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Modes of Knowing in Practice: The Relationship between Knowledge and

Learning Revisited

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DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1186.1127

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 Modes of Knowing in Practice:

The Relationship between Knowledge and Learning Revisited

Elena P. Antonacopoulou
Fellow, (UK) Advanced Institute of Management Research
Professor of Organizational Behaviour and Director of GNOSIS
Management School
University of Liverpool
Chatham Building
Liverpool, L69 7ZH
UNITED KINGDOM

Phone: +44 (0)151 795 3727

Fax: +44 (0)151 795 3001

Email: [email protected]

The author would like to acknowledge the support of the ESRC/EPSRC Advanced Institute of
Management Research under grant number RES-331-25-0024 for this research.
 Modes of Knowing in Practice:

The Relationship between Knowledge and Learning Revisited

Introduction

The emphasis in recent years, on knowledge and learning as the new sources of wealth

(Badaracco, 1991; Drucker, 1993; Sveiby, 1997; Boisot, 1998), has led to a preoccupation with

ways in which knowledge and learning can be ‘managed’, so that their contribution to

organisational performance can best be predicted and achieved. This preoccupation has

resulted in knowledge and learning being treated like entities to be manipulated at will.

Moreover, as a result of this preoccupation the attention has shifted more on the outcomes of

learning and knowledge and much less so on the process of learning and knowing. An ongoing

challenge in Knowledge Management debates therefore, remains the need to identify ways we

can better understand the dynamic nature of knowing in action. Although practice-based

approaches (Bourdieu, 1980; Orlikowski, 1992; Turner, 1994; Gherardi, 2000) have enabled us

to capture some of the forces which shape the nature of knowing we have yet to fully

understand how knowing is enacted in practice. This chapter contributes to this debate and

argues that a better understanding of the relationship between learning and knowledge can

provide valuable insights about knowing in practice.

Currently, our understanding of the relationship between learning and knowledge

appears on the one hand, to treat learning and knowledge as distinct (Davenport and Prusak,

1998; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995) and on the other hand, there is an implicit assumption that

learning and knowledge are strongly connected and even interdependent (Kolb et al. 1991;

Lave, 1993; Coulson-Thomas, 1997). Knowledge is presented as a product of learning and

existing knowledge as a precursor to further learning (Juch, 1983; Gagné, 1983; Thomas and

1
Harri-Augstein, 1985). There is limited research, which examines the relationship between

learning and knowledge. An examination of the relationship between learning and knowledge

could shed light into the nature of their association by highlighting the factors, which may

determine if knowledge is a precursor to learning and whether knowledge is shaped by

learning. Moreover, an examination of the relationship between learning and knowledge may

also help clarify the connections between different aspects of learning and knowledge in the

process of creating, sharing, disseminating and utilising knowledge and learning. In other

words, it can reveal different modes of knowing in practice.

Furthermore, such analysis may provide new insights into the nature of learning and

knowledge at the organisational level in relation to learning and knowledge at the group and

individual level. The lack of agreement in the current literature, as to whether learning and

knowledge at the organisational level is the sum total of individual/group learning and

knowledge or an integral part of organisational functioning regardless of people (Argyris and

Schön, 1978; Brown and Duguid, 1991; Kim, 1993; Richter, 1998), necessitates a more careful

examination of the interactions between different levels of analysis. Perhaps our preoccupation

need not be whether learning and knowledge take place at the organisational, group or

individual level, but how activities at each of these levels may shape the process of learning

and knowing at every level. This chapter contributes to this debate by exploring the

relationship between learning and knowledge as shaped by the interaction of individual

(personal) and organisational (contextual) factors. The analysis is informed by recent empirical

findings from a study of managers in the Financial Services sector in the UK.

Therefore, this chapter revisits the relationship between learning and knowledge and

presents different modes of knowing in practice, grounded on the empirical findings. The

analysis challenges existing assumptions about the relationship between learning and

2
knowledge and provides new insights demonstrating the personal and contextual forces which

shape knowing in practice. The findings presented show how the interaction between personal

and contextual factors shape the role of knowledge in the learning process and the impact of

different modes of knowing on the way knowledge is created and utilised. The analysis

highlights seven modes of knowing. These modes of knowing it is argued reflect the dynamics,

which shape how knowledge and learning at the individual level finds meaning and expression

in the process of social interaction. The different modes of knowing also seek to reflect the

indeterminate nature of knowledge and learning and the complexity underpinning their

relationship.

The discussion unfolds in four sections. The main assumptions, which underpin our

current understanding of the relationship between learning and knowledge are presented first.

The second section presents and discusses the empirical findings from the study, while the

final section of the chapter distils the main issues and highlights the nature of the relationship

between learning and knowledge in the various forms of knowing identified. The discussion

concludes by reviewing some of the implications of future research in organizational

knowledge and learning.

Learning and Knowledge: Their relationship

Early notions about the role of learning and knowledge as fundamental elements in political

and social activity can be traced back to the philosophy of the ancient Greeks. The views of

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle about the nature of knowledge have played an important role in

the history of learning theory and the way it has developed to this day (Hergenhahn, 1982).

These early theories about learning have given rise to the need to understand what is

knowledge, what are the origins of knowledge, what does it mean to know, even how do we

know what we know. These are questions concerned with the nature and evolution of

3
knowledge (epistemology) and are central questions in the Philosophers’ quest for

understanding knowledge in relation to education and learning (Antonacopoulou, 2000). Early

notions about knowledge indicate the variety of forms that learning takes and the difficulty of

measuring how much exists at any one time or establishing accurately the level of

transferability across boundaries (Machlup, 1962; Hayes and Allinson, 1988). They also

indicate the diversity of learning forms (conscious and unconscious) and resources (structured

and unstructured) in the social context.

These propositions have shaped many of the definitions that are to be found for learning

and knowledge, and the way their relationship is currently understood. For example, existing

definitions of learning present knowledge as one of the outcomes of learning or one of the

elements which constitute the learning experience (see Bass and Vaughan, 1969; Walker,

1975; Thomas and Harri-Augstein, 1985). Knowledge is also seen as an important part of the

learning process, because as some commentators argue, the recognition of ones own need to

learn, the search for the new knowledge, the test of that new knowledge in practical action, and

the consolidation of the whole exercise within the memory are all essential to complete

learning (Revans, 1971; Klatt et al., 1985).

The relationship between learning and knowledge has also affected our understanding of

knowing. Currently two main dominant positions appear to inform our understanding of

knowledge; the ‘cognitive’ and ‘constructionist’ perspectives (Fiddis, 1998) or what Venzin et

al. (1998) call ‘cognitivistic’ and ‘connectionistic’ profiles. Both perspectives/profiles can be

traced in Ryles (1949) argument against Cartesian dualism and the differentiation between

‘knowing how’ (i.e. procedural, skill based knowledge) from ‘knowing that’ (i.e. declarative

knowledge). Put differently, this distinction is what more recent writers have termed as

‘explicit’ and ‘tacit’ knowledge respectively (Polanyi, 1966; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995).

4
These distinctions have created more room for encapsulating the importance of knowing what

Cook and Brown (1999) refer to as the ‘epistemology of practice’ which draws attention to the

role of inquiry, implying that the action has the sense of a query, like a problem or a question.

Knowing also draws attention to the interaction between the social and physical world. We act

within this world and our actions either give shape in the physical world or affect the social.

Hence, knowing, since it is about our actions, lies on this interaction. Therefore, knowing is

about the interaction between the knower and the world.

In recent years the recognition of the fluidity of learning and knowledge has sought to be

addressed by researchers who have accounted for the unpredictability and complexity of

learning and knowing within organisations (Boland and Tenkasi, 1995; Choo, 1998; Von

Krogh et al. 1998, Antonacopoulou, 1998; Gherardi, 1999). Recognising the contextual nature

of learning and knowing, these contributions invite us to explore the relationship between

learning and knowledge through the culturally-located systems which shape learning and

knowledge within organisations (Engestrom, 1993; Blackler, 1993; 1995). In other words, the

relationship between learning and knowledge must be sensitive both to implicit and explicit

social rules, sensitive to the role of language and symbols, as well as the power and political

dynamics that underpin the process of learning and knowing. Indeed, sensitivity to these issues

could extend further our analysis of the qualitative nature of learning and knowledge as ‘first

order’ or ‘second order’ (Walzlawick et al. 1974), what Antonacopoulou (1999a) describes as

‘learning by knowing the same’ versus ‘learning by knowing differently’. Extending this

analysis and exploring the relationship between learning and knowledge could explicate the

contested, temporal and multifaceted nature of learning and knowledge as reflected in different

modes of knowing.

5
 It is therefore, both necessary and timely as we explore the future of Knowledge

Management, to explore how learning and knowledge interact and identify the contributing

factors, at the individual and organisational level, which may shape their interaction.

Moreover, there is a need to consider in more depth whether knowledge is created through

learning or utilised after learning and indeed, if knowledge is a precursor to further learning.

Furthermore, in the light of the currently unidirectional representation of the relationship

between learning and knowledge, there is a need to explore the multiplicity of factors, which

shape how and why learning and knowledge may or may not co-exist.

The relationship between learning and knowledge across three Retail Banks

The questions raised in the previous section, were part of the focus of a recent study which

sought to examine individual managers’ learning and changing across three Retail Banks. This

study examined the interaction between individual and organisational factors and the impact on

the nature of the interrelationships between processes such as change, learning, training, self-

development and career-development (Antonacopoulou, 1996). Choosing from the emerging

findings of the study, the paragraphs which follow present evidence which highlight the

relationship between learning and knowledge from the perspective of the individual manager.

Using the individual as the unit of analysis allows a better understanding of the interaction

between personal (psychological) and contextual (social) factors shaping the relationship

between processes. The findings are discussed in relation to the organisation and industry

specific characteristics. A brief overview of the research setting and the methods is provided

first, before the main findings are presented, discussed and analysed.

The research setting

The Retail Banking sector provides an interesting example of an industry, which has

undergone a process of reconstruction, which demanded fast responsiveness to change and a

6
high need for learning. Triggered by a series of external forces (e.g. trends in the world

economy) and internal forces (e.g. changes in the market, the intensification of competition

etc.), the recent changes have forced a new orientation towards the basic principles of banking

(Cappon, 1994). No longer are banks, purely money laundering organisations, instead they are

diversifying into new businesses and have become increasingly sensitised to the importance of

valuing the customer.

In response to these changes banks are moving away from the paternalistic approaches to

developing their employees. Traditionally, banks tended to recruit school-leavers who they

trained internally through a formal disciplined classroom approach and developed through

professional qualifications (such as the Association of Charter Institute of Banking Diploma -

ACIBD). In the light of the present uncertainties in the market, banks are no longer willing to

invest in the traditional training and development approaches. The new training and

development policies are orientated towards a more learner-centred approach with an emphasis

on personal responsibility for development. A common assumption, which underpins the

introduction of self-development, is that by transferring the responsibility for learning and

development to the individual this would enable them to be better placed in responding to the

rate of change in the sector. This philosophy is reflected in the practices of the three banks in

the study which is seen to significantly affect individual and collective learning practices (see

Antonacopoulou, 1998; 2001; 2004 for a more detailed discussion). The characteristics of the

industry and the way these characteristics are reflected in the philosophy and practices of the

three banks in the study are also seen to shape the perceptions of individual managers in terms

of the role of knowledge and learning in responding to the new requirements. More

importantly, they provide insights into the way learning and knowledge are associated.

7
Methods

The relationship between learning and knowledge is captured in the complex interactions

between organisational/contextual and individual/personal factors. This study sought to capture

this interaction by reviewing organisational practices supporting learning and knowledge and

to examine the impact of these practices on individuals’ perceptions and actions. The way

personal and contextual factors are negotiated is reflected in individuals’ perceptions of

learning and knowledge, the way knowledge is employed in the process of learning, the

perceived role of knowledge in identifying and pursuing learning goals and the utilisation and

longevity of knowledge from learning.

In pursuing these issues the study adopted a case study approach for contextualising the

analysis of the findings. The data was collected using a variety of methods, which allowed the

necessary depth of discussion to be developed and subsequent triangulation. The qualitative

interview (semi-structured) was the main data collection method, while questionnaires and

observation where supplementary data collection methods employed. The managerial sample

was selected by the researcher, so that it may be representative of the employee population in

each bank, and consist of a broad spread of regions, seniority, years of service in the bank,

education and qualifications, age and both genders. Twenty-six managers from each

organisation participated in the study, making a total sample of seventy-eight managers across

the three Retail Banks.

The interviews with individual managers sought to examine their perceptions of the

nature and role of learning and knowledge in the light of the on-going organisational changes.

Some of the questions managers were asked included: the perceived relevance of their existing

knowledge to their current job, the extent to which their current knowledge is in excess or

below job requirements and the implications on the utilisation of knowledge and the need for

8
learning. Additional questions sought to examine managers’ perceptions of the learning

process and to establish the factors affecting learning.

A longitudinal approach also formed part of the research methodology in an attempt to

trace the process of learning. Exploring individuals’ learning goals is one way of tapping into

the multiplicity of issues which shape the nature of learning and the role of knowledge, as well

as the nature of knowledge in the process of learning. As part of the longitudinal analysis

managers were asked to identify and describe a learning goal and to explain what knowledge

they perceive is relevant in fulfilling the specific learning goal. The development of this

learning goal was followed up with a second interview, which was scheduled to take place six

to eight months after the initial interview. The objective of the second interview was to trace

the way managers pursued their learning goal and to identify the actions managers took in

fulfilling the learning goal. Moreover, this approach sought to examine whether these actions

influenced managers’ learning and the utilisation of knowledge. The perceived longevity of

knowledge was also discussed with participating managers. The empirical findings, which

follow raise some interested issues about the way managers in the study, perceive knowledge,

learning, and their association.

Findings and analysis

This section selectively presents findings, which show the relationship between learning and

knowledge as perceived and acted upon by managers across the three Retail Banks in the

study. The discussion will focus primarily on findings, which illustrate how existing

knowledge is developed and utilised by managers and how the changing circumstances in the

bank affect knowledge and learning. Individual managers’ learning goals will also be discussed

in relation to the perceived knowledge requirements. Finally, the longitudinal findings will

9
provide further insights into the process of learning and the implications for knowledge

creation, utilisation and the perceived longevity of knowledge.

It is important to place these findings in the context of other findings about managerial

learning in the three banks (discussed elsewhere in more detail - see Antonacopoulou, 1998;

1999b 2000; 2001) and summarise the following key observations. Firstly, findings across the

three banks show consistently that managers perceive learning in very narrow terms and

primarily as equated to attending training events provided within the bank. Learning is

frequently defined by managers as the acquisition of information and skills relevant to their

current job. Secondly, the findings show a multiplicity of personal and organisational factors

affecting learning positively and negatively. Personal factors include, the perceived need to

learn, the perceived ability to learn and the expected benefits from learning. Organisational

factors include the rigidity of the current structural and cultural arrangements, the implicit and

explicit messages of the organisation, the gap between rhetoric and reality, the perceived

encouragement of the organisation for learning and development, opportunities to be creative

etc. Thirdly, the findings indicate the political nature of learning in organisations as reflected in

the tendency of individuals to pursue learning goals which are in line with organisational

requirements (e.g. relevant to their job) and through methods approved by the organisation

(e.g. attend a formal training event). Using these observations as a backdrop, the findings

which follow explore in more depth the nature of learning in relation to knowledge and the

nature of knowledge in relation to learning.

Current job requirements, existing knowledge and the nature of learning

There are a number of noticeable similarities in the characteristics of managers across the three

banks. One such similarity is that the far majority of managers in the sample are holders of the

Association of Chartered Institute of Banking Diploma. This is the main qualification many

10
bring to their current job, which on average they occupy for 5-6 years. Many managers in the

sample appear to have qualified for this diploma, because it was seen as “a passport to a

career in banking” and despite the length of time on the job, the majority have not acquired

any additional qualifications. Overall, the view that managers appear to be taking is that “the

job requirements will determine the need to learn something new”. Therefore, many would

tend to rely on their existing knowledge in performing their job and would take a rather passive

approach towards learning. In describing their current knowledge managers draw a distinction

between “technical knowledge” (acquired through professional qualifications and structured

training programmes) and “management knowledge” (developed through day-to-day

experiences and interacting with others in the workplace).

What is noticeable in managers’ descriptions is reference to the corresponding skills of

the technical or management knowledge described, as a way of capturing the actions that

would reflect that knowledge. In fact, managers tended to avoid referring to knowledge as a

term, because “it is too vague” and “abstract”. Therefore, many would refer to presentation

skills, organisational skills, motivational skills, interpersonal skills etc. to describe

management knowledge, while they tended to refer to lending skills, computer skills, taxation

skills etc. to describe their technical knowledge.

Managers across the three banks, on the whole feel that they are much better equipped

with technical, rather than management knowledge. The technical knowledge corresponds to

the specialist roles that are characteristic of their career in banking to-date, and this is what the

organisation provides through its training programmes, and encourages through the

professional qualification. Therefore, according to a large proportion of managers, acquiring

the technical knowledge has been “a matter of credibility” rather than development and

learning. However, although useful, technical knowledge is perceived by most managers, as

11
increasingly less relevant and out-of-date. When asked to reflect on the relationship between

their existing knowledge and their current job, a significant proportion of managers in each

bank (Bank A: 54%; Bank B: 58%; Bank C: 35%) recognise that their existing knowledge

bears limited relevance to their job requirements. With over 25 years of service in the Bank,

some managers in the study have qualified for the ACIB Diploma a long time ago (in some

instances as far back as 20 years ago). One manager explained: “Professional knowledge is

quite useful in the job I do, but you start to do it at junior level and by the time you finish it you

are senior and you don’t practice it” (Manager, Bank C).

According to managers, recent changes in the market have shifted the focus from

technical to management knowledge. In the light of the emphasis placed by the three banks on

customer service and sales, and the less structured nature of their job, managers feel that the

technical knowledge is very unlikely to secure their career progression in the future. In relation

to this point, a manager said: “the shifting emphasis of the bank away from ‘traditional skills’

to centralised decision making and sales orientation makes technical knowledge less relevant”

(Manager, Bank B). Overall, the new requirements of their job are posing new challenges that

some managers find frustrating, because it necessitates “relearning” and “starting from

scratch”.

However, the perceived imbalance between job requirements and their current

knowledge, does not only result from the changes in the organisation and the market, it also

depends on the level of utilisation of the current knowledge. When asked whether their present

job utilises their existing knowledge and the extent to which their knowledge is in excess or

below present job requirements, a significant and consistent proportion of managers across the

three banks (Bank A: 57%; Bank B: 50%; Bank C: 50%) argue that their current knowledge is

in excess of the present job requirements.

12
 This apparent contradiction in managers’ responses raises an interesting point about the

nature of knowledge in relation to its utilisation. Managers who perceive that the existing

knowledge is in excess of job requirements pointed out to the presence of additional

knowledge which they possess which is not being utilised. The knowledge, which is under-

utilised tends to be mainly management knowledge (e.g. team building, leadership, marketing),

although, a small proportion of managers also referred to technical knowledge (e.g. computer

programming; legal issues). Managers’ explanations of the reasons for the under-utilisation of

knowledge raises further interesting issues.

Some managers explained that this knowledge was not utilised, because the scope of the

present job did not permit it. Some managers referred to the nature of the job being more

technically orientated. Others highlighted the increasing use of technology as a factor limiting

the use of their knowledge. Others still, pointed to the limited resources (e.g. staff) which

would have provided them with opportunities to develop and utilise their knowledge (e.g.

leadership). As one manager pointed out: “I cannot practice my leadership skills, because I no

longer have staff to manage”.

Another factor which managers describe, as contributing to the under-utilisation of

knowledge, is the restrictions imposed by the rigidity of the banking system and the regulations

and procedures that managers must follow. These restrictions are said to limit managers’

initiative and not fully stretching their abilities. A manager in Bank A said: “I am not allowed

to use all the abilities I have. I do not have the control”. A manager in Bank C echoed the

same view saying: “The knowledge may be there, but is if of little use, because I feel I am often

dictated to in what I can and cannot do. I feel closely monitored and controlled”. A manager

in Bank B shares this view and points out that: “There are more things I can do given the right

13
environment. The set up is completely wrong. There is no sense of direction either for the

individual or the organisation. Everything is too short sided”.

The under-utilisation of knowledge and the factors that managers provide to explain this,

raise awareness of some of the conditions which shape the perceived nature of knowledge, its

creation and utilisation. One finds that while technical knowledge may be acquired and stored

in order to be used, when the job requires it, management knowledge is created in situ as

individuals interact with others and discover issues that they need to explore and respond to.

This observation is further exemplified in managers’ perceptions of the relative importance of

technical over management knowledge.

Managers in the three banks appear to value both technical and management knowledge.

When asked to describe the core skills in their job, they described both technical and

management knowledge as equally significant. However, when asked to rate management

knowledge in relation to technical knowledge, the majority of managers in each bank (Bank A:

73%; Bank B: 61%; Bank C: 69%) rated management knowledge as more important than

technical knowledge. Management knowledge is perceived as more important than technical

knowledge primarily because, it is perceived to complement and advance technical knowledge.

Managers made the following remarks:

“Technical knowledge shows you what you need to do, but management knowledge,
enables you to adapt the technical knowledge to different situations” (Manager, Bank
C)

“Management knowledge transcends across organisations, whereas technical

knowledge is only relevant and specific to the job and the organisation which
requires it” (Manager, Bank A).

“Management knowledge gives you direction. Technical knowledge was lost in the
mist of time, and overtaken by the need to focus on management knowledge – making
the best use of your resources within and outside the organisation” (Manager Bank
B).

14
 Overall, what is noticeable in managers’ perceptions of the importance of management

knowledge in relation to technical knowledge is the perceived difficulty of acquiring the

former in relation to the latter. This point brings to light another important issue; namely how

management and technical knowledge are perceived to be created and learnt.

Managers attribute the difficulty of acquiring management knowledge to the relatively

greater reliance on people as opposed to technical knowledge, which is supported by manuals

and books. As one manager pointed out: “You can always learn the technical knowledge,

whereas you can’t manage people you can’t do the job. Everything at the end counts to people.

It’s a matter of interpersonal relations” (Manager, Bank C). Another manager said:

“Management knowledge is the hardest to learn. The technical knowledge is easier to find out.

You can find them out from a book” (Manager, Bank A). A manager further points out that:

“Management knowledge is very valuable. It can make or break a situation. It gives guidance

and enables you to pass on knowledge to others. Management knowledge ensures that various

complex tasks are fully completed through others. Technical knowledge enables you to know

what you are talking about and to have credibility in the eyes of others” (Manager, Bank B).

What can be distilled from these findings is that whereas technical knowledge on the one

hand, may be acquired, management knowledge on the other hand, is created through

experiences and day-to-day interactions with others. And whereas the former is already

available, the latter must be discovered. This observation suggests that the distinction between

technical and management knowledge reflect learning of a different kind.

Borrowing Gherardi’s (1999) distinction between ‘learning in the face of problems’ and

‘learning in the face of mystery’, it could be argued that technical knowledge reflects learning

as problem solving, whereas management knowledge reflects learning as a mystery. Put

differently, if knowledge is to be seen as a product of learning then the predefined nature of

15
that knowledge locates it in specific activities and for particular purposes. This is the case with

technical knowledge. However, the findings of the study also indicate that there is knowledge,

which is discovered when existing situations require different responses and when the existing

knowledge cannot provide the answers. This describes management knowledge. Therefore,

technical knowledge is acquired to serve a specific purpose e.g. deal with lending requests,

apply the appropriate procedures in financial transactions. Management knowledge on the

other hand, emerges when the current technical knowledge is not sufficient to respond fully to

a particular situation. In short, it could be argued that management knowledge reflects the

process of discovering new ways in which the technical knowledge may be utilised. Unlike

technical knowledge, which could be planned and arranged, management knowledge cannot be

predicted nor predetermined, it tends to be discovered. These findings show that different

forms of learning may lead to different types of knowledge and different types of knowledge

depending on how they are utilised may spark different forms of knowing which may be

employed accordingly as individuals seek to respond to different circumstances.

This analysis raises several important points that need to be further exemplified. Firstly,

it is interesting to note the way knowledge is articulated in skills terms. The difficulty of

articulating knowledge and its distinction into technical and management knowledge captures

the limitation of expressing value for something that cannot easily be measured or quantified.

This limitation is particularly prominent in the three Banks where the dominant language is

‘quantitative’. The numbers-orientated culture of Banking has favoured this quantification of

knowledge and the emphasis placed in the past on technical expertise and competence. These

principles encourage the distinction between technical and management knowledge, akin to a

distinction between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ issues respectively.

16
 The distinction between management (soft) and technical (hard) knowledge, as reflected

in the findings, is not intended to create another dualism between tacit and explicit knowledge.

The point about these types of knowledge, is not so much what they are, but what are their

implications. The distinction between hard and soft knowledge is significant, because it shows

how the interaction between the personal (psychological) and contextual (social) factors shape

the nature of knowledge and its relevance to different circumstances. In other words,

organisational and industry specific characteristics and practices are interacting with the

characteristics of individuals to produce responses which shape how knowledge is created and

utilised in ones’ practice. These observations emphasise that knowledge in its various forms, is

created through the choices individuals make in their attempt to make sense of the

requirements placed on them and in their effort to respond to what is expected of them. This

point is further exemplified in the longitudinal findings from the study, which show how

different types of knowledge depending on how they are utilised, define the nature of learning

and its outcomes.

Identifying and pursuing learning goals and the knowledge dimension

The longitudinal approach adopted in this study examined managers’ learning goals, tracking

down the role of knowledge both in defining the learning goal, as well as the nature of

knowledge in relation to the learning process. The learning goals described by managers varied

significantly as it was expected. Among the learning goal managers across the three Banks

identified included: “understanding lending, product availability and lending policies”,

“improve management skills in delegation, team building and decision making”, “the role of

marketing in tax issues and personal financial markets”, “manage information better to

provide a better training approach, to quantify results and meet internal competition”.

17
 Managers’ descriptions of their identified learning goals show that on the whole

managers tend to be primarily concerned with acquiring further knowledge and developing

skills which are relevant to their present role within the Bank and which are in line with the

Bank’s expectations. The focus on organisational priorities has been found to shape the nature

of the learning goals that managers seek to pursue. Indeed, due to the focus on organisational

priorities and the uncertainty in the light of the organisational changes, one finds that

managers’ learning goals tend not to be very ambitious. Managers’ learning goals would be

described as relatively incremental and evolutionary, building on their existing knowledge,

rather than revolutionary and transformational, which would seek to depart from their current

platform of understanding. The incremental nature of manager’s learning goals is found to

have an impact on the perceived role of knowledge in pursuing the identified learning goal.

Overall, the findings show that the majority of managers in the three banks perceive that

existing knowledge, past experiences and current skills are the foundation for building new

knowledge. Existing knowledge and experiences are a way of defining the focus and

orientation of their learning. For example, a manager in Bank C who identified credit

procedures as the focus of her learning goal said: “previous technical knowledge from the

ACIBD is useful to understand credit procedures in the bank”. Similarly, a manager in Bank B

whose learning goal was to understand insurance practices said, “I can call on existing product

knowledge and the complaints manual to find out more about insurance regulations and

policies”. A manager in Bank A whose learning goal was to improve the management of staff,

and to increase sales ability, said “knowledge of the Bank’s products is important, as well as

my current interpersonal skills in assessing staff abilities and requirements and develop their

needs. The experience I have gained over the years in dealing with customers will help me in

improving sales ability”.

18
 Therefore, aligning existing technical and management knowledge to the learning

process is intended to make the learning goal more meaningful and the experience of learning

potentially less threatening. The degree of familiarity with what is to be learnt generates a

different degree of exposure, which shapes the role of knowledge in the learning process. For

example, the findings suggest that in instances where the learning goal is intended to build on

existing technical knowledge, then that knowledge will be used as a mechanism for classifying

and storing the new knowledge. However, if the learning goal entails greater unfamiliarity, as

is the case of pursing learning goals, which seek to advance management knowledge, then the

existing technical knowledge can mainly be used as a benchmark for making sense of the

implications of the new experiences. Acknowledging that the learning process entails

uncertainty and an element of surprise, as discussed in the previous section, helps explain the

reliance of the majority of managers in the study, on their existing knowledge in defining the

focus of their learning.

Therefore, the role of knowledge in the learning process is drawing connections between

what is already known and what may be discovered. However, the synthesising role of

knowledge in the learning process, is dependent on the outcomes of learning which themselves

cannot be fully predicted or accounted for. Some of the outcomes from learning are reflected in

the expected benefits that managers anticipate will result from the learning goal they pursue.

Among the benefits managers across the three banks referred to include: “increased knowledge

and skills”, “improved job performance”, “becoming a better manager”, “increased

promotion opportunities”, “greater employability internally and externally”. However, there

is no guarantee that these expectations will be met by the learning goals set. The findings of

the present study show that in some instances, organisational and personal factors may lead to

a reluctance to learn or a learning goal to be abandoned (Antonacopoulou, 1998a, 1998b).

19
These findings show that unanticipated difficulties and obstacles to learning are as difficult to

account for, as are the expected benefits from learning.

The unpredictability of the outcomes from the learning process has implications for the

role of knowledge. A small proportion of managers across the three banks, who acknowledge

the mystery that learning sometimes entails point out that accepting their ignorance – not

knowing - would be as important as attempting to connect what they learn with what they

already know. These managers point out the need for “humility”, “a questioning mind”,

“personal enthusiasm and commitment”, and “willingness to learn” as equally essential in

pursuing a learning goal. A manager in Bank C said: “Humility, confessing that I don’t know

and getting someone to help me is what I will need in order to fulfil my learning goal”. A

manager in bank B said: “knowledge of self and recognition of my strengths and weaknesses,

honesty with others and myself as opposed to being defensive are going to be important

ingredients”. Finally, a manager in Bank A said: “My self-motivation, believing in myself and

my goals and a willingness to work hard will see me through”.

Managers’ comments emphasise that the nature and role of learning in individuals’

development, is not just shaped by knowledge. Motivation, humility and the willingness to

commit one’s self to the learning process are equally significant, a point that finds support in

the current learning theories as well (Revans, 1971; Argyris, 1982). This point is supported by

longitudinal findings from the study, which show the widespread impact of learning extending

beyond the generation of new knowledge, as the current literature frequently promotes (Gagné,

1983; Thomas and Harri-Augstein, 1985). This point raises some interesting issues in relation

to knowledge as a product of learning.

The longitudinal findings from the present study show that learning has an impact on

managers’ motivation, attitudes and perceptions about learning and shapes their self-

20
confidence (see Antonacopoulou, 1998a; 1999a). The words of a manager in Bank B sum up

these issues: “There is a certain degree of pleasure when you really want to do something you

enjoy rather than being forced to do it. If you can get through difficulties, you can deal with

additional ones more easily”. A manager in Bank A echoes a similar view saying: “I proved I

can do it. I can see a way forward now. Success breeds success”. These outcomes are far more

wide reaching than the expected benefits anticipated by managers. Moreover, the benefits from

learning are perceived by managers to extend beyond a personal level and to reflect benefits

for the organisation. The comment of a Manager in Bank C, make the point aptly: “I want the

bank to be successful and ensure that the confidence they placed in me is not misplaced. My

success is also the bank’s success”.

In short, these findings show that knowledge is not the only outcome from learning.

Moreover, the impact of learning on self-confidence, personal satisfaction and motivation may

determine if knowledge results from learning, as well as if learning is likely to take place in the

first place. Therefore, the presence of knowledge is no guarantee that learning will take place

and equally, there is no guarantee that learning will result in new knowledge. As the findings

of the study show in some instances the unpredictability of the learning outcomes makes more

relevant the appreciation of one’s ignorance as a basis for supporting the learning process.

These points clarify that while the role of knowledge in the learning process may be to

integrate what is currently known with what can be discovered, knowledge also pays a key role

in transforming understanding and making learning meaningful. This point is reflected in the

longitudinal findings from the present study in relation to managers’ attitudes towards learning

and the longevity of knowledge resulting from the learning goal managers fulfilled.

Managers who fulfilled the identified learning goal were asked as series of reflective

questions about the factors influencing their decision to set the specific learning goal, the

21
relevance and utilisation of the knowledge from the learning goal in their present job and

future development, and the perceived longevity of the knowledge resulting from the learning

goal they fulfilled. The similarity and consistency in the responses of managers to these

questions across the three banks is startling.

In relation to the factors which influenced their decision to set the specific learning goal,

managers’ responses reveal on the one hand, the impact of the changing circumstances in their

organisation, and on the other hand, the choices managers made in response to these changing

circumstances. The majority of managers across the three banks argue that the decision to set

the specific learning goal was based both on the recognition of the need to learn and the

willingness to improve, as well as, the impact of job and business requirements. The words of a

manager in Bank A make the point aptly: “It was the recognition that if I was to play a part in

the organisation in the future, I needed to change”.

The emphasis on balancing personal and organisational priorities, also leads the majority

of managers across the three banks, to argue that in pursuing the identified learning goal they

were seeking to address both present and future needs. It is interesting to note, that although

initially the nature of the learning goal was incremental, focusing primarily on specific job

requirements, the way the learning goal unfolded in the course of the learning process extended

its focus and orientation and subsequently the perceived utilisation of the emerging knowledge.

The majority of managers in the three banks argue that the identified learning goal was

intended to address both present and future development needs consequently, the knowledge

can be utilised both in their present and future roles. A manager in Bank C made the following

comment: “There are innumerable aspects that I can apply to my job now and in the future.

It’s like a circle, a comfort zone that expands”. A manager in Bank B added: “I intend to

utilise the knowledge from the learning goal, both now and in the future, because I would like

22
to remain in the branch network. As the organisation’s expectations change, I can remain a

step ahead”.

Managers attribute the expected future utilisation of the knowledge acquired, on two

main factors: the perceived “transferability of knowledge” and “the confidence that learning

provides to deal with new requirements and unfamiliar situations”. It appears that the

confidence resulting from learning raises the willingness of managers to explore ways in which

knowledge can be further extended. The experience of pursuing the identified learning goal has

transformed the way they perceive knowledge and their willingness to improvise ways in

which it may be utilised in the future. This point is particularly evident in managers’

perceptions of the longevity of knowledge emerging from the learning goal they pursued.

Managers were asked how long in their view, the knowledge acquired from the learning

goal is likely to last and when they believe they are likely to need new knowledge. Manager’s

responses reveal the paradoxical nature of knowledge in the process of learning. The paradox

is reflected in the view that managers across the three banks share consistently; namely that

knowledge has a limited life span and at the same time it can last forever. Managers’ responses

to the question, how long will the knowledge last, reflect the point more clearly:

“The knowledge will remain useful, but the emphasis will vary over time, depending
on the set-up of the bank in the future and the demands of the future job” (Manager,
Bank A).

“The core of what you learn stays with you all the time, but it needs to be topped up
with as the needs keep changing” (Manager, Bank B).

“Forever and a day the knowledge will help me, but it will keep developing, because
the job won’t stand still. It’s an on-going thing, not something you learn once”
(Manager, Bank C).

Similarly, managers in the three banks recognise that the need for new or additional

knowledge will be ongoing, but at the same time dependent on the requirements of the job and

23
the changes in the organisation which will also determine the speed of response. Managers’

responses to the question, when will new or additional knowledge be necessary reflect these

observations.

“With so much change going on it is hard to specify the time. There is always room
for improvement. No manager can say they know everything to do their job. They can
get by, but they should do more” (Manager, Bank A).

“How big is a piece of string? Anything you learn is useful even if you don’t use it
immediately. If you want to develop, you must learn all the time” (Manager, Bank B).

“I need additional knowledge very much like now! Knowing what you are trying to
achieve is important before deciding how” (Manager, Bank C).

These findings reflect once again the way the interaction between personal and

contextual factors shapes the nature of learning by determining the role of knowledge when

engaging with different familiar and unfamiliar experiences. The analysis of the findings

indicates that learning extends existing knowledge through new experiences, as much as it

provides opportunities to generate new experiences by entailing an element of surprise. The

perceived utilisation of knowledge both in their current and future job, as well as the perceived

longevity of knowledge, reflect a marked change in managers’ attitudes towards learning and

their perceptions of the role of knowledge. Knowledge in relation to the learning process both

synthesises existing knowledge with new knowledge, as well as, transforms understanding by

identifying the need to learn. Integrating the process of learning with the process of knowing

helps make the experience more meaningful. The nature of knowledge in the process of

learning, as well as, the nature of learning in the process of knowing is determined by the

choices individuals make in their effort to balance organisational and personal priorities and

maintain some sense of stability in the light of organisational changes. In essence, the analysis

reveals the dynamic interaction between learning and knowledge and in particular, how the

indeterminate nature of learning shapes the role of knowledge and how the indeterminate

24
nature of knowledge shapes the learning process. This point captures a central characteristic of

the relationship between learning and knowledge.

Different modes of knowing in the relationship between learning and knowledge

The findings presented and the analysis developed in the previous sections, suggest that the

relationship between learning and knowledge is dynamic and at times paradoxical. The

reciprocal interaction between learning and knowledge as discussed in the previous sections

reveals the nature of learning in relation to knowledge and the nature of knowledge in relation

to the learning process. This reciprocal interaction reflects the various personal and

organisational conditions, which shape the relationship between learning and knowledge. The

various factors shaping the way learning and knowledge are associated by individuals in the

study, suggests that on the one hand, learning and knowledge may be interdependent, however,

on the other hand, they do not necessarily co-exist.

The paradoxical nature of the relationship between learning and knowledge is reflected

in the findings of the study, which show that knowledge per se is not a precursor to further

learning, despite the various roles that knowledge performs in the learning process. On the

basis of the findings, it could be argued that accepting ignorance is as important in the learning

process as knowledge itself and may determine whether or not learning takes place. Moreover,

the way knowledge is utilised appears to play a more determining role in shaping the nature of

learning and the role of knowledge in the process of growth.

Therefore, learning is not just a process triggered by the need to know, but a journey into

the unknown. The motives and expectations from the learning process may determine the

forms of knowing that may result. For example, if learning is intended to enhance existing

understanding to improve the performance of a specific task, then the emphasis may be on

acquiring and storing relevant knowledge and repeating it to similar tasks when familiar

25
problems present themselves. However, if learning is intended to transform understanding,

then the emphasis may be on reflecting and questioning current knowledge and its applicability

to different situations. Therefore, the way knowledge is utilised may shape the purpose and

focus of the learning process, which may also define the role of knowledge and its impact on

different forms of knowing. Grounded in the analysis of the findings the paper highlights seven

different forms of knowing which result from the relationship between knowledge and

learning. Depending on the nature of learning (e.g. learning as problem-solving or learning as a

mystery) and the nature of knowledge (hard/technical versus soft/management) their

interaction may be reflected into:

Knowing by storing – when the emphasis is collecting relevant knowledge for a specific
task.
Knowing by repeating – when the emphasis is applying specific knowledge to similar
situations.
Knowing by improvising – when the emphasis is on exploring ways in which knowledge
may be utilised in unfamiliar situations.
Knowing by reflecting – when the emphasis is on the search for new meaning in relation
to what is currently known.
Knowing by questioning – when the emphasis is on assessing the relevance and
applicability of knowledge in new situations and accepting ignorance.
Knowing by synthesising – when the emphasis is on integrating what is known with what
is discovered.
Knowing by transforming- when the emphasis is on searching for a new platform of
understanding.

The seven modes of knowing proposed in this paper, seek to reflect the process of

learning and the way knowledge is employed and not to suggest a particular outcome.

Moreover, these modes of knowing are dependent on the personal and contextual factors,

which will shape how knowledge may be utilised and how accessible it may be both to the

individual (as a carrier of knowledge), as well as those (other organisation members) with who

the individual interacts (i.e. shares the knowledge and learning). The different modes of

knowing presented in this paper seek to capture the socio-political dynamics, which shape how

26
knowledge at the individual level finds meaning and expression in the process of social

interaction. This process of social interaction also provides learning meaningfulness and

purpose. The different forms of knowing seek to reflect the indeterminate nature of knowledge

and learning and the complexity underpinning their dynamic interaction.

Conclusion

This chapter provides new insights about the nature of the relationship between learning and

knowledge by identifying different forms of knowing. Using recent empirical findings the

discussion explores the indeterminate nature of learning and knowledge and some of the

conditions which shape the role of learning in relation to knowledge, as well as, the role of

knowledge in relation to learning. The contribution of this analysis marks the first steps in our

efforts to integrate the concept of knowledge and learning by exploring their relationship.

Essentially, learning and knowledge come to life when different modes of knowing support a

connection between the knowledge and learning that lies within (the individual) with the

knowledge and learning what lies outside (among other organisational/group members).

The paper proposes seven modes of knowing which reflect various types of knowledge

and forms of learning shaped by the interaction of personal and contextual factors. The

interaction between personal and contextual factors provides insights into the implicit and

explicit social rules, the role of language and symbols, as well as the power and political

dynamics that underpin the process of learning and knowing. The focus of the present study on

the Retail Banking sector provides strong indications of the impact of industry specific

characteristics on managers’ perceptions and actions. Moreover, the focus of the present study

on the individual as the unit of analysis highlights quite clearly the nature and impact of power

and political dynamics on the choices individuals make when responding to organisational

expectations and requirements. Perhaps even more importantly, the findings provide

27
indications of the language what is being used and the symbols that are employed to quantify

and add value to processes, which are not possible to measure or predict with any certainty.

These observations, clearly highlight the need for more research which extends these issues in

different contexts and levels of analysis.

Moreover, the analysis developed in this paper also highlights the need for more research

into the language that currently informs the way we seek to articulate learning and knowledge.

The difficulty of describing the multiple forms of learning reflects the limits of our language in

capturing in simple terms the underpinning complexity of the phenomena that we study. This

point emphasises the need for more research, which seeks to unearth the underpinning

complexity of knowing, in relation to the order, which appears at the surface of what we

currently describe as learning and knowledge.

28
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