Ring Gear
When a six-cylinder engine is turned off, the flywheel will usually come to rest in one of three
positions in relation to the starter drive pinion. An eight-cylinder engine will usually come to
rest in one of four positions. For this reason, certain areas of the flywheel ring will contact
the starter pinion more often than others when the engine is started. If there is wear on the
ring gear, it is usually evenly spaced around the perimeter. When wear is spotted, the ring
gear must be replaced. To replace a ring gear, use a blunt chisel to drive it evenly from the
flywheel, or heat the gear with a heating torch to expand it before driving it from the flywheel.
Before installing a new ring gear, make certain that the gear and the cranking motor pinion
match.
Place the ring gear in an oven or use a heating torch to apply heat to its inner surface.
Check the applied heat with a special crayon (templet stick) that has a rating of 450°F
(232°C). This is done by touching the stick against the ring gear. When the applied heat
reaches a temperature of 450°F (232°C), the crayon becomes soft and leaves a mark on
the ring gear. At this point use two pairs of pliers and place the ring gear on the flywheel as
quickly as possible. If necessary, tap the ring gear against the flywheel shoulder.

NOTE:
The chamfered edges should point toward the starting motor.
Installing Flywheel
Make sure that the flywheel and crankshaft flange are clean before installing the new
dowels and two guide studs into the crankshaft flange. Lift the flywheel into position. Align
the holes and place the flywheel on the guide stud. Place the lock plates (or wear plates, if
used) into position and install the flywheel bolts. Tighten them in the correct sequence to the
recommended torque. Crimp the lock plates to the bolt head or, when Lockwire is used to
secure the bolts, be sure to wire the bolts in pairs.
When a new crankshaft of a new flywheel is used, the flywheel pilot-bore runout must be
checked and a measurement taken to determine the flywheel housing and the flywheel face
are parallel.
Figure 291 – (A) Measuring flywheel face (B) Bearing bore runout
To check the flywheel face runout, place a magnetic base against the flywheel housing
and position the dial gauge stem squarely against the flywheel face (Figure 291). Force the
crankshaft forward and zero the dial following the measuring procedure previously outlined.
The average maximum runout should not exceed 0.0005 in. (0.0012 mm) for each 1 in. (25.4
mm) radius. For example, when the pointer of the dial is 10 in. (254 mm) from the center of
the crankshaft, safe engine operation dictates that the maximum runout should not exceed
0.005 in. (0.127 mm). For individual manufacturer figures, check specifications.
To check the pilot-bearing runout, relocate the dial gauge so that the stem rests squarely
against the pilot-bearing bore. Check the runout and if necessary force the flywheel into such
a position that it will prevent the bore runout from exceeding manufacturer’s specifications.
If you should find the flywheel runout to be excessive, you may bring it into specification
by torqueing the bolts in alternate patterns. If not, the dowels will need to be removed, the
flywheel aligned, the bolts torqued, and finally the dowel holes reamed oversize and larger
dowels installed.
Inspecting And Servicing Timing Gear

Cover

A timing gear cover, or front cover, is a one piece cast iron, iron alloy or aluminum casting,
reinforced to withstand the stress placed on it. In addition to sealing the crankshaft, it covers
the timing gears. It may become part of the oil pan sealing and mounting surface or it may
also act as the front support or bearing for the engine mount.
Clean the cover, remove the auxiliary seals, and scrape off all old gasket material from the
sealing surfaces. Inspect the cover for cracks, damaged bolt holes, pulled threads, nicks or
burrs. Use a smooth cut file to restore the mounting surfaces and a bearing scraper or emery
cloth to restore the bores.
Some manufacturers recommend installing crankshaft seals after the timing gear cover has
been installed and after the bore runout has been dialed in order to ensure proper bore
concentricity.
Installing Timing Gear Cover
Figure 292 – Views of gear housing and torque sequence
Figure 292, left shows that the gear housing is an extension of the cylinder block and is
attached in most cases by bolts. The gear housing must be positioned, aligned, and bolted
to the cylinder block before the camshaft, idler, fuel pump gears, and oil pump are installed.
After the gears are installed and the backlash checked, lubricate the gears with engine oil,
then install the gear cover (Figure 292, left). Install two or more guide studs, then place a seal
protection sleeve over the crankshaft. Position the oil slinger, if one is used. If desired, apply a
sealant to the front plate or to the side of the gasket facing the front plate.
When positioning the gasket on the gear housing, make sure that the oil passages are not
covered. Install shims if they are needed to adjust camshaft end clearance or install the gear
cover, then the shims and trust plate, onto the cover. Measure the camshaft end play, remove
or add shims to achieve the specified camshaft end play, and then bolt the thrust plate to the
gear cover.
Lift the gear cover into position, place it on the guide studs and then place it on the dowels.
Tap the cover into place, then install and tighten the cover bolts. If applicable, trim off any
excess gasket material at the oil pan mounting surface. The bottom surface of the cover must
be flush with the cylinder block or within the specified limits.
NOTE:
Never enlarge dowel bores or file the dowels in order to force the cover to fit. After such
modification, the cover bolts will not hold the cover in alignment. Oil will then leak at the joint
where the oil pan and cover meet. It may also leak out of the front crankshaft seal.

After installation, do not forget to tighten the bolts in correct sequence to the torque specified.
Inspecting And Servicing Crankshaft

Pulley
Crankshaft pulleys rarely need to be replaced because of wear, although they are often
damaged because of improper installation, removal, storage or because of worn belt grooves.
Nevertheless, check the pulley bore and keyway for wear and burrs. Check the oil seal
contact area if applicable
Check the belt grooves very thoroughly. Be sure the side walls are straight and the surfaces
are smooth.
Inspecting Vibration Damper
Figure 293 – Vibration Damper
When inspecting the rubber-element vibration damper (Figure 293), after cleaning it, check
the rubber element for deterioration. If it contains cracks deeper than manufacturer’s
specifications, it must be replaced.
Check that the index mark on the mounting flange and the inertial weight are in alignment.
If they are out of alignment more than 0.064 in. (1.6 mm), this indicates that the rubber has
lost its elasticity or has loosened from its bond. The damper must then be replaced. Check
the mounting flanges and the bolt holes for cracks and elongation. Check the surface for
straightness.
When checking a viscous damper, inspect it thoroughly for evidence of external damage.
Even small indents make the damper unusable since they prevent the inertial mass from
rotating. Check the mounting flanges as well as the bores. Check for pinholes, broken welds,
or cracks by heating the damper in an oven set to 200°F (93.3°C). When removed from the
oven, no evidence of oil should be visible.
NOTE:
It is usual practice to replace a viscous damper whenever a major engine overhaul is
performed.

Installing the Vibration Damper
Before mounting the vibration damper to the pulley flange, or to the hub, use a dial gauge
to check the flange concentricity and runout (wobble). The average allowable runout is
approximately 0.003 in. (0.08 mm) and the eccentricity is approximately 0.004 in. (0.10 mm).
The measurement should be taken at the outside radius and the outside diameter of the
flange. Check manufacturer’s specifications.
Before installing the damper, be sure that the mounting surfaces of the crankshaft and
damper are clean. Then position the damper, install the hex bolts, and tighten them in three
phases, in sequence, to the recommended torque.
Then with a dial gauge, check the concentricity and runout (wobble). It is necessary to keep
the crankshaft at the front or rear against the crankshaft thrust bearing while making both
checks.
When installing a vibration damper assembly, bolt the vibration damper to the hub and
torque the bolts to specification. Lubricate the oil seal and crankshaft. Slide the inner cone
over the large diameter side of the crankshaft, snugly against the oil slinger. Next, place
the hub assembly onto the cone and the outer cone onto the smaller diameter side of the
crankshaft. Install the two keys, align the pulley keyways with the keys, and position them on
the crankshaft.
Pull the pulley onto the crankshaft and then remove the puller. Install the crankshaft bolt and
torque it to the specified amount.


Diesel Engine Repair

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Diesel Engine Repair

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Diesel Engine Repair

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TCL036 Diesel Engine Repair

Published by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd.

Version 5.0; 2013

Copyright © 2013 Caterpillar Inc.

All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work

This subject material is issued by Caterpillar Inc. on the

Caterpillar Inc. expressly disclaims all and any liability to any

Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

topic 2 Engine Disassembly Procedures

topic 3 Cylinder Blocks

topic 5 Friction Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

topic 6 Connecting Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

topic 7 Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

topic 9 Cylinder Head and Valves

topic 10 Flywheel Housing, Flywheels and Timing Covers

© CATERPILLAR 1 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 1 – Personal Protective Equipment

When removing and disassembling an engine, it is necessary for personal protective

© CATERPILLAR 3 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 2 – Lifting Equipment

© CATERPILLAR 4 Version 5.0 2012

© CATERPILLAR 5 Version 5.0 2012

© CATERPILLAR 7 Version 5.0 2012

© CATERPILLAR 9 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 3 – C15 Engine

© CATERPILLAR 10 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 4 – Sectionized View of a Turbocharger

© CATERPILLAR 11 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 5 – C15 Sectionized Exhaust Manifold

© CATERPILLAR 12 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 6 – Location of Water Pump

Fuel Injection Pump

© CATERPILLAR 13 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 7 – Valve Cover Bolts fitted to a C15 Engine

Rocker Arm and Shaft

Figure 8 – Overhead Camshaft

© CATERPILLAR 14 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 9 – Pushrod System

© CATERPILLAR 15 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 10 – Caterpillar C12 Engine fitted with three cylinder heads

© CATERPILLAR 16 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 11 – Valve Removing Tool – C15

Figure 12 – Electronic Unit Injector Removal

© CATERPILLAR 17 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 13 – Flywheel Removal

Vibration Damper and Pulley

Figure 14 – Vibration Damper and Pulley 3046E Engine

© CATERPILLAR 18 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 15 – Camshaft Gear Removal

Figure 16 – C15 Oil Cooler

© CATERPILLAR 19 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 17 –Tier 4 C27 Caterpillar Engine

Figure 18 – Oil Supply Tube, Suction Bell and Tube Assembly

© CATERPILLAR 20 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 19 – Timing Gear Cover

Front Gears and Plate

Timing Gear Drive

Figure 20 – Timing Gear Drive

© CATERPILLAR 21 Version 5.0 2012

Figure 21 – Adjustable Idler Gear