EASTERN EUROPEAN CONFERENCE OF

MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS – EECME 2022

Knowledge Transfer for Sustainable Development in

Digital Global Societies

Proceedings of the
th
4 International Scientific Conference
Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani

COBISS.SI-ID 112614403
ISBN 978-961-7110-05-0 (PDF)

4th EASTERN EUROPEAN CONFERENCE OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS

EECME 2022
Knowledge Transfer for Sustainable Development in Digital Global Societies

Peer-reviewed conference proceedings / SI-Ljubljana

The conference organised by: Ljubljana School of Business (Slovenia)

Co-organizers of the conference: European Marketing and Management Association (BiH); State
University of Trade and Economics (Ukraine); Faculty of Business, Economics and Law
(Montenegro).
Editor in chief: Katarina Aškerc Zadravec
Technical editor: Ardian Ameti

Conference held on: May 26, 2022

Conference proceedings published: Ljubljana, June 2022
Publisher: Ljubljana School of Business, Tržaška cesta 42, 1000 SI-Ljubljana, [email protected]

The proceedings available at: https://www.vspv.si/eecme-conference

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affiliations. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
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Published under the terms of the Creative Commons

CC BY-NC 4.0 License © Ljubljana School of Business, 2022
© Collective authors, 2022

This publication is a result of Erasmus+ cooperation between institutions. The European Commission's support for
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therein.
Chairs of conference organizing committee:
Lidija Weis – PhD of Business Administration; Dean of Ljubljana School of Business; EUMMAS
leadership member (Slovenia).
Mile Vasić – PhD in Economics; Professor; Former Ambassador; Former Rector and Dean;
Business Executive, Consultant – President of EUMMAS (Bosnia and Hercegovina).
Anatolii MAZARAKI – Doctor of Economic Sciences; Professor; Rector of State University of
Trade and Economics (Ukraine).

Scientific committee of conference:

Rajko Novićević – PhD in Economics; Professor; Dean of the Faculty of Business, Economics and
Law, Bar (Montenegro).
Nevenka Maher – PhD of Economics; Professor; Ljubljana School of Business (Slovenia).
Katarina Aškerc Zadravec – PhD in Educational Sciences; Vice-Dean for Quality at Ljubljana
School of Business; EUMMAS member (Slovenia).
Sandra Đurović – PhD; Vice-Dean of Academic Affairs; Faculty of Business, Economics and Law,
Bar (Montenegro).
Miroslava Vinczeová – PhD in Business Economics and Management; Professor; Faculty of
Econmics of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica; EUMMAS member (Slovakia).
Tsotne Zhghenti – PhD in Economics; Professor; Business and Technology University; EUMMAS
member (Georgia).
Catalin Popescu – PhD in Control Systems; Professor; Petroleum - Gas University of Ploiesti;
EUMMAS member (Romania).
Carlos Rompante Cunha – PhD in Computer Science; Vice-Dean at School of Communication,
Administration and Tourism, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança; EUMMAS member (Portugal).
Younès el Manzani – PhD in strategic management, quality management and innovation
management; professor; ISM-IAE, UVSQ, Paris Saclay university; EUMMAS member (France).
Ramakrishna Yanamandra – PhD in Supply Chain Management; professor; Associate Dean-
Undergraduate Level; Skyline University College; EUMMAS member (United Arab Emirates).
Haritini Tsangari – PhD in Statistics; professor; School of Business, University of Nicosia; Member
of EUMMAS (Cyprus).
Anzhelika GERASYMENKO – Doctor of Economic Sciences; Professor; Head of the Department
of Economic Theory and Competition Policy; State University of Trade and Economics (Ukraine).

Conference organizing committee:

Katarina Aškerc Zadravec – PhD in Educational Sciences; Vice-Dean for Quality at Ljubljana
School of Business; EUMMAS member (Slovenia).
Viktor Koval – PhD in Economics; professor; National Academy of Science of Ukraine (Ukraine).
Nikola Abramović – PhD; Vice-Dean for Scientific Research and International Cooperation;
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, Bar (Montenegro).
Tsotne Zhghenti – PhD in Economics; Professor; Business and Technology University; EUMMAS
member (Georgia).
Ramakrishna Yanamandra – PhD in Supply Chain Management; professor; Associate Dean-
Undergraduate Level; Skyline University College; EUMMAS member (United Arab Emirates).
Ardian Ameti - BA in Business Informatics; Functional Consultant at 9Altitudes Slovenia
(Slovenia).
 CONTENTS

Anatolii Mazaraki, Anzhelika Gerasymenko

CHALLENGES TO COMPETITION IN THE DIGITAL WORLD .................................................. 2
Fadil Mušinović, Darijo Levačić
MOTIVACIJA PROSTOVOLJCEV V IZBRANI NEPROFITNI ORGANIZACIJI V ČASU
EPIDEMIJE COVID 19 ..................................................................................................................... 12
Jani Toroš
PRICE PERCEPTION BASED ON PRICE FONT COLOR ............................................................ 20
Julija Lapuh Bele
FENOMEN NEZAMENLJIVIH ŽETONOV ................................................................................... 34
Mariia Nezhyva, Viktoriia Mysiuk, Olga Zaremba
DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN ECONOMIES AND CONSUMERS ..................................... 45
Milena Fornazarič
TEHNOLOŠKI RAZVOJ, KOVID IN VPLIV NA MARKETING ................................................. 58
Nataša Perović, dr. Bojana Ristanović, Sandra Djurović, Nikola Abramović
IMPACT OF DIGITALIZATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN
PORT BUSINESS IN MONTENEGRO ........................................................................................... 66
Rok Bojanc
ANALIZA MODELOV DAVČNEGA POROČANJA ..................................................................... 76
Larysa Lebedeva, Alyona Sorokina
TOUCHLESS ECONOMY: CHANGE IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND IN BUSINESS ........ 87
Đuro Đurić Sandra Đurović, Vladimir Jovanović
NEW LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS IN THE EU ............................ 97
Dejana Crvenica, Sandra Đurović, Jovana Lekić, Nikola Abramović,
THE EMPHASIS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY FROM THE ASPECT OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................................ 111
Iza Gigauri
THE POTENTIAL OF UNIVERSITIES TO PROMOTE AND FACILITATE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................................ 125
Nevenka Maher
EUROPEAN UNION CONTEXT FOR SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT .......................... 135
Miodrag Živanović, Slađana Živanović, Nikola Abramović
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AS AN INNOVATIVE BUSINESS MODEL ....................................... 145

i
Gordana Nikčević
KNOWLEDGE CONTROL IN MODERN COMPANIES THROUGH THE PRISM OF
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE .................................................................................................. 158
Jani Toroš, Tanja Sedej
PREFERENCE LASTNOSTI ZDRAVIL V PROSTI PRODAJI ................................................... 166
Jyotirmaya Satpathy, Lidija Weiss
PARADIGM TECTONICS IN COMPREHENSIVE KNOWLEDGE BUSINESS PROCESSES 178
Slađana Živanović, Nikola Abramović, Miodrag Živanović
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
FOR COMPETITIVENESS ............................................................................................................ 191
Marjeta Horjak
RAZVOJ ELEKTRONSKE HRAMBE V SLOVENIJI.................................................................. 202
Vladan Martić, Nermin Škretović
COMPETENCE OF ACCOUNTING AND ACADEMIC COMMUNITIES FOR
DIGITALIZATION OF FINANCIAL REPORTING IN MONTENEGRO ................................... 211
Barsa Rai, Ishore Koirala, Yeshi Zangmo, Katarina Aškerc Zadravec
INTERCULTURAL AND TRANSVERSAL COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT AMONG
ERASMUS STUDENTS ................................................................................................................. 223
Katarina Aškerc Zadravec
INTERNACIONALIZACIJA IN DIGITALIZACIJA VISOKOŠOLSKEGA IZOBRAŽEVANJA
.......................................................................................................................................................... 236
Boštjan Urbancl
KAKO UBEŽATI MOTNJAM V GLOBALNIH OSKRBOVALNIH VERIGAH? ...................... 248
Franci Žohar
URAVNOTEŽENJE GLOBALIZACIJE - BALANCING GLOBALIZATION ............................ 259
Brigadier JS Rajpurohit
HETERODOX IN GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES............................. 270
Yue Ma, Iztok Sila
IMPACT OF THE LABEL ON THE PURCHASING DECISION PROCESS OF CHINESE WINE
CONSUMERS ................................................................................................................................. 283

ii
 PREFACE
As a consequence of globalization, the world is rapidly becoming a global society – a unified
social community –, being affected by the integration of international economies, trade, culture,
politics, and knowledge. In this context, profound digital transformation has an immense impact on
society's changes, processes, and development. Digital literacy skills and knowledge transfer are
inevitably needed to thrive in a global society, wherein the central role is given to the understanding
of knowledge as a concept and sustainable development goals. Consequently, sustainable
development in the global society is a potential frame for knowledge development, leading to social
cohesion, economic competitiveness and development, stability, and usage of resources to safeguard
biodiversity and the social ecosystem. Digital global societies, as our everyday reality, must be
inseparably intertwined with sustainable development global challenges, also addressing the
questions of inequality, environmental degradation, climate change, justice, peace, and poverty. In
this context, sustainable development can be defined as "development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [1]1.
In the light of digital dimensions of today's global societies, also supporting sustainable
development goals and the importance of knowledge transfer, the aim of EECME 2022 was to
provide a platform for researchers, higher education teachers, entrepreneurs, and other authorities to
present their research results and development activities in the following conference topics with the
focus on knowledge transfer: i) E-Business and Digital Marketing, ii) Sustainable Development
Management and Business Regulation, iii) Knowledge Management and Business Process
Modelling, vi) E-Governance and Online Education, v) Globalization as a Powerful Force for Growth
and Development.
Peer-reviewed articles that are collected in this publication, are written in English or Slovene
language, and are divided in previously mentioned sections or topics. Within E-Business and Digital
Marketing section, papers highlighted challenges that we are faced with within the competition in the
modern digital world, it was also highlighted, what is the motivation of volunteers in selected non-
profit organization during the covid epidemic. One of the articles presented price perception
according to various selected criteria, as well as specifics of the phenomenon of indispensable tokens
are given. Further on, one of the articles pointed out the overview of digital transformation in
economies and consumers behaviour, another one exposes, what is the impact of technological
development and covid situation on marketing, as well as impact of digitalization on the development
of human resources in port business in Montenegro is highlighted. Besides, analysis of tax reporting
models is presented, as well as change in consumer behaviour and in business as a part of touchless
economy.

1
Brundtland Report – Our Common Future (1987). Oxford University Press. Retrieved from:
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf. (2022-06-20).
iii
 The section Sustainable Development Management and Business Regulation gives us an insight
into the new legal framework for sustainable business in the EU and the renewable energy from the
aspect of sustainable development is also presented, as well as the energy efficiency as an innovative
business model in the context of sustainability. Besides, the role of the universities to promote and
facilitate sustainable development is pointed out in one of the papers, as well as the importance of the
EU context for sustainability management within modern European trends and approaches.
The topic Knowledge Management and Business Process Modelling includes papers,
addressing knowledge control in modern companies in the light of organizational culture. Further on,
paradigm tectonics in comprehensive knowledge business processes are presented, knowledge
economy and organizational culture for competitiveness in the modern labour market, and preferences
connected with free sale of medicinal products are also highlighted.
The fourth topic relates to the E-Governance and Online Education, wherein papers address the
development of electronic storage in Slovenia and which competences are needed for accounting in
line with academic communities for digitalization of financial reporting. Articles also point out the
importance of the development of intercultural and transversal competence among students, as well
as the connections between digitalisation and internationalisation of higher education.
The final section includes papers related to Globalization being treated as a Powerful Force for
Growth and Development. In this context, articles discuss the challenge of balancing globalization,
the complex topic of heterodox in global knowledge economy is given, as well as the impact of the
label on the respondents’ purchasing decision process, and how to avoid disorders in global supply
chains.
The conference was held online at Ljubljana School of Business, Slovenia, on May 26, 2022.
More than thirty papers from eight different countries were submitted for the presentation at the
EECME 2022. The interest for the participation at the conference without paper was sizable as well,
since in total more than 70 participants from 12 different countries registered for the conference. We
would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the active presenters at EECME 2022, all the authors
of submitted full papers, as well as to the chairs of Conference Organizing Committee, members of
Scientific Committee and Organizing Committee, and finally to conference co-organizers: Ljubljana
School of Business (Slovenia), European Marketing and Management Association (BiH), Faculty of
Business, Economics and Law (Montenegro), State University of Trade and Economics (Ukraine),
and all other colleagues who helped us co-created this event.
We believe that the EECME 2022 conference represented a fruitful content background for
exchanging good practices and dissemination of experiences, knowledge, and policies on sustainable
development issues in digital global society.
Katarina Aškerc Zadravec,
in the name of EECME 2022 committees

iv
Section E-Business and Digital Marketing

1
Anatolii Mazaraki
State University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0003-1817-0510

Anzhelika Gerasymenko
State University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0003-0313-6942

CHALLENGES TO COMPETITION IN THE DIGITAL WORLD

Abstract. Digital transformation is an important factor of modern society change. It influences

behaviour of certain people, companies, nations, as well as institutional framework of their activity,
the ways of their cooperation and competition. It shifts the balance of market power between
different economic actors, fostering the dominance of those, who can manage the huge bulk of
information, decreasing transaction costs of its proceeding, on the one hand, and capturing
contractors with the network effects, on the other hand. Such a dominance is a breeding ground
for abuse, as the latter is not obvious for competition agencies. Notwithstanding the fact of their
recent focus on digital issues, the agencies still do not know how to measure digital markets, whom
to grant a “gatekeeper status”, what kind of competitive practices of informational intermediaries
must be prohibited or regulated and how. The paper aims to systemize the challenges that
competition faces in the digital world in order to look for ways of their meet by firms and
competition agencies on behalf of public welfare.

Keywords: digitalization, competition, informational intermediary, network effect, multisided

market, competition policy.

Introduction

Digitalization is a strong trend of an economy’s development. Despite of the rather small share of
digital goods in GDP of different countries (3-10%), the relevant share of digitally dependent
economy is much higher – 20 – 30 % [1, p.21]. It is important to understand, that digitalization
manifests less in digital resources’ dominance in the structure of production resources of an economy
or dominance of digital goods in its total output, but mostly in changes in the field of intermediation.
It changes the value chains and the vertical competition disposition up to creating monopolies among
intermediaries. The phenomenon of such a monopoly is not a new for economy. It has been seen in
the trade sector in the second half of the 20th century. Its evolution and strengthening under
digitalization is described in the first section of the paper. The second section investigates the variety
of digital challenges that increase the risks to competition, take root of the monopoly of informational

2
intermediaries and facilitate the market power leverage onto adjacent markets. The current
competition policy mostly stays blind to these challenges. Its economic and legal tools turn to be
ineffective in digital economy and ask for upgrading or even development of the new ones. The third
section develops the recommendations on the ways of competition policy reforming according to the
challenges revealed. The last section concludes.

Informational nature of intermediaries’ monopoly

It is known that who owns the information, owns the world. This rule may be modified today to say
– the economic actor that owns the fullest market sensitive information, obtains the biggest portion
of the profit within a value chain.

Describing the mode of American market of consumer goods in the book ‘Powershift: Knowledge,
Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century’ [2, p.122-136], Alvin Toffler wrote that up to
the middle of the 20th century the dominance in the vertical competition (measured by a portion of
the value chain profit) had been accumulated by producers that had controlled the informational flows
through goods’ advertising. Since introduction of barcoding in 1970-s and expansion of cash registers
the balance of information control shifted to supermarkets. They got even deeper knowledge about
consumer demand, than the producers had before. Each supermarket collected the large amount of
data about demand for goods, produced by not only one, but many producers, about competitive
advantages of each of them (demand comparison in terms of trademarks, goods’ quality, packing
etc.). Control over such information granted supermarkets a bargaining power.

The rebalance of control over market sensitive information brought forth the dominance of big
retailers in vertical competition and practice of that dominance abuse in the second half of 1980-s. To
counteract the abuse in 1986 French competition authority introduced the Rules of economic
dependency [3], which granted it a new effective antitrust tool. Most other jurisdiction across the
Europe arrived at the need of such rules introduction just in the early 2000-s, when the dominance of
big retailers (networks of hyper-, supermarkets) in the vertical competition had been complemented
with the dominance in the horizontal one. Hence, it granted the retailers more than ten years of
unregulated and profitable dominance.

Today, when the e-commerce has reached 20% of retail sales worldwide [4], while in some countries,
like China, it exceeds 50% [5], we can affirm that market power of conventional retailers has been
undermined. Digital algorithms of online trade platforms let collect much more complete information
on demand and consumer preferences of their users, because they monitor not only the users who
3
have already bought the good, but also those who just put an eye for the good or its substitutes. The
informational background of social networks or Google Shopping is much deeper. It provides the
access to much more detailed data on consumer preferences, covering not only the field of commodity
circulation, but also the service sector. Hence, the new rebalance of market powers becomes obvious.

The idea of dominance of informational intermediaries – most e-platforms like Google, Facebook,
Amazon, Apple, and others – becomes more and more popular in both academic and professional
environment, while conventional kinds of intermediation turn to be imperfect substitutes of their
services. However, such terms as ‘dominance’ or ‘monopoly’ are almost not used by competition
agencies. As 30 years ago competition agencies was not ready to deal with a monopoly of trade
intermediaries, today they are not ready to deal with a monopoly of information intermediaries.

The mandatory component of dominance determination is a market definition. However,

conventional methodologies of market definition cannot be applied effectively to the markets of
information intermediation. They do not consider such important digital challenges as network
effects, zero pricing, digital transformation of value chains, etc., while alternative methodologies have
not been developed yet. Their development is a real big issue to competition agencies that pushes
them “to put less emphasis on analysis of market definition, and more emphasis on theories of harm
and identification of anti-competitive strategies” [6, p.3-4].

The inability of applying of conventional antitrust tools in order to investigate the digital effects on
competition brings a popularity to the concept of ‘gatekeeper’ – usually an e-platform that mediates
the public’s access to market sensitive information and commerce [7]. This term is similar, but not
identical to the term ‘monopolist’. It does not correspond to a control over some market (key pillar
of the monopoly definition) and thus does not ask for market definition. It corresponds to the key
factor of such a quasi-monopoly – control over market sensitive information. This conceptual shift is
an advantage in terms of the theory of competition, but is a downside in terms of antitrust
enforcement. Even in the terms of Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the
Council on Contestable and Fair Markets in the Digital Sector (hereinafter – Digital Market Act or
DMA) the gatekeeper status is a not enough occasion for extensive competition law enforcement. It
just let impose some restrictions on hard anticompetitive practices, but does not solve the problem of
a monopoly of information intermediaries, making us come back to analysis of digital challenges to
competition and possible ways to meet them.

4
 Digital challenges to competition

Among the main digital challenges to competition are network effects, pricing at multisided markets,
digital transformation of value chains. Let us focus on them.

Network effects
Network effect is a phenomenon whereby increased numbers of customers improve the value of a
good or service. Network effects also existed in the pre-digital era, but their impact was much less
significant. Establishment of the digital economy multiplies them due to expansion of
communications. 4 of 5 exactly digital industries (telecommunications, software publishing, web
publishing, specialized and support services) are communicative and dependent on the network effect.
Phone, messenger, social network, other ways of communication are more valuable, when more
people use them. No one joins a communication tool that is not in use of others. Software applications
are firstly developed under popular operating systems that lets developers obtain enough return. Web
publishing is much profitable, if it is done at the popular web resources – top-ranked e-commerce
platforms, popular social media, etc. Efficiency of support service systems determines the choice of
consumers – starting with digital content developers till end-users of digital apps. Hence, in case of a
network good those producers have advantage who first reach the tipping point in terms of number
of that network good users. This is a point of network effect switching on, when the next increase of
consumers is determined not by an autonomous utility of a good, but by its using by others. Starting
with this point the demand for the network good rises under snowball effect, leaving no chance to
rivals even if their goods are better and cheaper. It beats the basic principle of the theory of
competition, which underlies conventional competition policy.

This challenge to competition becomes stronger when the direct network effect is complemented with
the indirect one. It provides the leverage of market power from the one side of a multisided market to
another. For instance, more than 90% market share of Alphabet Inc.(Google) in the search engine
market [8] provides its dominance in the search advertising market [9, p.280; 10]. The current leader
of the display advertising market is Meta Platforms Inc. that collects almost 2 billion of active users
of Facebook and more than 2 billion of active users of Instagram worldwide [11; 12].

E-commerce markets are more local, but they are also caught by the indirect network effect. Buyers
choose a dominant e-platform, expecting for wide assortment, strong competition of sellers and low
prices as the consequence of the latter. Sellers choose a dominant e-platform in order to meet the
concentrated consumer demand and to minimize transaction costs, which are much higher in case of

5
contracting a wide scope of small counterparties (small intermediaries or / and final consumers).
Hence, keeping with the best traditions of the perfect competition, individual rational decisions of
economic actors bring forth a monopolization of information intermediation.
No competition agencies, no academics, who specialized on research of competition issues, do
not know, how to measure network effects, as well as their competitive or anticompetitive effects.
They even cannot establish a common denominator on the way of considering markets, where e-
platforms work: consider each side of an e-platform as a separate market or join all the sides within
a single multisided market.

Pricing at multisided markets

Conventional and multisided markets are designed in much different ways, asking for different
approaches to market investigation and to grounding of dominance, competition restrictions, etc. The
scheme is rather easy in a conventional market: it consists of one good (or some close substitutes), its
sellers and buyers, whose interaction brings some level of price. Usually this price is a subject of
monopolistic manipulations. In case of multisided market, the scheme is much more complicated.
There are at least two goods that may differ depending on the type of an e-platform. Transaction
platforms usually deal with a basic good and the service of intermediation (for instance, flight ticket
and the service of price aggregator, like Skyscanner, CheapOAir, TripAdvisor, etc.). Non-transaction
platforms deal with some goods allocated at different sides of an e-platform (for instance, services of
allocation of advertisements by Google or Facebook at one side of a platform and services of digital
content allocation at another one). Consumers are different on different sides of e-platforms.
Moreover, in case of transaction platforms, the sellers (actors on the supply side) and buyers (actors
on the demand side) alternate each other while moving from one side of a multisided market to
another one.

Another difference is a price one. The practice of the free service distribution is rather popular among
non-transaction e-platforms. It is usually conducted on one (determinant) side of a multisided market.
No consumers join a platform to obtain advertisement, but advertisers join it to contact the huge bulk
of consumers. The lower price (up to zero one) is on the determinant side of the platform, the bigger
number of the users will be collected, making the platform more and more attractive for advertisers
and forcing advertisers to pay higher and higher price on another side of the platform.

As it was mentioned before, no modern economic science, no practice of the competition law
enforcement has not developed effective tools of indirect network effect measuring and consequently
– considering the multisided market as a single one. However, there is no chance to investigate

6
different sides as different markets. Analysis of price reactions is still a basic way of market
investigation, but cross subsidizing and zero pricing make such methodologies non-operational.

Competition agencies try to path the theories of harm, but the uncertainty of a term ‘harm’ provides
the risk of manipulations. Under conventional competition policy the ‘Structure – Conduct –
Performance’ Paradigm (hereinafter – SCP-paradigm) was a protector of such manipulations. There
is no chance to abuse and to cause harm by the economic actor that has a market share of 5 %. Now
this protector does not work – the inability to define the market leads to inability to measure the
market capacity and its structure. Which of the prices shall be considered over- / undercharged?
Sometimes we may compare it with prices in other regions. But what shall we do with the pricing by
globally popular Google? Comparing its prices with those of less popular and less efficient
advertising platforms is the same as to compare the prices of a low-cost car with the price of a rolls-
roys. To measure the price by the cost plus a fixed return means to give up the ‘first best’ market
pricing, to deny the right of more effective market player for a bigger share of producer surplus and
consequently – to stop technical progress. Ban of the cross subsidizing means to restrict access of the
users to informational content and to decrease competition on the adjacent markets. All above
mentioned perspectives are imperfect.

Value chains’ transformation.

As establishment of retail chains’ dominance in the 20th century, the establishment of e-platforms’
one in 21st century is based on the imbalance of transaction costs in different value chains. Selling
goods to a big retail chain let the supplier obtain rather big savings comparing to contacting with
many small retailers in terms of search of responsible partners, negotiation and concluding
agreements, their performance control, transportation, storage, etc. Usually such savings were enough
to cover the monopolistic overcharge. In spite of considering the latter as excessive and unfair, the
alternative of incurring much higher transaction costs made the choice of suppliers on behalf of retail
chains obvious. It split the previously single retail market by the value of transaction costs. However,
the existed methodologies of market definition were blind to this criterion. It made the analysts of
competition agencies to look for new arguments consistent with the existed methodologies, which
were found in the field of consumer properties. Consumer properties of services of retail chains differ
from those of small retailers in terms of assortment, benefits of loyalty programs, etc. Hence the
problem was solved manually, and therefore arose again under establishment of monopoly of
informational intermediaries.
As in the case of retail chains, contracting with a dominant e-platform (even taking the dominant’s
overcharge into account) is cheaper than contracting with many small counterparties. That makes

7
different value chains poor substitutes of each other. Thus, the need to introduce the criterion of
transaction costs in the list of criteria of goods’ substitutability under the procedure of market
definition has become relevant again. Its replacement by a complex service (as it was done 40 years
ago in regard to trade intermediation) will no longer work, because the problem of transaction costs
underlies the network effect. The imbalance of transaction costs is the driving force behind the change
of the intermediary link of value chains in the digital world, of the emergence of information
intermediation as a type of economic activity and its organization as the core of multisided markets.

Thus, current antitrust economic, as well as relevant competition law are at the doorway of significant
reforms. If these reforms do not take place, competition policy will not only lose its effectiveness, but
will do so at an increasing pace as the digitalisation of the economy intensifies.

Perspectives of competition policy reforming

Over the last few years, the focus of the competition agencies has shifted to the realm of information
intermediaries, and the digital challenges described above have become apparent to them, although
systemic reforms have not yet taken place. Nowadays competition agencies mainly practice the skill
of applying current legislation to new challenges, acting manually.

Digital Markets Act can be considered the first more or less systematic step towards restricting the
market power of e-platforms. It defines the criteria for determining / assigning gatekeeper status and
provides restrictions on the range of potentially anti-competitive practices in the digital space, like
combining personal data sourced from these core platform services, prohibition of business users to
offer the same products or services to end users through third party online intermediation services at
prices or conditions that are different from those offered through the online intermediation services
of the gatekeeper, preventing or restricting business users from raising issues with any relevant public
authority relating to any practice of gatekeepers, requiring business users to use, offer or interoperate
with an identification service of the gatekeeper in the context of services offered by the business users
using the core platform services of that gatekeeper, refusal to provide advertisers and publishers to
which it supplies advertising services, upon their request, with information concerning the price paid
by the advertiser and publisher, as well as the amount or remuneration paid to the publisher, for the
publishing of a given ad and for each of the relevant advertising services provided by the gatekeeper
etc. [13, art.5].
This initiative should be positively assessed, unless a rather limited list of obligations set by the
proposal due to the current experience of e-platforms competitive behaviour. This list is based on the
results of the research of anticompetitive practice of e-platforms done through induction technique
8
application. It is not grounded theoretically that makes the DMA and regulatory approach based on it
fragmentary. The DMA is seen as an add-on to the existing model of state protection of competition.
It should complement the latter, coping with digital challenges, while not all of them are met by
DMA. For example, the concept of the market is actively used by DMA developers. Only in the text
of the act this term is mentioned 40 times. Nevertheless, the developers of the DMA actually avoid
the real market research, replacing it with research of the activities of individual businesses – potential
gatekeepers. Moreover, the actual parameters of the functioning of such information intermediaries
are studied not even in comparison with similar indicators for providers of substitutes, but with fixed
thresholds specified in the DMA. This approach can, at best, filter out small information
intermediaries who are incapable of abuse due to their small scale. However, it cannot assess the real
structural preconditions for dominance and substantiate the facts of abuse. This means that the
problem of market definition is still open.

In academic literature the DMA approach usually contrasts to SCP-paradigm. We believe that the
future is not in opposition, but in the integration of these approaches. Based on the empiricism of
anticompetitive practices, which underlies the DMA, we can reveal the gaps of the conventional
approach to antitrust cases investigation in the digital world and develop the ways to fill them. Among
them are:
- considering of network effect that asks for market capacity measuring not just in terms
of sales, but also in terms of number of active users;
- measurement of the degree of cross subsidizing in multilateral markets as an indicator
of the strength of market power leverage, and ultimately – the intensity of the indirect
network effect;
- considering switching cost as a measurement of barriers to switching demand and an
indicator of market boundaries defining; need to consider transaction costs in order to
define market boundaries;
- encouraging of multihoming in order to merge unique markets and to counteract an
abuse by their gatekeepers;
- regulation of vertical competition and introduction of vertical unbundling where vertical
dominance is already complemented by horizontal one.

As digital effects distort competition in all national markets and globally, the world's leading
competitive agencies need to come together to develop appropriate methodologies.

9
 Conclusions

Summing up the results of the study, it should be noted that the digital transformation of the
economy in the 21 century has significantly changed the competitive environment, posing a big
challenge to the world's competitive agencies and their associations – to restore the effectiveness
of competition policy. Nowadays, we can see a clear focus of competition authorities and
competition researchers on addressing this challenge, but progress on this issue is still
insufficient. We have passed the stage of understanding the problem and descriptive research of
changes in the competitive environment of modern markets under digitalization. We have
identified challenges in need of regulation and have formulated the first proposals for their meet.
Now they are under discussion and testing. There are still a number of issues of market definition
that limit the possibilities of applying a wide range of conventional competition policy tools. We
perceive that the future of competition policy in the digital world belongs not to inventing a
radically new model of competition protection, but to building of a bridge between conventional
competition theory and digital reality in terms of development of the methodologies of market
research and competitive behaviour assessment able to meet the challenges of digitalization.

References

1. Santos, C. D. (Presenter). (2021, June 23) Measuring the Digital Economy. Retrieved
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/event/706291/files/digital-economy-aiw-presentation.pdf
2. Toffler, A. (1991) Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century.
Bantam Books
3. Marty, F. & Reis, P. (2020) Abus de Dépendance Économique’, Dictionnaire de Droit de la
Concurrence, Concurrences art 85864 Retrieved
https://www.concurrences.com/fr/dictionnaire/abus-de-dependance-economique
4. Statista (2022) E-commerce as percentage of total retail sales worldwide from 2015 to 2025.
Retrieved https://www.statista.com/statistics/534123/e-commerce-share-of-retail-sales-
worldwide
5. eMarketer (2020, December 1) Top 10 Countries, Ranked by Retail Ecommerce Sales Share, 2021
& 2022 (% of total retail sales). Retrieved https://www.emarketer.com/chart/244425/top-10-
countries-ranked-by-retail-ecommerce-sales-share-2021-2022-of-total-retail-sale
6. Cremer, J., Montjoye Y.-A. & Schweitzer H. (2019) Competition policy for the digital era’.
(European Commission Final Report B-1049) Brussels.
7. CPI, Competition Policy International (2021, February 8) Antitrust Chronicle – Gatekeepers
Retrieved https://www.competitionpolicyinternational.com/antitrust-chronicle-gatekeepers/
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8. Netmarketshare (2020, October 31) Search Engine Market Share Retrieved
https://netmarketshare.com/search-engine-market-share.aspx
9. Smith, S. & Lindemann, E. (2020) Spotlight on Online Platforms and Digital Advertising as CMA
Calls for a New Pro-competition Regulation Regime. Entertainment Law Review 31(8) 279-283.
10. Shkil, L. (2021, March 18) Rynok internet-reklamy v Ukrajini vyris do 13,5 mlrd ghrn.
Najgholovnishe z doslidzhennja InAU [Digital Advertising Market in Ukraine Have Risen Up to
13.5 billion UAH: The Top of UIA Research]. Retrieved https://adsider.com/ua/rynok-internet-
reklamy-v-ukraini-vyris-do-13-5-mlrd-hrn-nayholovnishe-z-doslidzhennia-inau/
11. Algern, M. (2022, February 20) 35 + Facebook Statystyka y fakty dlja 2022 [35+ Facebook
Statistics and facts for 2022] Retrieved https://www.websiterating.com/ru/research/facebook-
statistics/
12. Algern, M. (2022, February 1) 35 + Instagram Statystyka y fakty dlja 2022 [35 + Instagram
Statistics and facts for 2022] Retrieved https://www.websiterating.com/ru/research/instagram-
statistics/
13. EC, European Commission (2020) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of
the Council on Contestable and Fair Markets in the Digital Sector (Digital Markets Act)
COM(2020) 842 final 2020/0374 (COD)

11
Fadil Mušinović
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija

Darijo Levačić
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija

MOTIVACIJA PROSTOVOLJCEV V IZBRANI NEPROFITNI

ORGANIZACIJI V ČASU EPIDEMIJE COVID 19

Povzetek. Motivacija je eden ključnih dejavnikov oziroma procesov človekovega delovanja in njegove
zavzetosti za tisto kar dela. Proces motiviranja zaposlenih je ključna naloga managementa vsake
organizacije. Management mora pri svojem delu združevati in dopolnjevati različne teorije in
koncepte motivacije. To je izrednega pomena še posebej v neprofitnih organizacijah, katerih uspeh
je odvisen od dela prostovoljcev. V prispevku so predstavljeni ključni dejavniki, ki so prostovoljce v
času epidemije Covid-19 motivirali za njihovo delo. Raziskava, ki je bila izvedena v nevladni
organizaciji je potrdila dve vnaprej zastavljeni hipotezi, vezani na posamezne dejavnike motivacije.
Nevladne organizacije so neprofitna združenja na vseh nivojih družbe, na lokalnem in nacionalnem
nivoju, so prostovoljne ali profesionalne organizacije. Delujejo na različnih področjih družbenih
dogajanj. Večina teh organizacij v Sloveniji je v odvisnosti od države, predvsem zaradi sredstev in so
med seboj nepovezane. Na motivacijo prostovoljcev v nevladnem sektorju vpliva mnogo dejavnikov.
Kljub občasno slabo spodbudnem okolju, je v tem sektorju veliko požrtvovalnih in poslanstvu zavzetih
prostovoljcev.

Ključne besede: motivacija, prostovoljstvo, nevladna organizacija, Covid 19

Uvod

Razmere, ki so nastale s pandemijo in stanjem v katerem se trenutno nahajamo so profitne in

neprofitne organizacije prisiljene v spremembo strategij in uporabo novih metod za izpolnjevanje
potreb potrošnikov in uporabnikov storitev. Profitne organizacije morajo slediti tržni zakonitostim
in spremembam na trgih, medtem, ko neprofitne morajo slediti trendom v družbi in ustvarjati nove
oblike organiziranosti, da bi lahko izpolnjevale svoje poslanstvo in cilje. Neprofitne organizacije kot
nevladne organizacije s svojim delovanjem imajo velik vpliv na družbo, zaradi različnih vlog, ki jih
opravljajo v lokalnem, regionalnem in globalnem okolju. Nevladne organizacije kot neprofitne
organizacije so nacionalne ali mednarodne organizacije, ki s svojim delovanjem in združevanjem
služijo družbenim in političnim ciljem. Ti so lahko humanitarni ali okoljevartsveni [1]. Po Lewisu
(2009) so nevladne organizacije najbolj znane po zagotavljanju storitev ljudem v stiski, pa tudi na
številnih drugih področjih, kot so delo na področju človekovih pravic, ohranjanje kulture, okoljski

12
aktivizem itd [2]. Obravnavana nevladna organizacija v prispevku deluje na področju varnosti v
prometu in zaščiti pravic poklicnih voznikov. Na temelju ustanovnega akta je prostovoljno
nepolitično združenje ustanovljeno za izvajanje preventivnih nalog na področju varnosti v prometu
in povezovanje poklicnih voznikov z namenom zagotavljanja varnosti pravic te poklicne skupine v
družbi. Člani nevladne organizacije delujejo organizirani v lokalnem okolju in povezani v posamezne
regije. Koordinacijo na območju celotne države koordinira in vodi zveza združenj. Tako zveza
združenj kot združenja imajo status nevladne organizacije. Cilj zveze je skupaj z združenji spodbujati
odgovornost in zavzetost ljudi za varnost v prometu, skozi širjenja pomena načela varnostne kulture.
Nevladna organizacija svoje aktivnosti izvaja s prostovoljci. Prostovoljci so pomemben kapital
nevladne organizacije. Zaradi njihovega pomena, zlasti med pandemijo COVID 9, je bilo pomembno
osredotočenje na njihovo motivacijo in zavzetost za delo. Motivacija prostovoljcev še posebno v času,
ko je interes posameznikov z vključevanjem v tovrstne organizacije v upadu, je vloga in cilj vodstva
ohraniti aktivne in produktivne prostovoljce z različnimi motivacijskimi dejavniki. Čeprav ima vloga
prostovoljcev pri vzgoji mladih v prometu pomemben vpliv na razvoj družbe, je na področju tega
narejeno malo raziskovalnih nalog. Poleg tega v javno pristopnih bazah ni najti strokovnih ali
znanstvenih prispevkov o tem, kako so se prostovoljci na področju varnosti v prometu odzvali na
pandemijo COVID - 19. COVID -19 je zahteval zaprtje šol mimo ustaljenih letnih urnikov, šolanje
od doma je najmlajše udeležence v prometu umaknilo iz prometnega življenja. Nepričakovane najave
vračanja v šolske klopi in neusklajeno delovanje pristojnih institucij na tem področju, je od
prostovoljcev zahtevalo motivacijo in pripravljenost na delo. Glede na pomemben prispevek
prostovoljcev v tako zelo neurejenih okoljih lahko razumevanje motivacije in vpliva prostovoljcev
pomaga pri bolj trajnostnih praksah pri razmišljanju o delnih zaposlitvah prostovoljcev in njihovem
nagrajevanju s strani pristojnih državnih organov in podjetij.

Teoretična izhodišča motivacije

Ljudje se vsakodnevno srečujemo s situacijami, ki se nam zdijo predvidljive in samoumevne. Zaradi

svoje rutine in prepričanja da to tako mora biti, se redko vprašamo zakaj to počnemo. Kljub temu
vedno pri storitvi nečesa obstaja neka motivacija. Stanje, ki je povezano z našim umom in našimi
čustvi. Pojem motivacija torej označuje neko čustveno stanje, ki usmerja obnašanje posameznika za
izogibanje kazni ali pa dosego nagrade [3, str. 650]. Motivacija je vedenjsko usmerjeni proces, več
zaporednih dejanj posameznika, odvisen od posameznih dejavnikov. Na katere lahko hote ali nehote
vplivamo. Na temelju posameznih značilnosti in dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na vedenjski proces in ko
govorimo o opredelitvi motivacije, lahko izpostavimo vprašanja [4, str. 11]:
- Kako se posameznik na določeni stopnji razvoja ter v različnih situacijah obnaša?
- Kakšen je namen ter kaj je cilj njegovega obnašanja?
13
 - Kateri dejavniki vplivajo na njegovo vedenje?
- Ali pri ljudeh obstajajo razlike v motivaciji glede na socialni status, spol, poklic in podobno
(v nadaljevanju ipd.)?

Motivacija predstavlja pomemben vpliv na razvoj osebnosti in njeno delovanje. Zato je tudi predmet
številnih raziskav na področju menedžmenta človeških virov. Kompleksnost ljudskih motivacijskih
sistemov tudi otežuje poenotenje definicije motivacije. To kompleksnost predstavlja več komponent
[5, str. 231]. To sta kategoriji notranjih in zunanjih vzrokov motivacije. Kot je opozoril filozof René
Descartes (1596-1650), lahko dražljaji, ki prihajajo iz okolja, izzovejo direkten odziv. Do odziva
pride preko živčnega sistema, ki prenaša živčni pritisk v možgane. Ta pritisk v možganih pa se izrazi
v krčenju mišic. Descartes je prvi, ki je z znanstvenim pristopom pristopil k raziskovanju pojma
motivacije [6, str. 261].

Po mnenju Herzberga se stopnja motiviranosti na delovnem mestu povečuje s stopnjo sreče

zaposlenih na delovnem mestu, kar lahko povežemo z ugotovitvami Alberta Einsteina o notranji
motivaciji in sicer, da je to »uživanje ob pogledu in iskanju« [9, str. 130]. To pa je povezano z vzroki,
ki to povzročijo. Ti so lahko notranji (potrebe, cilji, goni, …) ali zunanji (socialno, kulturno.. idr.
okolje) vzroki [4, str. 14]. Po vsebini izvora spodbud ločimo: vsebinske teorije, ki razpravljajo o
vplivih na vedenje ljudi in načinih delovanja ter procesne teorije, ki obravnavajo usmerjanje,
vzdrževanje, izzivanje ali prekinitev vedenja posameznika ter načine njegovega delovanja [10, str.
412-413]. Po Abrahamu Maslowu vsi ljudje imamo potrebe. Te so razvrščene po hiearhiji. Ko bodo
zadovoljenje najosnovnejše potrebe, ki so potrebne za preživetje, kot so hrana, voda ipd., zadovoljitev
višjih potreb, ki so na njegovi lestvici, ne bodo zaskrbljujoče in bodo delovale kot motivator tako v
delovnem kot življenjskem okolju. [11, str. 67]. Psiholog David McClelland (1917-1998) je potrebe,
ki motivirajo ljudi, razdelil v tri osnovne skupine potreb in sicer na (1) potrebo po dosežkih, (2)
potrebo po vključitvi ter potrebo po moči [12, str. 102]. Posamezniki imajo različne kombinacije
osnovnih skupin potreb kjer pogosto posamezna potreba prevladuje [10, str. 416-417, 14].
Pridobivanje potreb po njihovi zadovoljitvi pa prihaja na temelju življenjskih izkušenj in osebnega
razvoja. Potrebo po tesnem sodelovanju, ki jo lahko uvrstimo v skupino potreb po dosežkih in
vključitvi, lahko povežemo s prostovoljstvom. Prostovoljstvo poleg skupnega cilja uresničevanja
nekih skupnih potreb, omogoča tudi povezanost posameznikov in njihovo sodelovanje. Da bi bolje
razumeli te potrebe, sta jih Osemeke in Adegboyega (2017) označila z [13]:

1) potrebo po moči: ljudje, ki imajo to potrebo, običajno uživajo v nadzoru nad drugimi in radi imajo
dober položaj na delovnem mestu oziroma moč. Naklonjeni so vplivanju in usmerjanju nekoga

14
drugega in za ohranjanje odnosov med vodji in njihovimi podrejenimi.

2) Potreba po dosežkih: ljudje, ki imajo to potrebo, želijo delati v organizacijah, ki imajo veliko
izzivov in tekmovanj. Ljudje, ki imajo veliko potrebo po dosežkih so nagnjeni k osebni odgovornosti,
reševanju zahtevnih nalog in močno željo po povratnih informacijah.

3) Potreba po pripadnosti: ljudje, ki imajo potrebo po pripadnosti, želijo biti všeč drugim in uživati v
okolju, kjer je motiv vzpostavljanje prijateljstva in dolgotrajna zaposlitev. So nagnjeni k osebam,
katerih cenijo prijateljstvo in občutke drugih.

Potreba po pripadnosti je tudi lastnost prostovoljstva. Zato je še kako pomembno, da najvišja vodstva
nevladnih organizacij imajo močno željo po analiziranju prostovoljcev in iščejo najboljše
motivacijske dejavnike za njihovo delo.

Raziskovalni del

Namen raziskave, ki je bila opravljena med septembrom in novembrom 2021, je bil ugotoviti kako
so bili za delo motivirani prostovoljci izbrane organizacije. V uvodnem delu prispevka smo na podlagi
proučene literature opredelili pomen motivacije za delo posameznika. Iz zapisanih teoretičnih
dognanj lahko tudi sklepamo, da je ima motivacija pomembno vlogo pri izvajanju nalog
prostovoljcev. Uresničevanje potrebe po združevanju in skupnih ciljih ima motivacijski vpliv na
posameznika.

Empirična raziskava je v osnovi opravljena s kvantitativno metodologijo. Za pridobivanje

kvantitativnih podatkov smo uporabili vprašalnik, ki je bil sestavljen iz štirih delov. V prvem delu so
bili demografski podatki, drug del je predstavljal podatke o motivacijskih faktorjih, tretji del pa
vprašanja povezana o motivaciji pri izvajanju prostovoljnih nalog v času pandemije COVID 19. Četrti
zadnji del je bil odprtega tipa, kjer so lahko anketiranci podali svoje osebne poglede na varnostno
kulturo in njen pomen.

Vzorec smo oblikovali s pomočjo dostopnih elektronskih naslovov v registru članstva organizacije.
Pr izbir vzorca in rabi podatkov so bila spoštovana določila Zakona o varnosti osebnih podatkov in
določila Splošne uredbe EU o varstvu podatkov (GDPR). V spremnem besedilu so bili seznanjeni,
da je anketni vprašalnik anonimen in da bo izključno uporabljen v raziskovalne namene. V vzorec
smo vključili osebe ne glede na status zaposlitve.

15
Pridobljene podatke smo najprej zbrali in jih oblikovali v tabelah s pomočjo Excel programa ter jin
nato statistično obdelali s pomočjo programskega orodja za statistično obdelavo podatkov SPSS.

V raziskavo smo vključili 547 naslovnikov. Na anketni vprašalnik je odgovorilo 211. V 24 primerih
je vprašalnik bil nepopoln, zaradi česar smo te vprašalnike izločili. Veljavnih je bilo torej 187
vprašalnikov, kar predstavlja 34,18 odstotka vseh naslovnikov. Tako slabo odzivnost je potrebno
pripisati starosti prostovoljcev in njihovem daljšem odzivnem času pri uporabi elektronske pošte.
Posamezni člani elektronske pošte ne uporabljajo, kljub temu, da posedujejo elektronski naslov.

Tabela 1. Število anketiranih

vprašalnik število
poslani 547
vrnjeni 211
veljavni 187
neveljavni 24

Starostne skupine so bile določene na podlagi podatkov iz baze članov. Zaradi vse manjšega interesa
za delo na področju, ki ga izvaja nevladna organizacija in upadu interesa za članstvo, so te starostne
skupine sprejemljive. Po spolu je bilo anketiranih 5 žensk ali 2,6 %, moških 182 ali 97,4 %
anketiranih. Najbolj zastopana starostna skupna je bila med 60 in 70 let, in sicer 124 ali 66,3 %
anketiranih. Sledijo starostna skupina med 50 in 60 let, 46 ali 24,6 % anketiranih in starostna skupina
med 40 in 50 let, 17 ali 9,1 % anketiranih.

Tabela 2. Število anketiranih po starosti in spolu

število spol Med 40 in 50 let Med 50 in 60 let Med 60 in 70 let
ženska 5 2 1 2
moški 182 15 45 122
skupaj 187 17 46 124

Po izobrazbi je bilo 63 % s srednješolsko izobrazbo, 28 % jih je imelo najmanj osnovnošolsko

izobrazbo, 7 % z višjo ali visokošolsko izobrazbo, 2 % z magisterijem ali doktoratom.

16
 Tabela 3. Anketiranci po izobrazbi
stopnja izobrazbe število
osnovna šola in manj 52
srednja šola 118
višja ali visoka 14
magisterij ali doktorat 3
skupaj 187

Analiza motivacijskih faktorjev kaže, da prevladuje mnenje, da je pri njihovem delu motivacijski
faktor spoznanje, da s svojim delom osrečijo druge (M= 41,2312), da z aktivnostmi, ki jih izvajajo
prostovoljno osrečujejo sami sebe (M=39,2347). Občutek pripadnosti in povezanosti pa je spodbujal
izvajanje aktivnosti, ki so bile izvajane ob uveljavljanju ukrepov, ki so povezani s COVID-19
(M=32,0364).

Pri motivacijskih dejavnikih, ki so ključni za povezovanje prostovoljnega dela in izvajanje ukrepov

COVID 19 je ugotovljeno, da najbolj prevladuje mnenje, da je k izvajanju prostovoljnih nalog, kljub
temu, da te niso bile časovno vnaprej predvidene, prispeval občutek, da so s svojimi aktivnostmi in
prisotnostjo prispevali k večji varnosti in lastni sreči (M=47,2143). Anketiranci so bili tudi mnenja,
da jih je pri delu motiviralo spoštovanje njihovega dela od nadrejenih (M=31,8724). Anketiranci
prepisujejo motivacijskem dejavniku tudi prepoznavnost njihovih aktivnosti v okolju (M= 29, 2965).
Prav tako je prostovoljce pri opravljanju nalog v času ukrepov motivirala ustrezna organizacija dela
(M=23,3273).

Skoraj 65 odstotkov anketiranih je v anketi ocenilo, da s tem ko pomagaš drugim, da tudi osrečuješ
sam sebe.

Raziskovalne hipoteze
V okviru raziskave smo si postavili dve raziskovalni hipotezi:

Hipoteza 1: Anketirani so mnenja, da so v času ukrepov Covid 19 pri izvajanju svojih aktivnosti
prispevali k povezanosti prostovoljcev in pripadnosti organizaciji.
Zastavljeno hipotezo smo potrdili. Iz statističnih podatkov izhaja, da prostovoljci z zavzetostjo za
izvajanje del krepijo njihovo povezanost in pripadnost organizaciji.
Hipoteza 2: Anketirani se zavedajo pomena svoje vloge v okolju pri izvajanju ukrepov Covid-19
Glede na rezultate se hipoteza potrdi. Anketiranci so v 52,23 % potrdili, da so prepričani, da so s

17
svojo prisotnostjo in vidnostjo pripomogli k v večji varnosti otrok v prometu v času izvajanja ukrepov
Covid-19.

Diskusija

V času, ki ga živimo je polno nepredvidljivih dogodkov. Te je potrebno obvladovati. Obvladujemo

pa jih če smo motivirani. Uspešnost vsake organizacije in posameznika je povezana z motivacijo in
zadovoljstvom. Nezadovoljstvo z izvajanjem aktivnosti povzroča manjšo produktivnost. Posledično
temu je nižja uspešnost in manjši dobiček podjetja ali organizacije. V prispevku smo obravnavali
motivacijo prostovoljcev v izbrani nevladni organizaciji. Prostovoljstvo temelji na samoodločanju
posameznika ali želi delovati. Vključenost v prostovoljstvo je že motivacijskih faktor, ki prispeva k
večji zavzetosti za izvajanje nalog. Kljub temu smo skozi raziskavo ugotovili, da prostovoljce
motivira ko s svojim delom osrečijo druge. Povezovanje prostovoljcev in njihova prepoznavnost v
okolju so tudi odraz dobre organiziranosti. Organiziranost in prepoznavnost osrečijo same
prostovoljce in sta tudi temelj za pridobivanje novih članov. Na podlagi teoretičnih izhodišč, da v
splošnem motivacijske teorije ločimo na vsebinske in procesne teorije lahko na podlagi lastnih
ugotovitev vezano na vsebino raziskave v prispevku rečemo, da je pristop k članstvu in interes za
delo v nevladni organizaciji del vsebinske motivacijske teorije. Te se nanašajo na to, kaj pri ljudeh
vpliva na njihovo vedenje in način delovanja. Druge (procesne) teorije se nanašajo na možnosti
usmerjanja in vzdrževanja vedenja posameznikov, kamor lahko iz raziskave uvrstimo faktorje
osrečevanje drugih, lastna sreča, prepoznavnost v okolju in prispevek k varnosti v okolju. Ti pa so
posledica uspešne organiziranosti in koordinacije s strani nevladne organizacije.

Pričujoči prispevek je obravnaval trenutno razumevanje motivacije posameznikov in vpliva

prostovoljnih izkušenj v izbrani nevladni organizaciji. Kljub majhnem vzorcu je ugotovljeno, da so
prostovoljci osredotočeni predvsem na občutek, da s svojim delom osrečujejo druge in da imajo
občutek odgovornosti. Sodelujoči v raziskavi se uvrščajo v starejši del populacije, ki so tudi večji del
svojega življenja člani obravnavane organizacije in da so skozi delo v njej dosegli osebnosti razvoj
na področju prostovoljnega dela. To je lahko temelj za družbeno diskusijo o večji vlogi in podpori
države pri izvajanju tovrstnih aktivnosti. Slovenija je odraz dobre povezanosti in usklajenosti
prostovoljstva, ko gre za aktivnosti vezane na izredne dogodke. Vendar je na strani države ključnega
pomena opredelitev programov in aktivnosti za aktivno prostovoljstvo. Prepričljivi programi,
prilagodljivi posameznim specifičnim prostovoljskim funkcijam, pri posameznikih povzročajo večjo
verjetnost, da izrazijo namero za prostovoljno delo in tudi pridobijo večje zadovoljstvo prostovoljcev.
Usklajevanje motivacije posameznika s priložnostmi za prostovoljstvo je ključna naloga vsake
nevladne organizacije, na strani države pa je da to motivacijo okrepi s svojimi strateškimi ukrepi na
18
področju razvoja prostovoljstva. Prostovoljstvo poganjajo funkcije vrednot, razumevanja in
izboljševanja. Prostovoljstvo lahko pozitivno vpliva na osebno rast in družbeno ozaveščenost ter
razvoj in usposobljenost profesionalnih kadrov za delo tudi v drugih profitnih ali neprofitnih
organizacijah.

Literatura in viri

1. Folger, J. (2021). What is an NGO (Non- Governmental Organization)?

https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/13/what-is-non-government-organization.asp
2. Lewis, D. (2009). Nongovernmental organizations, Definition and history. Chapter in book:
International Encyclopedia of Civil Society.
3. Schultheiss, O. C., Strasser, A., Rösch, A. G., Kordik, A. & Graham, S. C. C. (2012). Motivation.
Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (2. izd.), 650-656. Pridobljeno 7. marca 2021 iz
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375000-6.00238-X
4. Kobal Grum, D. & Musek, J. (2009). Perspektive motivacije (1. izd.). Ljubljana: Znanstvena
založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani.
5. Ford, M. E. & Smith, P.R. (2011). Motivation. Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 231-239.
Pridobljeno 3. marec 2022 iz https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-373951-3.00028-4
6. Anagnostaras, S. G. & Sage, J. R. (2010). Motivation. Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience,
261-266. Pridobljeno 28. junija 2021 iz https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0- 08-045396-5.00018-X
7. Herzberg, F. (1987). One more time: how do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review
8. Kelley, C., Odden, A., Milanowski, A. & Heneman III, H. G. (2000). The motivational effects of
school-based performance awards. CPRE Policy Briefs.
9. Güven, G. Ö. (2013). Using emotion management for motivation in educational organisations:
Construction of meaning, experiences and reflections. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences,
89, 129-132. Pridobljeno 7. marca 2022 iz https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.821
10. Rozman, R. & Kovač, J. (2012). Management. Ljubljana: GV Založba.
11. Kitchin, D. (2010). Motivation. An Introduction to Organisational Behaviour for Managers and
Engineers – A Group and Multicultural Approach, 65-80. Pridobljeno 20. februar 2022 iz
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7506-8334-0.10004-8
12. Dimovski, V., Penger, S., Peterlin, J., Grah, B., Turk, D., Šalamon, K. & Grošelj, M. (2014).
Temelji managementa in organizacije. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Ekonomska fakulteta.
13. Osemeke, M. & Adegboyega, S. (2017). Critical Review and comparison between Maslow,
Herzberg and McClelland’s theory of needs, Funai Journal of Accounting, Business and Finance,
1(1): 161-173.
14. McClelland, D.C. (1961). The achieving society, Princeton, N.J., Van Nostrand.

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Jani Toroš
Ljubljana School of Business, Ljubljana, Slovenija
orcid.org/0000-0003-0896-9804

PRICE PERCEPTION BASED ON PRICE FONT COLOR

Abstract. Price as marketing instrument often neglected in the business world. On staff pricing
managers or pricing specialists are rare. Even in education, classes focused on pricing have only
started to emerge in the recent years.This paper focuses on the impact of the font color used on the
shelf price tag (price color). In a large-scale study conducted through an online survey using the
Conjoint Analysis method, we investigated the perception of price color among males. We divided
them into four segments, based on age and income. The initial hypothesis came from previous
findings of authors who cited those men perceived red price color more favorably than black. In
our case, we found that perceptions of price colors vary widely. Therefore, we cannot confirm the
initial hypothesis.

Keywords: Price, Price color, Preference, Conjoint

Introduction

Defining the price isn’t as easy as it seems. It may seem clear and simple at first. Price, in monetary
terms, denotes the sacrifice made by the customer to obtain the desired product or service. And this
sum of money is simultaneously received by the seller who sold it to the buyer [1]. This simple
definition is not incorrect; however, it does raise several questions., many of which still not fully
explored. Our thought process leads us in two parallel directions, where we can find extensive content
on price.

The first one leads us to the definition of "the price in the eyes of the seller". In this context, the
content depends on all the necessary knowledge and skills of the seller who manages the prices of
products and services offered. Economic theory, the theory of value, prospect theory all come to play
here along with cost theory, the experience curve, and the breakeven point. All well-known concept
in business.

The second direction can be defined as "the price in the eyes of the buyer". Here we can find many
yet to be fully explored reactions of the buyer to the price. It would be a mistake to simplify and claim
that price is merely information about the sacrifice required and that it is the same as the monetary
value indicated - for everyone. Price perception hides many emotional responses to stimuli such as
size, presentation, use of punctuation, color, and other elements. There has been a lot of research,

20
mainly in the field of psychology, on what influences price perception, when a buyer thinks something
is cheaper and when it is more expensive, even though the same numerical value, the same number,
is always in front of his or her eyes.

Theoretical background

In this paper, we will look at a few areas that are stirring the minds of researchers. An important
starting point is certainly the fact that in our brain numbers are based on sensory concepts - and this
structure influences our perception of prices. This mechanism is complex, and in many respects only
partially understood. It is linked to sound, color, and shape elements which, as stimuli, trigger
responses in our brain. In the literature, these examples are most often defined as psychological price.

Odd price effect

A walk through the retail outlets and a look at the prices marked for each product reveals an interesting
discovery. Most prices will end in 9 or 99. What is the secret of retailers pricing the products on their
shelves?

The rounded price seems to be much higher than the one ending in 99. This happens in the process
of perception. The information that shoppers receive using the eyes as a visual receptor is converted
into a specific interpretation in the brain. In this case, it is an interpretation of the price level. Although
the price is expressed with mathematical precision, the interpretation is often purely vernacular. One
price is higher than another even if there is a negligible difference of only one cent. And yet this
small difference is usually much greater in the eyes of the buyer than the real, rational difference
expressed in monetary units. This phenomenon is universally accepted and in practice has been
determining the fate of retail pricing for decades. It is particularly effective for products at the lower
price level.

Yet the secret of how these prices work is not just in the 9 or 99 endings. The main reason why prices
ending in 9 appear lower than those ending in 0 is also the left-hand digit, which is a step (a tenth or
a hundredth) higher in rounded prices. This is a psychological effect based on the perception and
comparison of numbers [2]. The reason is therefore the comparison of left numbers, which is why it
is also described as the left number effect. Since the customer compares 3.00 with 2.99, 3 appears
much larger than 2. This psychological effect is also the reason why unrounded prices are often
referred to as psychological price.

The importance of left numbers in price perception has also been demonstrated by Thomas and

21
Morwitz [3], who surveyed a sample of 52 postgraduate students on how they evaluate the price of
ballpoint pens. They highlighted two comparisons. The first highlighted the prices of two brands of
pencils at $2.99 and $3.00, and the second at $3.59 and $3.60. The absolute difference was the same
in both cases, i.e., one cent.

Respondents rated how high they thought the price of each pencil was on a Likert scale from 1 to 5;
1 meant 'do not agree at all' and 5 meant 'strongly agree'. The results showed that a price of 2.99 was
perceived as much lower than 3.00. In the second case, the price of 3.59 was not perceived as
significantly lower than 3.60, which is due to the number 3 in the first position of both prices. The
phenomenon is illustrated in the figure. The numbers above the bars are the averages of the perceived
price level on the Likert scale.

Figure 1. Perceived price level

The effect on the perception of the left number can best be seen in Figure 1.

Price record size

According to some authors, the size of the numbers in the shelf price tag is related to the perception
of the price level. In the brain, visual size is transferred to the perception of numerical size, to an
estimate of how high the displayed price is. If we see €60 in a large font, we think that this price is
high. Numbers that appear large lead to the conclusion that the price must be high. In general, prices
should be displayed in small font so that consumers perceive a lower price consequently [4].
However, this tactic also works in the other, opposite direction. Large fonts are effective when
customers are evaluating price differences. The difference in the size of the prices presented
highlights the difference between low and high prices.

22
 Field where the price is written
The location where the price is displayed also influences its perception. For example, on a sales flyer
or an advertisement - when prices are presented at the top or on the left-hand side, they are perceived
as cheaper. Why on the left? Since our eyes enter the field of vision from the left, the left side becomes
an anchor point or 'visual foothold'. Anything displayed away from the left side, the heavier the
perceived weight, or in our case, the higher the price [5]

Moreover, researchers find that the numbers on the horizontal axis of left to right appear to be getting
larger. This is the case assuming that we read from left to right. Small numbers are associated with
the left, because we usually see smaller numbers on the left psychologists conclude that we are likely
to associate them with lower values, i.e., lower price [6].

Right-handed people tend to associate right space with positive ideas and left space with negative
content. Therefore, left-handers showed the opposite pattern, associating the right space with negative
and the left space with positive content. These results support the body specificity hypothesis and
provide evidence for a perceptual-motor basis for various ideas [7].

Some theories are also supported by the fact that the product shown above looks lighter. This fits
perfectly with the notion that heavy things are always on the ground. Therefore, researchers
understand this phenomenon in the same way for price perception, which may inherit this effect.
The authors of the study present that price in the bottom right corner appear higher [8]. Others, in
their study, find that prices at the bottom are perceived as lower [9].

The meaning of syllables

In spoken or audio price presentations, prices appear lower with fewer syllables [10]. The findings
relate to the English-speaking area.
For example, in the United States:
- $27.82: Twenty-seven eighty-two (7 syllables)
- $28.16: Twenty-eight sixteen (5 syllables)
In this example, 28.16 seems numerically smaller to us because of the smaller phonetic size. We don't
have to say the price out loud, the brain still decodes the phonetic version [11].

The meaning of commas in pricing

Researchers have also studied the meaning of punctuation. Their message is: drop punctuation when
showing price and avoid cents after the decimal point if possible. Do not show them even if they are
just zeros. More numeric digits in the price display increases the sense of its magnitude.
23
In the visual perception of prices, punctuation marks such as the dot separating thousands from
hundreds have a distinctive effect. A price written without a punctuation mark is usually perceived
as lower. Let's look at the example of a price of one thousand three hundred and forty-six euros:

1346€
1.346€

The researchers confirmed the hypothesis that the price with the punctuation mark in the example
shown is perceived as slightly higher than the price without the punctuation mark. In a follow-up of
their research, the authors added cents [10]. In the case of adding another separator, the decimal point,
this effect is magnified. We consider the price to be even higher:

1.346,00€

The effect is further increased if we add a few cents to the price, for example:

1.346,35€

The research shows that we perceive a price with a separator between one thousand and one hundred
to be about 10% higher than a price without a separator. We also perceive a price about 10% higher
than a price with a dot (.) if we add a comma (,) and cents.

Since cents do not mean much for prices expressed in four-digit numbers, the logical conclusion
would be to drop them. If we want to make the price appear as low as possible in the eyes of the
customer, it makes sense to write it without the separating dot.

We would probably never think that a price ending in twenty-two would be more acceptable to
someone than one ending in eighty-eight. If your name is Tom or Travis, according to the researchers,
this may be the case. Especially if you hear the price spoken rather than just seeing it written. The
first letter of buyer’s name influences the perception of price and encourages the purchase decision.
They find the price more acceptable.

Similarly happens with dates, which mark an important event in our lives. For example, your birthday
has a significant impact on price perception. Whoever is born on 17 May, the number seventeen will
influence his decision. A price of 2.17 will be more acceptable to them than, for example, a price of

24
2.16 and so on.
Link to other data
How to interpret these phenomena. Social psychologists have found that people usually have a
positive opinion of themselves [12]. A certain degree of affection is also formed for anything that
reminds us of events related to experiences and adventures. Research in this area has indicated a stark
contrast with many of the assumptions held by both lay people and scientists about important
decisions in everyday life. It raises the question of the degree to which people control their own lives.
Increasingly, science is finding that many of our life decisions are made based on unconscious
emotions or decision rules. This does not mean that we are always irrational in these cases. This
specific form of implicit egoism has been shown in research to be the way in which people create
social worlds and tend to feel comfortable in them [13].

How the first letter of a respondent's name and price are related has been substantiated in a study of
120 US college students [14]. For example, Tom and Edward. The survey was conducted online. For
this purpose, a radio advertisement was created featuring a new sports bike of a fictional brand
(Mizuki). The brand name did not contain the letters D and O, which they took special care to avoid.
Each respondent heard a radio advertisement announcing the new product at a price of €622 or €688.
The price varied randomly. Respondents were asked to rate the attractiveness of the offer and their
purchase intention. The survey showed that respondents with a name starting with the letter T showed
a higher preference for the price ending with twenty-two (622). Respondents with names beginning
with the letter E were more likely to prefer a price ending in eighty-eight (688). The same was true
for the indication of purchase intention. More Edwards would buy a bicycle at a price of €688 and
more Toms would buy a bicycle at a price of €622.

In Figure 2 we see the result of respondents who have the first letter of their name as “E”, and we
have called them Edward. As we can see, 56% of Edwards prefer the price of 688€, while respondents
with the first letter T, who we called Tom, were more inclined to prefer the price of 622€, since the
price ends with twenty-two, i.e., the letter "T".

25
 Edward Tom

€622 €688
€688 44% 44% €622
56% 56%

Figure 2. Display price preference according to the initial of the name

Researchers have found similar findings for numbers as for letters. They confirmed the hypothesis
that when price is expressed visually, there is a higher level of liking and also a higher level of
purchase intent. The conclusions relate to the findings of implicit egoism, which both in laboratory
experiments and in everyday practice typically influence people's behavior and their purchase
decisions [15]. Adding 15 cents to the price of 39€ in case the respondent was born on 15 April
showed a higher degree of affection towards the purchase. He accepted the price more positively than
without the decimal addition related to his date of birth. So, the date of birth included in the price, for
example, 15 May, will be much more favorable to a price of €39.15 than to a price of €39 or some
other price.

There are two famous football clubs in Germany, Schalke 04 and Borussia Dortmund 09. The
numbers in the names indicate the year in which the club was founded. Schalke was founded in 1904
and Borussia in 1909.

Figure 3. Brands of football clubs

The researchers confirmed the assumption that FC Schalke fans prefer a price of 1.04, while Borussia
fans prefer a price of 1.09. They conducted the study in several ways, including a conjoint analysis
[16]. Among other things, in one version of the study, students on campus were offered two types of
desserts, with two different sprinkles, plain sugar and cinnamon sugar. The desserts were given two
different prices of €1.04 and €1.09. The prices were changed every half an hour. In this case, too, the
fans proved to be loyal to the club's number. Shalke fans mostly opted for the dessert, which had a
price of €1.04. Borussia fans did the opposite. More often they chose the dessert with a price of €1.09.

So, it is not only the date of birth or the letter in our name, but also the number of the football club or

26
the number worn by the favorite player on the jersey that often influences our price perception
behavior. There are probably many other pieces of information in the form of letters and numbers
that influence our decisions without us even being aware of it.

The phenomenon described probably cannot be simply applied to pricing. In any case, it is a
reasonable question whether to end the price of an old car with the number seven (7) or seventy-seven
(77) if the car is being sold to Simon, and eight (8) or eighty-eight (88) if the buyer is Edward.

Color of the displayed price

Color is ubiquitous in marketing communication, but less is known about the impact of color on price
perception. Almost four years ago, a team of researchers conducted a large study which concluded
that red prices had a significant impact on customers' perception of savings. The results of these
studies show that this effect is moderated by gender. Male shoppers perceived greater savings in red
than in black when presented with prices. The research was carried out using catalogue sales, where
two customer segments were sent different catalogues. One showed price in red and the other in black.
For both women and men, the perception of savings was higher with red prices than with black prices.
But the difference between the genders was even more striking. The individual surveys were carried
out on a sample of 124 and 159 students. The authors conclude that men process visual catalogue
material less deeply and use price color as a visual heuristic to judge the perceived savings [17].

The fact that men make decisions quickly and assume that red prices indicate savings on purchases
was later also found by other authors [18].

Retailers often present prices in red to signal savings. However, they often present only one price in
red in promotional materials. The others are black. The research by Ye [19] analyses this widespread
retail practice using a theoretical perspective. In his study, he used an eye-tracking device. The
theoretical framework of their research predicts that associations with red play an important role in
the perception of savings in stores that use red to indicate only one price. The authors argue that
consumers perceive lower savings where only one price is shown in red. They point to the effect (red:
Save and red: Stop). They conclude that the use of only one price in red lowers the perceived savings
in the whole store, which may be detrimental to sales.

The empirical part

Given Puccineli's conclusion that red is more favorable in the eyes of men, we analyzed this
hypothesis with a new survey of a sample of 996 respondents, via an online survey using Sawthoot

27
software.

We included 4 products for men and 4 for women. Therefore, the first question was about gender.
Depending on the answer, the software displayed products with different prices in different colors.
We used 3 prices and 4 colors. Black, blue, green and red.

On the same question, which was ‘What would you choose if they only had the offers shown’, the
respondents selected their choice. The same question was repeated ten times and the concepts of the
displayed offers were different each time. Each product was shown at different prices and in different
colors. This is the basis of the CBC Choice base conjoint analysis method [20] [21], which allows us
to analyses each feature at all levels.

Figure 4. Online questionnaire

Figure 4 shows three out of ten Conjoint question presentations in the online survey, where
respondents chose from a variety of offerings showing how the combination of these characteristics
changed in each question. The products were presented each time in different combinations, where
both the minimum price and the color of the price record changed.

Sample
For this paper, we used a sample of 468 male respondents and processed them in four segments. We
have labelled them as shown in Table 1.

M ++ men over 50 with above average income

M + - men over 50 with below average income
M- + men up to 50 years with above average income
M + - men up to 50 years with below average income
Table 1. Segments included in the research of this paper

28
 Ensuring orthogonality
In the design of the online survey itself, the software has ensured that all levels of the three
characteristics are presented equally throughout the survey. This means that respondents could select
each level of each attribute in the same number. Each sample segment was processed in Sawthoot
Software's SMRT module. In a first step, we analyzed the number of times each level of all three
traits was selected.

M++ M+- M-+ M--

N. of respondent 115 220 46 87
black 0,31 0,31 0,28 0,31
green 0,29 0,29 0,33 0,30
red 0,31 0,29 0,29 0,30
blue 0,30 0,30 0,32 0,26
Table 2. Percent of price color selection among the given options

As can be seen in Table 2, the differences between the colors are small. Green stands out in the group
of men under 50 with 0.33, which means that it was chosen 33% of the time, and in the other direction
black stands out with 28%.

For the statistical treatment of the parameters, we used multi-nominal regression and calculated the
partial preferences in the SMRT module using the Logit method. The calculations were converted
into graphical form and the values were colored in the color used for the price display. The preference
ratios are shown in Figure 5.

It shows the preference of the color of the prices displayed in the columns colored the same as the
color of the prices in the survey questions.

29
 Price color preferences
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
over 50 hi ink. over 50 low ink. under 50 hi ink. under 50 low ink.

black gren red blue

Figure 5. The color preferences of the displayed price

In the segment of high-income men over 50, red was the most frequently chosen color for the
displayed price, followed by black, blue, and green as the least preferred.

In the low-income segment of men over 50, black was the most frequently chosen color for the price
shown, followed by blue, red and green as the least preferred.

In the segment of men under 50 with high income, green was the most frequently chosen color for
the displayed price, followed by blue, followed by red and black as the least preferred color.

In the low-income segment of men under 50, black was the most preferred color for the price shown,
followed by red, green, and blue as the least preferred.

It should be noted that the values on the y-axis represent only the basis of relative proportions and do
not represent percentages or any other values.

Relative importance of the color of the displayed price.

The survey used three attributes: the brand of the product; the price in nominal value; and the color
with which the prices were displayed to the respondents. Each level of these attributes influenced the
overall purchase preference. We therefore calculated how much influence each attribute has in the
decision.

30
 % M++ % M+- % M-+ % M-- average
Brand 84,85 72,93 73,37 62,30 73,36
Color 4,28 4,09 7,52 11,00 6,72
Price 10,87 22,98 19,11 26,70 19,92
Table 3. Relative importance of attributes

The results shown in the table indicate the high importance of the brand in the choice of the options
given. 84.85% of high-income seniors. The color of the price has the least importance but still
influences the choice. Less so for the elderly and more so for the younger, 11% for the younger with
low income.

Conclusions

The results obtained do not allow us to unreservedly confirm the hypothesis put forward based on the
preliminary findings. Prices in red do not always work in the direction of perceiving better prices. For
different groups of men, according to age and income, black and green were also included. Red was
the most preferred color for the over 50s with a higher income and green for the under 50s with a
higher income.

Black was the most represented price color. This is the most prevalent for both high- and low-income
younger people. In terms of the number of respondents, this is a good half of the total sample.

An interesting finding is the relative share of price color influencing the decision. For older people,
the color of the price is much less important (a good 4%) than for younger people (from about 8% to
about 11%). Perhaps this information is important to consider for future research on the influence of
the color of the price presented on purchase decisions.

References

1. K. B. Monroe, Pricing: making profitable decisions. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2003. Accessed: Mar.

26, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://books.google.si/books/about/Pricing.html?id=oIe-
QgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y
2. K. B. Monroe, “Buyers’ Subjective Perceptions of Price,” 1973.
3. M. Thomas and V. Morwitz, “Penny Wise and Pound Foolish: The Left-Digit Effect in Price
Cognition,” 2005.
4. K. S. Coulter and R. A. Coulter, “Size does matter: The effects of magnitude representation

31
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Julija Lapuh Bele
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija
orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4573-5409

FENOMEN NEZAMENLJIVIH ŽETONOV

Povzetek. Nezamenljivi žetoni (ang. NFT – non-fungible tokens) so oblika kripto imetja. Pozornost
so zbudila poročila o virtualnih zbirateljskih predmetih, ki se prodajajo v znanih dražbenih hišah
in dosegajo visoke cene. Vendar je potencial NFT-jev precej večji. V prispevku osvetljujemo NFT-
je iz različnih zornih kotov. Prikazujemo razloge za njihov tehnološki razvoj, kako jih kreiramo,
kupimo ali prodamo, cene po katerih se prodajajo in družbeni kontekst trga NTF. Opravili smo
tudi raziskavo, kjer smo ugotovili, koliko ljudi v Sloveniji je že slišalo za NFT, koliko jih je že
opravilo nakup in razloge, zakaj so se določili za nakup ali zakaj se niso. Ugotovili smo, da je
pojem NFT med Slovenci še dokaj neznan, Tisti, ki so za NFT-je že slišali, jih povezujejo z digitalno
umetnostjo in večinoma ne vedo, da je to le ena od možnosti uporabe. Ugotovili smo tudi povprečen
znesek, ki so ga anketirani slovenski kupci porabili za nakup NFT.

Ključne besede: NFT, nezamenljivi žeton, kripto imetje, blockchain, veriga blokov

Uvod

Nezamenljivi žetoni (ang. NFT – non-fungible tokens) so oblika kripto imetja.

Besedo fenomen smo uporabili, saj so zbudili veliko pozornost svetovne javnosti zaradi medijskih
objav in pri velikem številu ljudi vzbudili nenatančne asociacije na ta pojav. Nezamenljivi žetoni niso
le oblika dragih zbirateljskih predmetov, na kar mnogi pomislijo. Njihov pomen je precej večji. V
tehnološkem smislu gre za obetavno rešitev dokazovanja lastništva in avtorstva digitalnih datotek.

V prispevku predstavljamo, kaj so nezamenljivi žetoni, razloge za njihovo iznajdbo, način delovanja,
cene po katerih se prodajajo, družbeni kontekst trga NTF ter prednosti, priložnosti in nevarnosti,
povezane z njimi. V raziskavi nas je zanimalo, v kolikšni meri slovenska javnost pozna tehnologijo
nezamenljivih žetonov in čemu so namenjeni ter ugotoviti zanimanje potencialnih vlagateljev in
drugih zainteresiranih imetnikov unikatnih digitalnih dobrin za njihove nakupe.

Nezamenljivi žetoni

Nezamenljivi žetoni, ki jih najpogosteje označujemo s kratico NFT, so digitalne slike, zvočni zapisi,
video posnetki, videoigre in še marsikaj drugega, kar skušajo avtorji zaščititi pred kršenjem avtorskih
pravic, z uporabo tehnologije verig blokov (ang. blockchain) oz. tehnologije razpršene evidence kot
34
to tehnologijo še imenujemo. NFT se lahko uporabljajo za dokazovanje lastništva kateregakoli
edinstvenega digitalnega sredstva. V mnogih primerih gre za virtualne zbirateljske predmete, ki se
prodajajo v znanih dražbenih hišah in dosegajo neverjetne cene. Njihova popularnost in
prepoznavnost raste.

Meriam-Webster (2022) definira nezamenljive žetone takole. Nezamenljivi žetoni so edinstven

digitalni identifikator, ki ga ni mogoče kopirati, zamenjati ali razdeliti; zapisan je v verigi blokov ter
se uporablja za potrjevanje pristnosti in lastništva določenega digitalnega sredstva ter posebnih pravic
v zvezi z njim. Isti slovar navaja, da se je kratica NFT, s tako definiranim pomenom, prvič pojavila l.
2017 [9].

Beseda nezamenljivost potrebuje v slovenskem jeziku dodatno pojasnilo zaradi svojega dvojnega
pomena. Nezamenljivost v kontekstu NFT pomeni edinstvenost oz. unikatnost. Digitalnega sredstva,
ki je predstavljeno kot NFT, ne moremo imeti za kaj drugega kot je v resnici.

NFT je v tehnološkem smislu podatkovna enota, ki je shranjena v razpršeni evidenci (ang. distributed
ledger) na eni od verig blokov (ang. blockchain). Za kreiranje NFT-jev je trenutno najpopularnejši
Ethereum [1]. Ustrezen zapis v verigi blokov potrjuje, da je digitalno sredstvo edinstveno. V bistvu
gre pri NFT za pogodbo, iz katere izhaja, kdo je lastnik neke virtualne dobrine, ne glede na to ali je
dobrina dostopna vsem ali ne [2].

Pomembno je, da noben NFT ni enak drugemu, vsak NFT pa mora imeti svojega lastnika. Prodajajo
se na posebnih platformah. Med najbolj znanimi je Opensea [1]. Z NFT-ji se trgujejo tudi na največjih
kripto menjalnih platformah kot so Binance, Coinbase, FTX, Kraken. Ustvarjalci NFT lahko prodajo
svoja dela kjerkoli, kjer se trguje z NFT-ji, zato z lahkoto dostopajo do globalnega trga, pri tem pa
ohranijo avtorske pravice. Zaradi slednjega lahko direktno zahtevajo avtorsko provizijo ob prodaji in
ponovni prodaji svojega avtorskega dela [2].

Vsak, ki ima digitalno dobrino ali jo zna ustvariti ter nekaj znanja na področju računalništva, je
sposoben ustvariti NFT. Zato obstaja na milijone različnih NFT-jev in različnih projektov.
NFT projekt je izraz za skupino NFT-jev, ki si delijo ime, neko osnovno lastnost, avtorja in idejo, ki
jih povezuje. Osnovna ideja so npr. opice, mačke.

35
 Zgodovina
Zgodovina nezamenljivih žetonov je krajša od zgodovine tehnologije verige blokov, a vseeno
nekoliko starejša kot njihovo ime.

Maja 2014 je digitalni umetnik Kevin McCoy skoval prvi znani NFT in ga poimenoval Quantum.
Quantum je digitalna slika osemkotnika, napolnjenega z različnimi oblikami, ki utripajo na precej
hipnotičen način. Novembra 2021 je bilo to edinstveno umetniško delo prodano za več kot 1,4
milijona dolarjev na dražbi pri Sotheby's [14]. Na povezavi, ki je v referencah, je vidno tako
umetniško delo kot prodajna cena.

Za prelomno štejejo leto 2017, z nastankom virtualne igre CryptoKitties, ki igralcem omogoča
posvojitev, vzrejo in trgovanje z virtualnimi mačkami. Igra je postala zelo priljubljena. Nato se je
pojavilo veliko število nezamenljivih žetonov, ustvarjenih na omrežju Ethereum, predvsem za igre in
metasvet2 (ang. metaverse) platforme. Trg NFT je v letu 2020 doživel hitro rast, njegova vrednost se
je po navedbah Emerging Tech Brew (2021) potrojila na 250 milijonov USD. V letu 2021 je bilo za
NFT porabljenih skoraj 25 milijard ameriških dolarjev, a menijo, da se trend najbrž umirja ([5], [7]).
Kmalu bo jasno, ali je na umirjanje vplivala vojna v Ukrajini in splošni padci na borzah, ali se je
umirilo začetno navdušenje.

Odmevne prodaje nezamenljivih žetonov

Leta 2021 so NFT žetoni vzbudili pozornost celotne svetovne javnosti. Razen že omenjene visoke
prodajne cene Quantuma, je presenetilo še precej drugih kotacij in prodaj nezamenljivih žetonov. Za
izbor predstavitev zanimivih prodaj v nadaljevanju smo se odločili, ker nakazujejo tako visoko ceno
kot raznolikost ponudbe.

Umetnik Bansky je preko dražbene hiše Sotherby's prodal dve sliki, za skupno vrednost več kot 14
milijonov USD [15]. Visoka cena digitalnih umetniških del morda koga ne preseneča, saj so
umetniška dela na splošno draga. Vendar pa se nezamenljivi žetoni in visoke cene pojavljajo tudi za
druge digitalne dobrine. Ustanovitelj Twitterja Jack Dorsey je svoj prvi čivk (ang. tweet ) prodal za
2,9 milijona USD [4].

Eden izmed večjih projektov po obsegu je Bored Ape Yacht Club (BAYC). Prvotna cena NFT-jev

2
Metasvet ali metaverzum je omrežje virtualnih prostorov, namenjenih za druženje, zabavo, učenje in druge dejavnosti
(Islovar).
36
tega projekta je bila enaka za vseh 10.000 izdanih žetonov in je znašala je 0.08 ETH oz. 170 USD.
Cene so kmalu po izdaji zelo poskočile. Konec januarja 2022 se je najdražja prodala za 1080,69ETH
oz. za 2,85 milijona USD [6]. Vseh 10.000 grafik opic ima za osnovo enako opico, razlikujejo pa se
po podrobnostih kot so npr. oblačila, mimika, barva. Lastnik z nakupom BAYC NFT-ja vstopi v klub,
se pravi v omejeno družbo bogatih in slavnih oseb, ki za svoje člane organizira zasebne koncerte in
vsakoletno zabavo na luksuzni jahti. V NAYC klubu so npr. Justin Bieber, Serena Williams, Neymar,
Eminem in še mnogo drugih [8].

Najvišja cena, ki jo je dosegel kakšen NFT, je 532 milijonov USD. Za tako ceno se je prodal NFT iz
skupine NFT-jev CryptoPunk. Izkazalo se je, da je kupec NFT kupil od samega sebe in je šlo za
reklamni trik. S pravo prodajo se je do sedaj največ iztržilo 91,8 milijona USD [10].

Digitalne dobrine v obliki NFT

V obliki NFT-jev se ne prodajajo le umetniška dela in vstop v visoko družbo, temveč se za idejo
skriva mnogo uporabnejša vrednost, predvsem pa so cene, po katerih se prodajajo NFT-ji bistveno
nižje od predstavljenih.
Za prodajo v obliki NFT je primerna vsaka digitalna dobrina, ki se ne sme nekontrolirano kopirati in
zahteva nedvoumno jasnost, kdo je avtor in kdo imetnik materialnih avtorskih pravic. NFT-ji se
uveljavljajo na številnih področjih:
- digitalna umetnost, npr. umetniške slike, glasbeni albumi, fotografije, videoposnetki,
animacije,
- dogodki, npr. vstopnice za koncerte in druge prireditve,
- turizem, npr. unikatni digitalni 3D eksponati in ekskluzivni panoramski posnetki, razglednice,
digitalni spominki, darila,
- družabna omrežja, npr. članske izkaznice za različne skupnosti,
- modna industrija, npr. kolekcija digitalnih oblačil Dolce & Gabana,
- šport, npr. sezonske karte za nogometne tekme, trgovalne kartice, NBA Top shot,
- dodatki v računalniških igrah, npr. virtualne nepremičnine, virtualne domače živali,
- zbirateljski predmeti,
- kuponi za razne storitve,
- druge digitalne dobrine, ki se ne smejo kopirati brez dovoljenja imetnika avtorskih pravic [1].

Dragi NFT so vzbudili pozornost, a statistike kažejo, da so povprečne prodajne cene veliko nižje kot
bi si mislili na podlagi predstavljenih primerov. Poudariti je potrebno še, da cene precej nihajo.
Volatilnost je značilna tudi za cene drugih kripto kovancev. Na spletni strani Nonfungible.com, ki jo

37
v člankih v zvezi s statistikami NFT-jev citira tudi Bloomberg [7], so navedli, da je bila povprečna
prodajna cena 6.000 USD na dan 19.3.2022. Na spletni strani CoinmarketCap
(https://coinmarketcap.com/nft/), kjer spremljajo vse kotacije na platformah pa lahko ugotovimo, da
se je na isti dan najdražji NFT prodal za 111,42 ETH, mnogo pa jih je bilo ponujenih s ceno 1
milijoninke ETH, kar znese 0,3 ameriške cente, a se vseeno niso prodali.

Omeniti moramo še, da so nekateri NFT-ji izdani brez namena, da bi se prodajali. Na tem področju
je svoj prispevek naredila Republika Slovenija, ki je za Expo 2020 v Dubaju izdala NFT žeton.
Imenuje se I feel sLOVEnia NFT in ima svojo predstavitveno stran: https://ifeelnft.si/. Ta žeton so
dobili obiskovalci predstavitvenega paviljona Slovenije na Expu v Dubaju, na njem pa so
digitalizirani številni ponosi Slovenije, od naravnih lepot do izdelkov [12].

Nakup in prodaja nezamenljivih žetonov

NFT-jev ne moremo kupiti neposredno za katero od fiat3 valut. Kupimo jih lahko s kripto valutami,
najpogosteje z Ethrom in Solano. Zato morajo tisti, ki še ne vlagajo v kripto valute, najprej narediti
kripto denarnico (ang. crypto wallet) in kupiti zahtevano kripto valuto. NFT lahko kupimo na ustrezni
menjalni platformi po zahtevani ceni, lahko pa ponudimo manj in upamo, da lastnik ponudbo sprejme.
Pozorni pa moramo biti tudi na provizijo, ki jo v angleščini imenujejo »gas fee«. Ta dajatev je del
vsake transakcije prek Ethereum, Solana in drugih blokovnih verig, znaša pa lahko od par centov do
več sto dolarjev. Znani so primeri, ko je bila provizija desetkrat dražja od samega NFT-ja [3].

Nakup NFT-jev za zbirateljske predmete je visoko špekulativna naložba. Mnogo investitorjev navaja,
da se odločajo za nakup NFT-jev, ker upajo, da bo njihova cena narasla. Upajo na nakup po nizki
ceni in prodajo po visoki ceni. To imenujemo NFT obrat (ang. NFT flip). Nekaterim NFT-jem je cena
res narasla za milijon krat, vendar pa za večino izdanih bistvenega povečanja cene ne moremo
pričakovati.

Izdaja nezamenljivih žetonov

Za vse transakcije z NFT-ji, vključno z izdajo, potrebujemo digitalno denarnico.

NFT nastane iz digitalne vsebine oz. digitalne datoteke s procesom, ki ga imenujemo kovanje (ang.
minting). To je proces pretvarjanja digitalne datoteke v unikatno digitalno dobrino, ki se zapiše v eno

3
S fiat označujemo uradne, državne valute.
38
od verig blokov (npr. Ethereum) in se s tem za vse čase shrani v razpršeni evidenci4, ki jo je nemogoče
izbrisati ali spremeniti. Digitalni dobrini se pripiše informacija o avtorju te dobrine. Avtor lahko
izbere določeno število ljudi, ki imajo možnost NFT-je kupiti po prvotni ceni s tem, da formira listo
upravičencev. To je t.i. beli seznam (ang. white list).

NFT tehnologija omogoča, da lahko kdorkoli poizve, kdo je lastnik določenega NFT-ja, oziroma
kateri naslov denarnice je lastnik originalne digitalne dobrine.

Za ustvarjanje oziroma kovanje NFT obstajajo različni načini. Če želimo imeti NFT skovan v
najkrajšem času in ne znamo programirati, je najbolje uporabiti eno izmed znanih platform, npr.
OpenSea. Za izkušene računalničarje, z znanjem programiranja, so na voljo posebne platforme, npr.
Moralis, s katero ustvarimo lastno decentralizirano (ang. dApp) aplikacijo za kovanje NFT [11].

Potek raziskave

Zanimalo nas je, ali sodelujoči v raziskavi poznajo pojem NFT, s čim ga najpogosteje povezujejo,
koliko jih je že opravilo nakup, razlogi za nakup in proti njemu ter koliko denarja so investirali v
NFT.
Hipoteze
Postavili smo naslednje hipoteze:
1. Več kot 50% anketirancev v starostni skupini do 29 let je že slišalo za NFT.
2. Manj kot 5% vseh anketirancev je že opravilo nakup NFT.
3. Glavni razlog, zakaj se anketiranci do 29 let ne odločijo za nakup NFT, je previsoka cena NFT.
4. Glavni razlog, zakaj se anketiranci iz starostne skupine nad 30 let ne odločijo za nakup NFT, je
nezaupanje v NFT.
5. Anketiranci, ki so za pojem NFT slišali iz medijev, slednjega največkrat povezujejo z digitalno
umetnostjo.

Zanimalo nas je še, koliko denarja so kupci NFT porabili za nakupe in na katerih menjalnih
platformah so jih nabavili.

Metoda raziskovanja
Raziskovanje področja NFT smo izvedli s pomočjo vprašalnika, ki smo ga objavili kot spletno anketo

4
Evidenco hranijo vsi zainteresirani uporabniki določene blokovne verige.
39
na spletni strani https://www.1ka.si/. Anketa je bila uporabnikom dostopna od 14. 2. 2022 do 19 .2.
2022. Povezavo do spletne ankete smo delili preko socialnega omrežja Facebook in neposredne
elektronske pošte. Uspelo nam je doseči 255 klikov na anketo, od tega je celotno anketo izpolnilo
189 anketirancev.
Vzorec
Vzorec ni bil v naprej določen. Pričakovali smo, da bo struktura udeležencev po starosti ustrezala
populaciji prebivalcev Slovenije. To se žal ni uresničilo, čeprav je bila anketa na voljo brez omejitev.

Analiza rezultatov

Rezultate smo analizirali z orodjem 1ka in Excelom.

Demografska analiza vzorca anketirancev

Zanimala nas je starostna skupina, v katero spadajo anketiranci. Določili smo štiri starostne
kategorije. Iz rezultata sledi, da je anketo reševalo največ anketirancev iz starostne skupine »do 29
let« in sicer kar 59 %, sledi skupina »od 30 do 49 let« z 31 %, nato skupina od »50 do 64 let« z 8 %
in skupina »od 65 let« z le 1%. Zbrali smo še nekaj demografskih podatkov (stopnja izobrazbe,
zaposlitveni status), ki pa za predstavljeni del raziskave niso relevantni.

Hipoteza 1
Hipoteza 1: Več kot 50% anketirancev v starostni skupini do 29 let, je že slišalo za nezamenljive
žetone.
Pri oblikovanju hipoteze smo domnevali, da mlajši anketiranci bolj spremljajo kripto področje kot
starejši.
Hipotezo smo potrdili. Iz pridobljenih odgovorov sledi, da je kar 82% anketirancev v starostni skupini
do 29 let že slišalo za nezamenljive žetone.
Za NFT so slišali tudi v drugih starostnih skupinah (v starostni skupini od 30 do 49 let: 39 % in v
starostni skupini 50 do 64 let: 38 %). V teh skupinah hipoteze ne bi potrdili.

Hipoteza 2
Hipoteza 2: Manj kot 5% vseh anketirancev je že opravilo nakup NFT.
Hipotezo smo ovrgli. Izkazalo se je, da je 15 oz. 8 % vseh anketirancev že kupilo NFT, kar je več,
kot smo predvidevali. Največ nakupov so opravili študenti in sicer 53 % od vseh anketirancev, ki so
kdaj kupili NFT. Ker je starostna skupina, kamor spadajo študenti najštevilčnejša v tej raziskavi.

40
 Hipoteza 3
Hipoteza 3: Najpomembnejši razlog, ki mlajšim (do 29) preprečuje nakup NFT, je previsoka cena
NFT.
Hipotezo smo potrdili.
Anketiranci iz starostne skupine do 29 let so odgovor »Predrago« kar v 93 % izbrali med razlogi,
zakaj se niso odločili za nakup. To hkrati pokaže, da je njihovo poznavanje NFT omejeno na površno
sliko, ki so jo dobili v medijih. Statistike menjalnih platform namreč prikazujejo ogromno število
NFT-jev, ki so skoraj brez cene. Med razlogi proti nakupu sledijo po pomembnosti: visoko tveganje,
nezaupanje v NFT in prezahteven postopek nakupa.

Hipoteza 4
Hipoteza 4: Najpomembnejši razlog, da se anketiranci, ki so starejši od 30 let ne odločijo za nakup,
je nezaupanje v NFT.
Te hipoteze nismo potrdili. V tej starostni skupini je bil glavni razlog, ki preprečuje nakup, neznana
tehnologija, sledijo pa po pomembnosti: nezaupanje v NFT, prezahteven postopek nakupa in visoko
tveganje.
Hipoteza 5
Hipoteza 5: Anketiranci, ki so za NFT slišali iz medijev, jih največkrat povezujejo z digitalno
umetnostjo.
Iz pridobljenih rezultatov sledi, da 76% anketirancev, ki so za NFT slišali iz medijev (TV, internet),
povezuje NFT z digitalno umetnostjo, s čimer je hipoteza potrjena.

Raziskovalna vprašanja
Zanimalo nas je, koliko denarja so kupci investirali v NFT?
Število respondentov, ki so že opravili nakup NFT, je nizko, le 8% oz. 15. Odgovori glede vrednosti
nakupa so precej razpršeni. Najvišji nakup je bil za 2.500 EUR in najnižji za 15 EUR. V povprečju
so kupci v NFT vložili 368,25 EUR.
Zanimalo nas je tudi, katere NFT tržne platforme ste uporabili za nakup?
Izmed ponujenih odgovorov je bil izbran samo OpenSea. Izbralo ga je 60% anketirancev. Pri
vprašanju je bila dodana možnost vpisa svoje NFT menjalne platforme. Pod »Drugo« smo prejeli
sledeče štiri odgovore: Nba top, Magic Eden shots, Binance blockchain, Vulcan forged.
Odgovor Nba top nakazuje, da je kupec kupil enega od NFT, ki prikazujejo NBA tekme ali zanimive
izseke s tekem. Tovrstni nakupi (npr. vstopnice za prireditve, športna tekmovanja) so verjetna smer
večje uporabe NFT-jev, čeprav je v tem času to področje slabo poznano in še ne prav veliko
popularizirano. Za osebe, ki imajo kripto denarnice, postopek tovrstnih nakupov ni zapleten. Za ostale

41
pa je trenutno še precej neprivlačen.

Zaključek

S tem prispevkom smo želeli osvetliti pojem nezamenljivih žetonov, pojasniti kako se z njimi trguje
in za kakšne cene ter ugotoviti, kaj se na tem področju dogaja v Sloveniji.

Predstavili smo, kako lahko vsak posameznik izda nezamenljivi žeton. Proces nakupa in prodaje NFT
je dokaj enostaven, pa vendarle je potrebno nekaj računalniškega znanja in zaupanja v tehnologijo.
Pomembno je, da uporabnik pred nakupom NFT poišče varno NFT menjalno platformo, kjer kreira
račun in kripto denarnico. Oboje je lahko tvegano, če uporabnik ne preveri verodostojnosti
ponudnika. Zato je smiselno, da se odločimo za eno od znanih (npr. OpenSea, ki je specializiran za
NFT trgovanje) ali eno od uveljavljenih kripto menjalnih platform, kjer trgujejo tako z NFT-ji kot z
drugim kripto imetjem, npr. Binace, Coinbase.

Na osnovi zbranih podatkov in njihove analize lahko sklepamo, da je v Sloveniji predvsem mlajša
generacija NFT na trgu že zaznala in se lotila poslovanja z njimi. Verjamemo, da bo s časom in
napredkom tehnologije zanimanje za NFT žetone vedno večje tudi pri drugih generacijah.

Na osnovi pregledane literature, tržnih statistik in naše raziskave sklepamo, da ima NFT precejšnjo
možnost, da postane osnova za novo vrsto digitalne dobrine, kjer je pomembno dokazovanje avtorstva
in lastništva ter pravic, ki iz tega izhajajo. Prav tako omogoča veliko dostopnost, saj je globalni trg
na voljo iz varnega domačega okolja.

Strokovnjaki s področja nezamenljivih žetonov so prepričani, da le-ti predstavljajo vizijo, za katero

se je v prihodnosti vredno boriti. Verjamejo, da se bo tehnologija ravnanja z digitalnimi zbirateljskimi
in drugimi predmeti razvila do te mere, da bomo z njeno pomočjo lahko na boljši način upravljali in
nadzorovali občutljive podatke in zapise. Zanesljivi odgovor na vprašanje, ali so NFT le modna muha
ali revolucija dokazovanja lastništva, bo pokazal čas. Trenutno lahko trdimo, da so vroči trend v
kripto svetu, na podlagi katerega njegovi promotorji poskušajo ustvariti čim več medijske pozornosti
in pritegniti čim več kapitala v projekte. Mnogi investitorji se za vstop v ta svet odločajo, ker upajo,
da jim bodo naložbe prinesle velike dobičke. Mislimo, da tehnologija NFT ponuja mnogo več kot le
generiranje špekulativnih naložb, a to bo pokazal čas.

Žal so z NFT povezana številna neodgovorjena pravna vprašanja, na katera bo potrebno v prihodnosti
najti odgovore, posebej če se bo uporaba NFT povečala.
42
 Reference

1. Chainalysis (2022). The Chainalysis 2021 NFT Market Report, Everything You Need to Know
About the NFT Market and Its Most Successful Collectors, Updated January 2022. Pridobljeno
8. 3. 2022 s: https://go.chainalysis.com/nft-market-report.html
2. Emerging Tech Brew (2021). The NFT Market Tripled Last Year, and It’s Gaining Even More
Momentum in 2021. Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022 s: https://www.morningbrew.com/emerging-
tech/stories/2021/02/22/nft-market-tripled-last-year-gaining-even-momentum-2021
3. Ethereum (2022). Nezamenljivi žetoni (NFT). Pridobljeno 14. 3. 2022 s:
https://ethereum.org/sl/nft/
4. Gargiulo, M. (11. 11. 2021). VPN.com NFT Brokers: How To Buy & Sell NFTs (Non-Fungible
Tokens). Pridobljeno 3. 3. 2022 na https://www.vpn.com/sl/nft
5. Haselton, T. (22.3.2021). Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey’s first tweet NFT sells for $2.9 million.
Pridobljeno 11.3.2022 s: https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/22/twitter-ceo-jack-dorseys-first-tweet-
nft-sells-for-2point9-million.html
6. Howcroft, E. (2022). NFT sales hit $25 billion in 2021, but growth shows signs of slowing.
Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022 s: https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/nft-sales-hit-25-billion-2021-
growth-shows-signs-slowing-2022-01-10/
7. Isichei, A. (2022). Bored Ape Yacht Club NFT Sold for $2.85 million in ETH. Crypto Potato.
Najdeno 2. 2. 2022 na spletni strani Rosenfeld, M. (2012). Overview of Colored Coins.
Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022 s: https://cryptopotato.com/bored-ape-yacht-club-nft-sold-for-2-85-
million-in-eth/
8. Kharif, O. (3. marec 2022). NFT Mania Show Signs of Cooling as Average Price and Sales
Decline. Pridobljeno 20. 3. 2022 s: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-03/nft-
mania-show-signs-of-cooling-as-average-price-sales-decline
9. McNamara, R. (2022) Celebrities that own bored ape yacht club NFTS. Benzinga. Pridobljeno
2. 2. 2022 s: https://www.benzinga.com/money/celebrities-that-own-bored-ape-yacht-club-nfts/
10. Merriam-Webster (2022). NFT abbreviation or noun. Pridobljeno 10. 3. 2022 s:
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/NFT#h1
11. Molenaar, K. (20. 1. 2022). NFTs Statistics – Sales, Trends and More. Pridobljeno 23. 3. 2022 s:
https://influencermarketinghub.com/nfts-statistics/
12. Moralis (2022). How to Mint NFTs – Full Tutorial to Minting an NFT. Pridobljeno 23. 3. 2022 s:
https://moralis.io/how-to-mint-nfts-full-tutorial-to-minting-an-nft/
13. Republika Slovenija (22. 9. 2021). Slovenija s pionirski projektom v promocijo dosežkov
gospodarstva na EXPO Dubaj 2020. Pridobljeno 20. 3. 2022 s: https://www.gov.si/novice/2021-

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 09-22-slovenija-s-pionirski-projektom-v-promocijo-dosezkov-gospodarstva-na-expo-dubaj-
2020/
14. Rosenfeld, M. (2012). Overview of Colored Coins. Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022 s:
http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/bitcoin/Overview%20of%20colored%20coins%20-%202012-
12-04.pdf
15. Sotherby's (10.6.2021). Natively Digital: A Curated NFT Sale. Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022 s:
https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2021/natively-digital-a-curated-nft-sale-2/quantum
16. Sotherby's (18.11.2021). Sotheby’s to Announce Live Bidding Increments in Ether (ETH)
Cryptocurrency for Banksy’s 'Trolley Hunters' and 'Love Is In The Air'. Pridobljeno 11. 3. 2022
s: https://www.sothebys.com/en/press/sothebys-to-announce-live-bidding-increments-in-ether-
eth-cryptocurrency-for-banksys-trolley-hunters-and-love-is-in-the-air

44
Mariia Nezhyva
State University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0002-3008-5338

Viktoriia Mysiuk
State University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0001-8931-7335

Olga Zaremba
State University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0002-7322-9821

DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION IN ECONOMIES AND CONSUMERS

Abstract. Digital transformation has been identified as one of the most important themes for clients,
particularly in manufacturing, education industries, and cities. Investments in digital technologies
and industry 4.0 are transforming economies and consumer behaviour. The article examines how
digitalization manifests in manufacturing, mobility, education, and consumer lifestyles to improve
business efficiencies, laying the foundations for a digital economy. The spread of COVID-19 and
social distancing has made the usage of digital devices a vital everyday necessity and this is set to
support connectivity growth. New technologies help fortify supply chains and improve operational
efficiency, B2B e-commerce growth. The increasing use of digital tools is transforming mobility,
utilities, city planning. Around a third of young adults are planning to spend more on technology
and education. In turn, education institutions increasingly integrate technologies such as artificial
intelligence and big data to improve learning outcomes.

Keywords: economies, consumers, digital transformation.

Introduction

Investments in digital technologies and industry 4.0 are transforming economies and consumer
behaviour.

The growing number of connected households. 236 million new households are forecast to gain
access to the internet by 2025. The spread of COVID-19 and social distancing has made the usage of
digital devices a vital everyday necessity and this is set to support connectivity growth.

Production automation and digitalization to accelerate. 47% of companies plan to reshape digital

45
strategies while 25% plan to accelerate investments into production automation tools. New
technologies are forecast to help fortify supply chains and improve operational efficiency.

B2B e-commerce is forecast to gain traction. The global B2B e-commerce market is forecast to
expand by 66% over 2020-2025 to reach USD4.5 trillion in the latter year. The growing number of
connected households, changing consumer preferences, and the need to diversify sales channels are
predicted to support B2B e-commerce growth.

Smart cities to improve living standards. By 2040, 64% of the world’s population is expected to live
in urban areas. The increasing use of digital tools is forecast to transform mobility, utilities, and city
planning and in turn make cities more people-centric.

Digital learning to help improve the education system. Around a third of young adults and middle
youth are planning to spend more on technology and education. In turn, education institutions
increasingly integrate technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and big data to improve learning
outcomes.

Problem Statement

The aim of the article is to study the assessment of the impact of digital transformation on economies
and consumers.

Analysis of recent research and publications

Issues of theoretical, organizational, and methodological support of digital transformation were

studied by Dubel M. [1], Dzhedzhula O. [2], Gnatenko I. [3], Kovtunenko K. [4], Kozytska G. [5],
Loiko E. [6], Mashoshina N. [7], Nazarova K. [8, 9], Nezhyva M. [10], Ortina G. [11], Panchenko O.
[12]. Zadorozhna A. [13]. Lisova R. [14] argues that digitalization is a catalyst for innovation,
technological change has led to opportunities such as flexibility, reactivity, and product
individualization, but also new obstacles such as rapid technological transformation, high complexity,
and changing customer preferences, and legal requirements. Pavlova T. [15] argues that the
introduction of digital technologies is happening rapidly in all spheres of society and the state. Pigarev
Y. and Kosteniuk N. [16] explore the digitalization of public administration through a system variable
management model, a kind of automation of the process of using digitized data. Tsalko T. and
Nevmerzhytska S. [17] consider digitalization as the introduction of digital technologies in all spheres
of human life and society, involves the integration of physical and computing components at a new,

46
higher level (ie the transition of biological and physical systems to cyberbiological and
cyberphysical), the transition from real to the virtual (online) world. Remnova L. and Zabashtanska
T. [18] explore the current challenges of post-industrial society, catalyzed by the global coronavirus
pandemic, accelerates the transformation of the labor market, and significantly changes approaches
to training and staff development in the new economic reality. Oryekhov M. [19] explores the
development of structural transformations of the world financial system, which are influenced by the
formation of the latest trend of global economic development – digitalization, which is gaining
momentum in all sectors of the economy. Orlova-Kurilova O., Kharchuk T., Taran-Lala O., Khobta
M. [20] researches the process of managing innovative entrepreneurship in the conditions of business
process transformation, adaptation to the conditions of digitalization, sustainable development,
COVID-19. Lozhachevska O., Orlova-Kurilova O., Makarenko N., Rubezhanska V. [21] argues that
measures of state influence in the transformation of logistics and marketing strategies of interaction
between government and business, digitalization, and sustainable development should be timely with
the mandatory search for reserves both within the country and abroad. At the same time, the available
scientific works do not fully reveal the specifics of digital transformation in the economy and
consumers.

Results

In todays growing world economy, there is changing consumer preferences and supply chain risks to
transform economic landscape. A growing need to make supply chains more resilient to future shocks
and pressure to improve operational efficiency are driving digitalisation of business activities. Digital
and production automation tools could help companies to improve supply chain flexibility, reduce
operating costs and provide efficiency gains by eliminating production bottlenecks (fig. 1).

1.600.000.000
Households with internet access

1.550.000.000
1.500.000.000
1.450.000.000
1.400.000.000
1.350.000.000
1.300.000.000
1.250.000.000
1.200.000.000
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
Number

Figure 1. Global Number of Households with Internet Access, 2020-2025 [22].

47
Changing consumer preferences are also supporting digitalization of economies and consumer
markets. The growing number of connected households and consumer lifestyle changes post-
pandemic are set to transform cities and the retail landscape, and drive demand for digital learning
services.

B2B e-commerce is forecast to play a greater role after the COVID-19 pandemic as companies
respond to consumer preference changes and aim to better diversify risks. Expansion into e-commerce
platforms is forecast to help reach new consumers and diversify sales risks (fig. 2).

50.000.000
45.000.000
40.000.000
Total market size

35.000.000
30.000.000
25.000.000
20.000.000
15.000.000
10.000.000
5.000.000
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

USD million
Figure 2. Global B2B E-Commerce Market, 2020-2025 [22].

Investments into digital technologies and industry 4.0 are transforming economies and consumers.
We examine how digitalisation manifests in manufacturing, mobility, education and consumer
lifestyles to improve business efficiencies, laying the foundations for a digital economy.

Digital transformation of economies is taking shape and in turn changes how consumers are
purchasing goods, interaction of companies and the way businesses are structured. Moreover, new
data flows enable countries and companies to increase operational efficiency, improve living
standards in cities and provide better access to public services (fig. 3).

Digital transformation of business activities is becoming ever more important after the COVID-19
pandemic. Companies feel increasing pressure to invest into digital tools and production automation
equipment in order to better prepare for future shocks. New technologies can help to improve
operational efficiency, make supply chains more resilient and open new sales channels.

Improving household access to the internet and post-pandemic effects are also driving changes in
consumer behaviour. Digital tools allow consumers to stay connected while at home and re-enter the
outside world safely. This is anticipated to change the way consumers live, shop, work and travel.
48
 Changes in
consumer
behaviour

Addressing Search for

disparities in operational
the education efficiency
system gains

Digital Transformation of
Economies

Need to
Sales channel improve
diversification supply chain
resilience

Need to
improve living
standards in
cities

Figure 3. Global B2B E-Commerce Market, 2020-2025

Digital transformation in economies could be considered to develop by such ways:

1. Digital business tools increase – companies invest in digital tools to improve operational efficiency.
The COVID-19 pandemic and the physical distancing measures introduced have changed how global
businesses operate. Digitalisation tools saw a spike in demand all over the world in 2020 affecting all
the global sectors from manufacturing to services. The global service sector is particularly quick to
embrace digital business tools to approach customers via e-commerce and booking platforms.
Meanwhile, the traditional brick-and-mortar model is losing importance due to high operational costs,
also strengthened by the social distancing measures during the COVID-19 pandemic (Fig. 4).

49
 Consumer electronics and appliances
Technology
Financial services
Apparel and personal accessories
Market research
Automotive
Food and beverages
Leisure and entertainment
Beauty and personal care
Packaging
Travel and tourism
Advertising
Retailing
Household essentials
Consumer foodservice
Consulting
Consumer health
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Share of respondents
Figure 4. Share of Companies Ready to Invest in Digitalisation, such as IoT, AI, Robotics, 5G and
DSN Post-COVID-19 Pandemic by Sector, 2020 [22].

Artificial intelligence (AI) solutions are expected to play an increasing role in companies’
development over the future. Ineffective, repetitive, labour-intensive work will be replaced by digital
solutions, which will both cut operational costs and reduce employment in ineffective segments.

Regionally-wise, Euromonitor International’s Voice of the Industry Survey reveals that adoption of
digital solutions is particularly gaining pace in Latin America with over a quarter of all companies
expecting to boost digital adoption in fields such as IoT, AI and 5G. In contrast, in regions, which are
already characterised by high digitalisation, such as North America and Europe, as well as low cost
countries in Asia Pacific, the trend is set to be less expressed over 2020-2025.

2. Growth of production automation – addressing the need to improve efficiency and supply chain
resilience. Investments into production automation technologies are forecast to accelerate over 2020-
2025. According to the Euromonitor International Voice of the Industry COVID-19 Survey,
conducted in October 2020, 25% of manufacturing companies plan to increase investments in
automation tools. Production automation is forecast to be led by industries having wide product
portfolios and long supply chains. Industries such as consumer appliances, apparel and accessories,
and automotive are forecast to be among the leaders in production automation. Growing B2B demand
for production automation tools is forecast to benefit automated industrial equipment suppliers.
Global production value of automated industrial equipment is forecast to expand by 28% over 2020-
2025 to reach USD90.3 billion in the latter year.

Investments into industrial robots and other production automation tools would help to transform
50
production into smaller semi-independent manufacturing hubs, diversify supply chain risks and be
closer to the end-consumers.

3. B2B e-commerce development – B2B sector expands e-commerce presence to diversify sales risks.
E-commerce is expected to play a greater role in the B2B sector sales mix after the COVID-19
pandemic. In order to diversify operating risks, companies are eyeing investment in e-commerce
platforms. According to Euromonitor’s Voice of the Industry October 2020 findings, 64% of
companies plan to invest in e-commerce to prevent risks in the future. The global B2B e-commerce
market is forecast to expand by 66% over 2020-2025 and reach USD4.5 trillion in the latter year.
Retail and wholesale, transport equipment and ICT industries are forecast to drive B2B e-commerce
sales growth. Expansion into e-commerce is anticipated to help the companies to better diversify sales
channels and risks. By expanding into online sales channel, companies can increase geographic
outreach of consumers and reduce losses in case physical sales are temporarily disrupted. Consumer
behaviour changes are also predicted to drive the popularity of e-commerce. During the COVID-19
pandemic, consumers switched to online buying, and it is likely that similar trends will eventually
transition into the B2B sector. B2B companies will have to adapt to changing consumer preferences
and expand their online presence (Fig. 5).

Retail and Wholesale

Information and Communications

Food, Beverages and Tobacco 2020

Increase by 2025
Utilities and Recycling

Government Organizations

Energy

Hi-tech Goods

Chemical Products
0 2.000.000 4.000.000 6.000.000
USD million

Figure 5. B2B E-commerce Sales in Selected Industries, 2020-202 [22].

4. Smart cities development – digital tools enable improvements in living standards and
transportation. Smart cities refers to the use of information communication technologies in delivering
improved and effective use of city assets by citizens. Increasing urbanisation and sustainability
challenges are pushing ahead the need for smart cities. By 2040, 64% of the world’s population is
expected to live in urban areas, meanwhile, cities account for 70% of all CO2 emissions.
Advancements in AI, the rise of big data, growing internet access and surging IoT connectivity are

51
providing the necessary ingredients to build smart cities. Digital tools can help to monitor air
pollution, real-time traffic flows and make adjustments in the city mobility network. While smart city
initiatives have previously focused on innovation, the emphasis is now on using technology to
improve citizens’ lives and make cities more people-friendly. Smart city projects have the potential
to disrupt a broad spectrum of sectors in the urban economy including energy, mobility, utilities,
governance, construction and logistics. But this will be dependent on a range of factors which are
challenging the smart city move such as political will, infrastructure, privacy and security, and
inclusivity. As digital transformation ensues, the key point to note is value and how consumers can
benefit from smart cities.

5. Digital learning – digital tools enable better access to education and more flexibility. The COVID-
19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented push to online learning. The widespread school
closures forced millions of students and educators to rely on education technologies (edtech),
including digital learning management systems and Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)
platforms. As a result, edtech companies gained traction among investors and witnessed exponential
growth over the year. For example, in 2020 US edtech start-ups secured investments worth around
USD2.2 billion compared to USD1.7 billion in 2019, according to EdSurge.

Educators around the world are using technology to increase access to education. In addition,
education institutions increasingly integrate technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and big
data to change the conventional methods of teaching, boost collaboration among students, create
personalised educational experiences and improve learning outcomes.

According to Euromonitor International’s Consumer Lifestyles Survey, around a third of young adults
(aged 18-29) and middle youth (aged 30-44) are planning on spending more on technology and
education over 2021. Consequently, the edtech market is anticipated to witness strong expansion in
the coming years.

6. Connected households means improving access to the internet drive consumer behaviour changes.
In 2020, around 61% of global households had access to the internet, around 54% of them had a high-
speed connection to the internet. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of newly-connected
households increased by 2.4%, while new high-speed connections increased by 3.3%. This means
that high-quality connection is becoming more important than ever before (fig. 6).

52
 11%

Y-o-y growth 9%

7%

5%

3%

1%
2018-2019 2019-2020 2020-2021 2021-2022

Internet Broadband Internet Personal Computer

Smartphone Tablet Laptop

Figure 6. World Households with Digital Devices and Internet Growth, 2018-2022 [22].

The spread of coronavirus and social distancing have made the usage of digital devices a vital
everyday necessity for many people. During the 2019-2020 period, the number of global households
that owned a PC grew by 2% and reached 52%, while households with tablets grew fastest by 9% and
reached 36%. However, due to lower prices and wider functionality, households prefer mobile
devices rather than PC. In 2020, around 76% of global households owned a smartphone.

Unprecedented changes in tech-driven markets also come with challenges. As internet connection
becomes essential for everyday activities, the gap between connected low- and high-income
households has become all too vivid. Due to high service prices and lack of infrastructure, the digital
divide is especially high in emerging and developing countries. Below is listed Key findings of digital
development investigation (tab. 1).

Table 1. Key findings of investigation

№ Item Description
236 million new households are forecast to gain access to the internet
Growing number of by 2025. The spread of COVID-19 and social distancing have made the
1
connected households usage of digital devices a vital everyday necessity and this is set to
support connectivity growth.
47% of companies plan to reshape digital strategies while 25% plan to
Production automation
accelerate investments into production automation tools. New
2 and digitalisation to
technologies are forecast to help fortify supply chains and improve
accelerate
operational efficiency.
B2B e-commerce is Global B2B e-commerce market is forecast to expand by 66% over
3
forecast to gain traction 2020-2025 to reach USD4.5 trillion in the latter year. Growing number

53
 of connected households, changing consumer preferences and the need
to diversify sales channels are predicted to support B2B e-commerce
growth.
By 2040, 64% of the world’s population is expected to live in urban
Smart cities to improve areas. The increasing use of digital tools is forecast to transform
4
living standards mobility, utilities, city planning and in turn make cities more people-
centric.
Around a third of young adults and middle youth are planning to spend
Digital learning to help
more on technology and education. In turn, education institutions
5 improve education
increasingly integrate technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI)
system
and big data to improve learning outcomes.

Manufacturing companies accelerate investments in automation and digital tools. This is set to make
supply chains more resilient and boost productivity. Companies invest in e-commerce to better
diversify sales risks, increase geographic consumer outreach and adapt to changing market needs.
Improving household access to the internet changes daily lives of consumers. This impacts how
consumers work, shop, learn and travel, as well as city landscapes

Conclusions

Despite todays active digital transformation in economies and consumers, there could be faced
challenges to overcome. We predict such challenges to me managed for successful digital
transformation:
- uncertainty: companies investing in digital tools face high uncertainty when measuring return
on investment;
- long project cycles: implementation of automation projects takes time and requires changes
in management culture;
- reluctance to change: companies need to clearly communicate benefits to stakeholders and
workers that may object to digitalisation efforts;
- skills shortage: digitalisation of economies will increase the shortage of skilled workers and
will require a new approach to training programmes;
- societal issues: digitalisation of economies can have negative effects on the daily lives of
societies, thus companies must prepare for potential challenges.

Geopolitical, climate and healthcare risks are forecast to remain high and could potentially disrupt

54
manufacturing activities. Diversification of supply chains and investments in digital tools to better
manage the production process will be crucial when anticipating and preparing for future disruptions.
Improving household access to the internet and changing lifestyles will require changes in sales
strategies and implementation of an omnichannel sales approach. By investing in e-commerce
platforms, the companies can better meet consumer needs, increase geographic scope of operations
and diversify sales channel risks.

Investments in digital and production automation tools require financial, time and managerial
resources, although final return on investment is difficult to measure. By implementing smaller-scale
projects, companies can reduce the uncertainty, test new tools with minimal risks and later implement
successful ideas on a broader scale.

Digital tools can help to improve internal communication and information exchange within a
company and its clients. Improved internal communications enable better collaboration between
employees and faster information flows which is crucial during times of emergencies.

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Milena Fornazarič
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenia

TEHNOLOŠKI RAZVOJ, KOVID IN VPLIV NA MARKETING

Povzetek. Tehnologija omogoča brisanje meja med realnih in virtualnim, med tradicionalnimi in
digitalnimi mediji, med realno nakupno izkušnjo in selitvijo kupcev na splet. Namen naloge je
povzeti te spremembe in jih postaviti v čas kovida. Kovid je določene procese spodbudil, izostril,
pospešil, pomembno pa spremenil marketinške strategije blagovnih znamk, vpliv medijev na širšo
populacijo (lažne novice) in nakupno vedenje ljudi. Kako se je spremenil medijski kolač v Sloveniji,
če se je, kateri mediji so zmagovalci krize, kaj se dogaja z vedenjem potrošnikov? Povzela bom
javno dostopne valutne medijske raziskave in podatke o medijskih investicijah. Kovid je pospešil
digitalizacijo družbe in pomembno vplival na spremenjeno vedenje kupcev v digitalnem okolju, kar
kažejo tudi podatki.

Ključne besede: tradicionalni in digitalni mediji, kovid, tehnologija, medijski kolač, medijske
investicije

Uvod

Tehnološki trendi spreminjajo svet.

Razvoj umetne intelligence, podprte s 5G tehnologijo mobilnih komunikacij, bo v prihodnjih letih še
povečal povezovanje pametnih naprav in pričakujemo lahko razvoj novih storitev, ki bodo spremenile
potrebe kupcev in njihovo nakupno vedenje. Trendi, ki jih lahko pričakujemo do leta 2030 [1],
govorijo o pametnih soseskah, pametnih oblekah, trajnostnih robotih, ki bodo napovedovali vreme,
spremembah pri delu od doma, pa tudi o pomembnosti tako neprekinjene povezljivosti, kot tudi
vprašanj, povezanih s kibernetsko varnostjo. Že danes vemo, da se medijske vsebine ustvarjajo s
pomočjo matematičnih algoritmov, kar je privedlo tudi do pojava lažnih novice. Digitalna in fizična
izkušnja bosta postal enako pomembni in podobni, govorimo o internetu čutil in zaznavanja [1].

Kovid je v marketingu sprožil številne spremembe.

Epidemija je prinesla v trženje veliko neznank; ni bilo jasno, kako se bodo odzvali potrošniki na krizo,
kaj se bo dogajalo z oglaševanjem blagovnih znamk, bodo podprli marketinške aktivnosti posameznih
blagovnih znamk, ali bodo zaradi krize, stiske, strahu in negotovosti pričakovali, da se tudi
oglaševanje ukine, če ne zmanjša. Prve tedne ni bilo jasno, kaj si želijo potrošniki, bodo nagradili
pogum, ali bodo oglasne bloke zavračali kot razsipnost. Dilema, kako bo kovid vplival na odnos
potrošnikov do oglaševanja, je bila enaka tako za globalne, kot tudi lokalne oglaševalce [2]. Z
izkušnjami iz preteklih gospodarskih kriz se ni dalo dosti pomagati, iz teorije pa je znano, da je
zmanjševanje oglaševanja v korelaciji s prodajo, oziroma neugodno vpliva na moč posamezne
blagovne znamke [2]. Nenaden šok, ki ga je ustvaril kovid, je prinesel “novo normalnost”, kjer se je
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vse hitro spreminjalo, celo vrednote [3]. Ni bilo jasnih odgovorov, ali oglaševati več, ali manj, kako
prilagoditi čez noč oglase, da bodo bližje kupcem, ki so večinoma ostali doma in delali ter se šolali
od doma.

V Sloveniji je podobno kot drugje v svetu začetna kovid negotovost spožila krizo tako med mediji,
oglaševalci (skrbniki blagovnih znamk), kot med potrošniki. Aktualne razmere so vplivale na
spremenjeno naravo spremljanja medijev, saj so bili ljudje zaradi različnih ukrepov prisiljeni več časa
preživeti doma. Po začetnem šoku so številni oglaševalci ustavili ali zmanjšali oglaševanje. Po prvem
šoku so se prilagodili tudi mediji, nekateri, na primer zunanje oglaševanje, so ostali v začetnem
obdobju brez oglasov [4]. Določeni deli gospodasrtva so čez noč prenehali poslovati (turizem,
gostinstvo, storitvene dejavnosti...). Temeljna dilemma je bila, kako preživeti, se prilagoditi in
poslovati naprej.

Opredelitev problema
Burni dogodki v svetu in pri nas, kjer je kovid globalno povezal vse deležnike v podobno dogajanje,
so zazamovali tako poslovne odločitve oglaševalcev, vedenje potrošnikov kot tudi vplivali na
medijsko potrošnjo. Delo od doma je večino precej nepripravljene porinilo v digitalizacijo. Kovid je
za vedno spremenil način komunikacije med uporabnikom, kupcem, ter podjetjem, skrbnikom
blagovnih znamk. Epidemija je srečevanja in pogovore v živo preselila v orodja za klepet, ne samo
zasebno, tudi poslovno, kjer blagovne znamke potrošnikom lahko ponudijo večjo mero
personalizacije, ter edinstveno uporabniško izkušnjo. Čez noč smo delali, sestankovali, se učili,
družili, pa tudi kupovali na daljavo. Povečana uporaba digitalnih storitev v času kovida je bila tudi
priložnost, saj so se pojavili novi uporabniki, treba pa je bilo prilagoditi tako nosilce sporočil (mobilni
telefon je postal še bolj pomembna točka dotika) [5], kot tudi sporočila, torej oglasi, pa tudi medijska
potrošnja se je spremenila. Po prvem šoku, ko se je oglaševanje ustavilo, so ga nekateri oglaševalci
(na primer trgovci) celo okrepili [4]. Zanimala nas je primerjava med medijskim kolačem v letu 2020,
torej pred pandemijo in v njenem začetku , ter medijskim kolačem leta 2021, katere skupine medijev
so se okrepile tako s stališča oglaševanja, kot tudi medijske potrošnje, katere panoge so zmagovalci
in kdo poraženci? So se spremenila razmerja med skupinami medijev? Kaj se je dogajalo z vedenjem
potrošnikov, kupcev? Kaj lahko naredi marketing za boljše delovanje vseh deležnikov nekega
gospodarstva, če pravimo, da je oglaševanje odraz družbe in pokazatelj jenih sprememb?

Raziskovalna vprašanja
Vprašanja, ki smo si jih zastavili, oziroma trditve, ki smo jih preverjali, so naslednja:

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 - Kovid in z njim povezana kriza sta spremenila naravo oglaševanja v smeri digitalizacije,
spremenila komunikacijo, ter okrepila moč trženja.
- Medijski bruto kolač je bil po začetnem padcu leta 2020 že v letu 2021 večji, kot pred krizo.
- Spremenila se je medijska potrošnja v smeri večje vloge medijev, tako digitalnih, kot
tradicionalnih.

Namen raziskave
Namen naloge je bil, na osnovi javno dostopnih podatkov medijev, oglaševalcev, medijskih agencij
in raziskovalnih institucij dokazati, kako je nenadna epidemična kriza spremenila delovanje medijev,
način sprejemanja poslovnih odločitev oglaševalcev ter tudi vedenje kupcev, potrošnikov, ko gre za
njihovo vrednotenje komunikacije, kot tudi vedenje potrošnikov v odnosu do medijskih vsebin.
Zanimalo nas je, kako marketing s svojimi orodji, predvsem ogalešvanjem in medijsko distribucijo,
deluje v kriznih časih in kako nanj vpliva zelo hitra digitalizacija družbenega življenja (delo od doma,
šolanje od doma, spletni nakupi).

Konceptualni model
Zaradi globalne pandemije in s tem posredno povezane tako gospodarske krize, kot tudi sprememb v
vsakodnevnem življeju ljudi, je namen tega članka opozoriti na pomembnost sprememb v neki
ekonomiji in družba s stališča s širšega vidika, torej pomembnosti uporabe orodij integriranega
tržnega komuniciranja, predvsem oglaševanja. Podjetja so prisiljena čez noč sprejeti aktivnješe
strategije nastopa blagovnih znamk tako v tradicionalnih, predvsem pa digitalnih medijih, saj se kupci
selijo na digitalne platform. Medijski oglaševalski kolači nam govorijo o trendih medijske potrošnje
in marketinških investicij, na mikro nivoju pa je nujno spremljati, kaj se dogaja s posamezno blagovno
znamko, posameznim medijem in oglaševalcem. Vsaka kriza je tudi priložnost, če jo upravljamo.
Spremenljivka naše pozornosti je slovenski medijski kolač, ki se je spreminjal skozi dve leti kovid
dogajanja, na katerega so vplivale negotove razmere pri oglaševalcih, ukrepi zdravstvenih oblasti in
posledično odzivi potrošnikov, državljanov, kupcev. Gre za bolj posredne povezave med njimi.

Metode raziskovanja

Pri pripravi članka smo analizirali obstoječe javno dostopne podatke ter podatke o gibanju bruto
oglaševalskih prihodkov raziskovalne agencije Mediana IBO. Metoda, ki smo jo uporabili, je
kvalitativna analiza virov, povzeli smo obstoječo relevantno literaturo tistega obdobja ter opravili
komparativno analizo za leto 2020 in 2021.

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 Rezultati

Ugotovitve bi združila v dva dela: najprej povzemamo spremembe, ki se tičejo medijskega bruto
kolača in posledično spremembe v vedenju potrošnikov, ki vključujejo tudi medijsko potrošnjo.

Primerjava v bruto oglaševalskih investicijah v začetku epidemije z lanskim letom

Podatki Mediane, Inštituta za raziskovanje trga in medijev, za leto 2021 spet kažejo rast bruto
oglaševalskega kolača v Sloveniji. Povejmo, da v raziskavi Mediana IBO meri bruto vrednost
oglaševanja v preteklem obdobju, torej vrednost evidentiranih oglasov po cenah iz uradnih medijskih
cenikov, kjer meritev ne upošteva dogovorjenih popustov med medijem in naročnikom (zakupnikom,
komunikacijsko ali medijsko agencijo, oglaševalcem…) ter drugih, posebnih kupoprodajnih pogojev,
kot je letni dogovor o z oglasom doseženim občinstvom, morebitne brezplačne objave in podobno
[4]. Gre pa za meritev, ki je kljub bruto številkam izražena v denarju in omogoča skozi časovno
obdobje spremljanje, kaj se dogaja med skupinami medijev, oglaševalci, pa tudi znotraj medijskih
skupin.

V letu 2021 je po podatkih Mediane izmerjeni obseg bruto oglaševanja v primerjavi z letom poprej
znašal 1,2 milijarde eurov, [4]kar je četrtina več kot leto poprej, čeprav je treba takoj dodati, da so
realni v denarju izraženi podatki o zakupljenem oglasnem prostoru precej nižji. Z razumevanjem trga
in pojmov planiranja in medijskega zakupa v ozadju številk se da priti do zelo dobrih ocen velikosti
neto medijskega trga, če uporabimo podatke iz javno dostopnih virov, to je izkazov poslovnega
uspeha zadnjih let (Ajpes), pa tudi poročila Računskega sodišča glede RTV, pogovorov z zaupanja
vrednimi posamezniki na medijih, podatkov o naročninah in oglaševanju v medijih, neto podatkov o
oglaševanju največjih agencij in neto oglaševalskih investicij nekaterih naročnikov. Cene
televizijskih paketov, ki zajema okoli 80 odstotkov kolača, se večinoma določajo glede na gledanost.
Poslovni dogovori o tem pa so skrbno varovana skrivnost slovenskih medijev in vseh ostalih
sodelujočih. Kljub vsemu lahko predvidevamo, da je rast neto oglaševalskih prihodkov v letu 2021 v
primerjavi z 2020 manjša od bruto rasti [4]. Mediana meri bruto kolač že od leta 1994, razen v krizi
leta 2012, ko je šlo za 3-odstotni padec, vsa leta beležimo rast kolača.

V letu 2020, ki je bilo v znamenju pandemije in protipandemičnih ukrepov, je bruto izmerjeni obseg
oglaševanja v Sloveniji znašal 980 milijonov eurov, kar je 11% manj kot leto poprej [4]. Na Mediani
so konec leta 2020 beležili 12-odstotni padec bruto vrednosti zunanjega oglaševanja, ki je bilo med
prvim zaprtjem države med najbolj prizadetimi sektorji. Najmočnejša skupina medijev so TV postaje
z 82 odstotki v kolaču, od tega gre polovica medijski hiši Pro Plus. So pa televizije končale leto 2020
z desetino manjšim izkupičkom. Vsi televizijski program v letu 2020 beležijo manjšo bruto vrednost
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oglaševanja glede na leto poprej, izjema so globalni specializirani program (filmski, športni,
dokumentarni), kjer gre za programe, ki ponujajo nižje cene, torej več objav po nižjih cenah.

Tudi pri tisku gre v letu 2020 za podoben padec oglaševanja, torej 10-odstoten, kot na televizijah. Že
v preteklih letih so vodilne tiskane medijske hiše (Media24, Delo, Dnevnik, Finance, Adria Media…)
reševale svoje balance zorganizacijo poslovnih konferenc in izobraževalnih dogodkov, ki so bile ali
odpovedane, ali preseljene v virtualni svet. Pri spletnem oglaševanju ni točno merejenih podatkov,
koliko denarja se nameni za oglaševanje na globalnih platformah (FB, YouTube, Google…), saj
Mediana meri le slovenske spletne medije, a tudi tu se je bruto oglaševanje zmanjšalo za 4 odstotek.
Podobno zmanjšanje beležimo tudi na največjih merejenih radijskih postajah (5-odstotni padec).

Tako kot je pandemija marca 2020 ustavila svet, so bili po prvem zaprtju ohromljeni tudi oglaševalci,
sa se je v aprilu 2020 v primerjavi z aprilom 2019 oglaševanje v slovenskih medijih zmanjšalo za 50
odstokov [4], čeprav smo po prvem šoku ostajali doma, več brali, gledali TV, poslušali,
klikali…Samo maja 2020 še beležimo 35-odstoten padec oglaševanja, potem pa se je oglaševanje
povrnilo v stare vode. Že junija so se oglaševalci prilagodili spremenjenim, novim navadam kupcev.
Jesenski val, ko smo drugič zapirali državo, ni več prinesel tako šokatnega rezanja budgetov, čeprav
je bil zaznan padec oglaševanja. Po pričakovanju so največji oglaševalci trgovci, ki so ves čas
nemoteno poslovali, čeprav pod zaostrenimi varnostnimi razmerami. So se pa opazno spremenila
sporočila trgovcev (Spar, Mercatorm Lidl, Hofer, Tuš..), ki so vsi poudarjali skrb za bližnje, družbeno
dogovornost, lokalno pridelavo hrane, prijaznost, lokalne sestavine [4].

Pač pa se je v letu 2021 oglaševanje povrnilo k stari moči, od tega je tv bruto oglaševanje preseglo
milijardo, kar je za 27 odstokov več kot v letu 2020 [4]. Gledanost televizijam so dvigali predvsem
športni dogodki (kolesartvo, poletna olimpijada Tokio, skratka športni uspehi slovenskih športnikov)
ter zabavni in resničnostni šovi na komercianih televizijah. Dobra gledanost pa običajno pomeni tudi
nove oglaševalce in povečane oglasne prihodke.

Ko gre za tiskane medije, so ti v letu 2020 zabeležili manjši padec bruto oglasnih prihodkov , kot leto
poprej, čeprav so ljudje več brali, še več, lahko bi rekli, da so tiskani mediji vsaj začasno ustavili
padec svojih oglasnih prihodkov, in so neke vrste korona zmagovalci. Z največjo rastjo bruto
oglaševalskih prihodkov se v letu 2021 lahko pohvalijo spletni mediji, ki so zabeležili kar 30-odsotni
rast prihodkov, kar je glede na spletne nakupe, delo od doma, iskanje svežih novic, šolo na daljavo
in pospešeno digitalizacijo življenja tudi razumljivo. Tudi radijske postaje, še posebej lokalne, ki so
obveščale prebivalce o lokalnih dogodkih, v letu 2021 v primerjavi z letom poprej beležijo 12-

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odstotno rast oglaševalskih prihodkov. Če je bilo ob prvem zaprtju države zunanje oglaševanje zaradi
koronakrize najbolj prizadeto, pa je v letu 2021 kljub omejenemu druženju na prostem beležilo 11-
odstotno rast bruto prihodkov. Za rast kolača so v največji meri skrbeli trgovci, ki so poudarjali
podobne korona vrednote, kot leto poprej, druga oglaševalsko najmočnejša panoga pa so
telekomunikacije.

Spremenjena medijska potrošnja in vedenje potrošnikov

Kaj govorijo podatki o vplivu izrednih dogodkov na večje skupine medijev, predvsem tv? Pandemija
je pozitivno vplivala na gledanost televizije, saj so zaradi zaprtja družbenega življenja v prvem valu
(12. 3. Do 31. 5. 2020) zaznali 28-odsotno gledanje televizij na splošno v primerjavi s povprečjem
zadnjih treh let, vrhunec gledanosti pa so bili dnevi v zadnjem tednu marca, ko je gledanost narasla
za 55 odstokov [6]. V času prvega vala epidemije se je gledanost informativnih oddaj povečala za 41
odstkov v primerjavi s povprečjem zadnjih treh let [6]. Ključni medijski trendi pa se nedvomno
obračajo k digitalizaciji in personalizaciji oglaševanja, čeprav je epidemija vsaj začasno povečala
konzumacijo vsebin na tradicionalnh medijih, predvsem televizijah in tisku.

Povečano zaupanje potrošnikov v digitalne kanale pomeni tudi večjo uporabo the storitev, pa tudi
nove skupine potrošnikov, zato se mora temu prilagoditi tudi marketing [5]. V komunikaciji smo
opazili tudi, da se postavlja v ospredje prednost lokalnih virov (lokalna hrana, lokalni viri, bližina),
kar v komunikaciji še posebej izpostavljajo trgovci [4]. V ospredje je stopilo tudi vprašanje varnosti
spletnih nakupov in spletnega komuniciranja, pa tudi večja potreba kupcev po avtentičnosti v
komunikaciji [5]. To se še posebej nanaša na vplivneže, ki niso imeli dosegov ali jasne, iskrene
komunikacije z dodano vrednostjo za sledilce. Vsebinski marketing lahko zagotavlja zvestobo kupcev
le z avtentičnimi zgodbami [5].

Epidemija je prinesla tudi razcvet spletnih trgovin, kjer pa potencialni kupci vstopajo v spletno
trgovino drugače kot v fizični trgovini. Prve tedne epidemije se je razgalilo tudi pomanjkanje ž
razvitih spletnih trgovin pri največjih trgovcih, ko so se spletne trgovine sesuvale, oziroma
pomanjljivosti, povezane z dostavnimi službami. Delež spletnih akupov bo gotovo tudi v prihodnje
višji, kot je bil pred krizo [5], saj tudi v svetu trend spletnih trgovin narašča. Delo na daljavo je
prineslo tudi potrebo po drugačnem vodenju in drugačni povezanosti s svojimi zaposlenimi, ki so ena
od ciljnih skupin, s katerimi se mora podjetje vzpostaviti in optimalno upravljati odnose.

Nekatere raziskave [3] so pokazale, da so se ljudje v mesecu dni prilagodili na nove razmere (delo
od doma, zaprtje države), da so raziskovalci poleg monotonije vsakdanjega življenja, osamljenosti in

63
jeze zaznali tudi nove vrednote, kot so skrb za družino, povezanost s prijatelji, ter novo vsakdanjo
kreativnost (peka kruha, šivanje) ter novo odkrivanje narave. Svoboda ni bila več samo po sebi
umevna, zelo se je povečala želja po socialnih stikih z bližnjimi [3]. Kaj so pričakovanja potrošnikov
glede komunikacije blagovnih znamk? Omenjena raziskava je odkrila, da se je povečal pozitiven
odnos do oglaševanja, da ljudje pričakujejo, da jim v krizi blagovne znamke stojijo ob strani, da jih
povezujejo z občutkom normalnosti, da so skrbne in podporne. Potrošniki pričakujejo, da so v
komunikaciji blagovne znamke družbeno odgovorne, pozitivne in zanesljive [3]. Še posebej
izpostavljajo trgovce, ki kažejo skrb za svoje zaposlene in kupce, zagotavljajo ustrezne zaloge hrane,
so pozitivni in optimistični v oglaševanju, spoštujejo stroga zdravstvena pravila, podpirajo lokalne
pridelovalce hrane ter donirajo hrano. Nakupi so bili za večino prebivalstva edina dovoljena aktivnost
zunaj njihovih domov. Nakupi so se spremenili v manj frekventne, a količinsko in vrednostno večje,
ko gre za hrano, medtem, ko so se v času epidemije tudi vsi nenujni nakupi zmanjšali [3]. Posledično
smo zaznali tudi manjšanje ogalešvalskih aktivnosti v oglaševalskem kolaču v kategoriji
avtomobilistov, kozmetike in podobnih trajnih dobrin [4] .

Zanimiv je podatek globalne raziskovalne agencije Kantar, da so si globalne blagovne znamke, ki so

tudi pomembni oglaševalci, po finančni krizi leta 2008 opomogli kar devetkrat hitreje od drugih, ki
so v krizi zmanjšali oglaševanje [2] . Oglaševalska industrija se je veliko naučila iz te krize, med
drugim, da imajo le močne blagovne znamke prostor v glavah svojih in potencialnih kupcev na dolgi
rok in kot take ustvarjajo donose za svoje lastnike. Zato je v kriznih časih ogalešvanje nujno za
blagovne znamke, ki želijo obstati na dolgi rok in se profitabilno razvijati. Dolgoročno je opazno tudi,
da se krepijo digitalni mediji, saj so se v pandemiji potrošniki navadili na spremljanje vsebin v živo,
pa tudi na aktivnosti na druženih omrežjih, ki v vse bolj pomembni meri krojijo nakupne navade ljudi.

Zaključek

Tehnološke spremembe (umetna inteligeca, veriženje podatkovnih blokov, nove mobilne rešitve,
nove energetske trajnostne rešitve, gensko spreminjajanje človeka in njegovega okolja, pametni
vmesniki, pametni roboti…[7] krojijo vedenje posameznikov, naš svet in nove, globalne vrednote,
ki vplivajo tudi na nakupne navade. Priča smo celostnemu upravljanju komunikacijskih kanalov na
osnovi podatkov, ki so postal nova nafta 21. stoletja, pri čemer najhitreje rastejo digitalni kanali.
Globalna pandemija je prinesla nove kodekse ravnanja blagovnih znamk, kar pa povprečnemu
potrošniku ne olajša nakupnih odločitev v času, ko se blagovne znamke borijo za njegovo pozornost.
Kovid je spodbudil razmah lažnih novice in prinesel nezaupanje v medije, čeprav ravno podatki o
medijski potrošnji v začetku pandemije kažejo na hlastanje posameznika za novicami. Mediji so
pomembnejši bolj kot kdajkoli. Lažne novice izkoriščajo klišeje množic, in obvladujejo psihologijo
64
množic. Mediji pomembno oblikujejo vrednote ljudi, postavljajo družbeni okvir, a so obenem profitna
podjetja, ki se preživljajo z oglasi.

Informacija je bolj kot kdajkoli strateško orožje, blagovne znamke pa v času kompleksnosti in
negotovosti pred strateškim izzivom, kako verodostojno nagovarjati svoje potrošnike.

Reference

1. 10 tehnoloških trendov, ki bodo do leta 2030 spremenili naše življenje, Ericsson v Marketing
Magazin, (2020), https://marketingmagazin.si/aktualno/10-tehnoloških-trendov-ki-bodo-do-leta-
2030-spremenili-naša-življenja, 12 (5) 2022.
2. Kantar, 2020, www.marketingmagazin.si/novice/mmarketing/17926/kaksna-je-nova-
normalnost-za-blagovne-znamke, 4 (4) 2020.
3. Ipsos, 2020, Slovenians during the 4th week of guarantine, Ipsos syndicated study,
www.ipsos.com/si-si, April 2020
4. Mediana, agencija za raziskovanje trga in medijev, Mediana IBO, pregled bruto oglaševalskih
investicij, 2019, 2020, 2021.
5. Poslovni mediji, Posel dan potem, www.p-m.si, 2020.
6. Pregled medijskega trga v Sloveniji, November 2020, interni vir Planet tv, AGB Nielsen, 2020.
7. Global Trends 2020, https://www.ipsosglobaltrends.com/, (5) 2020

65
Nataša Perović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro

Bojana Ristanović,
Faculty of Agriculture Kruševac, University of Niš, Serbia

Sandra Djurović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro

Nikola Abramović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro

IMPACT OF DIGITALIZATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN

RESOURCES IN PORT BUSINESS IN MONTENEGRO

Abstract. One of the most important resources of every organization is human resources.
Employees, their know-how, capabilities and skills must be aligned at all times with the needs of
organization having in mind that business environment is constantly changing. In order to align
with global and local business trends and requirements of international and local clients, it is
necessary to continuously invest in upgrading and development of human resources. Therefore, it
is exceptionally important how organizations are managing human resources because growth and
development of organization significantly depends on human resource management. Fast
development of information and telecommunication technologies impacted dynamic changes and
development of human resources. In past, majority of organizations had a large number of
employees in order to execute numerous business processes. However, digitalization introduced
many changes and it can be freely said that there is no industry that was not changed considerably
by introduction of information – telecommunication technologies.The subject of this paper is the
analysis of digitalization impact on development of human resources in port business in Montenegro by
means of the example of company Port of Adria JSC Bar, analysis of benefits of introduction of digitalization
but also the analysis of challenges faced by human resources in the process of introduction and development
of new technologies having in mind aspects of human resource management – personnel records keeping,
job analysis, planning of human resources, recruiting and selection, training and job performance in work
places.

Keywords: Human resources, digitalization, information-communication technologies, managing

human resources

Introduction

One of the most important resources of every organization is human resources. Its importance is vast
as people design, plan and execute activities needed for organization to exist, function, grow and
prosper. Having in mind that employees in an organization have different backgrounds, know-how,

66
experience, skills, values and beliefs, managing human resources is of utmost importance as it ensures
“that employees of an organization are used in such as way that the employer obtains the greatest
possible benefit from their abilities and the employees obtain both material and psychological rewards
from their work” [1, p. 20]

Main objective of evolution and development of human resource management is efficiency in use of
work, searching for employees’ potential, application of techniques and practices for motivating and
support the employees. [2]

Human resource management “is a strategic approach to managing employment relations which
emphasizes that leveraging people’s capabilities is critical to achieving competitive advantage, this
being achieved through distinctive set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practices.
“[3, p. 7].

Digitalization has entered all aspects of human life and has become an important tool in facilitating,
time saving and efficiency of almost all activities people carry out throughout the day. Therefore, it
is not surprising that it is a must for organization’s functioning, business operations as well as its
competitiveness on national and international market.

“Digital transformation refers to the process that commences from the moment an organization starts
thinking about introducing digital technologies in all business segments and lasts until its complete
integration.” [4, p. 3]

Digitalization of HR represents optimization of HR processes in an organization through the use of

new technologies with the aim to improve both employee’s performance and business operations. It
enables transfer from paper-based and time-consuming processes to digital ones providing real-time
communication, collaboration, data exchange and analytics.

Subject of this paper is research and analysis of introduction of HR digitalization in port business
with particular attention of its presence on the example of company Port of Adria (Montenegro). The
objective is to prove the benefits the company has had due to introduction of HR digitalization of
business processes that are heavily based on human resources – hiring, data collection and processing,
training, job performance, communication and collaboration.

In this paper, secondary data from research made so far in this area, available in literature/reference

67
books and official internet webpages. Also, theoretical and quality data obtained from the company
Port of Adria have been analyzed in tabular and graphic presentation comparing organization and
functioning of HR before and after introduction of digitalization.

Digitalization of HR

There are numerous definitions of HR management, but none is generally adopted definition of HR
management.

According to Gary Dessler “Human resource management (HRM) is the process of acquiring,
training, appraising, and compensating employees, and of attending to their labor relations, health
and safety, and fairness concerns” [5, p. 3]

According Flippo, HR management is “planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the

procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance, and separation of human
resources to the end that individual, organizational and societal objectives are accomplished”. [6, p.
8]

Robbins and Decenzo define HRM as “a process of acquiring, retaining, developing, terminating and
properly using the human resources in an organization”. [7, p. 4]

In the world of growing and ever-expanding digitalization within organizations, it inevitably impacts
all its business aspects. Thus, HR management is not an exception.
New technologies bring new work models, new workplaces, larger accessibility of information, time
saving, originality and innovation in work. [8, p. 1]

In order to better plan, organize, direct and control, develop and maintain its human capital,
organizations are introducing digitalization (electronic media, IT, mobile) more and more to enable
above functions to be performed more productively, effectively and efficiently. Accordingly,
digitalization is transforming HR management processes such as recruitment, career management,
training and development as well as performance monitoring and evaluation. Due to digitalization,
HR responsible in any organization gains easier and faster access to employees’ data, uses digital
recruiting technology to bring in talent, reduces time spent on data collection and analytics.

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 Digitalization of HR management in port business

Human resources instigate all business processes in maritime companies. Accordingly, managing
human resources include knowledge, skills and capabilities of managers who shall ensure efficient
work with the application of numerous complex procedures, processes, tasks and actions. [9, p.16]

Considering overall benefits of digitalization, it is not surprising that maritime transportation industry
joined many other industries which started introducing and using digital technologies in order to
increase their efficiency, speed up their growth and secure competitive edge and better positioning
on exceptionally competitive markets. Ports are no exception. Such transformation from traditional-
to digital-based business impacts all port’s segments, not only service provision and work processes,
but also organizational structure and management models.

“Digitalization is pushing the maritime industry beyond its traditional limits and provides many new
opportunities to enhance the productivity, efficiency, and sustainability of logistics. The concept of
smart ports, for instance, aims to adopt modern information technologies to enable a better planning
and management within and between ports." [10, p. 1] The maritime transport is moving towards
digitalization and DT at different speeds in the different domains. [11, p.16]

Research results

When we think of port digitalization, what first comes to one’s mind is digitalization of port
operations – automation of handling equipment, planning automation, automation of processes of
cargo handling thus enabling ports to be more efficient and effective. However, subject of this
research is HR management digitalization within ports with the focus on company Port of Adria.

Until 2009, Montenegro had only one international commercial port which was majority state-owned.
Considering world trends in port business organization, outdated and old infrastructure and equipment
and a surplus of employees burdening financial standing of the port, Government of Montenegro
carried out port’s restructuring thus creating two separate companies – Port of Bar handling bulk and
liquid cargo and Port of Adria handling containers and general cargo. Upon port’s restructuring,
Government of Montenegro published invitation to tender to international companies for the purchase
of majority shares in Port of Adria and 30-year concession. As of January 2014, Port of Adria was
privatized by an international investor and changes in port’s organization and heavily needed
investments started to unfold.

69
One of first biggest investments made by international investor was in IT infrastructure (both
hardware and tailor-made software solutions). Previous outdated software solution in place since
2003 was rarely upgraded to reflect the changes and requirements of changing port business and was
more used for data collection and use by specific departments, without proper data analytics used in
decision-making processes.

By investing heavily into new IT infrastructure (both hardware and software), as one of the first
benefits the company had is creation of flatter, more efficient organization structure, deleting,
merging of creating workplaces (in particular, in administration) where work processes became more
efficient, less time-consuming with the use of digitalization.

It should be noted that introduction of digitalization was not the main reason for considerable decrease
of employees (reason was more over-employment policy existing in all state-owned companies at
that time). However, decrease of total number of work places can be linked with introduction of
digitalization as it enabled previously very specialized and segmented work positions to be merged
or deleted.

Table 1. Human resources rationalization

2013 2017 2021
Total number of employees 582 303 275
Number of workplaces 272 77 113
Employees in administration 100 90 79
Digitalized workplaces 94 89 105
HR dpt workplaces 12 12 3
HR dpt no. of employees 12 12 4
Source: Data obtained from company Port of Adria in 2022

Based on Table 1 data, it is clear that digitalization impacted work organization and needed number
of employees, in particular in administration, which used to be more paper-based work process.
Namely, from Table 1 and Graph 1, we can see that the total number of employees in the first analyzed
year (2013) was the highest – 582 employees. In 2017, the number of employees decreased for cca
47,94% in comparison to 2013 whereas their number was the lowest in 2021 – 275 employees which
is cca 52,75% less than in first analyzed year.

When considering number of workplaces, the situation is slightly different. In 2013, number of
workplaces in the company Port of Adria was 272, and in 2017 is decreased to 195 workplaces. In
2021, the number of workplaces is increased due to Labour Law requirements which resulted in
unnecessary but legally required increase of number of workplaces. The Number of employees in

70
administration also decreased which we can see from given table and graph.

Thus, digitalization enabled employees to use their time more efficiently and even take over some
other tasks whose performance and processing were made real-time and automatic.

700
600 2013
500
400 2017
300
200
2021
100
0
Total number Number of Employees in
of employees workplaces administration

Graph 1. Human resources rationalization

Source: Author according to data obtained from company Port of Adria

120
100
80
2013
60
40 2017
20 2021
0
Digitalized HR dpt HR dpt no. of
workplaces workplaces employees

Graph 2. Human resources rationalization

Source: Author according to data obtained from company Port of Adria

Graph 2 presents the change in number of digitalized workplaces and in number of employees in HR
department for 2013, 2017 and 2021.

Recruitment
Before introduction of digitalization in the country and port itself, all recruitment processes have been
done though job vacancy ads published in local newspapers through Employment agency of
Montenegro. However, with digitalization in place, both job vacancy notifications and recruitment
process, in particular for management positions, was made more efficient and effective with the use
of Internet (recruitment agencies websites & social media accounts as well as Port of Adria website
and social media accounts). Although applicants submit requested documentation physically, they
can apply electronically and short-listed candidates are invited either to attend job interviews in
71
person (if living locally) or by means of various platforms (Skype, Zoom meetings, Microsoft Teams)
thus saving time and money of both applicants and interviewers.

Table 2. Digitalized recruitment

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
No. of employees hired based on 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3
digitalized recruitment
(management level)
Total no. of job vacancies 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3
published (management level)
Source: Data obtained from company Port of Adria in 2022

According to Table 2 data, digitalization made possible to have wider search for key talents
internationally meeting company needs in terms of international work experience and know-how
which is sparce for this industry in the country. In Tables 1 and 2, data for the period 2013 – 2016 is
not given as this period was marked by designing, purchasing, setting up and implementing needed
IT infrastructure (including upgrades and renewal of hardware and tailor-made software solutions).
Other non-managerial positions are being published the same way as managerial ones, but interviews
are done via mentioned platforms only if candidates are not local.

Training
Before digitalization, there was no annual training programme defined at Company level. Trainings
were carried out when the need occurred (usually required as per law) with no systematic overview
of number of trainings and number of employees participating in training. Organization of trainings
was mostly with parties providing training (seminar, course, etc.) without use of digital formats.

Since the introduction of annual training programme, Company has clear overview of trainings
needed per year per employee, validity date of training certificates, dates for renewal of certificates.
Most of the trainings needed to be undergone by more employees are organized in-house and are
substantially dependent on use of digital formats – “digitalized” trainings (use of Internet, audio and
video conference platforms, e-presentations, e-library, etc.). From table below, it can be seen that
40%-80% of all training have used some form of digitalization. Remaining percentage of trainings
were done without the use of digitalization (e.g. training for work on specific equipment, evacuation
exercise, etc.)

Table 3. Trainings overview

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
No. of trainings 0 0 0 0 10 7 6 28 16
No. of employees trained 0 0 0 0 576 354 87 219 270
No. of “Digitalized” trainings 0 0 0 0 7 5 4 11 10

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 Source: Data obtained from company Port of Adria in 2022

Personnel Data Management

In Port of Adria, personnel documentation is physically stored in personnel files in HR department.
However, since the introduction of digitalization, HR department created e-personnel files to enable
immediate and real-time access to all important personnel files at all times. This also presents a
security measure in case physical damage occurs to paper documentation.

By introducing tailor-made software solution, management of personnel data has been made almost
entirely paperless. However, due to legal requirements and needs for employees’ signature, paper
documentation is still an important part of HR management.

What is different with new software solutions in comparison to old one is not data collection but data
processing and analytics. With “one click”, it is possible to get information of daily attendance of
employees i.e. which employees are on vacation, sick leave or paid leave and which are at work so
managers can organize work for that day with real-time information of available human resources.
This also enables management to plan not only daily, but also weekly work organization in advance
ensuring undisrupted workflow. With “one click”, management knows in real-time what activities
are carried out by which group of employees and how much costs these groups incur. With “one
click”, management can obtain information what activities/services have been provided by which
employees and how long employees have been engaged on these activities.

All these “one click” reports assist the management in decision – making processes. E.g. based on
age structure report, management can determine in advance which work places need to be announced
for vacancy in near future due to employees leaving for retirement so the company can either consider
internal resources re-organization with additional training or plan external scouting and timely secure
seamless functioning of a specific unit or department. Based on sick-leave reports, management can
determine in advance bottlenecks in service provision to clients and plan different working hours for
available employees, shift work, overtime work or additional hiring in order to meet contracted
obligations from commercial contracts.

Based on e-record keeping, responsible persons and managers keep track and schedule medical
follow-up obligatory for specific work places, renewal of trainings and/or certificates as legally
required. Based on attendance and vacation and sick leave reports, responsible persons and managers
can plan training sessions in advance as well as respective time and resource needed for trainings

73
completion. Job positions reports enable faster distribution of respective personal protective
equipment needed for work processes.
These software solutions are made flexible as they can easily reflect any organizational change and
keep track of all amendments and historical data in the system which is available at all times.

Conclusions

In spite of increasing presence of technologies in human resource management, there are relatively
few research dedicated to its efficiency, i.e. to which extent do technologies enable organizations to
achieve their objectives in terms of human resources. [12, p. 2]

The authors in this paper tried to emphasize the significance and advantage of impact of digitalization
on development of human resources management, in company Port of Adria, efficiency and benefits
which digitalization brings to business operations and performance of work tasks throughout the
Company.

By comparing HR data usage, job performance of both HR responsible management of the Company
before and after introduction of digitalization, it can be clearly concluded as follows:
1. Digitalization has enabled automation of data collection and processing, but more
importantly, it secured valuable tools for decision-making regarding human resources capital
(hiring, training, organization structure, etc.).
2. Digitalization has enabled easier and real-time human resource management by HR
department thus allowing more time for career development, trainings and wider scouting
/headhunting range than before with fewer employees.
3. Digitalization has enabled rationalization and merging of more workplaces into one as it
allowed more efficient and effective work performance and multitasking.
4. Digitalization has enabled better planning, increased productivity, time saving and better costs
management at Company level.

By increase of adoption of digitalization and automation, Port of Adria has same obtained same
benefits as other ports in the world as “these technological and operational development has made it
possible to obtain better results in terms of port productivity, labour productivity as well as
improvements in the structure of work processes …” [13, p. 2]

74
 References

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75
Rok Bojanc
Visoka šola za poslovnu vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija
orcid.org/0000-0001-6734-6370

ANALIZA MODELOV DAVČNEGA POROČANJA

Povzetek. Čedalje več držav uvaja digitalne rešitve za boj proti goljufijam pri pobiranju DDV.
Nekatere davčne uprave posameznih držav od gospodarskih subjektov že zahtevajo, da namesto
periodičnih obračunov DDV poročajo podatke o računih neposredno iz svojih transakcijskih
procesov. Prispevek vsebuje pregled in analizo glavnih kategorij modelov stalnega nadzora
transakcij (angl. continuous transaction controls, CTC), ki omogočajo prenos podatkov o računih
v realnem ali skoraj realnem času davčni upravi za namene poročanja. Ti modeli se od države do
države lahko zelo razlikujejo, zaradi česar morajo gospodarski subjekti, ki poslujejo v več državah,
uporabljati različne sisteme in pristope za isti namen. Večina do sedaj uvedenih modelov je
zasnovanih z vidika davčne optimizacije in posledično za poslovne subjekte niso tako enostavni za
uporabo, kot bi lahko bili. Prispevek predstavlja tudi koncept, kako učinkovito povezati CTC model
z interoperabilnim modelom izmenjave e-računov.

Ključne besede: Model stalnega nadzora transakcij, CTC, DDV, primanjkljaj DDV, e-računi

Uvod

V preteklih desetletjih je globalizacija poslovanja temeljila na tehnoloških inovacijah in

standardizaciji. Sodobna tehnologija podjetjem omogoča, da izboljšajo, avtomatizirajo in
racionalizirajo številne procese. Pri tem morajo podjetja upoštevati spreminjajoče zahteve
zakonodaje, ki predstavljajo še poseben izziv za podjetja, ki poslujejo zunaj svojih nacionalnih meja.
Pri tem je davčna zakonodaja med zahtevnejšimi, ki jih je treba upoštevati [1]. V preteklosti je bilo
to področje večinoma povezano z računovodskimi postopki podjetja, poročanjem in shranjevanjem
dokumentarnih dokazov.

Podjetja čedalje več poslujejo brezpapirno in izvajajo digitalno transformacijo svojega poslovanja.
Med najbolj vsesplošno uporabljeni elektronskimi dokumenti so elektronski računi (oziroma e-
računi), ki so jih posamezne države uvajale na različne načine [2].

Podatke o plačanem DDV, ki je prikazan na računu, je potrebno posredovati davčni upravi. V

preteklosti se je poročanje davčnih zavezancev davčni upravi o plačanem DDV izvajalo večinoma
periodično. V zadnjih letih pa smo v različnih državah priča postopnemu prehodu k posredovanju
podatkov o plačanem DDV v realnem času. Glavna zahteva za DDV pri računih je, da morajo

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trgovinski partnerji dokazati celovitost in verodostojnost svojih računov od trenutka objave do konca
obveznega obdobja hrambe. Za račune, izdane v elektronski obliki, to pogosto pomeni, da je treba
uporabiti neko obliko elektronskega podpisa ali drugega pristopa, da se zagotovijo dolgoročni
preverljivi dokazi, kot na primer uporaba elektronske izmenjave podatkov (angl. electronic data
interchange, v nadaljevanju EDI).

Zaradi odgovornosti podjetij, da ustrezno obdelajo in poročajo DDV, je potreben nadzor poslovnih
transakcij s strani davčnih organov. Kljub opravljenim pregledom in revizijam davčnih organov, pa
se pogosto dogaja, da države poberejo bistveno manj DDV, kot bi morale. Pri tem govorimo o
davčnem primanjkljaju DDV (angl. VAT gap).

V Evropi znaša davčni primanjkljaj DDV vsako leto približno 140 milijard EUR. V zadnjem poročilu
Evropske komisije, je davčni primanjkljaj DDV v Evropi, predvsem na račun Covid-19, narasel na
164 milijard EUR. Ta znesek predstavlja izgubo več kot 11 % pričakovanih prihodkov iz DDV [3].
Na svetovni ravni so ocene, da je davčni primanjkljaj DDV, ki ga države ne poberejo zaradi napak in
goljufij, lahko visok do pol bilijona EUR. To je na primer primerljivo z BDP držav, kot sta Belgija
ali Avstrija. Svetovni DDV primanjkljaj predstavlja približno 15 do 30 % DDV, ki bi ga bilo treba
pobrati po vsem svetu. Te številke se nanašajo zgolj na registrirano poslovno dejavnost in bi bile
zagotovo veliko višje, če bi bili upoštevani še izgubljeni davčni prihodki zaradi neregistriranih
poslovnih dejavnosti [4].

Vse več držav uporablja digitalne rešitve za boj proti goljufijam in premalo pobranemu DDV. Zahteve
vezane na DDV in njihov relativni pomen za podjetja in davčne organe so se v zadnjih letih bistveno
spremenili. Zaradi strahu pred izgubo nadzora nad pobiranjem DDV so davčni organi marsikje
pospešili digitalno transformacijo na ambiciozne načine, ki zdaj spreminjajo samo paradigmo
poslovne administracije. Nekatere davčne uprave zahtevajo od gospodarskih subjektov, da poročajo
podatke o računih neposredno iz svojih transakcijskih procesov, s čimer dopolnjujejo ali nadomeščajo
periodične obračune DDV. Te zahteve za sproten prenos podatkov o računih za namene poročanja
davčni upravi v realnem času ali skoraj v realnem času se imenujejo stalen nadzor transakcij (angl.
continuous transaction controls, v nadaljevanju CTC).

Modeli stalnega nadzora transakcij

Večinoma je za davčne uprave glavni cilj uvedbe CTC boj proti goljufijam na področju DDV,
neupravičenim zbiranjem in napakam. Sistemi CTC običajno omogočajo poročanje, preverjanje in
dostavo računov. Obstaja več različnih modelov CTC, ki pa se bistveno razlikujejo od države do
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države, ki so ta sistem že uvedle. Večina doslej uporabljenih CTC modelov je nacionalno
osredotočenih in zasnovanih z vidika davčne optimizacije, zato z vidika poslovanja podjetij niso tako
poslovno prijazni, kot bi lahko bili. Še posebej velja to za podjetja, ki poslujejo v več državah, saj
morajo uporabljati različne sisteme za isto poslovno funkcijo [5].
Do sedaj že vzpostavljeni modeli CTC so specifični za posamezne države in se med seboj razlikujejo
v načinu uvedbe in izvajanja. Glede na značilnosti lahko CTC modele združimo v nekaj kategorij, ki
temeljijo na njihovih ključnih značilnostih [6]:
- Model interoperabilnosti
- Model poročanja računov v realnem času
- Model potrjevanja
- Centralizirani model izmenjave
- Decentralizirani CTC model izmenjave

Slika 1. Modeli CTC [6]

Shematično so CTC modeli prikazani na sliki 1. Programska rešitev (angl. software solution), ki jo
uporablja končni uporabnik, je lahko dobavitelj ERP, ponudnik storitev, ponudnik EDI ali celo davčni
zavezanec, če je opravil potrebno certificiranje. Na sliki so prikazana barvna območja, ki
opredeljujejo:

1. Regulirano območje (zelena barva) vključuje vse podatke in standarde prenosa elektronskih
dokumentov, ki se izmenjujejo v okviru regulirane dejavnosti. To zakonsko zahtevo glede
povezovanja izvajajo certificirani ponudniki storitev in programske opreme, ki v imenu podjetij
izmenjujejo podatke z državo. Podatki, ki se pošiljajo davčni upravi so lahko celoten račun ali zgolj
omejen nabor podatkov iz računa.

2. Standardizirano območje (modra barva) vključuje različne mednarodne, regionalne, nacionalne in

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panožne standarde za izdajo, izmenjavo in sprejem elektronskih poslovnih dokumentov. Ti standardi
se lahko uporabljajo ali prilagodijo tudi za uporabo na reguliranem območju.

3. Ne standardizirano območje (siva barva), kjer za udeležene strani in njihove ponudnike storitev ni
predpisanega načina delovanja.

Poslovna omrežja transakcije nabave in prodaje

Jedrni informacijski sistemi, ki pokrivajo delovanje večine poslovnih funkcij v podjetju so celovite
programske rešitve (angl. eneterprise resource planning, v nadaljevanju ERP). Zaradi ogromnega
števila različnih ERP sistemov in njihovih specifik, predstavlja velik izziv komunikacija in izmenjava
podatkov med različnimi ERP sistemi. Prvotno so na področju izmenjave podatkov med različnimi
ERP sistemi dominirale tradicionalne EDI rešitve (npr. EDIFACT ali ANSI X12), sčasoma pa so se
začele uveljavljati bolj prilagodljive rešitve za avtomatizacijo nabavnih (angl. procure-to-pay, v
nadaljevanju P2P) in prodajnih (angl. order-to-cash, v nadaljevanju O2C) procesov, ki večinoma
delujejo kot storitev v oblaku.

Slika 2. Vključenost različnih informacijskih sistemov v proces prodaje (O2C) in nabave (P2P) [4]

Oblačne platforme P2P in podobne transakcijske platforme za povezovanje končnih deležnikov so v

mnogih panogah pomembni gonilniki za avtomatizacijo B2B transakcij. Pri prvotni zasnovi takšnih
platform je veliko podjetje vzpostavilo platformo za naročanje v oblaku in s tem pridobilo enoten
vmesnik za povezavo vseh svojih dobaviteljev v enotno omrežje. Istega dobavitelja pa lahko v svoja
P2P omrežja vključijo tudi druge večje stranke. Za tak koncept se je uveljavilo ime model s tremi koti
(angl. 3-corner model), saj gre za povezavo med tremi deležniki: dobaviteljem, kupcem in platformo,
ki jo pogosto upravlja ponudnik storitev. Podobno velja za O2C platforme, le da gre tam za platformo
kjer dobavitelj poveže v omrežje svoje kupce. [6]

Čeprav so se ponudniki storitev prvotno prizadevali za strategije "zaprtega omrežja", so v zadnjih

letih povečali sodelovanje pri ustvarjanju modelov, ki omogočajo boljšo interoperabilnost med
njihovimi omrežji in drugimi ponudniki avtomatizacije transakcij B2B. Pojav teh modelov so v veliki

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meri pognale tržne zahteve, ki narekujejo trend "odprtih omrežij", podpirajo pa ga tudi države pri
javnem naročanju [7]. Tak koncept se imenuje model s štirimi koti (angl. 4-corner model), kjer vsak
uporabnik storitev prvega in zadnjega kilometra uporablja rešitve svojega izbranega ponudnika
storitev, različni ponudniki pa se povezujejo med seboj. Evropsko združenje ponudnikov storitev e-
računov (EESPA) je pripravilo vzorčni sporazum o interoperabilnosti, ki se čedalje bolj uveljavlja na
evropskem in svetovnem trgu. [8]

Model interoperabilnosti

Čeprav model interoperabilnosti pravzaprav ni model CTC, je vsesplošno uporabljen mehanizem za

izmenjavo e-računov in drugih poslovnih elektronskih dokumentov v dobavni verigi. Za dostavo
poslovnih dokumentov in metodologijo izmenjave se uporablja omrežje ponudnikov storitev, ki so
medsebojno povezani v model s štirimi koti. Ti modeli so že široko preizkušeni kot učinkovito
izvajanje transakcij in podporo avtomatizaciji O2C in P2P procesov [9].

Običajno davčne uprave določijo le splošni okvir fiskalnih pravil, ki ga morajo davčni zavezanci
upoštevati pri izdaji, izmenjavi in prejemu skladnih e-računov. Poleg računov, model omogoča tudi
izmenjavo povezanih vrst dokumentov, kot so naročila, dobavnice in drugi dokumenti. Uporabljajo
se nacionalni, regionalni ali mednarodni tehnični standardi. Podatki za revizijo so na voljo v enotni
in strukturirani obliki s strani končnega uporabnika ali ponudnika storitev.

Model interoperabilnosti se pogosto šteje kot bistveni predpogoj za splošno sprejetje digitalnih
procesov in izmenjav s strani gospodarskih subjektov. Države pogosto podpirajo vzpostavitev takšnih
infrastruktur in lahko sodelujejo tudi kot vodilni subjekt pri upravljanju z zainteresiranimi stranmi ali
pa je država celo glavni upravljavec infrastrukture [10].

Izvajanje CTC v modelu interoperabilnosti se lahko doseže z mehanizmom povezovanja davčne

uprave v model s štirimi koti preko kanala, ki predstavlja peti kot. Za to povezavo se lahko uporabljajo
tudi različna tehnična orodja, ki jih omogoča Evropska komisija (npr. CEF Digital artifikati) in so
sedaj že precej razširjeni med državami [11].

Model poročanja računov v realnem času

Pri modelu poročanja računov v realnem času davčni zavezanec račun poroča davčni upravi, ali drugi
državni agenciji, ki deluje v njenem imenu, kmalu po izdaji in izmenjavi računa med trgovinskimi
partnerji. Davčni zavezanci morajo običajno predložiti račun ali zgolj zahtevani nabor podatkov iz

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računa v roku 24–72 ur po izstavitvi računa [4].

Centralno platformo za obdelavo podatkov vzpostavi davčna uprava, platforma pa za dostop in

obdelavo podatkov zahteva uporabo certificiranih programskih rešitev. Pogosto je sistem obvezen za
večje gospodarske subjekte, omogoča pa razširitev uporabe tudi na mala in srednja podjetja.

Pri tem modelu sama izdaja računov pogosto ni regulirana, zato lahko gospodarski subjekti
uporabljajo različne oblike računov, od strukturiranih elektronskih računov, vizualnih elektronskih
računov v PDF obliki ali papirnih računov. Z vidika gospodarske učinkovitosti se tudi tu spodbuja
uporaba strukturiranih e-računov.

Davčni zavezanci morajo pri modelu poročanja računov v realnem času običajno uporabljati različne
rešitve in postopke: eno za poročanje v realnem času in drugo za poslovanje z e-računi. Poročanje
CTC s čistega tehničnega vidika je pogosto videti kot potrjevanje e-računov, vendar so ti sistemi
ločeni od pravil izdajanja računov in ne zahtevajo, da je račun, kot je bil izmenjan med dobaviteljem
in kupcem, elektronski. Davčnemu zavezancu ni potrebno čakati, da platforma CTC vrne izrecno
odobritev računa, pred nadaljnjo obdelavo in pošiljanjem računa prejemniku.

Podatke, ki jih je potrebno poročati se lahko ustvaril zgolj iz podatkov na računu ali pa davčna uprava
zahteva še dodatne podatke (npr. podatki o finančnem računovodstvu), ki na računu niso na voljo. Z
zahtevo pa uporabi dodatnih podatkov se povečajo začetni stroški naložb in stroški tekočega
vzdrževanja.

Kar nekaj držav članic EU je za pristop k CTC izbralo nadgradnjo obstoječih postopkov poročanja,
tako da se poroča bolj podrobno in pogosteje. S prehodom držav na izmenjavo e-računov v realnem
času, pa se bo tak pristop najverjetneje spremenil in šel bolj v smeri modela potrjevanja.

Model potrjevanja

Model potrjevanja (angl. clearance) zagotavlja fiskalno potrjevanje in odobritev računa pred ali po
izdaji računa kupcu. Centralno skladišče podatkov in platformo vzpostavi davčna uprava. Model
potrjevanja so od leta 2000 dalje prve uvedle države v južni Ameriki, v naslednjem desetletju pa so
sledile še druge države (npr. Turčija).

V splošnem je postopek modela potrjevanja sledeč:

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 1. Dobavitelj posreduje račun (ali zgolj omejen nabor podatkov iz računa) platformi, da pridobi
potrditev (oziroma davčno veljavnost) dokumenta.
2. Platforma potrdi račun in tako dobavitelju omogoči, da kupcu pošlje potrjen račun.
3. Kupec lahko (glede na različico modela) ponovno potrdi račun na platformi in s tem pred
plačilom preveri in potrdi njegovo veljavnost.

Obstaja več različic delovanja modela potrjevanja, ki se lahko od države do države razlikuje, glede
na preference posamezne države. Običajno so razlike vezane na časovni razpored korakov potrjevanja
(veljavnost in odobritev) ter ali je postopek potrjevanja centraliziran ali decentraliziran.

Pri predhodnem potrjevanju (angl. pre-clearance) izdajatelj potrjevanje računa izvede pred
pošiljanjem računa kupcu. Pri kasnejšem potrjevanju (angl. post-clearance) pa se potrjevanje lahko
izvede v kratkem časovnem oknu po izmenjavi računa med izdajateljem in kupcem. Prve uvedbe
potrjevanja e-računov so bile osredotočene na nadzor v realnem času. Dobavitelj je imel obveznost,
da podpiše račun in hkrati pridobi dovoljenje, da e-račun obravnava kot pravno veljaven dokument,
ki ga lahko izda kupcu. Časovno okno med podpisom računa s strani dobavitelja in pridobivanjem
potrditve je v zadnjih letih postal vse krajši, od nekaj dni do samo nekaj ur. Danes se ti dogodki za
večino e-računov izvajajo v realnem času. Nekatere države so začele s časoma tudi rahljati pravila,
kdaj je potrebno posredovati podatke e-računa v potrditev. Ponekod lahko izdajatelj pošlje kupcu
e-račun, čeprav ta v trenutku pošiljanja še ni bil potrjen.

Potrjevanje lahko izvaja centralna platforma ali mreža certificiranih ponudnikov storitev. Pri
centraliziranem preverjanju potrjevanje izvaja centralizirana platforma, ki jo vzpostavi davčna
uprava. Pri decentraliziranem potrjevanju pa davčna uprava postopek potrjevanja prenese na
certificirane ponudnike storitev. Ponudniki storitev delujejo kot posredniki med centralno platformo
in gospodarskim subjektom. V tem primeru potrjevanja s strani ponudnika storitev le-ti ob potrditvi
sporočijo podatke iz računa centralni platformi davčne uprave.

Model potrjevanja prinaša za gospodarske subjekte nekaj izzivov. Običajno oblika dokumentov za
potrjevanje ne temelji na določenem standardu, temveč je osredotočena na potrebe davčne uprave.
Izmenjava računov in povezanih dokumentov lahko poteka neposredno med gospodarskimi subjekti
ali preko ponudnikov storitev, pri tem pa model na zagotavlja avtomatične interoperabilnosti. V
nekaterih državah se pogosto kot prevladujoči mehanizem izmenjave uporablja celo elektronska
pošta.

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Italija je trenutno edina država v EU, ki je v celoti uvedla obvezno potrjevanje e-računov. Pri tem so
njihovo obstoječo platformo za izmenjavo B2G nadgradili tako, da izvaja tudi potrjevanje e-računov.
V poročilu ministrstva za gospodarstvo in finance so zapisali, da je italijanska blagajna v prvih šestih
mesecih po uvedbi obveznih e-računov in potrjevanja uspešno povrnila kar 1,4 milijarde evrov
prihodkov od DDV [10].

Opaža se tudi trend, da v državah, ki so uvedle model potrjevanja e-računov, sedaj potrjevanje širijo
tudi na druge poslovne dokumente. V Mehiki je na primer potrebno transakcije plačilnih list potrditi
na enak način kot račune. V nekaterih drugih državah južne Amerike (Čile, Argentina, Kostarika,
Kolumbija in Ekvador) morajo biti potrjene določene informacije o financiranju računa.

Centralizirani model izmenjave

Centralizirani model izmenjave nadomešča neposredno izmenjavo dokumentov med gospodarskimi

subjekti. Centralno platformo ali omrežje za izmenjavo e-računov med kupci in prodajalci vzpostavi
država. Pri tem se lahko izmenjava uporablja samo za transakcije B2G ali tudi za transakcije B2G in
B2B. Centralna platforma se lahko vključi v modele potrjevanja, tako da ta platforma tudi potrjuje
transakcije.

Težave centraliziranega modela so, da na obliko dokumenta vplivajo večinoma potrebe davčne
uprave in ne gospodarskih subjektih, ki iščejo učinkovitost dobavne verige. Interoperabilnost med
kupci in prodajalci je lahko omejena na izmenjavo specifičnih dokumentov (npr. račun) in ne na
celoten nabor poslovnih dokumentov, kar ovira popolno avtomatizacijo nabavnih in prodajnih
procesov. Poleg tega uporaba centraliziranega modela izmenjave tudi vodi v uporabo ločenih rešitev
in postopkov, ki so potrebni za povezane dokumente (npr. naročilo), ki se lahko izmenjuje neposredno
med trgovinskimi partnerji.

Decentralizirani CTC model izmenjave

V letu 2022 je skupina mednarodnih strokovnjakov razvila decentraliziran model CTC, ki naj bi
najbolj optimalno uravnotežil potrebe države in podjetij [12]. Za razliko od centraliziranega modela,
izvajajo pri decentraliziranem CTC modelu preverjanje in izmenjavo podatkov certificirani ponudniki
storitev, kar predstavlja razbremenitev za delovanje državne platforme. Ta model omogoča
gospodarskim subjektom, da uporabijo in podprejo obstoječe naložbe v interoperabilnost in
elektronsko izmenjavo podatkov (EDI).
Vsi certificirani ponudniki storitev morajo skrbeti za vnaprej določene minimalne tehnične standarde,

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 da bi zagotovili interoperabilnost sistema, pri čemer lahko uporabljajo druge dogovorjene standarde
zunaj območja reguliranih standardov za davčno poročanje in potrjevanje.

Certificirani ponudniki posredujejo centralni platformi samo omejen nabor podatkov, ki so na računu.
Pošiljanje podatkov centralni platformi se izvede sočasno z izmenjavo poslovnega dokumenta, kar
omogoča neprekinjeno dobavno verigo.

Primerjava CTC modelov

Spodnja tabela predstavlja povzetek primerjave, kako različni modeli CTC podpirajo zahteve z vidika
gospodarskega subjekta in davčne uprave. Na splošno lahko sklepamo, da so s fiskalnega vidika vsi
modeli CTC zmožni zagotoviti želene fiskalne koristi, vendar pa se precej razlikujejo pri omogočanju
širših gospodarske koristi in enostavnosti uporabe za gospodarske subjekte.

Tabela 1. Primerjava CTC modelov glede na zahteve države in podjetij.

Poročanje o
Centralizirana Decentraliziran
Gradniki & zahteve računih v Potrjevanje
izmenjava CTC
realnem času

Enostavnost izvajanja/uporabe za
delno delno NE DA
državo

Enostavnost izvajanja/uporabe za
delno delno DA DA
MSP

Enostavnost izvedbe/uporabe za večje

DA delno delno DA
gospodarske subjekte

Postopno uvajanje NE NE NE DA

Izkoriščanje obstoječih standardov in

NE NE NE DA
naložb

Kritična točka odpovedi DA delno NE DA

Interoperabilnost NE NE NE DA

Vzdrževanje in podpora DA delno NE DA

Zaupnost podatkov DA NE NE DA

Avtomatizacija dobavne verige delno NE NE DA

Inovativnost in dodana vrednost delno delno NE DA

Pravična razporeditev stroškov

delno delno NE DA
spremembe

84
Model interoperabilnosti ni vključen v primerjalno tabelo, saj sam po sebi ne ponuja mehanizmov za
posredovanje podatkov o transakcijah v realnem času davčni upravi. V tabeli vrednost "DA" pomeni
polno izpolnjevanje zahtev, "delno" pomeni pogojno izpolnjevanje zahtev, "NE" pa pomeni očitne
pomanjkljivosti pri izpolnjevanju zahtev.

Zaključek

Posredne davčne goljufije in utaje predstavljajo pomemben problem za mnoge države po vsem svetu.
Zato države preučujejo pristope za obvladovanje davčnega primanjkljaja. Eden od pristopov je
uvedba tako imenovanega stalnega nadzora transakcij ali CTC, ki temelji na pridobivanju podatkov
od davčnega subjekta na ravni transakcije v realnem ali skoraj realnem času.

Ker sprejemanje modelov CTC raste po vsem svetu, postaja pomanjkanje usklajenosti med
zakonodajami v kombinaciji z obremenitvijo davčnih subjektov vse bolj problematično. Države imajo
sedaj na voljo praktične dokaze in politično podporo, ki jo potrebujejo za spodbujanje ambicioznih
programov v smeri digitalne odpornosti. Že sedaj lahko vidimo, da se CTC in druge pobude za
digitalizacijo DDV pospešeno širijo v državah po vsem svetu. Uspehi, na račun zmanjšanja DDV
primanjkljaja in spodbujanja avtomatizacije, spodbujajo uporabo podobnih ukrepov v številnih
drugih reguliranih poslovnih in upravnih procesih.

Veliko Evropskih držav je že uvedlo CTC (npr. Italija, Madžarska), nekatere druge se na uvedbo
pripravljajo (npr. Francija, Poljska). Realno je pričakovati, da bo temu zgledu sledilo več držav v
Evropi. Tako širše sprejemanje CTC bo verjetno vplivalo tudi na druge države zunaj Evrope, ki jih je
v preteklosti zgledovala evropska zakonodaja (npr. Avstralija, Južna Afrika, Izrael).

Literatura in viri

1. Zakon o davku na dodano vrednost - ZDDV-1. Uradni list RS, št. 13/11 – uradno prečiščeno
besedilo, 18/11, 78/11, 38/12, 83/12, 86/14 in 90/15: ZDDV-1-NPB11.
2. KOCH, Bruno: E-Invoicing journey 2019-2025, Billentis, Maj 2019
3. European Commission. VAT Gap. Na voljo na:
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_21_6466
4. SOVOS. Trends, 13th Edition 2022. Na voljo na https://sovos.com/content-library/vat/sovos-
global-vat-compliance-trends-2022/
5. Peppol CTC Reference Document Na voljo na: https://peppol.eu/downloads/peppol-ctc/

85
6. EESPA. A next generation model for electronic tax reporting and invoicing. Na voljo na
https://eespa.eu/a-next-generation-model-for-electronic-tax-reporting-and-invoicing/
7. OpenPEPPOL. Na voljo na https://peppol.eu
8. EESPA. European e-invoicing service providers association. Na voljo na https://eespa.eu/
9. The ‘Global Interoperability Framework. Na voljo na https://www.gifworks.io
10. CEN/TR 16931-4:2017, Electronic invoicing - Part 4: Guidelines on interoperability of electronic
invoices at the transmission level
11. CEF eDelivery. Na voljo na https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/wiki/display/CEFDIGITAL/eDelivery
12. European MultiStakeholder Forum for E-Invoicing - Subgroup 4: Report on interoperability and
transmission of e-invoices with a special focus on the needs of Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises (SMEs). Na voljo na
https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/wiki/display/CEFDIGITAL/2018/11/20/EMSFEI+published+a+k
ey+document+on+eInvoicing+transmission+and+interoperability?preview=/80184632/8441174
1/FINAL%20EMSFEI%20report%20on%20Interoperability%20and%20transmission.pdf

86
Larysa Lebedeva,
State University of Trade and Economics, Kiev, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0001-8632-5460

Alyona Sorokina,
State University of Trade and Economics, Kiev, Ukraine
orcid.org/0000-0002-6512-2776

TOUCHLESS ECONOMY: CHANGE IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND IN

BUSINESS

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the usual channels of contact, minimizing it in
such a way as to limit the spread of the virus in the future. Under such conditions, the demand for
the touchless nature of economic relations has increased, new concepts of economics have
emerged, such as touchless economy. The article demonstrates one of the ways of adapting
businesses and other economic agents through the use of the touchless economy model. New ways
of organizing business in a conditions of low touch economy have been described. The tools of a
touchless economy both digital and technological have been shown. The reasons behind the
emergence of touchless concept were identified, changes in consumer behaviour that have become
the basis for creating a model of touchless economy were analyzed. The pandemic impact on
consumer behaviour in Ukraine and the economic environment in general are shown, the most
vulnerable areas of economic activity were identified. Problem points that may stand in the way of
effective implementation of this model in Ukraine were analyzed.

Keywords: Touchless economy, pandemic crisis, behavioral change, innovative technologies,

digitalization

Introduction

In today's pandemic environment of limited contact, there is a problem of rapid adaptation and change
in the nature of economic relations. In this case, the model of touchless economy is a relevant and
effective option, as its main goal is to minimize contact, and the tools are characterized by a high
level of flexibility.

The concept of a touchless economy was developed by the “Board of Innovation” a Dutch firm of
business design and innovation strategies in response to the crisis caused by COVID-19. According
to this concept, a touchless economy (or "low touch economy") is a socio-economic relationship that
implies a lack of direct contact between its participants (e.g, online conferences, ordering products or
other goods online, etc.) [1]. Many scientists have studied the impact of the pandemic on the current
economic situation and on changing consumer behavior, including Alfonso V. [1], Di Crosta A. [2],

87
Guthrie C. [3], Ivkovic N. [4].

The basis of the touchless economy is a model of a digital economy. Since the model of touchless
economy is relatively new one, it is merely described in economics. However, analyzing the practical
implementation of this model, we can identify its features:
- elimination or minimization of direct contact between participants in economic relations;
- time savings when performing certain actions;
- high digitalization and the use of the latest technologies;
- reduction of the cost of effective organization of economic activity;
- one of the main goals of this model is to ensure the return of public life to its "normal
functioning", to make possible those everyday operations that had to be limited as a result of
COVID-19;
- the driving force behind a creation of effective methods of touchless economy is the level of
innovation of research conducted in the country of use (we can say that the touchless economy
is based on the knowledge economy).

The Purpose of the Study is to analyze the changes in behavior of economic agents (business and
consumers) during the pandemic, and to identify the possibilities of touchless economy model to
contribute positively to economic development in crisis conditions. The main Research Methods used
were the method of scientific abstraction, historical and analytical methods that helped determine the
theoretical basis of the model of touchless economy. The experimental method allowed to form
practical measures using the tools of touchless economy, that aim to help business to adapt to the
current volatile state of Ukraine's economy.

Influence of COVID-19 on economic relations

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a devastating effect on the global economy. International market
mechanisms, despite their adaptive flexibility, have failed to deliver the expected response in a timely
manner, slowing the work of many governments in the fight against the pandemic. The onset of the
pandemic was marked by considerable uncertainty and the complexity of government decision-
making, with most countries prioritizing the health of citizens when developing strategic goals. As a
result of numerous quarantine restrictions, the economy of each individual country has been
negatively affected: production, consumption, and employment have decreased. The most vulnerable
were such industries as transport, construction, retail, services, tourism and hotel business [5, p. 11].
The pandemic has caused a drastic change in the nature of economic relations. Currently, their main
features are:

88
 - Change in consumer demand (consumer priorities are mostly focused on meeting basic needs,
necessities, such as food, cleaning products, etc.) [2, p. 2];
- Increase in demand for personal care products (such as sanitizers or protective masks - those
products that a wide range of consumers did not pay attention to before the pandemic);
- The process of buying as a result of contact restrictions acquires new features: the number of
online purchases is growing;
- As before, the result of a purchase is utility maximization or receiving of certain benefits, but
now the emotional benefits outweigh the rational (increasing the impact of the economy of
impressions);
- • Most consumers prefer economic transactions that do not pose a threat and are safe for their
health;
- Preferring a touchless method of receiving goods.

The rapid change in consumer behavior requires the same rapid response from businesses. Given the
situation caused by COVID-19, entrepreneurs have three options for solving problems of their
operational activities: to maintain standard operating principles and work in accordance with
quarantine restrictions (which may further lead to reduced profits); to liquidate the enterprise (the
option is quite common among small businesses, especially in developing countries) or to adapt their
business model to a current situation.

Studies show that only 15% of companies are able to "win" by choosing to operate on the principles
of their sustainable behavior in modern pandemic conditions [1]. This suggests that the best option in
this case would be to adapt the business model to new market conditions. Based on the features that
characterize modern economic relations, we can conclude that the most effective concept to choose
from is the concept of touchless economy.

Consumer behavioral changes as a result of the pandemic

The main trends in behavioral change resulting from COVID-19 are:
- increased digital technologies adoption;
- reduced mobility (less usage of means of transport and increased remote work);
- changes in purchasing behavior (consumers buy mainly based on their own values (which
during pandemics have shifted towards maintaining their own health and minimizing the risks
that could harm them), online shopping share has increased),
- consumers are more inclined to save than before;

89
 - heavier attention is paid to own health nutrition;
- changes in interpersonal behavior (increased divorce rate, people are more likely to buy pets).

All these trends are interrelated, most authors argue that the intensification of digital tools usage blurs
the boundaries between work, lifestyle and social interaction, as well as between areas such as
mobility, health and finance [4, p. 8].

If we analyze changes in consumption in terms of certain product categories, we can conclude that
the pattern of behavior has changed in each category, including food, health and entertainment.
The Global Consumer Insights Survey has conducted a research to help businesses respond actively
and effectively to changes in consumer behavior in future. The study shows that consumers spent less
on the category of non-food products. Due to the pandemic, consumers are willing to spend less on:
shoes and clothes (a decrease of 51%), sports equipment (a decrease of 46%), visits to restaurants (a
decrease of 41%), office equipment (a decrease of 36%), health products and beauty (35% reduction)
[6].

Current consumption in Ukraine can be clearly characterized by its pessimism: due to the unstable
economic situation in the country, consumers often show uncertainty and distrust both when making
a purchase and when planning their future purchases. The COVID-19 pandemic, worsening of
economic situation and the general instability of the economic environment in Ukraine have led to a
reduction in impulsive purchases and an increase in the expected rational benefits for consumers.

During the pandemic, Ukrainians began to buy more food and medicine, hygiene and beauty products,
alcoholic beverages and home and garden products. Goods that Ukrainians postpone buying for the
future are clothes, shoes and vacation / travel expenses. As for the digital sphere, that is increasingly
replacing offline space due to the coronavirus, the use of smartphones (an increase of 70% compared
to the pre-quarantine period) and computers (an increase of 44%) has increased in Ukraine [7].

Business adaptation in response to a pandemic

Changes in consumer behavior have accelerated the growth in use of digital tools in contact points
between consumer and seller. The higher the level of e-commerce development in a country in 2019,
the higher the growth rate of e-commerce during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the growth of e-
commerce was faster where deterrence measures were stricter [1, p. 3].

Thus, as a result of the pandemic, consumer spending on e-purchases increased by 183 billion dollars

90
[16]. At the same time, in the first half of 2020, revenues from Amazon increased (by 34% year on
year), Alibaba (by 27%), JD (by 28%), Shopify (by 74%), Rakuten (by 16%) and Mercado Libre (by
50%) [1, p. 4].

During the pandemic, the e-commerce sector faced three main challenges:
- Availability of products;
- Failures in logistics and transportation;
- The necessity of consumer protection due to restrictions.

In response to these problems, the need to create a new business model have risen. During the
pandemic, e-commerce companies used new technologies for logistics and supply. E-commerce
giants: Alibaba, Amazon and JD used automated technologies such as autonomous cars, robots and
drones to ensure secure "touchless" delivery to customers.

In addition, most e-commerce platforms have expanded their range of services to meet new societal
needs, such as online education and telemedicine. Consumer protection has also improved: in order
to reduce fraud and ensure fair prices, Amazon, Mercado Libre and others have removed overly high-
priced offers from their platforms.

The COVID-19 outbreak has become a catalyst for accelerating digitization, not just a temporary
phenomenon. In Ukraine and globally trends in consumer behavior indicate of future significant
structural changes in consumption, as it is likely that consumers will retain their modified behavior.
Undoubtedly, the most successful companies in this situation will be those that manage to adapt to
the general digitalization and become “touchless” in business.

For successful operation during a pandemic, businesses can use the following elements of a touchless
economy [8]:
- shift to remote work and digitize ways of contact with consumers, which is often accompanied
by significant innovation processes;
- where the previous option is not possible, at least provide the safest possible environment for
consumers and employees.

The tools of a touchless economy include both digital and technological. The choice of a tool depends
on the business model and type of activity of the enterprise. The following tools of touchless economy
can be identified:

91
 - artificial intelligence,
- Internet of Things,
- deeptech technologies (technologies created by scientific and engineering research, which
usually contain scientific novelty and are unique. Examples of such technologies include
electric vehicles, quantum technologies, technologies that provide cybersecurity, etc.),
- robotics, drones,
- eSports, virtual reality,
- Big Data (processing and systematization of large data sets can optimize work in many areas
of business. In particular, this tool is used in digitizing process of the company's activities and
its contacts with consumers (creating mobile applications and websites with direct user
authorization, which allows you to quickly predict trends in consumer demand, classify
products / services according to consumer preferences, etc.),
- blockchain (often used as a kind of enterprise data protection and as a possibility of quick
transactions),
- fintech (financial technology),
- martech (marketing technology),
- medtech (medical technology),
- virtual assistants, chatbots, etc.

The most common solutions are: social distancing, video conferencing, protective glass to create
distance, remote work, automation of technical equipment, limiting the number of people in one room
and restrictions on travel / their minimization.

The effectiveness of this model can be observed by analyzing the practical experience of its
application. Since the beginning of the pandemic, many companies have applied the touchless
economy model in practice. For example, travel companies operating in the tourism industry have
introduced a 60% hotel occupancy system to avoid overcrowding. In addition, hotel rooms remained
unoccupied for 12 hours between the arrival of each new visitor. A large number of technical
equipment of a preventive nature has appeared. For example, Belgian broadcasters used distance
bracelets to protect actors from infection during filming. In Singapore, the practice of using patrol
robots to help control physical distance in public places has become widespread. In addition, most
countries use wristbands to monitor quarantine.

Japan is the most striking example of the use of tools of touchless economy and introduction of the
mechanism of its functioning in business. Japan is currently one of the leaders in the market of

92
robotics, production of sensor communication technologies and artificial intelligence. It should be
noted that these industries were a priority in Japan before the pandemic, but are now more widely
used in everyday life.

As contact between people has been minimized during the pandemic, Japanese robotics and non-
contact technology have gained unprecedented demand in the global market, including increased
demand for robots in healthcare and services. Along with digitalization and remote work, COVID-19
was a turning point for Japanese industry towards the recovery of a weak national economy [9, p.
129].

With the outbreak of COVID-19, Japanese companies announced the development of new
technologies that will help business environment to adapt more quickly to quarantine restrictions. For
example, in May 2020, an elevator manufacturer Fujitec released a model with an optional touchless
panel function that uses infrared sensors to select a destination based on the position of the hand above
the dashboard. Touchless elevator control panels have become a popular product against during
pandemic to avoid cross-contamination [9, p. 136].

NEC, another technology company that has successfully adapted to the pandemic, has developed a
new face recognition system. This system recognizes exposed objects, such as eyes and other
uncovered parts, to verify the subject's identity. The system can be used at the entrance to office
buildings, hotels, apartments, airports and other facilities [10].

Also popular is the use of the fintech concept - modern IT institutions of innovative IT technologies.
At the end of 2020, there were more than 500 startups in the world, 70 of which belonged to
companies that use fintech. In particular, the most successful is the experience of companies such as
Stripe (application programming interface for receiving and processing online payments), Paytm
(Indian startup, whose main idea is to develop a digital wallet), Chime (American innovative online
banking that works without physical branches, exclusively online), Klarna (Swedish startup that
provides companies with a payment gateway to receive payments from customers) [11, p. 355].

Model of touchless economy in Ukraine

COVID-19 has led to the transition to a model of touchless economy in Ukraine as well. The level of
digitalization and the use of innovation to minimize contact may be small compared to developed
countries, but it should not be overlooked that steps towards further development have been taken.
Thus, directly due to the pandemic in Ukraine [12, p. 85]:

93
 - Increased online sales;
- Online payments and touchless delivery have become widespread;
- Special services in cafes and restaurants.

The following measures using the tools of touchless economy to mitigate the adaptation of business
to the current volatile state of Ukraine's economy can be identified (Table 1.)

Table 1. Solving main problems of the pandemic with the help of tools of touchless economy
Sphere Problems that may be solved Instruments of touchless economy
with the tools of touchless
economy
Temporary Avoidance of negative Use of technologies that will help
accommodation and consequences from the established ensure maximum consumer safety:
catering rules of social distance, possible self-disinfectants at the entrance,
lockdown demarcation of the hall, etc.
Use of digital marketing tools
(constant communication with the
consumer in the digital space).
Tourism Closing borders Mobile applications that will help
Self-isolation and social distance promote local tourism, virtual reality
Decrease in demand
Transport (air Closing borders Artificial intelligence technologies,
transportation Self-isolation and social distance short- and long-term forecasts for
between countries) changes in consumer behavior, the
use of chatbots and digital means of
sales promotion
Logistic Closing borders Digital register that uses artificial
transportation Disruption of supply chains intelligence to control the supply
chains
Sphere of Social distance Virtual reality
entertainment Behavioral changes of consumers E-sports
Industrial Closing borders Adaptation of production lines
production Disruption of supply chains through the use of industry 4.0
Social distance technologies: 3D printing, artificial
intelligence, unmanned aerial
vehicles
Wholesale and Social distance Emphasis on self-service
retail trade Self-isolation Use of robotics, touchless payment
The transition to a digital economy
Source: compiled by the authors

Conclusions

The structural changes in the economy that took place during the COVID-19 pandemic have led to
the emergence of a new model of economic relations - the model of touchless economy. The
distinctive feature of this model is a high level of digitalization in production of goods and services.
94
This makes the model a trigger for changes in the external environment, and, therefore, in today's
pandemic environment, the concept of touchless economy is the most advantageous in usage, both in
the business environment and in general by all economic agents.

Among the reasons that led to the emergence of the concept of touchless economy are: changes in
consumer behavior, sectoral, macroeconomic, geopolitical changes, the emergence of new
opportunities and resources, increasing the use of digital technologies. However, the biggest impact
is the change in consumer behavior, that requires a rapid response from business. We can identify the
following trends in consumer behavior, which are currently observed the most: increasing the number
of online purchases, the predominance of emotional benefits over rational, purchases are based on
consumer values (the need to protect their own health, minimize risks when using services enterprises,
purchases of goods, etc.), consumers increasingly prefer safe purchases that do not pose a threat to
their health.

In accordance with the change in consumer behavior, the principles of business operation have also
changed. Thus, we can already see many practical usage of tools of touchless economy, such as:
artificial intelligence, robotics, unmanned aerial vehicles, e-sports, virtual reality, Big Data, fintech,
martech (marketing technologies), virtual assistants, chatbots.

References

1. Board of Innovation. The winners of the low touch economy: how companies can recover and
grow in the new normal. Retrieved from
https://ru.calameo.com/read/0054192602a096fed1d24?view=slide&page=1
2. Alfonso, V., Boar, C., Frost, J., Gambacorta, L., Liu, J. (2021). E-commerce in the pandemic and
beyond. BIS Bulletins, 36, 1-9.
3. Crosta, A., Ceccato, I., Marchetti D., La Malva P., Maiella R., et al (2021). Psychological factors
and consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. Plos one, 16, 8, 1-23.
4. Guthrie, C., Fosso-Wamba, S., Arnaud, J.B (2021). Online consumer resilience during a
pandemic: An exploratory study of e-commerce behavior before, during and after a COVID-19
lockdown. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 61, 1-15.
5. Ivkovic, N. (2021). Beyond the pandemic - a new era of consumer behavior. Conference: 65th
International Scientific Conference on Economic and Social Development Development.
6. Shrestha, N., Shad, M.Y. & Ulvi, O (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on globalization. One
Health, 11, 1-31.
7. Global Consumer Insights Survey 2020. Retrieved from https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/consumer-
95
 markets/consumer-insights-survey/2020/pwc-consumer-insights-survey-2020.pdf
8. The main trends in quarantine: what has changed in the behavior of Ukrainians. Retrieved from
https://www.epravda.com.ua/publications/2020/04/14/659337/ [in Ukrainian].
9. The Low-Touch Economy – What it is and why it's important for your business. Retrieved from
https://www.spica.com/blog/covid-shield-low-touch-economy
10. Tan, S.K. (2021). Global Pandemic, Technology Booms and New Business Trends: The Case of
Japan. International Journal of East Asian Studies, 10, 1, 120-140.
11. Masks No Obstacle for New NEC Facial Recognition System. Retrieved from
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-japan-facial-recog-idUSKBN29C0JZ
12. Nahornyi, P. (2021). Fintech: trends and prospect of development in the transition to a touchless
economy. Black Sea Science, 347–359.
13. Bakhnivskyi, V., Ignashchuk, O. (2020) Ukrainian response to the COVID-19 pandemic:
governmental interventions. Zdrowie Publiczne i Zarzadzanie. Zeszyty Naukowe Ochrony
Zdrowia, 18, 1, 80-87.

96
Đuro Đurić,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic, Bar, Montenegro
orcid.org/0000-0002-8101-5508

Sandra Đurović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic, Bar, Montenegro orcid.org/0000-
0001-5874-9581

Vladimir Jovanović,
Faculty of Law for Commerce and Judiciary, University Business Academy, Novi Sad, Serbia
orcid.org/0000-0003-1741-9062

NEW LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS IN THE EU

Abstract. In June 2019 European Parliament and Council adopted the Directive 1023/2019 on
preventive restructuring frameworks, on discharge of debt and disqualifications and on measures
to increase the efficiency of procedures concerning restructuring, insolvency and discharge of debt
(Directive on preventive restructuring framework). This is an important step not only in
harmonizing national regulations but also first document on the EU level enabling companies and
other entities in financial difficulties to continue their business by restructuring of their assets and
liabilities, any other part of their capital structure, as well as by carrying out operational changes.
The purpose of the preventive restructuring frameworks is to encourage all business entities
potentially facing such difficulties to restructure effectively at an early stage and thus to avoid
insolvency. Harmonization process that follows represents an important challenge for all EU
national legislators. Authors of this paper analyze the new framework, its effects on business
performance and provide a comparative overview of implementation of new framework in EU
countries, which has to be completed by July 2022.

Keywords: legal framework, sustainable business, preventive restructuring, EU

Introduction

EU Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks provides new legal instruments

available for debtors facing financial difficulties. Some countries have already had different
insolvency prevention procedures [1], but the objective of the new frameworks is to uniform national
legislations in the EU. Preventive restructuring frameworks are available for all business entities,
legal and natural persons, who are in the position of debtors in a business relationship. Debtors facing
difficulties likely to lead to insolvency are allowed to use new instruments to prevent the insolvency
in order to ensure the viability of business, to discharge of debt and to implement measures increasing

97
the efficiency of restructuring, insolvency and discharge of debt [2]. However, these new frameworks
do not apply to debtors in financial sector. Directive 1023/2019 excludes insurance/reinsurance
undertakings, credit institutions, investment firms or collective investment undertakings and other
financial institutions, and entities public bodies and natural persons non performing business activity
from its field of application.

Main tool of crisis and insolvency prevention is debt and business/corporate restructuring. It may
emphasize one or several measures aiming the debtor's business. By these measures, changes may be
performed in liabilities or any other part of the debtor's capital structure. Also, composition,
conditions or structure of a debtor's assets may be the subject of restructuring measures (for ex. assets
or parts of the business or the business as a going concern may be sold). Finally, any other necessary
operational changes, such as the termination or amendment of contracts or the sale or other disposal
of assets. It may also include measures such as debt-to-equity swaps. In any case, such operational
measures have to comply with the general requirements of civil law, labour law rules and safeguards.
[3]. All restructuring measures are based on adopted restructuring plan. This process includes
different parties such as creditors, employees, or classes of creditors and equity holders, whose claims
or interests are directly affected by a restructuring plan.

The objective of restructuring process is to enable debtors in financial difficulties to continue their
business. However, depending on economic and financial situation of the debtor, the continuation
after restructuring may be conducted in whole or in part. Primarily preventive restructuring
frameworks have as a purpose to enable debtors to restructure effectively at an early stage and to
avoid insolvency. In that sense, restructuring allows limiting the unnecessary liquidation of viable
enterprises. Further, it prevents job losses and the loss of know-how and skills, and maximize the
total value to creditors. This is very important for creditors, since their claims will more likely be
satisfied in comparison to payments in the liquidation of the enterprise's assets or any other situation
of settlement in the absence of a plan [4]. Finally, the preventive restructuring allows to owners and
the economy as a whole to receive the payment, which is unlikely in any crisis situation.

New Directive assumes that enterprises, in particular SMEs, represent 99 % of all businesses in the
European Union, would benefit from a more coherent legislative approach at Union level [5]. In the
practice, most SMEs are more likely to be liquidated rather than restructured. The main obstacle is
that they have to bear large costs that are disproportionately higher than those faced by larger
enterprises. Also, SMEs facing financial difficulties, often do not have access to the necessary
resources to cover high restructuring costs. In order to allow them to restructure at low cost, EU

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Commission considers to propose a comprehensive check-lists for restructuring plans, especially
adapted to the needs and specificities of SMEs. In addition, early warning tools should be put in place
to warn debtors of the urgent need to act, taking into account the limited resources of SMEs for hiring
experts.

Early warning tools and access to information

Among the instruments for preventive restructuring, EU Directive 1023/2019 provided the obligation
for member states to ensure that debtors have access to one or more clear and transparent early
warning tools. These legal instruments should allow debtors to detect important circumstances
leading to a likelihood of insolvency and which may be the signal to act without delay [6]. Early
warning tools may be used as an internal or self-assessment and as external intervention. Provisions
of the Directive provide that early warning tools may include: 1) alert mechanisms when the debtor
has not made certain types of payments, 2) advisory services provided by public or private
organisations and 3) incentives under national law for third parties with relevant information about
the debtor, such as accountants, tax and social security authorities, to flag to the debtor a negative
development [7]. Thus debtors should be encouraged to search for solution for envisaged or
forthcoming financial difficulties in negotiations with affected parties and especially creditors in out-
of-court settlements. In order to protect rights and interests of all affected parties, EU member states
have to ensure that debtors and employees' representatives have access to relevant and up-to-date
information about the availability of early warning tools and procedures and measures concerning
restructuring and discharge of debt. In practice, that will mean that the states will have to publish all
relevant information on access to early warning tools on the official pages of public ministries and
relevant agencies.

As incentive for debtors to react once the likelihood of insolvency is detected, some new duties were
introduced for directors. Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks provides that
directors will have due regard, as a minimum, to the interests of creditors, equity holders and other
stakeholders, the need to take steps to avoid insolvency and the need to avoid deliberate or grossly
negligent conduct that threatens the viability of the business. All EU member states have to harmonize
their legislations with regard to these provisions.

Availability and facilitating the use of preventive restructuring frameworks

For a long time financial difficulties of debtor were followed by negative image in public and debtors
often undertook business recovery measures in a late stage of crisis and once their business was

99
irreversibly compromised. That was the reason to ensure that, when an insolvency is threatening the
business, debtors have access to the adequate preventive restructuring instruments. The new
frameworks should enable them to restructure the business, for the purpose of preventing insolvency
and ensuring their viability. There is no preference comparing to other instruments for avoiding
insolvency, protecting jobs and maintaining business activity [8]. Depending on type of debtor and/or
causes of business crisis, applied preventive restructuring instrument may consist of one or more
procedures, measures or provisions. Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks sets
on the equal level instruments taking place in and out of court with any other restructuring instrument
provided by the national law. However, it ensures that such restructuring frameworks afford debtors
and affected parties the rights and safeguards in a coherent manner.

Once the preventive restructuring instruments are made easily accessible to the debtors and once they
are encouraged to use them, it is also important to allow debtors to carry them out efficiently in order
to keep sustainability of the business. The debtor should have the opportunity to conduct easily
negotiations with parties affected by restructuring process. For that purpose, new preventive
restructuring frameworks provide two facilitating instruments, such as debtor in possession and stay
of individual enforcement actions. The only authority entitled to order these facilitating measures is
the court. These measures are ordered upon the proposal of the debtor. Until recently, such
instruments were not available until entering the insolvency proceedings, in which debtor often faced
the loss of control over its business. Keeping the debtor in possession allows to conduct negotiations
on restructuring plan in the same legal position as before using the instrument and to sustain the
business while negotiations are in progress. Also, negotiations on restructuring plan are facilitated by
stay of any enforcement actions taken by the creditors. Although this is only interim instrument,
lasting 2-3 months, it provides an important relief until the negotiations with main creditors are
completed [9]. By these means, debtor has precious additional time to elaborate and submit draft of
restructuring plan with all necessary measures to implement.

Restructuring plan

The nucleus of the preventive restructuring process is the restructuring plan. In its basis, it is
negotiated agreement providing legal ground for restructuring process and allowing restructuring
measures to be applied. It may be concluded between debtor and some or all creditors out of court
proceedings or be confirmed by the court. This will also decide on its collective or non-collective
effect. The out of court adoption of the plan may be more or less formal. It may be adopted after
informal negotiation are completed, assisted by a mediator or supervised by the judicial authority.
Since the restructuring plan is a preventive instrument, the only entitled to submit it for adoption is
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the debtor. In the case of a company, this has to be decision taken by assembly of equity holders.
Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks sets minimum requirements for any
restructuring plan as preventive instrument submitted for adoption or confirmation by a judicial or
administrative authority. It has to provide 1) the identity of the debtor, 2) the debtor's assets and
liabilities at the time of submission of the restructuring plan (including a value for the assets), 3) a
description of the economic situation of the debtor, the position of workers and a description of the
causes and the extent of the difficulties of the debtor, 4) the affected parties (whether named
individually or described by categories of debt) and their claims or interests covered by the
restructuring plan, 5) the classes into which the affected parties have been grouped, for the purpose
of adopting the restructuring plan, and the respective values of claims and interests in each class (if
applicable), 6) the parties, named individually or described by categories of debt in accordance with
national law, which are not affected by the restructuring plan, with a description of the reasons why
it is proposed not to affect them, 7) the identity of the practitioner in the field of restructuring, 8) the
terms of the restructuring plan, including the statement of reasons which explains why the
restructuring plan has a reasonable prospect of preventing the insolvency of the debtor and ensuring
the viability of the business and the necessary pre-conditions for the success of the plan [10]. Each
EU member states may also require additional information in the plan, such as statement of reasons
for restructuring made or validated by an external expert or practitioner in the field of restructuring if
plan provides its appointment in the process.

After the plan is submitted, all parties affected by the plan have right to discuss and to vote on its
adoption. Parties that are not affected by a restructuring plan do not have right to vote. The plan
proposed for adoption may exclude from the right to vote equity holders, creditors whose claims rank
is below the claims of ordinary unsecured creditors in the normal ranking of liquidation priorities and
any related party of the debtor or the debtor’s business with a conflict of interest [11]. Since the debtor
drafts the plan and divides affected parties in voting classes and although the plan is adopted in out-
of-court process, the formation of classes may need to be examined by a judicial or administrative
authority. Such a plan remains the out-of-court agreement between the debtor and affected parties i.e.
creditors. This allows to protect both interests of creditors and of the debtor submitting such a plan
for adoption and to prevent any discrimination of affected parties.

Judicial confirmation of the restructuring plan

Restructuring plan as preventive instrument may also be confirmed by the court. Such confirmation
provides to it a special legal quality, since the plan becomes a compulsory enforceable instrument.
Until then, a plan adopted by debtor and affected parties bounds as any other agreement concluded

101
under the rules of Civil Law. Without judicial confirmation, it relies on good faith of the debtor [12].
Therefore, Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks sets conditions for
restructuring plan to be binding for the parties. Only restructuring plans confirmed by a judicial or
administrative authority 1) affecting the claims or interests of dissenting affected parties, 2) providing
new financing and restructuring plans and 3) involving the loss of more than 25 % of the workforce
(if such loss is permitted under national law), are binding for debtor and all affected parties [13]. Such
instrument may be considered as a type of judicial pre-insolvency proceedings. The competent
judicial or administrative authority may refuse to confirm a restructuring plan if it would not have a
reasonable prospect of preventing the insolvency of the debtor or ensuring the viability of the
business. It may also be required from such authority to confirm a restructuring plan in order for it to
become binding, the decision is taken in an efficient manner with a view to expeditious treatment of
the matter.

In every multiparty business relation, especially where dissent of creditors prevents the restructuring
plan to be adopted, debtor in possession and stay of enforcement actions are not sufficient to allow
restructuring process to be carried out. That is the reason for introducing instruments facilitation
adoption of the plan. For that purpose, the use of such an instrument has to be confirmed by a
competent authority. A restructuring plan which is not approved by affected parties, in every voting
class, may be confirmed by a judicial or administrative authority upon the proposal of a debtor or
with the debtor's agreement, and become binding upon dissenting voting classes (cross-class cram-
down). However, this does not mean any discrimination of parties. In order to impose the restructuring
plan to opposing parties, Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks provides that
the restructuring plan has to fulfil certain conditions. Such restructuring plan has 1) to be confirmed
by a judicial or administrative authority and 2) it has been approved by: a) majority of the voting
classes of affected parties, provided that at least one of those classes is a secured creditors class or is
senior to the ordinary unsecured creditors class; or that b) at least one of the voting classes of affected
parties or where so provided under national law, impaired parties, other than an equity-holders class
or any other class which, upon a valuation of the debtor as a going concern, would not receive any
payment or keep any interest, or, where so provided under national law, which could be reasonably
presumed not to receive any payment or keep any interest, if the normal ranking of liquidation
priorities were applied under national law, 3) ensures that dissenting voting classes of affected
creditors are treated at least as favourably as any other class of the same rank and more favourably
than any junior class and 4) no class of affected parties can, under the restructuring plan, receive or
keep more than the full amount of its claims or interests [14]. For claims of affected creditors in a
dissenting voting class, it may be provided the satisfaction in full by the same or equivalent means

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where a more junior class is to receive any payment or keep any interest under the restructuring plan.

Planed measures in the restructuring plan are based on the existing value of the debtor’s assets.
However, creditors claims will be paid from the future profit resulted from the recovered business
performance. Since the plan of restructuring has an impact on rights of creditors, equity holders and
other affected parties, it is important to provide to them a detailed valuation of the debtor’s business
situation before voting. In order to protect their interests, the judicial or administrative authority may
take a decision on the valuation of the debtor’s business, but only where a restructuring plan is
challenged by a dissenting affected party. For the same purpose, judicial or administrative authorities
may appoint or hear properly qualified experts.

In the voting on restructuring plan, equity holders may be excluded from the process. In that case,
they are not allowed to unreasonably prevent or create obstacles to the adoption, confirmation and
implementation of a restructuring plan. Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks
ensures protection of individual and collective workers’ rights provided by EU and national labour
legislations in the event of preventive restructuring. These rights will not be affected by the preventive
restructuring framework: the right to collective bargaining and industrial action, the right to
information and consultation in accordance with Directive 2002/14/EC and Directive 2009/38/EC
and the rights guaranteed by Directives 98/59/EC, 2001/23/EC and 2008/94/EC [15]. If the
restructuring plan includes measures leading to changes in the work organization or in contractual
relations with workers, those measures have to be approved by those workers, if national law or
collective agreements provide for such approval in such cases.

Legal effects of the restructuring plan.

Since restructuring plan does not have to include all stakeholders as in an insolvency plan, it has not
always a collective effect. Some parties may remain out of the plan and others do not have to vote for
it. Legal effects of the restructuring plan depend on the type of procedure of its adoption. Out-of-
court adopted restructuring plans have the same legal effect as any other agreement and bounds only
the parties who voted for it. However, if the restructuring plan is provided by the judicial
confirmation, it will be binding for all affected parties named or described in the plan and represents
an enforceable title. If affected parties are from the different countries, it is important to provide cross-
border effect of the plan as well. This issue has still not been resolved neither by the EU regulations
nor by the decisions of the Court of Justice of the EU. On the one side, Art. 1 (2) of the EU Regulation
1215/2012 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial
matters excludes such agreements from the field of its application if they relate to bankruptcy, judicial

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arrangements, compositions or analogous proceedings [16]. Also, EU Regulation 848/2015 on
insolvency proceedings and their cross-border effects still has not preventive restructuring
proceedings listed in its Annex A, since they have no mandatory collective effect required by the Art.
2.1. (1) [17]. On the other side, Court of Justice of the EU has not taken stand on this matter.
Consequently, agreements on restructuring have effect limited only on national jurisdictions.
Therefore, this will require in the future a recast of the Directive 1023/2019 on preventive
restructuring frameworks, as well as the respective EU regulations and adequate decisions of the
Court of Justice of the EU.

Once the restructuring plan is adopted and confirmed, Directive 1023/2019 on preventive
restructuring frameworks provides adequate protection for new financing, interim financing and other
restructuring related transactions. EU member states have to introduce in national legislation a
minimum protection, especially if the debtor subsequently faces an insolvency. In that case, new
financing and interim financing may not be declared as void, voidable or unenforceable [18]. Also,
the grantors of new financing or interim financing will not incur civil, administrative or criminal
liability, if such financing is detrimental to the creditors. However, Directive allows exception may
be set by the national law. This situation may be avoided if a competent judicial or administrative
authority performed ex ante control of the interim financing and confirmed the restructuring plan.

New legal framework also gave an important incentive to the parties affected by the restructuring to
use out-of-court instruments for negotiating and adopting the plan. Among them, mediation process
has an important role. In the EU, on mediation in civil and commercial matters applies Directive
2008/52/EC of 21 May 2008. Also, European Parliament adopted on 13 September 2011 the
Resolution on the implementation of the directive on mediation in the Member States, its impact on
mediation and its take-up by the courts [19]. However, mediation agreements as legal ground for
restructuring still have limited effect, since Art. 3. 1. (a) includes from application of this directive
all mediations conducted by a judge who is not responsible for any judicial proceedings concerning
the dispute in question, as well as attempts made by the court or the judge seized to settle a dispute
in the course of judicial proceedings concerning the dispute in question [20]. However, mediation as
an instrument has many advantages in the practice. It is much less expensive than other proceedings,
provides confidentiality, allows parties to reach creative solution and to maintain good and
sustainable business relation. Its disadvantages are mainly mistrust of parties and lack of enforcement
title.

Finally, Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks introduces measures for

104
increasing the efficiency of procedures of restructuring, insolvency and discharge of debt. These
measures relate judicial and administrative authorities and practitioners in the field of restructuring.
In the process of implementation of the new preventive restructuring frameworks, judicial and
administrative authorities in the EU member states have to provide to the competent authorities
dealing with respective procedures of restructuring, insolvency and discharge of debt suitable
training, necessary expertise concerning their responsibilities as well as efficient and expeditious
carry out of procedures. As for practitioner in the field of restructuring, it covers a large number of
professions. Contrary to insolvency proceedings, it includes not only insolvency administrators, but
also tax advisers, auditors, lawyers and other persons suitable to be appointed in the preventive
restructuring matter. These practitioners also have to receive adequate training and expertise for their
responsibilities, but also for their eligibility, process of appointment, removal and resignation [21].
In order to secure efficiency of the implemented instruments, Directive 1023/2019 on preventive
restructuring frameworks provides that in procedures of restructuring, insolvency and discharge of
debt the parties, practitioners and respective judicial and administrative authorities have to use
electronic means of communication both in national and in cross-border restructuring matters.
Restructuring practitioners have to avoid any conflict of interests and both debtors and creditors are
entitled to object to the appointment of the restructuring practitioner. Therefore, it is important that
this training provide information on clear, transparent and fair process and especially for restructuring
with cross-border elements. Within the EU member states, national authorities have to provide
appropriate oversight and regulatory mechanisms for effective supervision of the work of
restructuring practitioners, in the same way as for insolvency administrators. This has to ensure that
their services in matter of restructuring are performed impartially, independently and in a competent
and effective manner. In that sense, restructuring practitioners have to provide adequate insurance for
professional accountability.

Implementation of the Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring

frameworks in the EU Member states

Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks provides that EU member states have
to adopt and publish by 17 July 2021 the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary
to comply with this Directive. For member states, encountering particular difficulties in implementing
this Directive, an extension of a maximum of one year of the implementation period is provided and
they have to notify to the EU Commission the need to use of this option. However, this deadline was
set before the crisis caused by pandemic of COVID-19. Consequently, in only several EU member
states national legislation is complied with provisions of the Directive. In the implementation process,

105
two main types may be distinguished: German model introducing completely new regulation and
French model of partial reform of the existing regulation [22]. Many states are still in the process of
drafting or discussing government proposal on implementation on new preventive restructuring
frameworks. Thus, the implementation process in all EU member states should be completed in the
following months.

Table 1. Status of implementation of the Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring

frameworks in the EU Member states.
EU Member state Status Implemented through/existing proceedings
1. Austria Implemented Adopted new regulation
2. Belgium Draft law Some proceedings already existing
3. Bulgaria Draft law Some proceedings already existing
4. Croatia Draft law Some proceedings already existing
5. Republic of Cyprus Draft law /
6. Czech Republic Implemented Adopted new regulation
7. Denmark Implemented Amended existing regulation
8. Estonia Draft law /
9. Finland Draft law /
10. France Implemented Amending existing regulation
11. Germany Implemented Adopted new regulation
12. Greece Implemented Adopted new regulation
13. Hungary Implemented Amended existing and adopted new regulation
14. Ireland Draft law Some proceedings already existing
15. Italy Implemented Adopted new regulation
16. Latvia Draft law /
18. Lithuania Implemented Amending existing regulation
19. Luxembourg Draft law Some proceedings already existing
20. Malta Draft law /
21. Netherlands Implemented Adopted new regulation
22. Poland Implemented Relevant proceedings already exist
23. Portugal Implemented Adopted new regulation
24. Romania Implemented Amended existing regulation
25. Slovakia Implemented Amended existing and adopted new regulation
26. Slovenia Draft law Some proceedings already existing
27. Spain Implemented Some proceedings already existing
28. Sweden Draft law Some proceedings already existing

Conclusions

EU legislators had big expectations from the Directive 1023/2019 on preventive restructuring
frameworks and its implementation in national legislation. It should provide a uniformed legal
framework allowing business entities facing financial difficulties and likelihood of insolvency to use
preventive restructuring instruments to secure sustainability of their business and relations with their

106
creditors. However, big challenges also stand before many countries. Only several EU member states
already introduced new preventive restructuring instruments and other were considerably slowed
down by crisis caused by the pandemic of Covid-19. Since business crisis prevention requires a proper
reaction, some early warning mechanisms and specific duties of debtor’s directors were introduced.
Preventive restructuring frameworks cover pre-insolvency out and in-court proceedings, allowing
business entities as debtors to perform measures in order to change their liabilities, capital structure
or assets and other operational measures in order to recover their business in crisis. For purpose of
effective use of instruments, legislator have to make them easily available for debtors and introduce
measures to be ordered by the competent judicial authority on keeping debtor in possession and stay
of individual enforcement actions. This should encourage debtors to use preventive restructuring
instruments rather than to react late and once the business crisis becomes irreversible. Debtors may
use simple negotiating on restructuring plan, apply for assistance of a mediator, which costs less and
provides more confidentiality, submit the plan for adoption in or out of court proceedings or even
require judicial confirmation of the restructuring plan. Such judicial confirmation provides to the
restructuring plan a binding effect for affected parties and quality of a compulsory enforceable title.
It may also provide impose the plan to dissenting parties. In addition, Directive 1023/2019 on
preventive restructuring frameworks provides a requirement for EU member states to introduce
special trainings for competent judicial and administrative authorities dealing with restructuring and
for restructuring practitioners, appointed upon request, allowing them to perform independently and
in competent and effective manner. The results of the implementation of new regulation in practice
are to be expected when the debtors start to use preventive restructuring instruments and when the
first judicial decisions are rendered. In the near future, new regulations on preventive restructuring of
SMEs and on cross-border effects of preventive restructuring should also be expected.

References

1. Đurić, Đ., Jovanović, V. (2020). Pravni instrumenti rešavanja korporativne krize. Novi Sad, 172-
183 [in Serbian].
2. Art. 1.1. (a), Directive (EU) 2019/1023 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June
2019 on preventive restructuring frameworks, on discharge of debt and disqualifications, and on
measures to increase the efficiency of procedures concerning restructuring, insolvency and
discharge of debt, and amending Directive (EU) 2017/1132 (Directive on restructuring and
insolvency), PE/93/2018/REV/1, OJ L 172, 26.6.2019, 18–55. Available from: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/.
3. Madaus, S. (2018). Leaving the Shadow of US Bankruptcy Law: A Proposal to Divide the Realms
of Insolvency and Restructuring Law. European Business Organization Law Review. Vol. 19.
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 No. 3. 615-647.
4. Preamble (2). Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
5. Pre-Concept Note. Business Enabling Environment (BEE) (2022). World Bank. Development
Economics. Global Indicators Group. 54. See also: EU Commission Recommendation of 6 May
2003 concerning the definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (OJ L 124,
20.5.2003, 36-37).
6. Herding, F. B. et al. (2020). The German StaRUG Scheme. Act on Stabilization and Restructuring
Framework for Business. Allen & Overy. 9-10.
7. Art. 3.2. (c). Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
8. Thole, Ch. (2020). Der Entwurf des Unternehmensstabilisierungs- und restrukturierungsgesetzes
(StaRUG-Ref-E). ZIP 2020. 1985-2000 [in German].
9. Rasekh, A., Rosha, A. (2021). Restructuring and Insolvency in Europe: Policy Options in the
Implementation of the EU Directive. International Monetary Fund. Working Papers 2021, 152.
10. Art. 8. Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
11. Ballerini, G., Sacchi, R. (2019). Conflict of Interest and Creditors' Vote in Preventive
Restructuring Frameworks. The 7th International Scientific Conference of the Faculty of Law of
the University of Latvia. 71-82. doi:10.22364/iscflul.7.06, 12.04.2022.
12. Mastilovic, L. (2020). Preventivno restrukturiranje kao sredstvo izbegavanja pojave stečajnih
razloga - nova tendencija zakonodavstva Evropske unije. Evropsko zakonodavstvo. No. 71.
Belgrade. 52-69 [in Serbian].
13. Art. 10.1. Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
14. Art. 11.1. Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
15. Art. 13.1. Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
16. Regulation (EU) No 1215/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December
2012 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial
matters, OJ L 351, 20.12.2012, 1–32.
17. Regulation (EU) 2015/848 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 2015 on
insolvency proceedings, OJ L 141, 5.6.2015, 19–72. Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/.
18. De Weijs R., Baltjes, M. (2018). Opening the Door for the Opportunistic Use of Interim
Financing: A Critical Assessment of the EU Draft Directive on Preventive Restructuring
Frameworks. International Insolvency Review, Volume 27, Issue 2, 223-254.
19. European Parliament resolution of 13 September 2011 on the implementation of the directive on
mediation in the Member States, its impact on mediation and its take-up by the courts,
(2011/2026(INI)), 2013/C 51 E/03. Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/.
20. Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on certain

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 aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters, OJ L 136, 24.5.2008, 3–8. Available from:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/.
21. Art. 13.1. Directive (EU) 2019/1023 on preventive restructuring frameworks.
22. Dammann R. (2022). The transposition of the EU Directive: A great Franco-German
convergence. Eurofenix No. 86. 20-21.

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Section Business Regulation and Sustainable Development
Management

110
Dejana Crvenica,
Faculty of Business Economics and law, Adriatic University, Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3557-97

Sandra Đurović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5874-9581

Jovana Lekić,
Faculty of Business Economics and law, Adriatic University, Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-0842

Nikola Abramović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7865-3592

THE EMPHASIS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY FROM THE ASPECT OF

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Abstract. The transition from conventional to future energy sources will not happen overnight. That
is why we need to work constantly on creating a clean, safe and inexhaustible way of producing
electricity. Wind farms here impose themselves as the logical choice of the safest cleanly produced
energy. Of course, we should use the hydro potential when it comes to mini hydro power plants,
but as well we should be aware of the fact that the hydro potential that Montenegro has for this
type of investment is quite limited. The share of renewable energy sources in the future will be
significantly higher, because there are fewer and fewer non-renewable energy sources, and their
harmful impact on the environment and climate is becoming more obvious. With the development
of technology, renewable energy sources are expected to become economically competitive with
conventional energy sources. Several technologies, especially those for the use of wind energy,
biomass and solar radiation, are already becoming economically more competitive. The process
of adopting new technologies is relatively slow due to the still high starting price, but of great
importance in the application of energy from renewable sources are their environmental
friendliness and encouraging the construction of plants for the production of "clean" energy from
them.

Keywords: Renewable energy sources, sustainable development, environmental management

Introduction

Observing the global changes that have taken place in recent decades and their negative impact on
both the environment and the quality of life, more and more attention is paid to preserving the planet

111
Earth and improving the quality of life in terms of pollution and health. The challenge for our country
is how to take advantage of the chance that with the introduction of renewable energy sources, the
domestic industry that produces equipment for these areas, will replace the industry today that relies
on thermal energy. In the last few years, Montenegro has been making great strides in order to ensure
the reduction of harmful gas emissions. The initial steps are considered to be the membership in
unions, alliances and organizations formed with the above-mentioned goals, as well as the signing of
certain agreements:
- 03.11.2006 - Access to the Energy Community
- 23.03.2007 - Kyoto agreement ratified. The agreement obliges industrialized countries to
stabilize greenhouse gas emissions.
- Convention on Long-range Trans boundary Movements of Pollutants and Related Protocols:
- EMEP protocol (long-term funding for monitoring and evaluation of long-range air pollution
transmission
- Protocol on heavy metals (reduction of cadmium, lead and mercury emissions)
- POPs protocol (reduction of dioxins, furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
- Gothenburg Protocol (setting a maximum national level for the emission of certain pollutants)
- Vienna Convention and Montereal Protocol - reduction of emissions of ozone-depleting
substances
- Sofia Declaration - introduction of CO2 taxes, encouragement of renewable energy sources
and gradual abolition of coal subsidies [13]
- Paris Agreement - the goal is to prevent the rise in temperature by reducing GNG emissions
to the level of 3,667 kilotons.

At the beginning of 2020, Montenegro established an Environmental Protection Fund - ECO Fund,
whose main activity should be the encouragement and development of projects that would contribute
to environmental protection [15]. This is considered to be the most significant step of Montenegro in
ensuring the reduction of harmful gas emissions. Some of the activities of the ECO Fund are:
- Implementation of national strategic planning documents in the field of environmental
protection, sustainable development and energy efficiency;
- Mediation related to the financing of environmental protection, EE and RES from the
provided funds
- Maintaining a database of programs, projects and similar activities
- Establishment and realization of cooperation with international and domestic financial
institutions and other legal entities and individuals , in order to finance projects

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The mission of the ECO Fund is to raise and invest funds in building a sustainable society in
Montenegro, which will be based on the efficient use of all natural resources and low-carbon
development.

The concept and types of renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources (RES from renewable energy sources), formerly permanent energy
sources, are energy resources used for the production of electricity or heat, or any useful work, and
whose reserves are constantly or cyclically renewed. The very name renewable, as well as durable,
comes from the fact that energy is consumed in an amount that does not exceed the speed at which it
is created in nature [1].

Energy resources include the following resources:

- geothermal energy,
- water energy (hydropower),
- solar energy (solar energy),
- wind energy,
- tidal energy and
- biomass energy [3]

All these types of energy are indestructible and therefore should be used to the maximum, on the one
hand because they are renewable and on the other hand, it is energy that does not create waste, does
not create pollution, does not create problems related to clean air, clean environment and clean water,
and does not affect sustainable development [14].

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 Renewable energy sources in the world: state and use

Although the potential of renewable energy sources is enormous (the Sun alone supplies the Earth
with about 15,000 times more energy than humanity consumes today), current technological
developments do not allow relying solely on them. Most of the energy obtained from renewable
sources refers to the energy of watercourses, while the share of other renewable energy sources is
relatively small today [2].

Figure one shows the world's primary energy consumption in 2020.

Figure 1: World primary energy consumption in 2020

Source: Statistical review of world energy 2021.

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Figure two shows the primary energy consumption by region.

Figure 2: Primary energy consumption by regions

Source: Statistical review of world energy 2021.

Greater use of renewable energy sources is therefore possible if the awareness of each individual
about the need to switch from non-renewable to renewable sources develops. In order to achieve this
goal, communication strategies with clearly defined phases are needed, which will enable a better
understanding of the need for greater use of renewable energy sources, creating a communication
model that will enable an effective campaign aimed at raising public awareness and involvement in
the promotion process of all interested parties. [20] Strategic thinking means looking to the future,
introducing new technologies, taking advantage of potential opportunities from the external
environment, using internal advantages, always looking for better alternatives. Today, the question is
no longer whether to plan, but how to implement strategic planning that leads to achieving the goals
of the organization in the best possible way. One of the most important projects in Montenegro, which
testifies to its focus on renewable energy sources, is Solari 3000+.

Renewable energy sources in Montenegro

Renewable sources in the gross final energy consumption in Montenegro have a share of 44.8%. In
relation to the obligations of Montenegro regarding the share of renewable sources in gross final
consumption (33%), this share is much higher, which is desirable in any case. What is particularly
favorable in achieving this share is that only a small part (slightly above 15%) of the total production
of energy from renewable sources will need financial incentives [8].

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For the economy of Montenegro, and especially in the sector of small and medium enterprises, it will
be important to increase the inclusion of renewable energy sources. Primarily for the adoption of new
technologies and job creation. However, it should be borne in mind that the experience of countries
in the region shows that subsidizing renewable sources does not bring the expected effects, in terms
of economic recovery and job creation. Investors, who are mostly foreign, supply almost all
equipment, materials and even labor, as much as possible, from their countries. Thus, the country in
which such investments take place does not benefit much from them. The main benefit is foreign
investors, i.e. the economy of their countries [17]. However, this does not mean that the introduction
of new technologies should be stopped, but that the dynamics and structure of incentives should be
chosen, which is appropriate to the technological, energy and economic situation in Montenegro. If
the envisaged goals related to the use of renewable energy sources are achieved, the necessary
investments in environmental protection will be reduced. In order to encourage investments in the
energy sector, due to the amount of necessary investments, long-term nature of investments and risk
of investment outcomes to unpredictable movements in energy prices, the Government of
Montenegro will, if possible, provide conditions that will make such investments less risky. These
conditions in this context are: legal security, efficient state administration, macroeconomic stability,
acceptable level of tax benefits, adequate human resources, construction of economic infrastructure,
protection of market competition, existence of financial incentives for investments, existence of
specialized state institutions for investment promotion, etc. [12]

According to the scenario proposed by the Energy Development Strategy of Montenegro,

Montenegro's energy dependence increases from 43% in 2008 to 52% in 2015. In 2020, after the
construction of large hydropower plants and TPP Pljevlja II, energy dependence will fall to 25.5%.
After that, it grows again to the level of 31.3% in 2030. This is a relatively good situation in the given
circumstances. For comparison, the EU as a whole is expected to have an energy dependency level
of around 70% in 2030. Therefore, any sensible energy policy should aim to reduce energy
dependence as little as possible. However, the possibilities in this regard are often very limited. When
it comes to Montenegro, the growth of oil and natural gas imports is going faster than the growth of
energy production from domestic resources after 2020. And that is the main reason for the increase
in energy dependence.

Production of electricity from the sun in Montenegro

Each region in the territory of Montenegro has a certain number of sunshine hours per year, depending
on the position, the radiation, temperature and other parameters by which we arrive at the Specific
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annual yields of electricity [6]. Photovoltaic systems work by absorbing solar energy and
transforming it into electricity, which is consumed by each individual. What is the potential of solar
energy is defined as global radiation to the horizontal surface on an annual basis (GHZ) expressed in
kWh / m2 / day. The maximum value for Montenegro is 4.39 kWh / m2 / day in the area around
Ulcinj to at least 3.60 kWh / m2 / day in the north, with a favorable marginal value of 4.00 kWh / m2
/ day representing 37% of the area the state of Montenegro.
Annual global radiation on the territory of Montenegro:

Figure 3: Annual global radiation in Montenegro

The intensity of solar radiation in Montenegro is among the highest in Europe, where the amount of
solar radiation, especially in the coastal and central areas, can be compared with the amount of
radiation in southern Italy or Greece. Having in mind the above, Montenegro shows great potential
for the introduction of solar energy systems, since the number of hours of sunshine (insolation) is
over 2,000 hours per year for most of Montenegro and more than 2,500 hours per year along the coast.
The conversion of solar energy into electricity is done using photovoltaic systems. The photovoltaic
system primarily supplies consumers in the facility while the excess energy is delivered to the
distribution network [7].

The use of solar energy has been growing steadily for almost a few years now, and is beginning to
play an important role in the electricity mix in most countries. Photovoltaic cell technologies and
concentrated solar energy are evolving rapidly, and the investment is growing. For most countries,
the biggest obstacles to greater use of solar energy are complicated legislation and insufficient

117
incentives from governments.

Being aware of the importance of launching projects that will enable the production of electricity
from renewable sources, and having in mind the state of the ``Pljevlja ``Thermal Power Plant, as well
as the transmission and distribution network, and that Montenegro could face huge not only energy
problems, the Ministry of Ecology, Spatial Planning and Urbanism, EPCG, the Ministry of Capital
Investments and the Environmental Protection Fund - Eco Fund have decided to launch an initiative
for the implementation of the Solari 3000+ project.

So far, CO2 emissions from TPP Pljevlja accounted for more than half of CO2 emissions in
Montenegro and produced almost 40% of the total electricity produced in Montenegro. These
problems in exceeding the allowed working hours make the situation almost ultimate, any investment
in RES is more profitable than insisting on production based on fossil fuels. On the other hand, if
3,000 households install photovoltaic systems with an average power of 7 kW, electricity production
of 24 to 34 GWh per year is expected. So, households - as before, only consumers would become
producers of electricity.

Since Montenegro is not a member of the EU, it is not part of the CO2 emissions trading system
(ETS), which makes the price lower than the prices in the EU, because the price of CO2 emissions is
not a component of the price. For this reason (in addition to the primary goal of reducing pollution),
the Economic Community has instructed non-EU Member States to internally regulate (charge) CO2
emissions. In the report "A carbon pricing design for the Energy Community" published in January
2021, the Economic Community clearly defines the current situation, reasons, goals and how to set
prices for CO2 emissions. The pricing model should also have a transition component, and the price
would certainly be more favorable than in the case of trade in EU markets. The model is not only
aimed at charging, but above all motivating towards the orientation towards Green Energy [11].

In order to show the positive effect that the introduction of trade in licenses (the total number of
licenses is decreasing from year to year) in the EU, the following is an overview:

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 Figure 4: Effects of the introduction of the CO2 permit trade market
Sourcer: A carbon pricing design for the Energy Community

The presentation shows a constant decline in CO2 emissions in EU countries, which is a consequence
of the growing orientation towards renewable energy sources, and the shutdown of plants that worked
by burning fossil fuels. On the other hand, we see a constant tendency to increase the price of
emissions, which is an additional motivator for the community's orientation towards Green Energy.
The constant growth of the price of emissions will cause the growth of electricity prices, and at some
point it will become an unprofitable and unprofitable form of electricity generation [5].

As the collection of CO2 emissions in the present case has led to significant positive effects, the
measures introduced by the EU for non-EU member states should also have the same positive effect.
The cost-effectiveness of a project of this kind is of little specific character. First of all, there are
several goals (impact on the economy of Montenegro, impact on households, as well as the impact
on EPCG, and therefore it is not easy to see the cost-effectiveness.
The main goals of this project are:
- Increasing the share of electricity obtained from solar sources, as one of the directions in
which Montenegro has committed itself to the EU
- Positive effect of the household, which can produce its own electricity and significantly
reduce electricity bills
- On the part of EPCG, in addition to the social goals related to increasing the participation of
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 Green Energy, EPCG will have a financial profit from investments of this kind, as well as
acquiring the necessary knowledge for further development of solar energy in Montenegro.
In addition to financial profit, EPCG will develop and get acquainted with various
technologies and methods used in the world for solar energy consumption, which has been
extremely important for some time, given EPCG's plans to focus on renewable energy sources.

Wind electricity production in Montenegro

So far, no extensive research has been done in Montenegro in order to use wind energy. These are
mostly data from hydro meteorological stations, but their results are still insufficient for significant -
use of wind energy for electricity production, but they can be used in finding the best locations for
the construction of wind generators. According to research on the wind speed spectrum at
meteorological stations in Montenegro, potential areas that could have "good" wind strength are the
area around Niksic, southwestern Montenegro, mountain passes above the sea and the coast.
However, more detailed research is needed in these areas in order to find the locations with the best
wind power. More detailed research measurements were performed at the locations of Ilino brdo and
Vučje. At these locations, the average wind speeds that are above the criteria were obtained, but there
are also periods during the year when those speeds are significantly below the predicted criteria.

Measurements from March 2002 for the area of Nikšić gave a wind power of 30W / m2, while the
measured power for the same month in Vučje was as much as 225 W / m2. At one of the mountain
passes in western Montenegro - Ilino brdo, the first wind generator with an installed capacity of 500
kW and a planned annual production of 1.25 - 1.80 GWh was built. It was the first implemented
project of using wind energy for electricity production in Montenegro. After a short operation, the
wind farm was disabled due to lightning strikes. According to the European Atlas of Winds, the
southern Adriatic belongs to the medium windy seas, which means that there is a possibility of
building offshore wind farms (offshore facilities). Potential areas for the construction of wind farms
are located along the coast from Ulcinj to Herceg Novi, about 20 km wide and about 1000 km2, where
the average wind speed is Va = 7 m / s, and with the average Power Pa = 400-600 W / m2. Reefs and
high hills along the coastline are also potential locations where wind power at a height of 50 m can
be above 800 W / m2 (above Budva, Kotor, Tivat ...). Also, the area of Zabljak is rich in winds where
measurements should confirm the potential and determine suitable locations for the construction of
wind farms [19].

In order for wind energy to be used more significantly for the production of electricity in Montenegro,
it is necessary to conduct more extensive research. Wind energy offers many benefits, which explains
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why it is the fastest growing energy source in the world. Today, significant funds are allocated for
research activities, in order to address the challenges for more significant use of wind energy. Wind
energy is a renewable energy source and together with the energy sources of the sun, water, biomass
and geothermal energy represents an inexhaustible potential. Wind energy is the cheapest renewable
energy source available in the world today. Costs per kilowatt-hour are between 4 and 6 cents,
depending on the strength of the wind and the way certain projects are financed. The global wind
potential at land-based locations is estimated between 20.00 and 50,000 TWh (terawatt hours) per
year. To this we can add the great potential of the wind on the high seas, the so-called off shore wind
Wind energy has to contend with conventional sources in the field of costs [4]. Depending on the
potential of the wind in certain areas, wind farms may or may not be cost-competitive. Even though
wind energy costs have dropped significantly over the past 10 years, the technology requires more
initial investment than fossil fuel generators. The main disadvantage of using wind as a source of
energy is its intermittent occurrence, which prevents its constant use and production of energy
whenever there is a need. Energy obtained from wind cannot be accumulated, nor can the complete
wind potential be used to meet the demand for electricity in a given period of time. Locations with
good wind potential are located in remote places, far from cities where electricity is needed. Also,
windmills have a relatively low level of impact on the environment, compared to other conventional
power plants, which is reflected in the existence of a certain degree of noise produced by windmills,
aesthetic experience, and sometimes birds die from propellers while flying over a windmill farm.
However, what is gratifying is that most of these problems will be solved through the development
of technology or an adequately chosen location for windmills [18].

Hydropower production in Montenegro

Montenegro has significant untapped potential of renewable energy sources, especially quality hydro
potential. Excluding hydropower potential related to large hydropower plants, it is economically
justified for Montenegro to double the current use of renewable energy sources (small hydropower
plants, salt energy, wind energy and biomass).

When it comes to the potential of small hydropower plants, 70 locations have been estimated for them
on the following rivers: Morača, Zeta, Lim, Piva, and Ibar. The main benefits that the state would
have from the construction of small hydropower plants relate to the provision of electricity and the
payment of taxes to the budget. At the same time, the domestic economy would benefit from
participating in the proposals of foreign companies that invest in energy resources, and thus increase
employment opportunities for local people in rural areas, given that there are the greatest potentials
of this energy.
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Electricity produced in small hydropower plants is more expensive compared to that produced in
large systems. Therefore, in developed countries this type of state production is aided by subsidies.
Another issue that needs to be addressed, and which is important from the point of view of potential
investors, is the guarantee that the produced electricity will be incorporated into the entire energy
sector. If private investors find a motive to invest, the role of the state would be to adopt rules
governing private investment and electricity generation. Therefore, the state should impose an
obligation on Electric Power Industry of Montenegro to incorporate the produced energy into the
distribution system. The state must clarify whether it intends to burden the producer with some
additional costs, whether it will give guarantees regarding the price of electricity, as well as to allow
investors to obtain all the necessary documents as soon as possible. In a word, the state should enable
private capital to be engaged in the production of small hydropower plants. If this is not done in time,
all efforts will be left to the force of nature [16].

Source: Zorana Mihajlovic (2010) Renewable energy sources: Megatrend University

Conclusion

Life on Earth originated and survived for millions of years thanks to favorable climatic conditions.
Climate can be seen as a renewable resource whose energy component is solar energy, and the
material component is the oceans as water reservoirs. The energy of the sun stimulates the circulation
of water on Earth and thus enables life. Where there is no water there is no quality of life, e.g. in the
deserts. Climate change on Earth has reached such a level that we can talk about a climate crisis. The
vision of overcoming this crisis is very clear and it is a return to less harmful energy sources.
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The transition from conventional to future energy sources will not happen overnight. That is why we
need to constantly work on creating a clean, safe and inexhaustible way of producing electricity. Wind
farms here impose themselves as the logical choice of the safest cleanly produced energy. Of course,
one should use the hydro potential when it comes to mini hydro power plants, but one should be
aware of the fact that the hydro potential that Montenegro has for this type of investment is quite
limited [9].

The share of renewable energy sources in the future will be significantly higher, because there are
fewer and fewer non-renewable energy sources, and their harmful impact on the environment and
climate is becoming more pronounced. With the development of technology, renewable energy
sources are expected to become economically competitive with conventional energy sources. Several
technologies, especially those for the use of wind energy, biomass and solar radiation, are already
becoming economically more competitive. The process of adopting new technologies is relatively
slow due to the still high starting price, but of great importance in the application of energy from
renewable sources are their environmental friendliness and encouraging the construction of plants for
the production of "clean" energy from them. Most investments in the field of renewable energy
sources consume less materials and labor during their construction, as well as less investment during
their maintenance. As the existing reserves of fossil fuels are constantly decreasing, it is clear that
their prices will continue to rise, which gives room for the development of renewable energy sources.
Imports of fossil fuels are an increasing burden on national economies. By applying measures offered
by energy efficiency technologies and local renewable energy systems, local resources are used.
When money stays at the local level it creates a multiplier effect. By producing and developing
technologies, it is possible to encourage exports, providing an incentive for trade surplus. Renewable
energy technologies are clean, have much less impact on the environment than conventional energy
technologies. Renewable energy sources are infinte. Other energy sources are finite and will one day
be consumed [10].

References

1. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease (2010). A systematic analysis for the Global
Burden of Disease Study, World Health Organisation,
2. Climate Bonds (2012). http://climatebonds.net/wp-content/uploads/12/ClimateBonds_ 4pp
3. Climate Change (2013). The Physical Science Basis, International Panel on Climate Change.
4. Citi Group, (2013). https://ir.citi.com/586 mD+JRxPXd2OOZC6jt0ZhijqcxXiPTw4 Ha0Q9dAj
UW0gFnCIUTTA
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5. Energy Subsidy Reform (2013). Lessons and Implications, International Monetary Fund,
http://www.imf.org/external/np/pp/ eng/2013/012813.pdf
6. Evropsko udruženje fotonaponske industrije, http://www.epia.org
7. Globalni izveštaj o eolskoj industriji (2012). http://www.gwec.net/wp-content/uploads /2012/06/
Annual_report_2012_LowRes.pdf
8. Green Prosperity (2009). How Clean-Energy Policies Can Fight Poverty and Raise Living
Standards in the United States, Department of Economics and Political Economy Research
Institute (PERI), University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA.
9. Key World Energy Statistics (2012). IEA, Paris http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf
10. Overseas Development Institute et al, (2011). http://climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/
uploads/Effectiveness-of-Climate-Finance-Methodology.pdf
11. Renewables (2013). Global Status Report, REN21, http://www.ren21.net/gsr
12. SOPAC, Suva, Fiji, (2009). http://ict.sopac.org/VirLib/TR0427_Mario.pdf
13. Silent, K. (2013). Why Europe must replace coal power with green energy, Greenpeace
International, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/publications
/climate/ 2013/Silent-Killers.pdf
14. Svetska komisija za brane (2013). http://www.internationalrivers.org/human-impacts-of-dams.
15. Toolkit for Mini Grids (2010). http://www.climateparl.net/cpcontent/pdfs/Mini-Grid%20 Pack
%20-%20Parliamentarians’%20Toolkit.pdf
16. Turn, D. (2012). The Heat: Why a 4° C Warmer World Must be Avoided, World Bank,
Washington, DC, USA
17. UNDP i Klimatski parlament (2010). Nairobi, Kenya http://www.climateparl.net/ cpcontent
/pdfs/ Mini-Grid%20Pack%20-%20Fieldwork%20Report.pdf
18. UNEP u Indiji (2011). http://www.unep.org/unite/30ways/story.aspx?storyID=17 ili upotrebu
solarne energije za domaćinstva u ruralnim oblastima Bangladeša
19. “Wind Turbine Prices fall to the Lowest in Recent Years” (2011). Bloomberg New Energy
Finance, http://bnef.com/PressReleases/view/139
20. World Energy Outlook (2012). International Energy Agency http://www.iea.org/ publications
/freepublications/publication/English.pdf

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Iza Gigauri,
St. Andrew the First-Called Georgian University, Tbilisi, Georgia
orcid.org/0000-0001-6394-6416

THE POTENTIAL OF UNIVERSITIES TO PROMOTE AND FACILITATE

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Abstract. Contemporary education requires sustainability to be incorporated in higher education

institutions that have a responsibility to enhance the consciousness of sustainable development
among future leaders and sustainable managers. Sustainability must be integrated not only into the
curriculum and across various disciplines but also institutional strategies must enable the
achievement of sustainable goals. In addition, campus management should measure ecological
footprints for the efficient use of resources, reduction of waste and pollution. Likewise, universities
need to pay attention to sustainable consumption, green procurement, environmentally friendly
buildings and transportation system. Furthermore, sustainable universities communicate with all
stakeholders to balance conflicting interests as well as to transmit knowledge and education in the
area of sustainability. Therefore, the interdependence of economic, environmental, and social pillars
suggests a long-term and holistic approach supporting sustainable initiatives. For this reason, only
by redesigning systems and structures, universities can contribute to the transition towards
sustainability-centered society. Since studies about Education for Sustainable Development are
important, the nexus between sustainable development and educational systems needs to be explored.
Thus, this paper contributes to the insight of sustainability-focused education and outlines the
responsibility of universities to foster sustainable development. Based on the GreeMentric data,
emphasis is placed on declarations, guidelines, and rankings to inspire the practical implementation
of sustainable-related activities in universities.

Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Goals, SDGs, HEIs,

University, Educational Programs

Introduction

Contemporary education requires sustainability to be included in higher education institutions that

have a responsibility to create awareness of sustainable development and to train future leaders and
sustainable managers. Sustainability should be integrated into the curriculum, but also into the
institutional framework and strategies in order to achieve sustainable goals. Economic, social, and
environmental issues should be incorporated into universities’ subsystems and strategies, which
enable them to move toward a holistic approach rather than a short-term economic focus.
Interconnection of economic, social, and environmental issues implies applying a long-term view and
a holistic approach rather than focusing on short-term financial gain. For this reason, sustainable and
social entrepreneurship, social and eco-innovation should be supported by Higher Educational
Institutions (HEIs), and encourage sustainable business models. The sustainability model of an HEI

125
includes tools for implementation and measurement of sustainable development from an institutional
perspective. Yet, the dissimilarities in priorities and opportunities in terms of sustainability objectives
and execution between universities in developed and developing countries need to be taken into
consideration, since they have different resources at their disposal.

Moreover, campus management should pay attention to their ecological footprints in terms of
utilizing resources, waste, pollution, and promote sustainable consumption including green
procurement, environmentally friendly buildings, and transportation used for commuting.
Furthermore, universities can contribute to the transition of sustainability-focused knowledge in
society through constant communication with all stakeholders. Consequently, university structures
need to be redesigned in order to support sustainable initiatives in both theory and practice. On the
other hand, obstacles to achieving sustainability goals can vary from stable academic personnel who
teach sustainability-related subjects to academic programs in sustainability to university structures
and management support including rectors, deans, and administrative authorities. In addition, both
academic staff and students need to be motivated and interested in sustainability. Therefore, activities,
methods, approaches, tools and their interrelation within subsystems play an important role to realize
university sustainability goals.

A sustainable university creates educational programs and curricula in consideration of sustainable

development goals and implements practical activities and projects to ensure sustainable on-campus
facilities. Despite the significance of the topic, there is still a lack of studies concentrating on the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in HEIs. Thus, the nexus between the two needs to be
discussed. Although universities increasingly try to introduce SDGs in their teaching and research,
the implementation of SDGs transcends the curriculum development and pursuits sustainability in all
their activities. This paper contributes to the insight of sustainability-focused education systems and
explores the role universities play in facilitating the implementation of Sustainable Development
Goals. It emphasizes the importance of university degree programs and courses to be dedicated to
sustainability. It also outlines how national and international declarations and guidelines inspire the
practical implementation of sustainable-related activities in universities.

Literature Review

The definition of a Sustainable University offers a comprehensive view of the contribution of

universities to sustainable development. In particular, a Sustainable University strives to minimize
negative effects on the environment, economy, and society, while accomplishing its mission of
teaching and research as well as taking responsibility to help society in transition to more sustainable
126
lifestyles through partnership and communication with stakeholders [1-2]. Integration of
sustainability into the HEI systems can improve the performance, and generate or enhance the
awareness of sustainability and sustainable use of natural resources. This also contributes to social
innovation, quality of life, responsible behavior, production, and consumption to solve environmental
and social issues concerning natural resources and inclusive development [3-5].

Since HEIs serve society in terms of research, knowledge transfer, and skills development, they can
provide decision-makers at the local or international level with scientific studies to adopt
sustainability policies as well as with innovative solutions for achieving SDGs [6-8]. In addition,
universities can develop models for the integration and implementation of sustainability in HEIs.
Incorporation of sustainability into the curriculum can be accomplished through the development of
sustainability-related courses, albeit sustainability concepts and principles can be included in regular
courses [9-11]. Sustainability-oriented courses can be found in various disciplines such as geology,
geography, sociology, politics, ecology, economy, and business. For instance, sustainability is
integrated into business ethics and corporate responsibility courses.

In general, sustainability is embraced in research and teaching, however, they need to be implemented
in practice on campuses through sustainability policies [12]. Although universities are considered to
contribute to sustainability development, they should not only develop curricula but also pursue
sustainability; thus, universities need to implement sustainability rather than just teach it [13].

Many universities encourage students to engage in sustainability issues and stimulate discussions
about SDGs [6]. They also manage their facilities in a sustainable way to ensure the minimization of
negative footprints of their campus operations, such as carbon emissions, pollution, water, and energy
consumption [14]. Recent studies discovered the following campus policies and actions implemented
by different universities to achieve sustainable operations [15]: reducing consumption and emissions,
improving energy efficiency, introducing renewable energy sources, promoting sustainable water
usage, sustainable landscaping, and green purchasing, implement sustainable diet practices.

Studies suggest that sustainability is not integrated into the system and strategy of HEIs, but rather
the sustainability-related activities are implemented fragmented without a formal strategy [16].
Therefore, a strategic approach can ensure close cooperation of different subsystems of universities:
(1) the structure including operations, governance, and management; (2) the value proposition
comprised by research and teaching, and (3) the market with education and mission [16].

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On the other hand, sustainability help universities overcome many barriers, achieve success, and
realize their missions and functions effectively as sustainability initiatives can increase students'
interest and motivation, as well as attract funds and investments, and improve partnership among
different sectors [6].

Declarations, ranking systems, and guidelines promote sustainability at universities worldwide and
help them develop frameworks to implement sustainable development goals as well as to improve
sustainability-related courses. Many universities joined sustainability declarations and took
responsibility to integrate sustainability concepts into their institutions through education policies
[17]. The first - Talloires declaration was signed in 1990 in France, followed by another international
meeting of university leaders in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in1992, and the next - Halifax Meeting
highlighted ecological issues and increasing poverty and agreed to cooperate to solve global
sustainability-related problems [18-19]. After that, Agenda 21 was adopted in 1992, which
emphasized that HEIs should go beyond teaching and research to contribute to sustainable
development [19-20]. Table 1 summarizes the subsequent declarations focusing on different issues
of sustainability development.

Table 1. University Sustainability Declarations

Year Declaration Focus
1993 Swansea Declaration of the Association of Commonwealth Environmental
Universities sustainability
1993 Kyoto Declaration of the International Association of Universities Environmental
in Kyoto, Japan sustainability
1994 Copernicus University Charter for Sustainable Development of the Environmental
Conference of European Rectors in Geneva, Switzerland sustainability,
regional approach
2001 Lüneburg Declaration on HE for Sustainable Development on the Holistic approach to
occasion of the International COPERNICUS Conference sustainability
2005 Graz International Conference Declaration on Committing Holistic approach to
Universities to Sustainable Development sustainability
2014 Nagoya Declaration on HE on Education for Sustainable Holistic approach to
Development sustainability
2014 International Association of Universities Iquitos Statement on HE Holistic approach to
for Sustainable Development sustainability
Source: Based on Kohl et al., 2022; Mio, 2013.

In addition, Summits and Conferences (Table 2) organized by the UN and UNESCO included
universities to underline their important role in the implementation of sustainable development [18].

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 Table 2. Global Summits for Sustainable Development included HEIs
Year Summit, Conference Place
1997 Thessaloniki Declaration, International Conference on Thessaloniki, Greece
Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness
for Sustainability
1998 World Declaration for Higher Education or the Twenty-First Paris, France
Century: Vision and Action
1999 World Conference on Science Budapest, Hungary
2002 World Education Forum (Education for All) Dakar, Senegal
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South
Africa
2009 Bonn Declaration Bonn, Germany
2009 World Higher Education Summit Paris, France
2012 The Future we want Rioþ20 Declaration Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
2014 Aichi-Nagoya Declaration on Education for Sustainable Aichi- Nagoya,
Development Japan
Source: Based on Kohl et al., 2022.

Furthermore, Global Action Program on Education for Sustainable Development (2015) and
UNESCO Education for Sustainable Development for 2030 Framework (2020) focus the attention of
HEIs on promoting and implementing sustainable development, and being an example of best
practices in sustainability [18].

It is worth noting that Agenda 21 Chapter 36 contains the definition of Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD), which is comprised of the following ideas: developing accessible quality basic
education; redesigning the education system to address sustainability; creating public awareness of
sustainable development; promoting sustainability through training in private and public sectors [21].
Moreover, ESD is acknowledged and recognized as a crucial part of SDG, in particular, SDG 4 -
Quality Education is considered to be a foundation of all other SDGs [22-23]. In addition, Target 4.7
accentuates the role of education to stimulate sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles [4],
and SDGs 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 17 focus on education, research, science, and training [18; 24].

Data and Results

This research is based on the Greenmetric website ranking to derive data. UI GreenMetric ranking
indicators include six categories: Setting and Infrastructure, Energy and Climate Change, Waste,
Water, Transport, and Education [25]. Universities are encouraged to join GreenMetric to assess their
green initiatives and improve their sustainability performance. The ranking system encompasses all
three pillars of sustainability - economic, social, and environmental. GreenMetric gathers data from

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universities in 84 countries, six regions, and three subregions. According to the ranking, the top ten
sustainable universities are located in the Netherlands, UK, USA, Ireland, Germany, and Brazil
(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Top Sustainable Universities according to Greenmetric

Source: Based on data from UI GreenMetric https://greenmetric.ui.ac.id/rankings/overall-
rankings-2021

With regard to different categories, the leading university in Setting and Infrastructure is the
University of Nottingham in the UK, while Leiden university in the Netherlands has the best score in
Energy and Climate change, and the better results in transportation have the university in Brazil
(Figure 2). Interestingly, Waste and Water categories 5-6 universities have the same scores.

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 Figure 2. Top Sustainable Universities by six categories
Source: Based on data from UI GreenMetric https://greenmetric.ui.ac.id/rankings/overall-
rankings-2021

Conclusions

This research explored the role of universities in promoting sustainability. HEIs' contribution is
twofold: research and education and serving as an example of implementing sustainable development.
Education institutions around the world try to incorporate sustainability sciences within the
educational framework, but also promote sustainability activities on campus. Sustainability-oriented
courses, programs, and activities can facilitate building a more sustainable society.

Higher education institutions should systematically integrate the sustainability development goals
into research and teaching programs as well as into their mission, strategy, and policies. For this
reason, they should develop tools, methods, and approaches to measure progress and improve
performance. Universities have access to students, and hence, to future leaders and decision-makers,
who need professional skills and knowledge to promote and contribute to sustainable development
through integrated education for sustainable development. Academic programs and campus activities
can provide students with motivation, creativity, and capabilities to address SDGs.

This research found that 912 universities from 84 countries located in Asia, Europe, North America,
Latin America, Africa, Oceania, Middle East, ASEAN, and Pacific Rim participate in UI GreenMetric
to measure and improve their sustainability performance. The ranking evaluates top-rated universities
with self-assessment results. Obviously, more and more universities are engaged in sustainability-
related activities as the demand for it is increasing. The current generation is aware of sustainable

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development and the number of conscious citizens growing in line with economic, social, and
environmental challenges. Urgent problems modern society is facing will be solved through education
and research, but also by being an example of best practices implemented on-campus facilities.
Therefore, the involvement of universities in achieving sustainable development goals is critical.

Future studies can explore obstacles to integrating sustainable development in universities, and
opportunities that can advance sustainability in HEIs.

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Nevenka Maher,
Ljubljana School of Business, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Orchid no:0000-0001-7012-6395

EUROPEAN UNION CONTEXT FOR SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT

Abstract. The scope of the paper is to expose, what are European Union (EU) environment context,
theory, legislation and good practices for managing the sustainable development. A survey was done
to answer questions: What is the management efficiency in public and in private sector? Is the
management knowledge of EU context good? Are the management preconditions implementing?
Good management practices and existing EU documents, legislation and methodology are to be used.
Management is to be aware about materiality and risks. Its responsibility is to manage problems and
challenges of sustainable development. However, the implementation of state government policies
and programs has limited guidance by the specific sectors management for incorporating sustainable
development in the specificities of creation of public policies and programs. Benchmarking of good
management practices is developing; however, management seldom reads EU methodologies. That
is why EU context for sustainability management is badly known. The main context of the objective
of this paper is to identify challenging aspects of managing sustainable development: not only UN
SDG Agenda 2030 is ambitious, with very concrete targets, sustainability is also an important value
that needs priority of action also within the EU environment.

Key words: sustainability, materiality, challenge, system and result based management

Introduction

Good practices and existing documents, legislation and methodology are to be used in the EU context.
Also, management is to be aware about materiality and risks facts. Its responsibility is to cope with
problems and challenges of sustainable development. However, the implementation of state
government policies and programs has limited guidance by the specific sectors management for
incorporating sustainable development in the specificities of creation of public policies and programs.
Benchmarking of good management practices is developing, however management seldom read EU
methodologies also they are disseminated as an open resource. That is why EU context for
sustainability management is badly known and rarely well elaborated within strategies, action plans
and project proposals.

The main objective of this paper is to identify challenging aspects of managing sustainable
development: not only UN SDG Agenda 2030 [8] is ambitious, with very concrete targets,
sustainability is also an important value that needs priority of action also within the EU environment.
That is why governance and managers are to address materiality, challenges, and risk.

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The survey was done to get some information about awareness and management maturity, efficiency
of management functions and key characteristics that sustainable management need. The fact is that
government officials - through policies, programs, and regulations administration departments and
agencies - have a significant influence on almost every aspect of society while having a significant
potential for contributing to sustainable development.

Sustainable development and management challenges

Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs [4]. There is the need to integrate
environmental, economic and social factors in the making of all decisions by government. These are
basic facts that management is to be aware and to embed these facts as pillars of sustainable
development involves considering environmental, economic, and social objectives when developing
and implementing public policies and programs. Further considering the needs of the present as well
as the needs of future generations is important, integrated decision making and a long-term approach
to planning. A great number of characteristics of sustainable development represent the key
management challenges.

Basic or common requirements for managing sustainable development could be: applying suitable
practices, applying relevant and good information, also applying and understanding frameworks and
directives.

Applying suitable practices and analytical techniques such as cost-benefit analysis and multi-criteria
analysis can help integrate environmental, economic, and social considerations. Foresight analysis,
transition management, and sustainable design modelling are useful for considering the potential
long-term effects of proposed policies and programs. Management responsibility is to involve
stakeholders in the planning process when considering what is priority, what will be performance and
financial instrument used (EU cohesion and structural funds, recovery, and resilience mechanism …).
Efficient management is applying relevant and good information. Efficient management is based on
the potential and actual effects of policies and programs within EU environment. EU projects
performed are openly disseminating their information, Eurostat platform is user friendly made with
suitable indicators. However, it is still on management to prepare system management with its
important sub-system that is financial management system to perform well-functioning measurement
and accounting systems. They are important for understanding, follow-up or monitoring the
environmental, economic, and social effects of policy – making, program and projects performance.
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Applying and understanding frameworks and directives, EU frameworks (logic framework, European
Quality Framework, European Framework of Quality Management, EFQM, etc.) are important
instruments to use, when considering environmental, economic, and social effects. They are to be
used when developing policymaking or scenario of proposals, and also when preparing calls for
proposals of EU funding. The frameworks enable system and integrated approach what is must for a
good management practice and a prerequisite for sustainable development.

Control and management

Control can be inside or outside the organization or institution. It is on macro and on micro level. The
most important is system control. There are three types which are must within EU legislation:
monitoring, audit, and evaluation [10]. Their requirement details are put down in secondary law in
regulations: for cohesion and structural funds, etc. Management structures are responsible to
implement EU strategy on all levels: EU, state, regional, on the level of policy, programmes, and
project. There is a segregation of duty and managers are accountable for efficient use of resources.
There is a need to manage knowledge, on all levels, in all three sectors: public, business, and civil
society, all partners in the same way.

Management culture is to be built. Quality of management is imperative by structural fund regulation.

But sometimes the management perception of its transparency and quality system is not perfect.
Evaluation could be welcomed not to be any more a threat of control but a useful help for effective
and efficient use of resources. In global competition everybody is turned to market driven economy
– besides business sector, also civil society, and public sector. Companies require quality, value,
service, innovation, and speed to market for business success. The knowledge-based activities of
developing products and processes are becoming the primary internal functions and the greatest
potential for providing competitive advantage.

Management - in the context of European environment - overgrows only managing public

expenditure, it is to manage programmes and policy interventions to come to results during financial
perspective. When the budget should be namely programmed according to activities and results, most
of the actions is under the responsibility of the main social partner – the state and public institutions.
Management in public sector must implement processes to be efficient, outcomes, results to be
realised and state policies to be effective – to have an impact. Public funds management should also
manage a huge budget to bring results. It is performance of activities that becomes important. That is
why performance management (of policy and measures and their financial issues) has to become
more developed. There is a risk if the management approach does not become an integral part of the
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policy on all levels. And it also, must be under control.

The Court of Audit of the Republic of Slovenia does a lot of audits over efficiency in public sector
[5]. The Court performs two kinds of audits: the regularity one and performance audits. The
performance audits examine how well government programs and activities have been managed, using
criteria such as regulatory requirements, policy and program commitments, standards. good practices
and principle of “due care”. In most cases the audits report bad efficiency.

System management decision making

Economic growth alone is not enough; for sustainability, the economic, social, and environmental
aspects of any action are interconnected. In this context, the key management challenges of
sustainable development are integration. Policy and decision makers need to identify, assess, and
compare potentially conflicting values and objectives. Management role to prepare data, analysis or
comparison of conflicting goals are essential. Management requires cooperation across departments
as well as between ministries and levels of government. They are assessing financial and non-
financial effects [1].

Especially for sustainability, management is to be aware that nature and its components are resources,
and they value. The nature is natural capital, and its valuation is to be relevant. However, the effects
of government policies and programs on ecosystem services and natural as capital cannot always be
valued by direct reference to observed market prices. Before an analyst values such effects, an asset
must be identified and measured. The due care of management accountancy is put down in
accountancy standards (Slovene accountancy standard no.1 [3]). Nature and its assets are the potential
and valuable opportunities to create new and sustainable added value. But the management
responsibility is due care and to develop innovative solutions, even solutions to conflicts related to
sustainable development. Besides a value as accountability, transparency is important. It can even
enhance an organization’s reputation in the eyes of stakeholders and the community.

As sustainability frames multiple objectives, there is a need for structured or system decision-making.

Management responsibility is to:

- Define the problem or identification of materiality, risk, problems, and challenges in the
context of sustainable development.
- Specify the objectives and measures.
- On the basis of needs analysis and situation analysis to create alternative scenarios.
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 - Identify the consequences, including risks.
- Clarify results and impact [1].
-
Management must work on his competences about planning, also he has to learn how to align short-
term objectives with long-term social, economic, and environmental goals. As EU countries face
ageing of its population this is of utmost importance for social planning and alignment of short-term
objectives with long-term goals. Management occupation is an analysis in which he examines how
current decisions could affect the future generations to meet their own needs and how current
knowledge and technology could be applied to meet those needs [1].

The European Commission and a number of member countries of OECD [2] are applying documents
and practices such as cost-benefit analysis, multi-criteria analysis, numerical modelling, foresight
analysis, transition management, and empowering stakeholder participation to examine options and
alternatives for achieving policy objectives. The European Commission uses an analytical tool called
“sustainability assessment” to consider the positive and negative effects of policy proposals [12].
European Commission arranges also workshops: the material is online [7] to ensure the knowledge
for decisions based on facts and analysis done. It is of utmost importance that concerned stakeholders
have been consulted.

The EU methodology [1] is clear and prepared to use: the approach includes defining the problem
and setting objectives for the policy. Decision makers then develop policy options and assess their
impact, compare and rank them, and identify the preferred option. They then plan how they will
implement the policy, identify key performance indicators, and outline monitoring and evaluation
arrangements. Finally, a review panel conducts an independent review of the assessment process,
methodologies, and results. It is management task further to prepare specific theme guidelines and
supporting documents: examples of best practices, indicators, data sources, models, templates,
contacts, and references [10].

Managing good information

Policy makers and managers cannot make informed decisions without access to good information.
Managers assess sustainable development policies, require information better indicators that reflects
environmental, economic, and social values. For quality information its basic value criteria are:
relevance, accuracy, accessibility and coherence. They are the quality assurance framework elements.
These are the same as value criteria when evaluators asses the quality of projects and programmes as
the quality is to be assured in standards, concepts, classifications and methodology used.
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The relevance of information refers to the degree to which it meets the evolving and highest-priority
needs. The accuracy is the degree to which the information correctly describes the phenomena it was
designed to measure. The accessibility of information refers to the ease with which it can be obtained
from the producer and its suitability. The coherence reflects the degree to which it can be successfully
brought together with other information within a broad analytic framework and over time.

A key challenge for managing sustainable development is know when a program or a policy has
achieved its expected results and contributed to sustainable development [9]. That is why managers
develop performance indicators and evidence-based information. It is management’s responsibility
to establish performance expectations and performance indicators. Management has to know also
when and how to use sustainable development indicators as they can be problematic, including data
availability and quality. However, indicators are relevant to decision makers, citizens, and
stakeholders outside the scientific and technical communities.

The International Federation of Accountants has developed a sustainability framework [11] to help
professional accountants influence the way organizations integrate environmental, economic, and
social considerations into their objectives, strategies, management, and definitions of success. The
framework also includes advice on how to incorporate environmental and other sustainability issues
in an organization’s financial statements and reports. There are also the environmental management
system standards (ISO 14001) of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that is of
help to organizations to develop and implement environmental management policies and objectives
that take into account their legal requirements and impact on the environment. ISO 26000 guides
organizations on social responsibility. The social accountability standard (SA8000) was developed
even in 1997. From 2000, more and more companies started to enlarge their corporate reports to
include social issues, leading the way for sustainability reporting. The most important drivers for the
quality of sustainability reports are the guidelines of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). Indexes
to measure the welfare of a nation - the United Nations elaborated as Human Development Index. It
combines measures of life expectancy, literacy, educational attainment, and GDP per capita.

It can be said that a number of frameworks, policies, guidelines, and directives are put in place that
call upon management to read and consider environmental effects and social and economic benefits.
It is urgent that management makes its progress in planning and decision making. Management needs
to anticipate the needs for scientific advice, draw advice from EU sources to ensure the quality,
integrity, and objectivity of the facts and data for transparent and open decision-making processes.

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As EU encourages strategic environmental assessments of policy, plan, or program proposals,
management should respect EU and international obligations in areas as human rights, health, safety,
security and the environment. When ministries develop new policy and program initiatives, they
should use EU documents as they provide the rationale for the policy or program with objectives,
results and outcomes, options, and risks.

Survey and its methodology

The paper concept is to assess the efficiency of management in public and private sector in Slovenia
in 2021 within the EU sustainability context of policy making and EU values. Within this context
than to answer questions about management efficiency and preconditions for it.

To measure efficiency the methodology used an adapted model for framing questions. The model is
a mixture of EFQM, model P3M3 (Portfolio, Programme and Project Management Maturity Model
[13]) and model Scirroco, presented in the European week of Regions and Cities in Brussels, 10th of
Octobre 2017.

The questionnaire was prepared to answer about five managerial basic functions and three managerial
preconditions. Each question had six sub-questions, that were ranked following Likert from 0 to 5.
Respondents have higher education; those working in public sector described (each characteristic on
six levels) management efficiency in public sector, those from private – the private sector
management. Data were collected in 2021. The research questions are: What is the maturity of
management efficiency in public and in private sector? Is in the EU context management knowledge
in public and private sector good; are the preconditions for good practice are implementing?

Findings

Management efficiency in its five functions and preconditions for good practice
The survey showed that management efficiency is fair in its all five functions (leadership,
programming, organisation and coordination, HRM and control), however the efficiency in all five
functions is higher (differences are big) is private sector. Following the sustainability EU context, it
is not good that the position of management programming in public sector.

The worst assessment of management efficiency goes to HRM in both sectors. Employees are at least
satisfied with their human resource management.

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 Table 1. Management efficiency in public and private sector by five key management functions,
23.12.2021 (assessment following Likert scale 0 do 5).
Public sector Private sector
Leadership 2,48 3,48
Programming 2,61 4,33
Organisation and coordination 2,84 3,71
Human resource management 2,32 2,85
Control 3,09 3,90

Preconditions for good practice of management efficiency

Preconditions for good management practice got too low scores. Ambition is utmost low in public
sector (2,43). Readiness to changes is relatively the highest (in public sector 3,40 and in private sector
3,72), what is still too low These findings show that the management is not mature and that it still
needs a lot of capacity building. However, the private sector is doing harder in the capacity building
field. But it is very important action also for public sector, also that capacity building of its human
capital (politicians, administrators, management and others employees) goes along with institution
building, too.

Table 2. Preconditions for management efficiency, 23.12.2021 (assessment following Likert scale 0
to 5).
Public sector Private sector
Readiness to changes 3,40 3,71
Ambition of an organisation and of management 2,43 3,66
Capacity building 3,38 3,90

Conclusions

The survey was done to get some information about awareness and management maturity, efficiency
of management functions and key characteristics that sustainable management needs as
preconditions. The fact is that government officials - through policies, programs, and regulations
administration departments and agencies - have a significant influence on almost every aspect of
society while having a significant potential for contributing to sustainable development.

The answer to question: What is the maturity of management and its efficiency in public and in private
sector is, that it is not good. It is better in private than in public sector. Within the EU context
management knowledge is not good enough that management could be efficient. Management
competences in private sector are relatively better. However, in each of five basic managerial
functions management efficiency is worse in public that in private sector. Among five functions in
both sector the worst situation is with human resource management.
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The management is not fulfilling some preconditions that management good practice is demanding
to implement. Those are: readiness to changes, ambition and capacity building. All three dimensions
of management maturity are needed for managing sustainable development. It involves considering
interrelated environmental, economic, and social effects and considering policy and program
objectives over an intergenerational time-frame. There is a need and ambition to introduce integrated
and long-term approach. And it is management responsibility capacities to build in person, of
organisation and institution building.

Managing sustainable development also includes applying relevant government guidance and
directives intended to support a sustainable development approach throughout the five management
functions doing over management cycle.

Management should read more a number of documents about sustainability principles, international
and EU commitments that EU existing strategies have been considered and integrated within the
country legislation and strategy: the cohesion strategy, the strategy for resilience and recovery a smart
2030 specialisation strategy 2030 in Slovenia as programming – one of five basic management
functions – is in public sector in very bad position.

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Miodrag Živanović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3612-6230

Slađana Živanović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6001-3685

Nikola Abramović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7865-3592

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AS AN INNOVATIVE BUSINESS MODEL

Abstract. This paper includes research on energy efficiency with the aim of reducing energy
consumption while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring quality of life. This paper
represents the benefits of renewable energy sources, the adoption of green practices in building
construction, with the application of modern technology and instruments with the aim of raising
awareness and knowledge in the process of sustainable development in order to achieve economic,
environmental and social sustainability and energy efficiency. Along with the analysis of the
current state of the energy sector in Montenegro, efforts to restore energy efficiency, solve
environmental problems and focus on the development of the state in the direction of sustainable
development were presented as well. The concept of decentralization was also presented, that is,
the delegation of powers from the central government to the local level, with its advantages for
achieving sustainability.

Keywords: energy efficiency, sustainable development

Introduction

Energy efficiency and security are considered to be issues of great importance globally. The result of
numerous conferences and summits is that the security of the human environment is endangered, so
it is necessary to reduce the use of non-renewable energy, with a focus on renewable energy sources
with maximum realization of energy use and reduction of environmental pollution.

Of course, all this indicates that all segments of society must pave the way to sustainable development
with the involvement of the public in the broadest sense, in order to raise environmental awareness
with constant training related to this issue. Energy factor is very important for sustainable

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development because it is necessary for all sectors, that is, their activities (social, economic and
political).
The tendency to reduce the consumption of energy from non-renewable sources and shifting focus
on renewable sources guarantees the reduction in air pollution by exhaust gases and thus reduces the
devastation of the human environment.

In this paper we will try to prove that it is necessary to motivate working organizations and the people
of Montenegro to focus on sustainable development, through the following activities:
- to explain and prove that it is very important to constantly assess the environmental impact
on a case-by-case basis;
- that all working organizations in the local government are responsible for negligent business;
- that there is a dialogue - a public debate on all problems in the human environment.

In order to achieve overall sustainable development, it is crucial that all people should and must be
truthfully informed about the necessary procedures for sustainable business, quality of life and goals
for sustainable management, energy efficiency in particular, with special involvement of individuals,
that is, local government representatives.

This paper seeks to draw attention to the fact that energy efficiency leads to sustainable development,
that is, sustainability in the economic sector, social sector and preservation of the human environment.
Institutional cooperation between state and local governments is important for the implementation of
sustainability, provided that the local government has the greatest authority. That is, that local
government can independently decide about issues in their area.

Given the good practice of delegation of powers and decision-making at the local level it is necessary
for entrepreneurs to behave with the attitude towards sustainable development with the local
population.

Problem solving and realization at the local level has proven to be an easier, better and safer way to
implement sustainable development. Therefore, it is important that the local government is
independent in making decisions in the area under its jurisdiction. The local government should
emphasize the importance of sustainable development while respecting all three basic pillars of
sustainability (economic, environmental and social) [1].

The aim of this paper is to emphasize the need to reduce energy consumption, that is, increase energy

146
efficiency in order to achieve sustainable development in Montenegro, that is, achieve sustainability
between all three basic pillars of sustainable development (economic, social aspect and environmental
protection).

In order to successfully implement this aim, there is a need for good institutional cooperation between
authorities at state and local levels. This aim emphasizes that institutional government at the local
level should be independent in decision-making for solving problems in its area.

The subject of research activities of this paper is to achieve reduction in energy consumption in all
areas of human activities that lead to sustainable development of Montenegro, that is:
- theoretical research with reference to defining the concept of energy efficiency with indirect
impact on environmental protection and achieving sustainable development;
- success analysis of the policy for increasing energy efficiency, that is, reducing energy
consumption for the same or better comfort in the existing conditions of the energy balance
of Montenegro;
- proposal for the reform of sustainable development policy in Montenegro.

The paper highlights research questions:

- that renewable energy sources are justified and cost-effective, among other things for
Montenegro as well, and that they significantly contribute to the concept of energy efficiency
for sustainable development.
- the establishment of economic instruments leads to environmental protection - sustainable
business and greater energy efficiency.

The paper has two main goals:

The scientific goal of the research is the analysis of the established degree of reduction of energy
consumption, that is, application of energy efficiency in Montenegro as well as the synthesis of
scientific explanation influenced by the reformed political system, in order to achieve greater energy
efficiency in Montenegro, with the model for better and safer approach towards greater energy
efficiency proposed by local government.

The social goal of the research is that the statements obtained can be used to find new models in the
application of energy efficiency as a model of sustainability in Montenegro.

The purpose of the research is reflected in the application of theoretical knowledge about sustainable

147
development and in examples of energy efficiency in everyday practice. The research will try to
indicate the conditions that should be met in energy efficiency in order to ensure sustainable
development in Montenegro with innovative solutions.

The research will take into account the specifics that characterize the studied subject of research and
on that occasion will apply different methods in order to meet the basic methodological requirements:
objectivity, reliability, generality and coherency.

Energy efficiency and globalization

Great use of non-renewable energy sources and their depletion as well as environmental pollution
with extreme consequences for climate change influences people to change their behavior towards
planet and shift focus to renewable sources of energy with the aim of reducing environmental
pollution. [2] Later, with raising awareness and the emergence of technological solutions, people
focus on renewable sources of energy which do not pollute environment.

Under the term energy efficiency, we mean that various measures and technological solutions
minimize energy consumption while maintaining comfort or improving it [3].

Given the importance of the energy system, each country plans its own energy balance for each year,
which includes its current state, possible imports and other characteristics as well as various changes
during use [4]. Energy balance is very important for each country due to both possible reduction and
total cost in the energy sector, that is, planning and forecasting of economic energy development and
national economy.

Annual planning and monitoring of the energy balance leads to energy trends that are monitored
through the following energy systems:
- Primary system that includes basic energy system with energy available for use. This system
combines total production from country’s potential and net energy imports.
- Transformation system that includes necessary energy sources for conversion into energy (this
process includes consumption as well as all losses incurred in the process to the user). This
system covers all energy producers.
- Final energy system, which shows non-energy consumption for energy needs, when using
various energy sources.

If we look at energy production from the economic point of view, then we conclude that it is produced
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in the cheapest way, that it is high quality and that it meets the needs [4]. Nowadays, with an
increasing number of inhabitants on the planet, energy consumption is increasing as well, but it should
be used in the best possible manner - as efficiently as possible. This means that every country must
view energy as a strategic problem and pay special attention to energy production, but also to the
protection of the human environment.

In order to achieve the goal of good energy production, to use energy efficiently and to protect human
environment as much as we can, it is important to know that it is necessary to have a well-functioning
institutional framework, compliance with legal regulations and economic reforms in the energy
sector. In order to achieve energy efficiency, we must shift more focus on the use of renewable energy
sources.

Reduction of fuel consumption, that is, energy efficiency reduces greenhouse gas emissions, which
has become one of the highest priorities both for the governing structures of the European Union and
for the general public and car manufacturers over the past decade, which is also the case with air
quality and global warming. In this sense, the energy efficiency in transport has played a significant
role among the strategic measures for achieving sustainable development in the developed world,
which has recently become a trending topic in our region.

Importance of energy efficiency and sustainable development

At its core is the simple idea of providing a better quality of life for everyone, both today and for
generations to come, or in other words "development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs", which is a generally
accepted international definition of sustainable development [5].

We need a more advanced society based on a strong economy, better accessibility of services and an
attractive and safe environment. International co-operation is also needed in order to overcome
environmental problems, facilitate trade development and help the poorest on the path towards global
society. It is necessary to increase resource efficiency, in which energy efficiency is one of the basic
priorities. At the Rio de Janeiro summit in 1992, UN member states adopted the provisions of Agenda
21 - a comprehensive plan of action to achieve sustainable development worldwide. That document
defines the principles of sustainable development. According to this document [6], the transport sector
plays a fundamental and positive role in economic and social development.

However, we must bear in mind that transport demand will continue to grow in the future. Transport
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participates with approximately 30% in energy consumption for commercial purposes, and with about
60% in global oil consumption. Accelerated motorization and insufficient investment in urban
transport planning, traffic regulation and infrastructure in developing countries are creating increasing
problems in terms of traffic collision (injuries and deaths), health problems, noise, congestion and
reduced productivity similar to developed countries. There is a need to review existing transportation
systems and to manage systems more efficiently [7].

The fact is that the percentage of CO2 emissions from transport is constantly increasing. Therefore,
any activity aimed at reducing CO2 emissions must include limitation of aforementioned emissions
from transport. This is primarily about the possibility of reducing the emission of harmful gases from
two main sources - passenger and freight land vehicles. Of the total transport-related emissions, these
two sources account for approximately 75%. Another important source is air traffic, while railways
as well as river and marine traffic are minor sources [8].

The situation in our country is relatively bad, in terms of energy efficiency and sustainable
development of the transport sector, due to the fact that the average age of the fleet is around 16 years,
which means that a significant number of vehicles older than 20 years participate in traffic [8]. This
means that unreliable vehicles are involved in traffic, which poses a great potential danger to people
and the environment. The number of traffic collisions (as well as the number of injured and dead) is
very high, and a significant number is caused by the poor technical condition of vehicles. In addition,
vehicles have a negative impact on the environment with exhaust gases, waste and noise: a large
number of vehicles do not have the ability to move around developed countries.

Improving the reduction of energy consumption with a focus on the use of RES is an important and
priority task for the next decade. The NSDS report highlighted the need to use the best possible
experiences of other countries as well as to use abundant potential of RES (water, wind, solar
radiation, biomass and waste) to generate clean energy. The need to introduce green / sustainable
building standards was also highlighted. Energy efficiency and RES are recognized as areas of great
importance for climate change mitigation, which at the same time create opportunities for economic
and social well-being. Although there has been a noticeable progress in creating legal frameworks,
adopting plans and strategies, implementing energy efficiency and RES programs, it was also
concluded that energy efficiency and the share of RES (wind, solar energy, biomass and small and
medium hydropower) for production and energy consumption is very low. Therefore, it is important
to take the right step in taking more systematic and ambitious measures in order to achieve national
sustainability goals [7] and to meet requirements arising from EU and UN policies.

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 Contribution of civil society

The civil society should, in principle, play an important role in formulating any agreement on energy
efficiency. The activity of the Montenegrin civil society is very good and often in opposition to the
state administration. Consequently, their opinion is not taken or considered for proposals in the energy
sector.

Globally, several important reports analyzing energy consumption and suggesting possible ways of
progress have been produced by leading international NGOs in recent years [9]. The World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF), for instance, set out a vision of a world that is 100% powered by renewable
energy by the middle of the last century. The authors of the report claim that switching to renewable
energy sources is not only the best choice, but also the only option that humanity has. The plan
presented in the report is based on two main assumptions:
- total final energy demand in 2050 will be approximately at the level of consumption in 2000
and
- 95% of energy will be from sustainable sources (meaning, without nuclear energy, coal, gas
and oil, and without significant increase in hydropower).

Likewise, Greenpeace and the European Renewable Energy Council (EREC) reports in 2010 set out
a long-term plan to completely eliminate fossil fuels in the second half of this century. The authors
of the report speak of this "Energy (R)evolution" as a necessary response to the challenges of climate
change [10].

Sustainable development and economic growth

In the story of the context of sustainable development, it is necessary to recall that it is a form of
development that seeks to establish a balance between economic, environmental and social goals.
However, the fact is that for decades, profit maximization and growth of national economies have
been the main goals.

The fact is that in the period of transition, economic growth was considered first, and after achieving
economic inequality it was concluded that pollution increased over time, so at that point, it was
considered to reduce the degree of environmental degradation [11].

From an environmental point of view, important data such as resource use, emissions, biodiversity
loss, land degradation, deforestation as well as basic data on water and air quality must be taken into
151
account.

Environmental quality is better in countries with a more equitable distribution of income, a high
literacy rate and respect for civil and political rights.

In many countries, especially those with low incomes, it was concluded that the environmental quality
is better if income is more equitably distributed and if literacy rates are high, provided that civil and
political rights are more respected.

It is noticeable that the Western Balkans has accepted the legislation of the European Union in the
field of environmental protection and that they are moving towards clean energy. Thus, Western
Balkans reaffirmed its ambition to encourage decarbonization, renewable energy sources and energy
efficiency, which will strengthen its path towards the European Union. This has been achieved
through cooperation with all relevant participants such as the Energy Community, civil society
organizations and international financial institutions [12].

Energy efficiency measures

Montenegro is recognized as a regional energy hub and a leader in the production and use of energy
from renewable energy sources with recognized and accepted goals for 2022:
- Increase of production from RES to 42% in relation to final consumption.
- Reduction of the total energy deficit, by increasing the use of RES and stimulating end
consumers to become producers of electricity.
- Promotion of research and innovation to create technologies for reduction of environmental
pollution.
- Increasing energy efficiency by taking energy from RES for all housing and business needs.
- Application of eco funds for the adaptation of tourist and residential buildings.
- Electrification of transport, with emphasis on public transport.
- Application of the concept of smart grids.
- Preparation and beginning of implementation of strategies for eco-friendly use of coal in
various energy resources.

For energy production in Montenegro, projects from renewable energy sources with a focus on solar
power plants should be implemented. So far, two large wind farms and small solar energy projects
have been implemented. In addition to the aforementioned activities, the project of installing an
undersea power transmission cable has been completed, which will enable the connection of the
152
electricity system of Montenegro and Italy. If the need for implementation of energy storage
capacities is added to the above, primarily with the aim of increasing the reliability of consumer
power supply, it becomes clear that the Montenegrin energy system gets a completely new
physiognomy. Accordingly, economical, environmentally friendly and reliable production,
transmission and use of electricity, as well as the method of optimal management, are becoming the
main challenges of the modern Montenegrin energy sector.

There is a potential in Montenegro for Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Hydropower is already
providing for two-thirds of the country's total energy production, and only 17% of the theoretical
hydropower potential has been exploited so far. Until recently, hydropower has been the only
renewable energy source that contributes to significant energy production in Montenegro.

The average annual number of sunshine hours in Montenegro is more than 2,000 hours, while in
coastal areas the number of sunshine hours exceeds 2,500 hours annually. The construction of the
first large solar power plant is also planned, while solar energy has, so far, been mostly used for solar
thermal heating and cooling.

In 2010, Montenegro was seriously involved in a ten-year strategy called "Europe 2020" [13]. This
strategy has ensured growth and created job opportunities within the EU. The economic crisis has
shown the weaknesses of society, and posed new challenges to the EU, such as globalization,
overexploitation of natural resources, and population aging. Relaying on European values such as the
single market, common trade policies and other policies at EU level, Member States must make
individual efforts to address the economic crisis and rise to new challenges, while respecting the
foundations of European politics [7].

In addition to resolving the economic crisis, the Europe 2020 strategy also aims to create [7]:
- smart behavior (economic activities based on knowledge and innovation),
- sustainable behavior (economic activities that use the potential of green economy more
efficiently and with activities that lead to competition),
- inclusive behavior (an economy that brings social and territorial cohesion).

Special energy efficiency measures are focused on the construction sector with the application of
systemic energy use with the application of new technology and innovation. A smart building (house,
apartment, building) is a complex building imbued with a system of smart installation, with the
absolute ability to manage a complete system tailored to meet human needs and desires [14].

153
The question arises: what about the buildings that were built earlier? The facility is inspected with
the aim of determining the energy system and a report on the determined condition is made. Based
on the report, a decision is made on the implementation of the necessary activities for maintenance,
that is, improving the efficiency of the energy system in the facility in question [7].

Recommendations for future

More good recommendations can be drawn from this research. There are potentials in Montenegro
that can reduce electricity consumption or, better yet, improve energy efficiency in building
construction, which greatly contributes to overall energy efficiency.

The fact is that there are certain reasons that in some way hinder the implementation of policy for
increasing energy efficiency. Here, we could point out the economic incompetence of a certain part
of the people, the lack of motivation to invest in this area, perhaps negative interest rates, and perhaps
even the public being insufficiently informed as well.

Such activities require a clear policy aimed at reducing consumption, increasing energy efficiency,
while preserving and protecting the environment and the sustainability of the economy, ecology as
well as ensuring social dimensions.

Such approach to addressing the increase of energy efficiency requires the implementation of new
approaches and methods to finance energy efficiency. It is also important to present, encourage,
develop and implement programs with new innovative technologies in the local government that
would attract investments to improve energy efficiency.

Conclusion

The purpose of this paper is to analyze energy policy and practice in Montenegro, to assess the extent
to which it contributes to or hinders the achievements of sustainable development and environmental
goals of the country, as well as to present a draft of possible guidelines for the future. Special attention
is paid to the connection between energy and sustainable development and the possibility of transition
to green renewable energy sector. Key findings from previous analyses of the main achievements and
challenges in implementing the concept of the ecological state are also included in this paper as a
reference frame for overall considerations.
It can be concluded that Montenegro has numerous problems in the energy sector, and many have

154
their roots in the time of Yugoslavia. However, some steps have been taken in the right direction, as
Montenegro has real obligations to open and develop the energy market and join the EU's integrated
energy market.
Above all, it is necessary to promote the protection of human environment, the benefits of green
building with the application of the latest scientific achievements for the use of renewable energy
sources and the use of natural building materials, in order to reduce harmful effects on health and the
environment.

References

1. OECD, (2008). Etsap News, Volume X, No 6, na http://ieaetsap. org/news/Etsap%20

News%20Annex%20X_Vol6.pdf
2. Vučićević, B. S. (2014). Analiza i ocena održivog razvoja energetskog sistema u zgradarstvu, Niš
3. Stojiljković, M. Todorović, M. (2015). Osnove energetskog bilansiranja zgrade, Inženjerska
komora Srbije, SimTerm, na http://www.ingkomora.org.rs/strucniispiti/
download/ee/TP_8_Osnove_energetskog_ balansiranja_zgrade_Mladen_Stojiljkovic.pdf
4. Marković, B. Samardžić, S. Krstić, I. (2013). Metode za ocenu energetske efikasnosti
domaćinstava, Safety Engineering
5. ECMT, (2000). European Conference of Ministrers of Transport
6. UN, (2002). Strateške mere za poboljšanje drumskog saobraćaja, Ministarstvo saobraćaja;
Republika Srbija
7. Ionescu, C. (2015), Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume: 49 Issue 1 ISSN: 1364-
0321 Online ISSN: 1879-0690
8. Radičević, V., Subotić, M. & Milić, D., 2014. Promovisanje održivog urbanog transporta u
funkciji održivog razvoja. FBIM Transactions, 15 07, 2(2), pp. 279-289.
9. Izvještaj, (2011). Urađen je u saradnji sa Ecofys konsultantskom firmom i Office for Metropolitan
Architecture (OMA) i njihovim kolegama, think thank organizacijom AMO
10. Aldy, J.E. & Pizer, W. (2016). Alternative Metrics for Comparing Domestic Climate Change
Mitigation Efforts and the Emerging International Climate Policy Architecture, Rev Environ Econ
Policy (Winter 2016)
11. Udovičić, B. (2008). Kriza se produbljuje, Zagreb, Kigen d.o.o., str. 141. – 145
12. Asharee, A. (2017). Metodologija izbora adekvatne proračunske metode u optimalnom
projektovanju energetski efikasnih zgrada, Union Nikola Tesla, Fakultet za graditeljski
menadžment, Beograd
13. Evropska komisija, (2010). Komisija EU je donijela 2010 godine Strategiju pod nazivom Evropa
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14. Jelić, I. Antonijević, D. (2016). Pasivna gradnja u funkciji održivog razvoja. Prva nacionalna
konferencija sa međunarodnim učešćem, ekološke i socijalne inovacije: izazovi primenjenih
nauka, Beograd

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Section: Knowledge Management and Business Process
Modelling

157
Gordana Nikčević,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, Adriatic University Bar, Montenegro
orcid.org/0000-0002-9804-6917

KNOWLEDGE CONTROL IN MODERN COMPANIES THROUGH THE

PRISM OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Abstract. Modern business conditions require companies to constantly improve in order to adapt
to new changes. Survival, growth and development in increasingly growing and dynamic market
can only be ensured by those companies that get information and knowledge on time. Today,
knowledge is the most important resource that provides a competitive advantage to every company.
Therefore, adequate management of this resource is necessary. However, organizational culture
can veryoften be an obstacle to this. Organizational culture is one of the key components of
management that should create a favorable environment and this way enable the efficient use of
knowledge. Therefore, creating an organizational culture that will recognize the importance of
collective knowledge is one of the prerequisites for effective knowledge control.

Keywords: organizational culture, knowledge, knowledge control, human resources.

Introduction

Modern companies view their business processes as knowledge processes. This implies the creation
of so-called organizational knowledge. Not only the creation but also the dissemination and
application of knowledge throughout the company. Therefore, knowledge should be available to all
employees in the company. This knowledge is the only source of real competitive advantage. This is
the driving force for innovation, which reflects the competitive advantage of every company.
However, a large number of companies in modern conditions do not use their competitive advantages,
meaning inadequately use of existing knowledge. In order for knowledge to be used adequately, it is
necessary to create conditions for that. It's known that employees are the main sources of knowledge
in the company, but the problem of management is to motivate employees to share their knowledge
with others. As most of the knowledge is in the minds of the employed, and organizational culture
influences the thinking and behavior of employees, it is necessary to consider the importance of it on
the efficiency of knowledge management in companies.

This paper analyzes knowledge through the prism of organizational culture and aims to point out the
connection between the organizational culture and the concept of knowledge, emphasizing the
importance of implementing knowledge in modern companies.

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 Something about knowledge
The base of human existence is knowledge. Knowledge is seen as an "insensibly " embedded system
in every segment of the company. It is crucial for a successful company, but also for the development
of society. What is knowledge? The most commonly used definition of knowledge by Nonaka and
Takeuchi (1995), who define knowledge as the justified belief that increases the capacity of an entity
to take effective action [11]. From the aspect of the company’s function, knowledge can be defined
as a set of skills or capacities that an individual has, and which is needed in a particular situation, in
order to solve a problem and make the right business decisions [5].Viewed in the context of
organizational culture, knowledge represents our beliefs, attitudes, values that are based on a
meaningfully organized set of information that we come to through experience, communication, or
inference [16].

Knowledge is a dynamic process that needs to be constantly adapted, shared, renewed, and improved.
The strength of a modern company is reflected in how much employees are willing to adopt and share
knowledge. Certainly, companies in which employees are positively oriented towards the acquisition,
improvement, and use of knowledge are a great advantage over other companies. The only way for a
company to be among the best is to learn faster and better than the competition [6].

In an attempt of knowledge systematization, different classifications of knowledge have emerged.

From the aspect of business and functioning of the company, the most important are those
classifications that contribute to efficient knowledge management. In this sense, we distinguish
between explicit and implicit (silent, tacit) knowledge. Explicit knowledge is the one that is expressed
by formal language, which by its nature can be transferred to others. Implicit knowledge is the one
that is embodied in the experience of an individual and represents his personal knowledge (beliefs,
attitudes, ideas). This knowledge is difficult to explain and pass on to others. However, managers
strive to create explicit knowledge, because it is most often collective and can be transferred. This
knowledge is a source of competitive advantage for a company and can contribute to the growth and
development of the company [13]. Depending on the type of knowledge, the sharing of it in the
company also depends. Only the knowledge shared with all employees in the company is important.
Knowledge can be transferred between individuals and organizational units in a company as well as
between multiple companies or multiple organizations. Companies that are focused on growth and
development are constantly looking for new information and new ways of working [4].

Can knowledge be managed?

The process of knowledge management consists of a large number of activities that identify, create,

159
present, and share knowledge. This concept appeared in 1995, and since then special attention has
been paid to this issue. In that period, companies appeared that compare knowledge management to
human capital management. We can say that the intensity of research on the concept itself is growing
because companies do not know the kind of knowledge they are working with and whether they use
it in the best way. Certainly, the desire and interest of every company are to manage knowledge and
use it in the best possible way. According to one study the average firm uses only 20% of the
knowledge available to it [15].
Knowledge management is a process of creation, collecting and using knowledge to improve
company performance. Management process knowledge includes the knowledge management of all
employees and its application in order to create new values and strengthen competitive advantages in
the market [6].

To successfully manage knowledge, it is necessary to identify all sources available to one

company. In general, two sources of knowledge can be identified: internal and external. Internal
sources are in the "heads" of people and expressed through the behavior of employees. They are in
various documents and databases of the company. External sources knowledge of general importance
and include publications, universities, etc.[16]. The first variant refers to companies that use the
information exclusively from their sources. However, the orientation of the company to
predominantly internal sources can negatively affect the competitive position of the company. The
second variant refers to those companies that are oriented only to external sources of knowledge,
which causes instability in the business because those are quite cheap and accessible to everyone. The
third variant is created by using knowledge from internal and external sources. This variant is
considered the best because it is a combination that eliminates the shortcomings of orientation only
to internal or only external sources of knowledge.

For a company to successfully control knowledge, its management must determine which knowledge
constitutes the key competencies of the company. Therefore, it is necessary to define the strategy of
the knowledge management process. This strategy defines the activities that should be taken to
achieve a competitive advantage. The management of the company should also have a vision of future
knowledge needs. In this regard, it should take the following actions:
- to identify the knowledge that the company currently has and in what form it is available,
- to analyze how knowledge can affect creating the added value and the effects of its use,
- to identify possible obstacles in the use of knowledge, to eliminate them,
- if its use resulted in new opportunities to use.

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The knowledge management process is an activity that requires continuous adjustments and
improvement of opportunities. It is very important to emphasis the acquisition of new knowledge,
while managing it, since knowledge quickly becomes obsolete. One of the prerequisites for effective
knowledge management is to create an organizational culture that will help implement and activate it
so that it creates additional value for the company.

Knowledge in the function of organizational culture

Organizational culture as an important component of management is very important for the concept
of knowledge. Organizational culture is seen as "a system of assumptions, values, norms, and
attitudes that members of a company have developed and adopted through shared experience, which
are manifested through symbols that guide their thinking and behavior ." [9]. Some research has
shown that of all the factors influencing knowledge management, organizational culture has the
largest percentage [10,2] . In this context, culture should be a favorable environment for the
implementation of the concept of knowledge.

Only a culture that is characterized by: orientation towards people, openness, learning, knowledge
sharing, teamwork, willingness to take risks, and willingness to change can have a positive impact on
knowledge management and in such a culture it can be shared. Otherwise, organizational culture is
an obstacle to the concept of knowledge and needs to be changed. Changing organizational culture is
not an easy process, because it is hard to get people to share their knowledge. Traditionally,
employees keep their knowledge to themselves, because they believe that by sharing it, they will lose
their positions in the company. Therefore, it is crucial for the transformation of organizational culture
to identify the most optimal relationship between the existing organizational culture and knowledge
and to conceive the right strategy in the direction of implementing changes in organizational culture.
Depending on the organizational culture, knowledge is formed, meaning organizational culture forms
assumptions about what knowledge is. Accordingly, we distinguish between individual knowledge
(knowledge of individuals), social knowledge (knowledge of a group of people), and structured
knowledge that is represented in the company through rules and procedures. Also, culture determines
the boundary between the individual, group, and organizational knowledge. It depends on the
organizational culture in the company (cultural assumptions and norms) which knowledge an
individual will keep for himself, and which he will share with others. People often do not want to
share individual knowledge considering it a source of power in the enterprise [9,8].

So, as it was said about its values, norms, and assumptions, it determines what is individual and what
is organizational knowledge. In that sense, it defines knowledge and competencies that are valuable

161
for the company, forms the interactions and communications through which organizational
knowledge is created, disseminated, and used. Thus, organizational knowledge becomes relevant and
makes sense only if it can be managed, meaning if it is used in the company. By sharing it, individual
knowledge is transformed into group one and it has a positive impact on the company's business. The
process in which individual knowledge is transformed into group knowledge is called the process of
socialization (the process of creating group knowledge/ organizational knowledge). Through this
process, implicit knowledge (discussed earlier) is transferred from one individual to another. An
interesting example is a master and the apprentice, where the master does not explicitly transfer his
knowledge to the apprentice, but the apprentice through the process of social interaction "absorbs"
knowledge from the master. The process of articulation transforms the implicit into explicit
knowledge. In this way, individual knowledge (knowledge that was only in the possession of
individuals) turns into the common good of the organization. This is not simple, because it is
necessary that the one who possesses implicit knowledge has the ability and will to articulate it in
explicit knowledge, that is organizational knowledge. This process allows information to be
disseminated in the company and available to all and can be used. However, this is not the end of the
process. With constant use, explicit knowledge becomes routine, an integral part of the mental
schemes of both employees and managers, and turns into implicit knowledge. This process is called
the internalization of knowledge. So, every day, at their workplace and through various training,
employees enrich their explicit knowledge, which is again articulated in the implicit. Now the level
of implicit knowledge is higher and more diverse. Of course, new and enriched implicit knowledge
is again converted into explicit one, this way closing the circle of knowledge conversion.

The knowledge used in this organization after this process is new and improved. The use of this
knowledge is manifested in the changed and improved behaviors of employees in the company,
meaning their decisions and actions. As a result of these changes, companies will be able to respond
to environmental demands and improve their business [1].

One of the problems in the process of knowledge management is the problem of employee motivation
[7]. Employees in the company are the bearers of knowledge and new ideas. They are the most
important business resource. The goal of knowledge management is to create new knowledge and
share it among employees, ie turn implicit knowledge into explicit knowledge. The question is how
to motivate workers to share their knowledge with others. In order for the organizational culture, in
that sense, to support and motivate employees, it should enable them: personal development, work
environment in which they can perform their tasks, the ability to do work to meet all standards,
adequate material reward and the like.

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 Importance of knowledge management for enterprise performance
Knowledge management in the company can be viewed in terms of effectiveness, efficiency and
innovation. Effective knowledge management is especially manifested through the rapid collection
of information and timely decision-making, which results in adaptation to dynamic business
conditions. Effective knowledge management can be compromised in two cases. The first type of
problem occurs when employees leave the company. By leaving the company, employees take away
the knowledge they have acquired in the company. With the loss of such knowledge, the competitive
advantage of the company is lost, which has a negative effect on the effectiveness of the company.
The next problem may arise when new employees arrive, in the case when the knowledge of new
employees is incompatible with the knowledge needed by the company, which adversely affects its
performance. Viewed from the aspect of efficiency, knowledge management can provide the
company with greater productivity and efficiency if employees are motivated to participate and
openly share knowledge. In the context of innovation of companies that manage and share knowledge,
I can expect that their employees are carriers of new ideas, new innovative processes, innovative
solutions to problems, and then we say that the company is innovative, which positively affects its
performance [3].

Knowledge management is important because it leads to the reduction of business errors, faster
decision-making and problem solving, cost reduction, increased employee independence, improved
employee relations and improved production quality [14]. Knowledge management also provides: a
greater degree of innovation by encouraging the free expression of ideas, improving services provided
to consumers, increase revenue through better placement of products and services, reduce worker
turnover, improve labor operations and reduce costs [12].

Conclusions

In modern business conditions, it is clear that knowledge is the most important capital of a company.
In that sense, it is necessary to develop an efficient system of managing that capital, because that
leads to significant savings, higher productivity, better performance of business activities and the
creation of competitive advantage. If there is only knowledge in the company and not a knowledge
management system, the knowledge will not be used effectively. In order for it to be used effectively,
it is also necessary to motivate employees to share knowledge, meaning to create an organizational
culture that will enable the personal development of each individual, a work environment in which
they can perform their tasks, the ability to get the job done to meet all the necessary standards.

163
Organizational culture is a mechanism that coordinates and controls knowledge.

The recommendation would be to create an organizational culture that is characterized by: team work,
openness, knowledge sharing, employee participation in decision-making, cooperation, flexibility,
loyalty, high sense of responsibility, willingness to take risks and the like. Such an organizational
culture is a fertile ground for the concept of knowledge management. In order to realize the above, it
is necessary for companies to give up traditional business and way of working, which is quite
inefficient for the concept of knowledge.

A special segment for business success and knowledge implementation is the employee rewarding
policy. Adequately rewarded employees will have the desire to acquire and share knowledge, which
implies a comparative advantage of the company and increase business success.

References

1. Abdullah, M. S., Benest, I., Evans, A., & Kimble, C. (2002). Knowledge modelling techniques
for developing knowledge management systems. In Third European Conference on Knowledge
Management: Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
2. Alavi, M., Kayworth, T. R., & Leidner, D. E. (2005). An empirical examination of the influence
of organizational culture on knowledge management practices. Journal of management
information systems, 22(3), 191-224.
3. Fernandez, I. B., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge Management–Challenges,
Solutions and Technologies. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
4. Connelly, C. E., Zweig, D., Webster, J., & Trougakos, J. P. (2012). Knowledge hiding in
organizations. Journal of organizational behavior, 33(1), 64-88.
5. Davenport, T. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working knowledge: How organizations manage what
they know. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
6. Devedžić, V. (1999). A survey of modern knowledge modeling techniques. Expert systems with
applications, 17(4), 275-294.
7. Gagné, M., Tian, A. W., Soo, C., Zhang, B., Ho, K. S. B., & Hosszu, K. (2019). Different
motivations for knowledge sharing and hiding: The role of motivating work design. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 40(7), 783-799.
8. Ganguly, A., Talukdar, A., & Chatterjee, D. (2019). Evaluating the role of social capital, tacit
knowledge sharing, knowledge quality and reciprocity in determining innovation capability of an
organization. Journal of Knowledge Management, 23(6), 1105-1135.
9. Janićijević, N. (2013). Organizaciona kultura i menadžment. Beograd: Ekonomski fakultet.
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10. Mertins, I. K., Heisig, D. S. P., & Vorbeck, D. P. J. (2013). Knowledge management: Best
practices in Europe. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.
11. Nonaka, I., Nonaka, I., Ikujiro, N., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company:
How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. USA: Oxford University Press.
12. Santosus, M., & Surmacz, J. (2001). The ABCs of knowledge management. Boston: CIO
magazine.
13. Sewdass, N. (2005). Interrelationship between document management, information management
and knowledge management. South African Journal of Information Management, 7(3).
14. Stuart, A. (1996). Five uneasy pieces: part 5–knowledge management. Boston: CIO Magazine.
15. Uit Beijerse, R. P. (1999). Questions in knowledge management: defining and conceptualising a
phenomenon. Journal of knowledge management, 3(2), 94-110.
16. Zack, M. H. (1999). Developing a knowledge strategy. California management review, 41(3),
125-145.

165
Jani Toroš,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubjana, Slovenia
orcid.org/ 0000-0003-0896-9804

Tanja Sedej,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubjana, Slovenia
orcid.org/0000-0002-5363-8599

PREFERENCE LASTNOSTI ZDRAVIL V PROSTI PRODAJI

Povzetek. Teorija obetov, psihološka teorija, ki sta jo leta 1979 prestavila Amos Tversy in Daniel
Kahneman v članku »Teorija obetov: analiza odločitve pod tveganjem«, opisuje, kako ljudje
sprejemajo odločitve, na podlagi alternativ, ki vključujejo tveganje in pridobivanje. Ljudje
sprejemajo odločitve na podlagi zaznanih izgub ali dobičkov.Teorija obetov se danes koristno
uporabljala v različnih disciplinah. V našem prispevku bomo obravnavali pomen izgub in
pridobitev, ki jih uporabniku dajejo zdravila v prosti prodaji. Osredotočili se bomo na koristi in
morebitne neželene učinke pri osebah, starih nad 50 let. V raziskavi bomo uporabili metodo
Conjoint analize.

Ključne besede: teorije odločanja, teorija obetov, psihologija, marketing, komuniciranje, zdravila

Uvod

Okolje, v katerem živimo, postaja vedno bolj kompleksno. Globalizacija in tehnološki napredek
pomembno vplivata na to, kako sprejemamo odločitve. Avtor [1, p. 67] se strinja in poudari, da
uspešno upravljanje sprememb in posledično sprejemanje odločitev ima ključno vlogo, da
organizacije preživijo in ostanejo konkurenčne in preživijo v tem hitro spreminjajočem se poslovnem
okolju.

Za kakovostno sprejemanje odločitev potrebujemo kakovostne informacije, ki pa niso vedno na voljo

ali pa jih je današnjih časih na voljo celo preveč in je posledično težko presoditi, katere so tiste
ključne. Posledično sprejemamo številne odločitve na temeljih, povezanih z negotovostjo, s
sprejemanjem tveganj ali celo v nevednosti. To pomeni, da moramo sprejeti odločite na podlagi
pogosto nepopolnih informacij ali opazovanj z rezultati, ki niso predvidljivi.

Z naraščanjem kompleksnosti sprejemanja odločitev vse več avtorjev različnih disciplin raziskuje,
kako ljudje se ljudje odločamo v sodobnem poslovnem okolje, ki ga pomembno zaznamuje hitrost
sprememb in negotovost. Posledično so nastale številne teorije, med katerimi pomembno pozornosti
166
prevzema ravno teorija obetov.

Posledično se v članku osredotočamo na teorijo obetov. Teorijo obetov avtorja Kahneman & Tversky
razlagata, kako ljudje sprejemamo odločitev v negotovih pogojih. Študija Kahnemana in Tverskyja
iz leta 1979, ki sta preizkušala finančne odločitve v negativnih pogojih, je ugotovila, da takšne sodbe
bistveno odstopajo od predpostavk teorije pričakovane uporabnosti, ki je imela do takrat izjemen
vpliv na znanost, politiko in industrijo. Ugotovila sta, da ljudje pri sprejemanju odločitev v
negotovosti ne upoštevamo načela racionalnosti, na kar je opozarjala predhodno temeljna teorija
pričakovane koristnosti.

V teoretičnem delu smo se torej osredotočili na teorijo sprejemanja odločitev, s poudarkom na teoriji
obetov, v empiričnem delu pa smo teorijo obetov uporabili v praksi in preverili pomen izgub in
pridobitev uporabnikov zdravil v prosti prodaji. Pri tem smo se omejili na ciljno skupino žensk, ki
smo jih razdelili v 2 skupini, stare pod in nad 50 let. Po temeljitem premisleku smo se odločili, da
uporabimo Conjoint analize, saj predstavlja odlično metodo za ocenjevanje izdelkov in njihovih
lastnosti.

Teoretična izhodišča

Teorija sprejemanja odločitev

Teorija sprejemanj odločitev, ki se ukvarja s procesom sprejemanja odločitev, je interdisciplinarno
področje, ki ga raziskujejo tako filozofi in psihologi kot ekonomisti, informatiki, matematiki in
statistiki [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] z namenom spoznati, kako posamezniki in skupine sprejemamo
odločitve.

Teoretiki z močnim matematičnim znanjem raziskujejo zlasti logične posledice vpeljave določenih
pravil v smeri sprejemanja odločitev ali matematične funkcije različnih opisov racionalnega vedenja,
medtem ko so teoretiki, podkovani v družbenih vedah, usmerjeni v eksperimente in druge oblike
raziskav, z namenom ugotavljanja, kako se ljudje resnično obnašajo, ko sprejemajo odločitve [8, p.
3].

Kljub različnim pogledom znanstveniki teorij sprejemanja odločitev se v pretežnem delu strinjajo z
nekaj osnovnimi koncepti. Avtor [7, p. 3] verjame, da se vsi strinjajo, da je smiselno razlikovati med
deskriptivno in normativno teorijo sprejemanje odločitev. Teorije deskriptivnega odločanja skušajo
razložiti in napovedati, kako ljudje se dejansko odločajo. To je empirična disciplina, ki izhaja iz
eksperimentalne psihologije. Normativne teorije si prizadevajo dati recepte o tem, kaj naj bi se
167
odločali racionalno. Deskriptivna in normativna teorija odločanja sta torej dve ločeni področji
raziskave, ki jih je mogoče preučevati neodvisno drug od drugega. Na primer, z normativnega vidika
se zdi zanimivo vprašati, ali bi ljudje, ki obiščejo igralnice, morali igrati toliko kot igrajo. Poleg tega
se zdi, ne glede na to, ali je to vedenje racionalno ali ne vredno pojasniti, zakaj ljudje sploh igrajo na
srečo (čeprav vedo, da bodo z veliko verjetnostjo izgubili denar).

Tudi avtorja [2, p. 2-3] prav tako pojasnita v tej smeri, da analitiki normativnega odločanja proučujejo
določena vedenjska pravila o tem, kako je treba sprejemati odločitve za čim večjo učinkovitost
odločevalca, medtem ko analitiki deskriptivnih odločitev preučujejo, kako se odločitve dejansko
sprejemajo v praktičnih kontekstih.

V teoriji sprejemanja odločitev so pomembni izrazi, kot so tveganje, nevednost in negotovost.

Avtorja [6, p. 13].verjameta, da gre pri odločanju v negotovosti za sprejemanje odločitev, katerih
posledice niso povsem predvidljive, saj se bodo v prihodnosti zgodili dogodki, ki bodo vplivali na
posledice zdaj sprejetih ukrepov.

Pri tveganih odločitvah odločevalec pozna verjetnost možnih izidov, medtem ko odločitve, ki
temeljijo na nevednosti, so predmet neznanje ali neobstoječe verjetnosti. Negotovost se uporablja kot
sinonim za nevednost ali kot širši izraz, ki se nanaša na tveganje in nevednost. Čeprav odločitve
sprejete v nevednosti temeljijo na manj informacijah kot odločitve sprejete s tveganji, iz tega ne sledi,
da morajo biti odločitve sprejete v nevednosti tudi težje [7, p. 6].

Teorija obetov
Sprejemanje odločitev je kompleksen kognitiven proces, ki je bil predmet raziskave številnih
avtorjev. Kahneman & Tversky [10] sta v znanstvenem članku predstavila kritični poglede na
obstoječih teorij na področju sprejemanja odločitev pod tveganjih in razvila alternativni model,
imenovan teorija obetov (ang. prospect theory).

Izbira med tveganimi obeti kaže na več prodornih učinkov, ki niso v skladu z osnovnimi načeli teorije
pričakovanih koristnosti. Teorija obetov ukvarja s tem, kako ljudje presojamo tveganje in sprejemamo
finančne odločitve v negotovih pogojih [11].

Teorija obetov je med najvplivnejšimi okviri v vedenjski znanosti, zlasti v raziskavah o tveganem
odločanju. Teorijo obetov so preučevali številni avtorji [7, 11, 12, 14, 15 idr.].

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Teorija obetov stopila v ospredje pred takrat prevladujočo teorijo pričakovani koristnosti zaradi dveh
funkcionalnosti. Ti sta vrednost in verjetnost. 7, p. 298]. Teorija obetov je v štiridesetih letih od
njenega nastanka pomemben vpliv na razumevanje odločanja v znanosti, oblikovanje politik in
razlago vedenja na različnih področjih od potrošništva, poslovodstva in zavarovalništva do javnega
zdravja ter varovanja okolja. Postala je ena najvplivnejših teorij v vedenjski znanosti. Nenazadnje, je
eden izmed avtorjev, tj. Kahneman, za svoje delo na področju odločanja pod tveganimi pogoji in
integracije psiholoških spoznanj v ekonomijo, leta 2002 prejel celo prestižno Nobelovo nagrado [11].

Vpeljava teorije obetov je sprožila številne diskusije, znanstveniki pa so razglabljali med drugim tudi
o njenih številnih prednostih [11, 12, 13]. Avtor [12]. sistematično razloži, da omenjena teorija
ponuja številne prednosti, ki upravičujejo njeno uporabo, vendar ima tudi nekatere vidike, ki
omejujejo njeno širšo uporabnost. Med prednosti navede: alternativni model racionalnim in ostalim
teorijam, omogoča razlago dinamičnih sprememb, osredotoča se na druga vprašanja v primerjavi z
ostalimi modeli, osredotoča se na pomembnost situacije pri sprejemanju sprememb, predstavlja
osnovo za širše razumevanje fenomena interesov, izpostavlja pomembnost izgube v kalkulaciji z
vrednostjo in koristnostjo, osredotoča se na kontekst situacije in spodbuja pozornost na pomembnost
vrednosti.

Ljudje pri sprejemanju odločitev med negotovimi izidi sistematično kršijo aksiome racionalnosti.
Izgube imajo na nas močnejši učinek kot dobički. Ljudje se ob možnosti izgub obnašamo drugače kot
ob možnosti dobičkov. Pri potencialnih dobičkih se izogibamo tveganju in rajši izberemo manjše, a
gotove dobičke [11]. Težnja, imenovana učinek gotovosti, prispeva k izogibanju tveganju pri
odločitvah, ki vključujejo zanesljive rezultate, in k izogibanju tveganj, ki vključujejo zanesljive
izgube.

Empirični temelji za teorijo obetov ponavljajo preko vseh razumnih pragov [13]. Teorija je bila doslej
zanimiva za raziskovanje številnim avtorjem, njen pomemben vpliv ne upada.

Raziskava

Analiza preferenc lastnosti zdravil v prosti prodaji

V raziskavi smo teorijo obetov preverili na področju zdravil. Posledično smo merili stopnje preferenc
posameznih lastnosti, ki so navedena v navodilih za uporabo zdravil v prosti prodaji. Uporabili smo
conjoint analizo, multinominalno regresijsko metodo, s katero ocenjujemo stopnjo preferenc lastnosti
izdelkov ali storitev. Gre za statistično tehniko, ki temelji na anketah, ki pomaga ugotoviti, kako ljudje
ocenjujejo različne atribute, npr. prednosti, funkcije, lastnosti, ki sestavljajo določen izdelek ali
169
storitev.

Pogosto se uporablja za tržne raziskave in je sprejeta tudi na drugih področjih raziskav (na primer
ekonomija, kadri, računalništvo, strojno učenje) [15]. Ena najpogostejših metod conjoint analize, ki
se uporablja tudi v raziskavi, je CBC Choice-based conjoint [16]. Metoda CBC se na splošno
uporablja za ugotavljanje preferenc glede kombinacij funkcij, ki sestavljajo izdelke ali storitve, kar
omogoča tržnikom, da pridobijo koristne informacije za segmentacijo trga, oblikovanje izdelkov,
raziskave cen in druge specifične analize. V raziskavi smo z metodo CBC ocenili najustreznejše
kombinacije lastnosti, ki jih uporabniki zaznavajo pri zdravilih v prosti prodaji in je bila izvedena s
pomočjo SSI Web (Sawtooth Software, ZDA).

V našem primeru temelji na ocenjevanju posameznih lastnosti, kot na primer »vrsta zdravila«, kjer
smo uporabili tri ravni:
- prašek
- tableta
- šumeča tableta
Druga lastnost je bila »zdravilni učinki«, kjer smo opredelili:
- lajša bolečine
- lajša dihanje pri zamašenem nosu
- pomirja kašelj
- znižuje tel. temperaturo
V tretji lastnosti »pozitivne lastnosti so respondenti izbirali med:
- se zlahka zaužije
- vzame 1x na dan
- ne draži žel. sluznice
- deluje že po 20 min
Zadnja lastnost pa so bili »neželeni stranski učinki«
- izpuščaji ali srbenje
- želodčne težave
- omotičnost

V vzorec smo zajeli 359 respondentov ženskega spola v dveh starostnih skupinah: mlajše od 50 let in
starejše od 50 let. V spletnem vprašalniku so izbirale kombinacije lastnosti o načinu, kot ga prikazuje
slika 1.

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 Slika 1. Anketa - prikaz spletnega vprašanja

Vsaka respondentka je odgovorila na deset istih vprašanj, vendar so se kombinacije odgovorov

avtomatično spreminjale, kar je zagotavljal modul SSI Web uporabljenega programa Sawthoth
Software.
Tako je bila zagotovljena ortogonalnost, kar pomeni, da je imela vsaka raven posameznih lastnosti
enako možnost izbire.
V primeru, da noben koncept zdravila z opredeljenimi lastnostmi ne zadovolji zahtev respondenta, pa
je bila dana možnost izbire »Nobeno od prikazanih«.
Podatke smo analizirali v modulu SMRT istega programa in najprej preverili statistično relevantnost
medsebojnih razlik med preferencami posameznih ravni vsake lastnosti. Za analizo smo uporabili
metodo Count in prešteli kolikokrat od danih možnosti izbire, je bila raven dejansko izbrana.
Rezultate smo preverili Hi kvadrat statistiko in ugotovili, da je značilnost vseh lastnosti na ravni p <
0,01 ali p < 0,05.
Zato smo dobljene parametre uporabili za izračun po metodi Logit in dobili količnike delnih
preferenc, ki so prikazane v tabeli 1.
Mlajše pod Starejše 50
50 let nad let
VRSTA ZDRAVILA Total Total
Prašek -24,24 -11,87
Tableta 43,90 -6,44
Šumeča tableta -19,66 18,31

ZDRAVILNI UČINKI
Lajša bolečine -17,97 20,60
Lajša dihanje pri zamašenem nosu 17,20 -35,32
Pomirja kašelj -96,72 -13,63
Znižuje telesno temperaturo 97,49 28,36

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 POZITIVNE LASTNOSTI
Se zlahka zaužije -30,90 -12,64
Vzame se le 1x dnevno -17,83 -21,66
Ne draži želodčne sluznice 21,87 39,03
Deluje že po 20 minutah 26,86 -4,73

NEŽELENI UČINKI
Možni neželeni učinki so: izpuščaji ali srbenje -12,52 -144,40
Možni neželeni učinki so: želodčne težave -33,68 43,35
Možni neželeni učinki so: omotičnost 46,20 101,05

Tabela 1. Količniki delnih preferenc

Prikazani rezultati za segment mlajše od 50 let – levi stolpec in starejše od 50 let - desni stolpec nam
kažejo količnike, ki so uravnano na 0. Vrednosti na povedo katera reven lastnosti je bolj ali manj
pomembna. Visoka pozitivna številka pomeni visoko stopnjo preference, visoka negativna številka
pa nizko stopnjo preference.

VRSTA ZDRAVILA
50,00

40,00

30,00

20,00

10,00

0,00
Prašek Tableta Šumeča tableta
-10,00

-20,00

-30,00

Mlajše pod 50 let Starejše 50 nad let

Slika 2. Delne preference za lastnost – Vrsta zdravila

Pri prvi lastnosti, vrta zdravila lahko ugotovimo, da je uporaba tablet precej bolj priljubljena segmentu
žensk pod 50 let. Starejše nekoliko bolj preferirajo šumečo tableto. Prašek pa je za oba segmenta
enako priljubljen.

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 ZDRAVILNI UČINKI
150,00

100,00

50,00

0,00
Lajša bolečine Lajša dihanje pri Pomirja kašelj Znižuje telesno
-50,00 zamašenem nosu temperaturo

-100,00

-150,00

Mlajše pod 50 let Starejše 50 nad let

Slika 3. Delne preference za lastnost – Zdravilni učinki

Lastnost zdravilnega učinka je dokaj enako pomemben za oba segmenta. Nekoliko večja razlika se
kaže v zahtevi po pomiritvi kašlja. Za mlajše je manj pomemben kot za starejše.

POZITIVNE LASTNOSTI
50,00
40,00
30,00
20,00
10,00
0,00
Se zlahka zaužije Vzame se le 1x Ne draži želodčne Deluje že po 20
-10,00
dnevno sluznice minutah
-20,00
-30,00
-40,00

Mlajše pod 50 let Starejše 50 nad let

Slika 4. Delne preference za lastnost – Pozitivne lastnosti

Tudi pri opredeljenih pozitivnih lastnostih so rezultati za oba segmenta precej podobni. Izstopa le
lastnost hitrega delovanja. Kot vidimo na grafu, je mlajšim bolj pomembno hitro učinkovanje, zato
raven »deluje že po 20 minutah« kaze večjo stopnjo preference pri mlajših od 50 let.

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 NEŽELENI UČINKI
150,00

100,00

50,00

0,00
Možni neželeni učinki so: Možni neželeni učinki so: Možni neželeni učinki so:
-50,00 izpuščaji ali srbenje želodčne težave omotičnost

-100,00

-150,00

-200,00

Mlajše pod 50 let Starejše 50 nad let

Slika 5. Delne preference za lastnost – Neželeni učinki

Pri interpretaciji rezultatov neželenih učinkov moramo upoštevati, da je izražena višja vrednost
preference manj moteča, kot pri nižji vrednosti. Iz grafa vidimo, da je segment starejših bolj negativno
usmerjen do izpuščajev in srbenja in manj občutljiv na želodčne težave in omotičnost. Mlajše pa
ravno obratno.

Izračun relativne pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti

V tabeli 1 lahko razlike med vrednostmi delnih preferenc uporabimo tudi za izračun relativne
pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti. Velika razlika med pozitivno in negativno vrednostjo količnikov
delnih preferenc nam pove, da je lastnost v opredeljeni kombinaciji bolj pomembna od lastnosti kjer
so razlike med visokimi in nizkimi količniki majhne.

Tabela 2 nam prikazuje odstotni delež pomembnosti posamezne lastnosti pri izbiri zdravila. V tem
primeru vidimo, da so precejšnje razlike med starejšimi in mlajšimi.

Mlajše Starejše v %
v%
VRSTA ZDRAVILA 17,04 7,55
ZDRAVILNI UČINKI 48,55 15,92
POZITIVNE LASTNOSTI 14,44 15,17
NEŽELENI UČINKI 19,97 61,36

Tabela 2. Odstotni delež pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti

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Bolj učinkovito lahko analiziramo te razlike v grafu.

VRSTA ZDRAVILA
ZDRAVILNI UČINKI
POZITIVNE LASTNOSTI
NEŽELENI UČINKI

Slika 6. Grafični prikaz pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti

Zunanji krog prikazuje relativne pomembnosti za skupino starejših od 50 let. Kot vidimo so precej
bolj občutljive na neželene učinke (61,36%), kot mlajše (19,97%). Manj pomembno jim je, kakšna je
vrsta zdravila, tableta, prašek ali šumeča tableta (7,55%) in kar je posebej zanimivo, precej manj so
zahtevne pri zdravilnih učinkih, kot mlajše. Mlajše skoraj polovico pomembnosti posvečajo
zdravilnim učinkom (48,55%), starejše le (15,92%).

Zaključek

Sprejemanje odločitev je vsakodnevna dejavnost v številnih poklicih in znanostih, zato je ta proces

še toliko bolj zanimiv za raziskovalce iz različnih znanstvenih področij. Razvite so bile številne teorije
sprejemanja odločitev, ena pomembnejših, katere je eden izmed avtorjev prejel celo Nobelovo
nagrado, je teorija obetov.

Uporabno vrednost teorije obetov so v praksi preverjali in preizkusili številni avtorji. Po teoretičnem
pregledu smo v prispevku na podlagi štirih lastnosti s štirimi ravnmi izvedli simulacijo uporabniških
odločitev pri nakupu zdravil za slabo počutje ali prehlad, ki so v prosti prodaji. Analizirali smo vrsto
zdravila, zdravilne učinke, lastnosti uporabe in neželene stranske učinke. Primerjava je bila izvedena
v segmentih ženske do 50 let in ženske nad 50 let.

Čeprav so bile zanimive ugotovitve podane pri vseh štirih lastnostih, v smislu preferenčnih deležev
posameznih ravni, nas je najbolj zanimala razlika v vedenju mlajših in starejših žensk, glede na delež
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pomembnosti posamezne ravni. Ugotovili smo, da je v povprečju najbolj pomembna raven pri
odločitvi prav negativna raven, to je neželeni učinki. Ta se ujema z izhodišči teorije obetov, kjer se
slabosti odražajo močneje kot pridobitve.

Vendar je zanimivo, da se to precej razlikuje, glede na starost respondentk. Vpliv neželenih učinkov
pri zdravilih v prosti prodaji je pri starejših veliko bolj izražen kot pri mlajših ženskah. Čeprav je bila
raziskave opravljena na dokaj velikem vzorcu, pa menimo, da bi bilo smiselno razmišljati o
nadaljnjem raziskovanju, saj so iracionalne odločitve kupcev pogoste.

Prihodnje raziskave o vključitvi teorije obetov v modele vedenja potrošnikov bi se lahko še

intenzivneje osredotočile na področja kot skupinsko odločanje in čustva.

References

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13. Ruggeri, K., Alí, S., Berge, M.L. in drugi. (2020). Replicating patterns of prospect theory for
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www.sawtoothsoftware.com

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Jyotirmaya Satpathy,
School of Management, Srinivas University, India and MUA, Nairobi
orcid.org/0000-0003-2087-6619

Lidija Weiss,
Ljubljana School of Business, Ljubljana, Slovenia
orcid.org/0000-0001-5193-5103

PARADIGM TECTONICS IN COMPREHENSIVE KNOWLEDGE

BUSINESS PROCESSES

Abstract. Paper presents with high degree of inevitability that when new-fangled knowledge arises,
originations in establishments will be fashioned and economic growth inspired in comprehensive
knowledge economy. This research document addresses issue of CHAOS-19 (COVID / Corona /
Omicron etc) disorder that has commenced momentous sprints to worldwide economy and everyday
life of people, with across-the-board consequences beyond the virus's proliferation. On the other side,
catastrophe is a prevailing catalyst for invention and creativity. Indeed, in realms impacted by
CHAOS-19 virus, profuse inventiveness and novelty are seen budding at comprehensive knowledge
organizational, national, and distinct stages. Furthermost research on inventiveness and novelty
accentuates necessity for determination and time to reflect creatively, accomplish the purpose and
implement innovative plans. Yet, captivating the period to retort creatively can be a bonus that is not
accessible or prudent when disorder happens, such as on-going experience. Intriguingly, existing
disorder condition reveal that stint is not constantly obligatory to harvest a creative and ingenious
answer and that it may prosper post these situations. The goal of this paper is to peep into CHAOS-
19's post-effect on creativity, innovation in comprehensive knowledge organizations and part of
innovation or creativity in battle against CHAOS-19 and their inter - section to flexibility and
survival. Paper discourses a need for interrogation on how metamorphosis from business knowledge
synapses to comprehensive knowledge synapses impress on growth of originations in organizations?
The question can be addressed being supported by three ‘Pillars’: as 'New Knowledge',
'Comprehensive Knowledge synapses' and 'New Comprehensive Knowledge - Transaction Points'.
Paper discusses how these are driving forces that relate to development of new knowledge,
development of comprehensive knowledge synapses (of competency) and understanding of emerging
knowledge - transaction point. Originality of paper is in germination of paradigms reflecting advance
of innovations influenced by changes in comprehensive knowledge economy.

Key Words: Creativity, Innovation, Co-Evolution, Comprehensive Knowledge Organizations and

Chaos

Introduction

Comprehensive knowledge organizations nowadays are operating in a highly integrated,

comprehensive, competitive and disruptive environment. In order to differentiate themselves from
the crowd, to attract and retain customers, and to gain a competitive advantage, it is crucial for them
to leverage their creativity and constantly innovate to stay on top of their game. While creativity helps
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comprehensive knowledge organizations bolster new ideas, challenges the way employees think and
behave, and opens up new business processes opportunities for the comprehensive knowledge
organizations to venture into. Innovation is seeded from this creativity – it is the comprehensive
knowledge organization's capability and competency to bring about the actual impact and change
through actual execution leading to mass disruption. This need for creativity and innovation has been
accelerated during the disorder, and it has become crucial for comprehensive knowledge
organizations to upgrade and adapt to meet the shifting consumer needs and demands. [1]

Antiquity of Creativity, Innovation and Industrial Revolution

First, Industrial Revolution started in the late eighteenth century. There was a move from the cottage
industry where people worked manually to the use of machine tools in factories. This industrial age
was also characterized by innovation: steam was used to power new machinery, which became
fundamental for running the railway system and shipping industry. This led to the formation of
national and international knowledge - transaction points targeted to produce and sell the products of
the new manufacturing era. The new technology of the Steam Engine grew a chain effect of
innovation through the nineteenth century, which led to the breakthrough of innovations in the iron
and steel industry and engineering. [1]

Second, Industrial Revolution started and this era saw significant advancements in new, more
scientifically-based industries, and drove an expansionary phase, with German chemicals, electricity,
and vehicles being particularly noteworthy. American companies then capitalized on these
advancements by using German Technologies to push innovation in knowledge - transaction pointing
and comprehensive knowledge organizational fronts. Mass production of automobiles began through
the assembly line, specialist dealers began offering to lease and owning programs, and new governing
structures were formed for multidivisional comprehensive knowledge organizations.

Third, Industry Revolution began towards the second half of the twentieth century. Japanese
companies began competing with European and North American companies during 1950s,
specifically, through comprehensive manufacturing system innovation, such as lean production,
novel labour-management approaches, and inventive forms within the comprehensive knowledge
organization's transaction processes like just-in-time contracting. Technological Leapfrogging, which
refers to comprehensive knowledge organization's ability to invest in cutting-edge breakthroughs
without being constrained by the sunk costs and interdependencies of earlier technologies, started
too. Originating companies and countries were the first to reap the economic benefits of the
innovation and have the opportunity to sell it to others. However, recipient users, such as late
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developing countries, escaped the expenditures of developing the technology and benefited more
from its widespread deployment in bridging developmental gaps. Thus, based on ‘social savings’
calculation, emerging European countries such as Spain, appeared to have benefited more from their
railway infrastructure than its technological forerunner, the United Kingdom. The amplified use of
electronics and IT to automate production was rampant during this time. [1]

Fourth, Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) is marked by technological convergence that blurred the
physical, digital, and biological realms. Billions of people were interconnected through mobile
devices, high processing power, unlimited access to knowledge and amplified storage capacity. The
crux of innovation lay with Artificial Intelligence. Use of AI to make new software algorithms, predict
consumer preference, and discover new medical treatments has been increasing due to better
technological advancements and access to and availability to large amounts of data.

In terms of business processes and comprehensive knowledge organization, this revolution is seeing
an amplified focus on managing the customer expectations, innovations leading to new product
developments and enhancements, amplified collaboration-based innovation, and shifts in the
comprehensive knowledge organizational structure. The industry is becoming more customer-centric
as they form the crux of the business processes and the economy. Companies are innovating to meet
consumer demands, make lives easier, and capitalize unifying their latent needs. With amplified
digital prowess, comprehensive knowledge organizations are focusing more on providing improved
customer experience, improved services, and better products. Amplified collaboration with
companies facilitated by technology has changed how people, culture, and comprehensive knowledge
organizational structures are being conceived on comprehensive platforms. Currently, comprehensive
knowledge organizations are starting to reconsider their business processes models to meet with the
inevitable change from the digital adaptation characterized by the Third Industrial Revolution to the
advanced technology-based innovations during the Forth Industrial Revolution. However, the bottom
issue is consistent: Upper Management and Senior Leadership have to take a note of the disruptive
changes, break the stereotypical barriers in the way they operate and focus on constant and aggressive
innovation. [2]

Shifts Through Disorder

Any crisis acts like adrenaline for innovation which causes barriers existing over thousands of years
to break down and decimate in a few days or months. CHAOS-19 brought about dynamic shifts in
the way leadership and management function. Its core was the Eight Essentials of Innovations -
Aspire, Discover, Choose, Evolve, Scale, Accelerate, Mobilize and Extend. [6]
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Aspire. Most Leaders had to rethink and re-evaluate the company's strategic and development plans
– both long and short-term to survive the onslaught of the disorder. They had to identify their new
North Star and carve out the mixture of the comprehensive knowledge organization's capabilities and
strengths that would continue to thrive in the post-disorder world. For example, virtual platforms like
zoom, which were once a support feature for comprehensive knowledge organization functions, have
grown to become a ‘can't do without’ platform for work from home and, in the future, can position
themselves to compete with business processes.

Discover. The disorder is a cesspool of unenviability with shifting knowledge - transaction point
needs. It becomes challenging to gauge when things would stabilize and whether or not the world
will come back to the original norm. So, the leadership shifted their focus on discovering – the new
customer needs and how they can impact their business processes and created a blueprint accordingly.
For example, at Loreal, India, the disorder drove down the revenue to a negative because women no
longer needed makeup as they were at home. So, the leaders at Loreal invested heavily to discover
the changing beauty trends and found out that the at-home DIY facial section was booming. Thus,
the idea for face masks was conceived, and the entire product was launched within six months. [6]

Evolve. Crisis always provides an excellent opportunity for any comprehensive knowledge
organization to evolve. The leadership had to identify the areas in their business processes model that
were impaired and unlikely to bounce back. For example, comprehensive knowledge organizations
that sold through brick and motor shops moved to ecommerce and digital during the disorder. While
some patterns were temporary, others like online shopping have undergone a permanent shift.
CHAOS-19 made the leaders understand the changing patterns' implications on the comprehensive
knowledge organization's current capabilities, tools, and assets and work on new ways to innovate
their business processes model. [3]

Choose. For innovation, funding becomes vital. It becomes critical, especially when the world is
going through a disorder and the comprehensive knowledge organization is financially unsound. As
a result, the leaders needed to reassess the innovation pipeline and reallocate resources. They had to
decide on which initiatives to keep, pivot, and cut.

Accelerate and Scale. CHAOS-19 has shortened the time for business processes to generate new
ideas and bring them to knowledge - transaction point, accelerating the required regulatory practices
and exerting influence and pressure on the industrial ecosystems to quickly procure scarce products

181
and services. Leaders acted quickly to shift their investments, scale up or down, and react to possible
capital and consumer knowledge - transaction points changes. In weeks, some companies changed
their current manufacturing practices: industrial companies started making ventilators and hygiene
masks, distilleries began producing disinfection alcohol, and luxury labels began producing hand
sanitizers. [6]

Extend and Mobilize. Business processes began to employ external collaborations during the
epidemic to broaden their reach and, as a result, gain a higher return on their investment in innovation,
risk management and, in some instances, help create regulatory rules. CHAOS-19 taught an important
lesson: during the time of crisis, collaborating and partnerships - even between rival firms becomes
crucial for survival. This was prominent in the rise of various private-public partnerships developed
to help meet the onslaught of the disorder and help the Governments, society and Economy. For
example - More than 15 major pharmaceutical companies in the USA collaborated to find a cure for
coronavirus by pooling their resources together. The creation of an agile culture and working style
benefited comprehensive knowledge organizations, allowing them to mobilize innovation and
encourage such extensions. As much as speed, the ability to persevere in the face of adversity became
a crucial determinant in innovative success. As a result, Leaders reconstructed and reprioritizing their
portfolio of innovation – giving priorities to those innovations which provided the maximum value
as well as having the ability to meet the shifting needs of the customers and shying away from the
innovations which were no longer required. While the suddenness of disorder brought many
comprehensive knowledge organizations to their knees, several others used their creativity and
innovation to revamp old comprehensive knowledge organization practices to adapt to the changing
paradigms. [3]

Multinational Corporates

For most MNCs – especially Consulting Firms, IT Sector and other service - based sectors, employees
form backbone of their profits. With many comprehensive knowledge organizations moving to the
virtual model, it was essential for comprehensive knowledge organizations to innovate employment
engagement practices to enable the employees to be able to work from home comfortably, while
maintaining their expectations, commitment and satisfaction levels when it comes to performing their
jobs. Hence, the employees were provided with the essentials to work productively in the otherwise
difficult time of the disorder. [4]

Companies like Genpact, AMD, Accenture, and Deloitte introduced a critical employee engagement
activity: Family Engagement – employers' initiative to keep employees' youngsters occupied for a
182
couple of hours while the employees were working from home during the lockdown. CEAT also
amplified the downtime of employees, hired fitness instructors to help employees and their families
stay motivated during the downtime via live sessions and podcasts. Capgemini focused on improving
employee engagement by making creative video messages from Senior Leadership – in the form of a
song and skit and created an- in-house social network for its employees to increase employee bonding.
HCCB, started a virtual campaign for engaging employees by involving employees and their families
to access resources to support their mental and physical wellbeing. McDonald’s converted many of
its training modules for India to a digital format, created e-learning modules, online assessments,
master classes based on management skills, and several creative learning-based activities – all of
which could be accessed from phone. Other creative ways in which comprehensive knowledge
organizations amplified employee engagement are by hosting virtual challenges, competitions, and
hackathons for team building, virtual All Hands Meet, Apology, and Appreciation session, Informal
virtual Team Meetup over lunch, share your experience sessions, gaming sessions, conferences and
learning sessions like TED, focus on results than timelines and Online counselling sessions to help
employees handle and manage stress. [5]

Hospitals. These comprehensive knowledge organizations were at the forefront of the CHAOS-19
disorder and were more or less forced to innovate to handle and treat the increasing number of
CHAOS-19 infected patients while protecting their staff and dealing with scarce resources. So, many
of them partnered with technology companies and implemented tools for virtual visits, digital
symptom checkers, and IOT-based remote monitoring devices to monitor patients having mild
symptoms. They also innovated their processes by using analytics to monitor the supply chain, heat-
sensing cameras taking the temperature of people entering the hospitals, and mental health platforms
for the staff and patients alike. CHAOS -19 led to increasing demand for PPE Kits, oxygen cylinders,
ventilators, other equipment, and supplies, which were running out fast, and hospitals quickly ended
up in short supply. To address this shortage of resources, many hospitals used their creativity to reuse
single-use or disposable PPE by sterilizing them using ultra-violet (UV) radiations readily available
in the labs. They even started renting ventilators, purchasing single-use emergency transport
ventilators, or converting their anaesthesia machines to be used as ventilators. For ensuring adequate
staff available to treat CHAOS-19 patients, the doctors, medical staff, and nursing staff from different
domains like cardio, neuro, etc., were cross-trained to deal with CHAOS-19 cases. The disorder also
led to the shift in Leadership style– to include more humility and empathy while dealing with the
crisis. It also brought a more robust drive in the physicians and hospital staff to serve.

Sports Leagues. Sports Industry was another one of the sectors worst hit by the disorder due to the

183
shutdown of almost all sporting events and hence their primary sources of revenue. As the lockdown
eased and sporting events started, the sports league used its creativity through leveraging technology
to ensure minimum risk to its players. An example of this is ‘Bubble,’ a process innovation by the
National Basketball Academy of the USA, which was used for isolation and protection of the players.
For real-time tracking of the location and health information of the players, they used technology
gadgets like Disney Magic Bands and Oura Rings. NBA also used the tap-to-cheer app developed by
Microsoft Teams which used machine learning to create a simulated environment for replicating the
stadium experience at home for the fans.

Airlines. The disorder bought the airlines industry to a standstill – with multiple lockdowns and
domestic and international flight restrictions. However, some airlines companies quickly adapted to
take advantage of the situation. Emirates Airlines, for example, has launched Emirates skycargo, a
new freight service that converts passenger jets into freight transporters. They also created further
process improvements, such as faster CHAOS-19 testing, a larger workforce for all sanitization
procedures, and optimizing their onboarding process with analytics to eliminate passenger
interaction.

Ride-Sharing Companies. The transportation industry was another sector that was hit badly. With
the customers sitting at home due to lockdown or the fear of using public transport and their revenues
dropping, ride-sharing companies like Uber turned into innovation. For example, all drivers working
for Uber were on a contractual basis. So, to retain the drivers, the company started a technological
product innovation application known as Work Hub. The application gave a platform to more than
200,000 drivers to locate jobs easily in Uber's other ventures like Uber Freight (for Freight Delivery),
Uber Eats (For Food Delivery), and Uber Blue (Temporary for blue-collared workers). They also
went into strategic partnerships with fedex, pepsico, and UPS to help these companies out with their
logistical issues.

Video Conferencing Companies. With the workforce shifting to the virtual mode almost overnight,
video conferencing companies got a huge opportunity to grow their existing business processes
through product innovations like customer productivity enhancement tools – file sharing, screen
sharing, video clipping, live video editing, leveraging AL/ML for transcribing audio and real-time
attendance tracking and reporting.

Appliance and Automotive Organizations. While comprehensive knowledge organizations were

innovating to adapt products and services to meet the changing needs, many companies were quick

184
enough to adjust their manufacturing capacities for product innovations designed for producing items
crucial to the disorder. For example, hair appliance manufacturer Dyson and automotive manufacturer
General Motors leveraged their skilled labour force and production competency for manufacturing
ventilators on urgent demand. Another example is True Value – a paint company, who moved to
manufacture hand sanitizers based on demand collected from their 4500 hardware stores. So, we can
see that the disorder affected almost all comprehensive knowledge organizations across different
industries. Still, they were quick enough to innovate the product or the process to survive, grow and
in some cases even become more profitable and leverage the newly found opportunities arising out
of the disorder. [2]

Post-Disorder Shifts and Future Scope

Now that more than a year has passed since the disorder was declared, we have had lots of time to
understand and reflect on how we can restore and renovate. With this new perspective, we wish to
now look into the future to answer what role innovation will play in the new post-disorder world and
in how creativity and co-evolution can be leveraged by comprehensive knowledge organizations to
survive post-disorder. For post-disorder growth, it is very important to focus on innovation. The shift
in working style during the disorder of various comprehensive knowledge organizations has brought
and rebuilt comprehensive knowledge organizations taking care of digital transformation, innovating,
and creating in new bold ways. Four major factors responsible for the change were the availability of
more connectivity, lower transaction cost, unprecedented automation, and fundamental societal shifts.
The unanswered question for many comprehensive knowledge organizations remains how they will
perform after the disorder. This shift due to disorders has produced bad news for companies that were
not able to change the process of operation and perform better; many reports have shown that 95% of
profit is made by the top 20% of companies. At the same time, there is good news looking from an
executive point of view who sees it's an opportunity e that gets in generation for changes to be made
and transitions to happen. [6]

In a recent survey of over two hundred comprehensive knowledge organizations across industries
conducted by McKinney & Company, it was seen that 90% of them believe that the crisis is going to
change how business processes is done in the future, and 21% believe that they have the needed skill
set and competency required to grow successfully. Correspondingly, a little over three-fourth agreed
that CHAOS-19 has opened up novel growth opportunities for creative minds.

There are three ways comprehensive knowledge organizations are planning to target the future.
- The comprehensive knowledge organizations rightly understand what their vision and mission
185
 are and what they stand for.
- These comprehensive knowledge organizations have standardized the process of innovation
and fixed the speed of changes happening.
- Lastly, but most importantly, they have developed an ability to generate good ideas, learn
productively, and innovate day by day.
- Along with the above, carrying forward the learnings from disorder, comprehensive
knowledge organizations must make sure to include:
o Making the core business processes adaptable to the changing needs of customers.
o To remake the innovation initiative portfolio and making sure that there is a proper
allocation of resources.
o A system to quickly identify and grasp the novel opportunities that get created by the
changing landscape.

Most business processes have to change the way they operate because what worked for them in the
past may not help them to become successful in the future. Since the disorder, there have been rapid
changes in consumer behaviour, the sales models adopted by comprehensive knowledge
organizations, the need for digital offerings, and competition in the knowledge - transaction point
place. An understanding of these changes and the opportunities they present can give the
comprehensive knowledge organization a competitive advantage that it can sustain for the long term.
It has been noted that the companies that are heavily invested in innovation are performing better than
the knowledge - transaction point average by around thirty percent and are delivering a great growth
rate. Well-established companies are better at executing than innovating. But this has to change. [4]

Strengthen Identity
When it comes to better-performing comprehensive knowledge organizations, employees play a
significant role. Employees in these companies are the ones who are the major stakeholders. Also,
they stand along with the company, and the comprehensive knowledge organizations give them a
sense of identity, support, purpose, and reason to work. Comprehensive knowledge organizations
stand differently by creating a culture and attracting the best workforce available. To further stand
out from the competition, companies should adopt the following crucial measures: -

Strengthening the Purpose

Purpose serves a major role in attracting the workforce and giving motivation to the employees to
work. The energy of the comprehensive knowledge organization is channelled through its purpose.
To follow which comprehensive knowledge organizations nowadays have followed more

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engagement levels between the employees which were missing in the past.

Elevate Value
Focussing on the efforts made by each individual in the company and in instilling in them what really
matters so as to create actual value for each of the employees.

Exploiting Culture
The precise culture in a comprehensive knowledge organization always helps leaders to find out the
right performance within the team. Culture in a comprehensive knowledge organization is followed
by the right behaviours, reports, experiences, and practices. A recent example of this is the two-pizza
rule mandated by Amazon for its employees. Culture just does not exist in posters or slogans, but it
exists within the principles, in the way of working of the comprehensive knowledge organization,
and the behaviour with and among the employees. This also attracts the Right comprehensive
knowledge and helps in retaining the older ones.

Flattened Structure
Comprehensive knowledge organizations to be ready post-disorder must follow fewer complex
structures to solve complex problems in the knowledge - transaction point. Chinese manufacturer of
appliances Haier photos a simple profit and loss structure with clear business process’s objective
value and mission statements avoiding traditional boxes, extra management, unnecessary layers
creating a free environment for all employees. The same practice is followed after a disorder will help
in the smooth functioning of an comprehensive knowledge organization with creative products for
the changing demand.

Turbocharged Decision Making

Due to changing requirements and knowledge - transaction point conditions, comprehensive
knowledge organizations are required to make fast and good-quality decisions. Many comprehensive
knowledge organizations have shortened the time for making decisions periodically. One of the
examples is Sysco, a big food chain in the USA was aggressively taking decisions as required by
implementing different strategies, including the right allocation of resources and data for high quality
and accurate decisions. This needs to be maintained. [3]

Use of Comprehensive Knowledge

One must think of their comprehensive knowledge pool as their scarcest resource. For better
performance and qualitative output in the future time coming attracting comprehensive knowledge

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delivery output the best use of existing comprehensive knowledge. The ecosystem of comprehensive
knowledge management also provides future-ready employees or an executive. Many companies at
Cisco provide learning opportunities and the right skillset development programs which taps the exact
job requirement and opportunities available.

Symbiotic Structure
Companies that are performing as individuals and those performing as groups have a lot of
differences. Sharing values, assets, developing an infrastructure ecosystem mutually benefit all the
firms. The best example for this case is how Tesla created and encouraged other companies to use its
intellectual property rights in developing the electric car vehicle segment, which eventually created
the need for an electric vehicle.

Build Rich Data Platforms

Taking data very seriously is one of the mandatory requirements. Data would allow us to not just
understand past trends but also to understand the scope of their business processes and come up with
great insights. Companies like McKinney and daughter consulting firms have used data-tech
platforms to take tension decisions in less time with more accuracy.

Accurate learning vs. accurate hypothesis

Drastically changing situations give companies lesser chances to redo or re-stand in these disorder
times. Dealing with this dynamic world, learning should be a continuous process. Building skills,
capability and adaptability would allow comprehensive knowledge organizations to become resilient.
Companies must keep fostering reinvention.

Alternative Measures – Gig Economy

The resurgence of the economy is altering how business processes operate and interact with their
employees. The gig economy model, in which workers take on short-term jobs or projects, seems to
be a win-win situation for both the recruiting comprehensive knowledge organization and the
employees. When it comes to business processes, the gig model provides greater flexibility, lower
fixed costs, and the capacity to adapt to knowledge - transaction point changes much faster. It's also
an opportunity to tap into a new comprehensive knowledge pool (specialists who are unlikely to want
to join the comprehensive knowledge organization on a long-term contract) and acquire skills on
demand. [3]

From the perspective of the employee, the gig model allows for greater flexibility in work hours, a

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better work-life balance, and more self-governance. It gives better-quality and more diverse
possibilities for short-term work that might lead to long-term employment. What this implies is that
work is quite different now than it was a decade ago, and this trend will continue. Previously, work
was thought to be about putting money in the bank, putting food on the table, and having a solid
career with some retirement income. A career is no longer about a job but about a feeling of success,
thanks to a change in thinking. With the simplicity of entrance, affordability, and advancements in
digital technology, more men and women of all ages, as well as independent workers from a variety
of industries, are gravitating toward the gig economy.

The issue of the hour is what this means for companies. The gig economy is wonderful news for
companies since it makes it easier to locate giggers (thanks to various internet platforms!), it's a cost-
effective and efficient solution for unexpected openings, and so on. The following are some of the
supporting arguments:

Lower fixed costs- You won't have to pay for benefits, training, onboarding, medical, or other HR
programs since they'll only be paid for the task they're hired to do. In truth, you don't always have to
supply giggers with work equipment.

Consider seasonal needs, such as those during the holidays! Companies like Amazon and Flipkart
are constantly in need of contingent labour for various areas due to the high volume of orders they
get (delivering, support, tech, etc.)

Onboard effectively-Any company that has high turnover knows that the onboarding process may be
costly and time-consuming. You are not required to undergo a number of HR programs, which include
inductions and other meetings. Onboarding freelancers is a more convenient approach to secure
external comprehensive knowledges.

Companies may outsource chores to already-trained employees, and people can work for a variety of
comprehensive knowledge organizations in temporary roles. Well, this win-win situation is what sets
the gig model for the future of employment in motion.

Conclusion

In this research, one observes importance of creativity, innovation and co-evolution and analysed how
the different comprehensive knowledge organizations were able to leverage the three agents to
survive and succeed during the disorder. Creativity, innovation and co-evolution over the years have
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been instrumental in waving the path for growth and development. Comprehensive knowledge
organizations over time have been leveraging these factors to come up with new products and
services. Crisis is driving force for innovations. Recent crisis has fuelled major changes in how
comprehensive knowledge organizations operate. These changes are being supported by numerous
innovative and creative solutions. It’s time to go back to basics of understanding of comprehensive
knowledge organizational behaviour to support future growth. [4]

References

1. Klaus Schwab, 2016, The Fourth Industrial Revolution: what it means, how to respond,
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-
and-how-to-respond
2. Https://www.forbes.com/sites/square/2020/11/18/from-brick-and-mortar-to-click-and-
order-transitioning-to-ecommerce/?Sh=2ef0aa9f5067
3. Jordan Bar Am, Laura Furstenthal, Felicitas Jorge, and Erik Roth, 2020, Innovation in a
crisis: Why it is more critical than ever, <https://www.mckinsey.com/business processes-
functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/innovation-in-a-crisis-why-it-is-
more-critical-than-ever>
4. Nisha Chanana and Sangeeta, 2020, Employee engagement practices during CHAOS‐19
lockdown, <https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/how-do-i-cite-electronic-sources>
5. Shanti Gopalakrishnan, Sarah Kovoor - Misra, 2021, ‘Understanding the impact of the
CHAOS-19 disorder through the lens of innovation’, BRQ Business processes Research
Quarterly
6. Square Contributor, 2020, From Brick and Mortar to Click and Order: Transitioning To
ecommerce

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Slađana Živanović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6001-3685

Nikola Abramović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7865-3592

Miodrag Živanović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, University Adriatic Bar, Montenegro
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3612-6230

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE FOR COMPETITIVENESS

Abstract. Development of organizational culture enables the stability of the organization. Well-
organized knowledge management integrates strategy, human potential with skills, as well as the
organization and its culture. Good management of an organization with an organizational culture
that relies on knowledge creates the conditions for sustainable development with creative and
innovative endeavours. Along with a lifelong learning that results from the basis of organizational
culture, conditions that enable competitive advantage are created. The subject of this paper is to
assess the impact of lifelong learning and organizational culture on providing conditions for
managing creative and innovative activities, as well as considering the role of management in
order to turn innovative endeavours into value for users and employees. Collection, analysis and
systematization of scientifically relevant information contributes to the fact that man and human
capital in the scientific chain of causes and effects takes the highest place and proves human
creativity and intelligence.

Keywords: Knowledge economy, organizational culture, competitiveness

Introduction

The vision of the organization must be compatible with the organizational culture, because the culture
unites all organizational segments into unique, solid basis. Organizational culture directly affects the
performance characteristics of the organization or indirectly through a business strategy with good
leadership and employee motivation.

Nowadays, human capital (education and training) plays a significant role along with innovative

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technology and good legal system. The research determines how lifelong learning and special
trainings as well as organizational culture govern special creative processes which, by using good
organizational leadership and application of appropriate development strategy, turn all activities into
special values for users.

This approach to research consists of determining the role of organizational culture in business
activities of modern companies. The research specifically identifies various types of impacts that,
together with various human resources activities, contribute to better and more organized work in the
organization. The goal of company’s organizational culture management is to focus, in particular, on
various forms in which culture contributes to better business success. The main scientific goal of the
research in this paper is to obtain new scientifically relevant information that contributes to the
development of human knowledge, as well as the creation of a better and more equitable world. The
social goal is for the research results to find application at the organizational level, aimed at creating
strategies based on knowledge, learning and culture.

The research tries to determine whether organizations that encourage creativity and learning culture
with a competitive strategy for human capital gain competitive advantage. Furthermore, the following
research issues were resolved.
- A strong culture within the organization creates better cooperation between employees, which
enables more successful business with greater employee motivation, that is, encouraging their
creative energy.
- Managerial processes that result from the creativity of employees, contribute to better business
success.
- Investments in human capital, focusing on culture and values of learning encourage creativity.

The paper is based on research of scientific papers in the field of management, leadership and creative
industries using the following methods:
The description (descriptive method) was used in order to generalize and describe concepts of culture
and organizational culture management, which is important for human resource management. In
addition, the description was used to describe theoretical attitudes regarding the organizational culture
in the company's business. The comparative method was used in the theoretical part of the paper, in
order to draw conclusions that were reached by analyzing the latest trends in the field of
organizational culture. The inductive method, deductive method and personal attitudes were used in
order to analyze experiences of applying culture in the company’s business and to draw general
conclusions about its contribution to the business.

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This paper shows the deepening of this issue with the conclusion on the further development of
strategy in companies in order to improve organizational culture, motivate employees and contribute
to creating value and improving the living standard of citizens.

Education, research and information technology have significantly changed the present, because the
applied strategy is based on human resources and building an organizational design based on culture.

Knowledge economy is a prerequisite for the company’s development

Lifelong learning is crucial for economic prosperity. In order for managers to be effective and
efficient in the new economy, it is necessary for them to have better knowledge management than
their competitors. Knowledge is used as capital that organizations own, use and combine in a new
and creative way. If we look at knowledge as a potential, we can conclude that not only does it
represent added value for users but also has a stimulating, innovative role of the company.

In the workplace, social change has conditioned the ability to manage change, leadership, team
building, innovation, knowledge management and flexible working, which benefit both the
organization and those who work for it [1]. Human knowledge is becoming very valuable and is the
most important factor in social life. Services (software, healthcare, communications, education, etc.)
are intellectual and information processes, which provide for a large part of companies’ values [2].

We must recognize that knowledge, skills, intellectual property and abilities create organizational
value in which knowledge is at the center of attention. In knowledge organizations, human capital is
directed towards innovation in order to develop products and services that create value for the
organization. The fact is that, lately, a new economy has been built by knowledge, and the man is at
the center of that economy.

People that have knowledge, have power. Knowledge is power, which we can use to manage our lives
in a good manner. Good governance of educational and scientific-research institutions is important.
Total quality management in education is the basis for total quality management. Objectives of the
total quality management strategy in educational institutions [3]:
- Create the highest quality pupils and students, so that they advance and occupy important
positions in society;
- Focus on the learning process, not the assessment process;
- Promote professional training for teachers and administrative staff;
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 - Establish leadership that helps people use information technology;
- Accept the new philosophy that management must be awakened by challenge, taking
responsibility and leadership for a change. Change is an ongoing task.

Human capital is an investment obtained from a person with good technological knowledge and skills
who gives his organization a greater production, or better service. There is a decline in the need for
traditional business functions, and a growing need for engineers, marketing, management and
administration workers. They are often called knowledge workers.

Workers with general knowledge, social skills and personal values are even less considered when it
comes to employment. There is an opinion that when choosing a top-notch executor, attention should
be focused on their mindset and their attitudes, social skills and their willingness to work towards
better business success of the organization [1].

From the aforementioned, it is concluded that it is important for every worker to have positive job
skills and a willingness to constantly train and progress in the job.

Development and retention of human capital

Personality development is deeply connected with the process of education. Education has a great
influence on personal abilities and contributes to better communication in process activities. In order
to develop human capital, it is necessary that employees, along with formal education and experience
that will help them get involved in work, are willing to train in order to adapt more quickly to business
processes.

It is necessary to constantly update our knowledge in order to remain competitive on the labor market.
The success of the employee in the work process, mostly depends on the employee himself, regardless
of other circumstances in the organization. New generations of employees want easy jobs where they
do things with tolerant flexibility [4].

Business needs also require new people. You can find useful tips for job-hunting on the website,
including instructions for writing a resume, cover letter and providing career information. There is
also a survey that helps us understand the essence of the harmonization of organizational culture of
the company in question with the needs of job seekers [4].

The main goal of today’s training is acquiring skills to achieve better quality in a job with higher
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productivity. Training is not only the responsibility of the human resources department but it also
requires an active leadership role at all levels of the organization. An important role of management
with better human resources development is training with specific and professional knowledge, with
the aim of innovation and competitive advantage [5].

Employees want to share attitudes and beliefs as well as workspace. Employee's intrinsic motivation
means that his job is interesting, exciting, satisfying and represents a personal challenge. Employee
retention is becoming an important managerial activity due to dealing with lack of knowledge and
skills. If employees were self-motivated, the need for managers would disappear [6].

A learning organization

Lifelong learning should be implemented in the organization, because learning is the foundation of
the organization. If the organization promotes a learning culture, it will improve both individuals
(members of the organization) and the organization itself. There is an interdependence between the
learning organization and the knowledge management, they simply need each other and complement
each other. A learning organization supports learning and develops it so that it implies changes in
knowledge. The interest and the need for this type of organization is the need to be competitive in the
market [7].

The fact is that organizations that seek knowledge, want to effectively manage the organization with
continuous training and the acquisition of additional knowledge with lifelong learning. The
assumption is that management believes that knowledge and continuous learning is the only method
to acquire and maintain a competitive position in the market. The changes that are being made through
continuous training in the company represent a positive revitalization. Every organization should
focus on human resources to have good information about changes in the technology system, in order
to get acquainted, in a timely manner, with new methods that indicate user desire. The organization
is obliged to determine the necessary competence of employees and provide training [8].

Each company that strives for change, in terms of acquiring new knowledge for its employees, strives
for good business success in future work, that is, such company systematically solves problems,
because it puts the knowledge it has into practice.

Organizational learning is in fact the collection, creation, use and development of knowledge and
skills in an organization. Creating exceptional skills and knowledge in the organization represents the
core of capabilities [7].
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Value is created based on ideas of employees of the company in relation to customers and databases
that form a treasure trove of knowledge, or a culture with a sense of quality and innovation. The main
initiator in the economy is human capital [2]. From the aforementioned, it is emphasized that the
value is created by knowledge workers. It is important that good management empowers the inner
strength of employees who possess the skill that comes from knowledge and motivation they possess.
The system of values, beliefs and norms determines the organizational culture. A knowledge-oriented
culture is a significant factor for the organization’s success but most difficult to create if it does not
already exist in the organization. If organizations want to be more productive, they need the right
people. In that case, they must fully accept the cultural characteristics that include lifelong learning
and training [1].

Importance of organizational culture

Organizational culture is a popular concept in the field of organization and management in Western
Europe and the USA in the last decade.

The concept of culture was taken from anthropology, when it became clear that economic
organization could be considered a certain type of social community. Every man is born, grows up
and spends his whole life in different types of organizations. Sociologists have significantly
contributed to the creation of the concept of organizational culture.

Organizational culture is defined as a framework of knowledge that consists of attitudes, values,

norms of behavior and expectations shared by members of the organization [9].

Organizational culture provides stability and progress for organizations. Culture supports everything
that happens within the organization. It supports cooperation and teamwork and it is renewable,
because it is passed onto new members of the organization.

Organizational culture is unique and specific to other organizations. It can be explained as follows:
"No two people are alike” - so we don't have two same organizational cultures. It is based on
experiences of members of the organization, which is acquired over a long period of time, and it is
unique by definition.

Everything that happens in the organization and everything we see in it represents the organizational
culture of the subject organization. Each culture develops its own specific language.
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Every behavior, every action in the organization has its meaning. That meaning is often more
important than the action itself. All members of the organization should be aware of the meaning that
their behavior symbolizes, that is, the message it sends to those around them. The fact is that
maintaining culture is sensed throughout whole organization. Knowledge culture is difficult to
manifest and even more difficult to change. The most direct way to change behavior is to change the
practice that generates that behavior.

In modern business conditions, which are characterized by exceptional dynamism and intensity of
change, it is important to emphasize the role of organizational culture in determining the ability of
the organization to adapt to change. Organizational culture is the basis for creating favorable
conditions for fostering creativity, with rational use of collective and individual knowledge, in the
organization where the culture of the innovative organization generates innovation [10].

The ability to focus on users is viewed as an important factor in developing an innovative culture.
However, this individual approach does not guarantee that the culture will be innovative. Therefore,
in addition to the aforementioned focus, there are a number of other factors that are relevant to
building an innovative culture in the organization. In order to be successful in changing the
organizational culture, that supports and promotes innovation, there must be a willingness of the
organization to provide the necessary resources and logistical preparation of the company, which
already has strong teamwork, communication, trust, autonomy, knowledge sharing, creative people,
risk tolerance and other elements that are of great importance for the development, nurturing and
support of innovation.

Although all organizations have their own culture, not all organizational cultures have the same
attitude towards the behavior and actions of workers [11].

Organizational culture (strong, weak, or intermediate level) depends on several factors, primarily on
size, length of existence, degree of communication and mutual cooperation (teamwork).

The question arises: what impact does a strong cultural organization have? One study has found that
the ratio of employees in a firm with a strong organizational culture is much more committed to work
compared to firms with weak organizational culture. In large and strong organizational cultures, there
is a greater obligation and responsibility of managers [11].

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Organizational cultures significantly differ in their strength. The strength of organizational culture
has become interesting to researchers and managers because of an assumption that has not been
proven, but has been generally accepted, that a strong organizational culture leads to greater business
efficiency. From aforementioned, it follows that workers have better motivation and attitude towards
work, there is no quarrel, consequently, an enormous amount of employees’ creative energy is
mobilized in such an atmosphere. All these effects are important factors for the efficiency and
effectiveness of the organization.

Based on the literature, the connection between organizational culture and business success is
manifested. The key aspects of a successful organizational culture are: adaptability, strong culture,
vision and employee participation [12].

Adaptability is the ability to notice changes in the organization's environment and to react to them.
A company that has a widely accepted organizational culture has a positive effect, with its
functioning, on all segments of business success and solving the company goals. The success and
efficiency of the company's control activities is largely dependent because there is a compatibility of
organizational culture with all company activities. The culture represents a significant factor in
choosing organizational culture. It also determines the prevailing motivation profile, as well as the
leadership style in the organization. Culture affects both the source and the structure of power in an
organization. Culture plays several important roles in organizations as it can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Organizational culture with its functions

Source: http://www.usheproduction.com, Organizational Processes, Part 6, p. 548.

Organizational culture in organizations with its functions has the following roles:
- Culture provides a sense of identity.
- Culture generates commitment to the organization’s mission.
- Culture clarifies and reinforces standards of behavior.

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 Conclusion

People who have been educated and are ready and willing to continue learning are important elements
for the success and prosperity of an organization. It is important to note that the introduction and
recognition of skills as additional education is necessary. We can conclude that learning and growth
perspective describes intangible assets of the organization. The value of any organization is its human
capital and the stronger it is the greater the organization’s ability to combat constant market changes.
The goal of knowledge management is to make the life cycle of knowledge management, which
consists of creating, conquering, preserving, sharing and applying knowledge, as effective and
efficient as possible. The first step towards this is to create self-awareness among employees. It is
necessary to constantly introduce new knowledge, update it, in accordance with changes in the
market. In order to complete the image of knowledge workers, we need to add one very important
thing, and that is motivation. Knowledge workers are motivated not only by money, but also by some
kind of benefits and constant investment in their education.

By long-term repetition of successful solutions, they are transformed into rules (norms and values),
and then into assumptions and beliefs. The emergence and development of organizational culture
takes time and it changes following the organizational life cycle. The formation of a certain
organizational culture is influenced by: management, national culture and other employees. The
management of an organization should develop an organizational culture that will always associate
clients with that organization.

Competitive advantage is gained by those organizations that encourage creativity, learning culture
and apply competitiveness strategies based on human capital and innovation. In order to remain
competitive in the market, which is daily exposed to changes, organizations in Montenegro must
encourage creativity and innovation, invest in education and nurture human capital in the
organization, as this is the only way to success.

Only by encouraging internal factors, such as education, and upgrading it can we encourage employee
motivation in order to encourage creativity and innovation. The management of the organization
should plan and develop a model of organizational culture, which will enable the professional
potential and the overall intelligence of the team to be used in the best way that it can. It is important
to know whether the system applied maintains the organizational culture and whether it is capable of
achieving its goals, and if that is not the case, it should be changed.

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Advantage of organizations that have a developed organizational culture is that they encourage
creativity and innovation.

We can conclude that even if innovation is an important tool of internal organizational endeavors, it
also entails great risks, because investing in innovation may not pay off. However, successfully
accepted innovations can create competitive advantages and become a source of organizational
growth.

References

1. Kourdi, J. (2014). Poslovna strategija, Poslovni dnevnik Masmedia, Zagreb. Freytag, A., Thurik.
2. Albijanić, M. 2013, Strategijski menadžment, Univerzitet Singidunum, Beograd.
3. Heleta, M. N, 2011, TQM. Model izvrsnosti, Zavod za udžbenike, Beograd.
4. Živković, D. (2012), Menadžment ljudskih resursa, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Univerzitet Beograd.
5. Scherman, S., Bohlander, G., Snell, R. (2014). Organizational Behaviour, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
6. Kuzman, S. (2014). Istraživanje dominantnih stilova liderstva primjenom likertovog modela u
hotelskim preduzećima. in: Proceedings of the 1st International Scientific Conference - Sinteza
2014, Belgrade: Singidunum University, str. 1049-1053.
7. Albijanić, M. (2011). Intelektualni kapital: uticaj na konkurentnost i ekonomski rast, Službeni
glasnik, Beograd.
8. Janićijević, N. (2013) Organizaciona kultura i menadžment. Beograd: CID, Ekonomski Fakultet.
9. Erhardt, N., Martin-Rios, C., Heckscher, C. (2016). Am i doing the right thing? Unpacking
workplace rituals as mechanisms for strong organizational culture. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 59: 31-41.
10. Freytag, A., Thurik, A. R. (2014). Entrepreneurship and Culture, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg.
11. Janićijević, N. (2012). Struktura i tipovi organizacione kulture, Beograd, Ekonomski Fakultet.
12. Williams, C., (2010). Principi Menadžmenta, Data Status, Beograd.

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Section E-Governance and Online Education

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Marjeta Horjak,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija

RAZVOJ ELEKTRONSKE HRAMBE V SLOVENIJI

Povzetek. Cilj prispevka je izpostaviti izkušnje organizacij pri izvajanju elektronske hrambe
dokumentov po slovenski zakonodaji, ki je stopila v veljavo leta 2006. Za razumevanje, kako zakonske
zahteve vplivajo na razvoj elektronske hrambe organizacij, je bila v letu 2011 izvedena empirična
raziskava javnih in zasebnih organizacij iz Slovenije in EU. Za merjenje doseženega razvoja hrambe
elektronskih zapisov je bila v letu 2020 izvedena empirična kvalitativna raziskava. V tej luči je cilj
predstaviti glavne ovire in spodbude za vzpostavitev elektronske hrambe po slovenski zakonodaji v
slovenskih organizacijah javnega in zasebnega sektorja. V prispevku je na podlagi študija primera
Slovenije in EU in opravljene primerjave stanja v letih 2011 in 2020 nakazan trend oz. pričakovan
razvoj uvedbe s predpisi usklajene elektronske hrambe dokumentov glede na zahtevnost predpisov v
Sloveniji. Identificirane so ključne ovire in spodbude za implementacijo s predpisi usklajene hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki v Sloveniji. Podana so priporočila organizacijam za podporo razvoju
hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki.

Ključne besede: electronic preservation of documents, organization experience, impact of

regulations, business processes

Uvod

Hramba dokumentov v elektronski obliki je ključnega pomena za neprekinjeno poslovanje

organizacije. Njena vrednost je neprecenljiva, saj se organizacija izogne težavam pri dokazovanju
poslovnih transakcij [19, str. 2; 9, str. 1]. V praksi hramba dokumentov v elektronski obliki prinaša
koristi, saj varuje organizacijo pred tveganji poškodbe ali izgube dokumentov in pooblaščenim
uporabnikom omogoča neprekinjen dostop do dokumentov za poslovanje in dolgoročno ohranjanje
kulturne dediščine [19, str. 2; 9, str. 1], neodvisno od lokacije uporabnika.

Z vpeljavo elektronskega poslovanja organizacije optimizirajo poslovne procese, znižajo stroške

poslovanja ter povečajo produktivnost in konkurenčnost na domačem in svetovnem trgu [14]. K temu
doprinašata tudi upravljanje in hramba dokumentov v elektronski obliki, kar pa predstavlja izziv za
organizacije v smislu začetnih investicij in zagotavljanja virov za vzpostavitev [3, str. 6]. Prav slednje
pa je odvisno od zakonskih zahtev, ki se razlikujejo med posameznimi državami [20, str. 431], zato
se tudi dobre prakse hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki razlikujejo od države do države [21].
Pogosto ravno predpisi, ki zaradi svoje zahtevnosti ovirajo vzpostavitev hrambe dokumentov v
elektronski obliki, ne izpolnijo pričakovanja organizacije [24, str. 2]. Kompleksne zahteve predpisov
ustvarjajo dodatne stroške, organizacijam otežujejo razumevanje zahtev predpisov in z njimi
povezano izpolnjevanje obveznosti [29, str. 1; 30, str. 3]. Zlasti majhne organizacije so se zaradi

202
omejenih virov v poslovanju prisiljene izogniti skladnosti s kompleksnimi predpisi [30, str. 3; 28, str.
14]. Torej organizacije v praksi ne morejo upoštevati zapletenih predpisov, če ne vedo in ne razumejo,
kaj se od njih zahteva [28, str. 14]. Kot je zapisal OECD [28, str. 14], ustvarjalci predpisov pogosto
ne izberejo ustreznih instrumentov za realizacijo ukrepov, ki jih želijo doseči s predpisi, ker čutijo
pritisk, da morajo pri izdaji novih ali posodobitvi obstoječih predpisov zapolniti pravne vrzeli novih,
nepredvidenih okoliščin. Učinek takšnega pritiska lahko vodi do izgube preprostosti predpisov in
poglobi nezmožnost organizacije razumeti, kaj je potrebno za izpolnjevanje zahtev predpisov. Ruhl
in Katz [15] menita, da bi morali ustvarjalci predpisov izmeriti njihovo kompleksnost še pred izdajo
predpisa in ugotoviti, ali so preveč zapleteni ter v tem primeru prilagoditi kompleksnost. Teorija
kompleksnosti zakonodaje bi morala vključevati empirično merjenje kompleksnosti predpisa
(nastanek dodatnih stroškov, zaznavanje nesorazmerne kompleksnosti glede na ukrepe, obseg oz.
dolžina zakonodaje) [15, 30, 26, str. 12].

Pravne, tehnične ter poslovne zahteve in zahteve za varno informacijsko infrastrukturo so predpogoj
za uspešno hrambo dokumentov v elektronski obliki [31, str. 22]. Okolje organizacije, ki je usklajeno
s predpisi, in celovita informatizacija poslovnih procesov, vključno s prehodom na brezpapirno
poslovanje in hrambo dokumentov v elektronski obliki, pomembno vplivajo na uspešno in trajnostno
naravno poslovanje organizacije [2, str. 141; 13]. Hrambo dokumentov v elektronski obliki je
potrebno uvesti v skladu z veljavnimi predpisi, zato pa morajo organizacije dobro razumeti zahteve
predpisov, le tako jih lahko uvedejo in izvajajo na najbolj pragmatičen način [22, str. 3].

Bolj kot so predpisi enostavni, bolj jih lahko organizacije razumejo in hitreje implementirajo v prakso.
Kompleksnost predpisov vpliva na to, kako učinkovito in zavzeto bodo organizacije uvajale in
izvajale predpis [27, str. 1]. Zato bi morali zakonodajalci razlikovati med obveznimi zakonskimi
zahtevami predpisov in s tem povezanimi stroški ter nepotrebnimi administrativnimi obremenitvami
za organizacije [26, str. 31], zlasti glede na dejstvo, da poenostavljeni in dobro oblikovani predpisi
(jasno in nedvoumno) pozitivno vplivajo na poslovanje, to je na zmanjšanje stroškov in povečanje
produktivnosti v poslovanju organizacije.

Ureditev hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki na ravni EU

EU ureja in izvaja ukrepe na ravni EU le na tistih področjih, kjer bi razlike v ureditvi posameznih
držav članic povzročile težave pri prostem pretoku blaga, oseb in storitev ter kapitala [25].

Zato se predpisi med državami članicami na drugih področjih (na primer na področju hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki) razlikujejo in nič ne kaže, da bodo v prihodnosti standardizirani na
203
ravni EU. Standardizirani predpisi za hrambo dokumentov v elektronski obliki na ravni EU bi
poenotili urejenost in posamezna država članica bi lahko sledila dobrim praksam vzpostavitve in
vzdrževanja postopkov drugih držav članic [4].

Vzpostavitev in vzdrževanje postopka hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki sta odvisna tudi od
zahtev predpisov. Različni standardi in zahteve predpisov so lahko v posameznih državah članicah
EU zapleteni, kar vpliva na odločitev organizacij za vpeljavo in izvajanje zakonsko skladne hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki [23, str. 43]. Kot piše [10, str. 21], vse več predpisov omejuje
delovanje organizacije, tudi na področju uvedbe hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki [7].

Ureditev hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki v Sloveniji

Slovenija je varstvo dokumentarnega in arhivskega gradiva v elektronski obliki prvič uredila leta
2006 z Zakonom o varstvu dokumentarnega in arhivskega gradiva [16, 18, str. 75] in ga leta 2014
posodobila z novelo zakona ZVDAGA-A [17]. Obstoječi pravni okvir zavezuje organizacije javnega
sektorja, ki nameravajo zajemati ali hraniti dokumente v elektronski obliki, da sledijo fazam vnaprej
določenega postopka uvedbe.

Te faze vključujejo pripravo na zajem in hrambo, pripravo in sprejemanje notranjih pravil ter hrambo
dokumentov v elektronski obliki, spremljanje izvajanja notranjih pravil in ukrepanje v primeru
odstopanj od notranjih pravil (notranji nadzor). Prav tako morajo spremljati, kadar pride do kakšne
spremembe postopka in ustrezno posodabljati interna pravila [7], 2019).

Predpisi določajo tudi, da se v skladu s 93. členom ZVDAGA-A [17] za prekršek kaznuje
organizacija, ki ne sprejme notranjih pravil ali če pri zajemanju in shranjevanju dokumentarnega ali
arhivskega gradiva ne ravna v skladu s svojimi notranjimi pravili oziroma ne izpolnjuje predpisanih
enotnih tehnoloških zahtev [6].

Priznavanje pravne veljavnosti hranjenih dokumentov v elektronski obliki v skladu z 31. členom
ZVDAGA-A [17] temelji na obstoju in izvajanju potrjenih internih pravil.

Na podlagi podatkov Ministrstva za kulturo, Arhiva RS, 2020, predstavljamo razvoj hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki na osnovi javno dostopnih podatkov o stanju organizacij s potrjenimi
internimi pravili v letih 2011, 2017, 2019 in 2020. Iz grafa 1 je razviden razvoj hrambe dokumentov
v elektronski obliki v organizacijah javnega sektorja.

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Graf 7. Organizacije javnega sektorja – število organizacij s potrjenimi notranjimi pravili [12, 1]

Po podatkih iz grafa 1 je razvidno, da sta v letu 2011 dve od 2.833 organizacij javnega sektorja potrdili
notranja pravila pri Arhivu RS. V letu 2015 je notranja pravila potrdilo 9 organizacij in leta 2019 je
notranja pravila potrdilo 12 organizacij, 9 organizacij pa je potrdilo vzorčna notranja pravila. V letu
2020 je pri Arhivu RS notranja pravila potrdilo 22 organizacij javnega sektorja in 26 organizacij je
potrdilo vzorčna notranja pravila.

Graf 2. Zasebne organizacije – število organizacij s potrjenimi notranjimi pravili [12, 1]

Razvoj hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki je med zasebnimi organizacijami spodbudnejši (graf
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2), čeprav te skladno s slovenskimi predpisi niso zavezane k implementaciji notranjih pravil in uvedbi
s predpisi usklajene elektronske hrambe. Po podatkih iz grafa 2 je razvidno, da je že v letu 2010 14
zasebnih organizacij potrdilo notranja pravila, leta 2011 je bilo pri Arhivu RS 19 organizacij s
potrjenimi notranjimi pravili, enako tudi leta 2019. Leta 2020 je imelo 28 zasebnih organizacij
potrjena notranja pravila, medtem ko je imelo notranja pravila potrjena le 22 organizacij javnega
sektorja (graf 1).

Stanje analize podatkov kaže na potrebo po ukrepanju oz. spodbudah za vpeljavo s predpisi usklajene
elektronske hrambe dokumentov v javnih, pa tudi zasebnih organizacijah. Posledično uvedba s
predpisi usklajene elektronske hrambe doprinaša k optimizaciji poslovnih procesov in blaži negativne
vplive na okolje [5]. Pričakovati je, da bo sprememba predpisov o hrambi dokumentov v elektronski
obliki ZVDAGA-A [17] pospešila uvedbo s predpisi usklajene hrambe dokumentov v elektronski
obliki v javnih organizacijah. Nazadnje, javne organizacije, ki že hranijo dokumente v elektronski
obliki, vendar nimajo sprejetih in potrjenih notranjih pravil, sprejmejo tveganje in posledice kršitve
predpisov [17].

Kot piše Horjak [5], je hramba dokumentov v elektronski obliki v Sloveniji aktualna tema na področju
trajnostnega delovanja organizacij, tako v smislu izpolnjevanja pričakovanj predpisov kot tudi njene
uvedbe v poslovne procese podjetij in z njo povezanim razvojem hrambe dokumentov v elektronski
obliki. Zato je potrebno sprejeti takšne predpise, ki bodo izpolnili pričakovanja organizacij in
pospešili uvedbo elektronske hrambe pri javnih organizacijah, pa tudi pri zasebnih organizacijah.
Horjak [8, 5] na osnovi rezultatov študije primerov javnih in zasebnih organizacij iz Slovenije in EU
ugotavlja, da večina (97 % oz. trideset od enaintridesetih intervjuvancev) ocenjuje, da so predpisi za
vzpostavitev in vzdrževanje s predpisi usklajene elektronske hrambe dokumentov v Sloveniji zelo
kompleksni ali kompleksni.

Za zagotavljanje učinkovitega izvajanja javnih storitev in delovanja gospodarstva predlagamo, da se

predpisi (regulacijski okvir) poenostavijo, kar bo dvignilo uspešnost poslovnih procesov. Ravno tako
predlagamo objavo sodne prakse, ki bo utemeljeno podkrepila zahtevo po pripravi in potrditvi
notranjih pravil pri Arhivu RS. Nadalje za doseganje hitrejšega razvoja digitalne transformacije
organizacij predlagamo tudi prilagoditev vzorčnih notranjih pravil, tako da bodo predvsem
javnopravnim osebam omogočila enostavnejšo in učinkovitejšo uvedbo s predpisi usklajene hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki [5].

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 Zaključek

Ugotovitve naše raziskave na študiju primera Slovenije in EU in opravljeni primerjavi stanja v letih
2011 in 2020 ponujajo širši vpogled v pomembno temo za zasebne organizacije in še posebej javne
organizacije: vzpostavitev hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki, ki je v skladu s slovenskimi
predpisi. Prav tako nakazujejo trend oz. pričakovan razvoj uvedbe s predpisi usklajene hrambe
dokumentov v elektronski obliki.

Izkušnje organizacij pri hrambi dokumentov v elektronski obliki, usklajeni s slovenskimi predpisi
ZVDAGA iz leta 2006, kažejo, da se Slovenija 14 let po sprejetju Zakona o varstvu dokumentov in
arhivov ter arhivskih zavodih (ZVDAGA in njegove spremembe) sooča z izzivom, ali je zahteve
predpisa sploh mogoče učinkovito realizirati in na njegovi osnovi pospešiti uvedbo s predpisi
usklajene hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki. To je pomembno, saj pravne osebe javnega prava,
ki hranijo dokumente v elektronski obliki in nimajo uveljavljenih in potrjenih notranjih pravil na
Ministrstvu za kulturo, Državnem arhivu Republike Slovenije, po 5. členu kršijo veljavni predpis
[17].

Sklepamo, da bo izpolnjevanje zahtev predpisov ter spodbujanje javnih, pa tudi zasebnih organizacij,
da uvedejo s predpisi usklajene elektronske hrambe, zahtevalo spremembe zakonodaje. Ključni
dejavniki za uspeh, ki bi lahko spodbudili razvoj hrambe dokumentov v elektronski obliki v
slovenskih javnih in zasebnih organizacijah, so prilagajanje slovenskih predpisov predpisom drugih
držav EU, odprava administrativnih ovir, ki izhajajo iz zahtev predpisov (priprava in potrjevanje
internih pravil), ter odprava zahtev za implementacijo akreditirane strojne in programske opreme pa
tudi objava sodne prakse.

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Vladan Martić,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, “Adriatic” University Bar, Montenegro

Nermin Škretović,
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, “Adriatic” University Bar, Montenegro
orcid.org/0000-0002-6369-8915

COMPETENCE OF ACCOUNTING AND ACADEMIC COMMUNITIES FOR

DIGITALIZATION OF FINANCIAL REPORTING IN MONTENEGRO

Abstract: Digital technology has become an integral part of social life and culture, and is changing
the way we exchange information, do business, get to know the world around us in general. Financial
reporting is also becoming digital. Although a recent achievement, digital financial reporting is
increasingly used in both accounting theory and practice. Its further development will largely depend
on the adequate adjustment of the accounting profession, especially in the context of education - both
professional accountants and students who show affinity for the profession during their studies - in
the direction of acquiring new knowledge and skills. In this sense, this paper aims to explore the
readiness of the accounting and academic community in Montenegro to digitize reporting, especially
in the context of the current pandemic. Also, one of the tasks of this paper is to point out the
relationship between the digitization of financial reporting and the application of the latest
technologies in accounting practice with the level of development and education of professional
accountants, and the willingness of the accounting and academic community to acquire additional
competencies, innovation and change. For the realization of such set goals, we conducted a survey
which included all accountants in Montenegro. In addition, through a survey (structured Web survey)
at the Faculty of Business Economics and Law Bar, we wanted to see the perception of students as
future creators of the labor market, focusing on their knowledge of the latest technologies in
accounting practice (XBRL, blockchain, cryptocurrencies).

Keywords: Blockchain, bitcoin, COVID-19, cryptocurrencies, digitization

Introduction

At the beginning of the new millennium, financial reporting is a subtle mix of the old and the new.
There are more and more questions about whether the current - conventional reporting system is
adequate in the era of business digitalization and the current COVID pandemic, and whether it can
meet users' expectations for timely and quality information. On the other hand, digitalization and the
latest trends in the development of information and communication technologies (XBRL, blockchain,
etc.) have enabled significant changes in the process of financial reporting and exchange of business
information. The transition to digital financial reporting will lead to a number of very significant
changes and will undoubtedly be a significant achievement in improving the quality of financial
reporting.
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 Digitalization of financial reporting

Digital financial reporting through XBRL

Although in the very name of XBRL we find the concept of business reporting, which is undoubtedly
one of the basic aspects of its operation, it is clear that it has a much wider application. If we consider
reporting as a subset of business information exchange, XBRL can be defined as [3]:
- An open-source standard, independent of any software vendor - offering a whole host of
benefits in data storage, manipulation and analysis;
- XML extension intended for electronic exchange of business information;
- One of the most successful formats for meta-data;
- Global agreement on the concept of exchanging business information and rules;
- A new way of distributing and modeling business information in a form understandable to
computer applications, which completely displaces business reporting on the Internet.

Although it offers a number of benefits - which are reflected in all factors in the business information5
exchange chain, if we wanted to recommend XBRL in one sentence for implementation in a particular
organization, we would point out significant benefits reflected in cost and time savings through
process automation. which generate less added value and which are more susceptible to human
intervention errors (data collection and re-entry, reporting), compared to high added value processes.
The application of XBRL completely redefines accounting practice, where a high level of analysis
and consulting services is increasingly required in order to provide adequate information support in
decision-making, instead of the current approach to service fees.

At the same time, the application of XBRL is not limited to financial reporting, but this standard has
a much wider application. Although today it is primarily used in financial reporting, it can equally be
used in non-financial reporting and exchange of information content on the broader, social and
environmental aspects of business. In fact, the XBRL standard finds its application in the latest phase
of the evolution of corporate reporting - integrated reporting.6

Blockchain technology
In essence, a blockchain is a distributed database or public book of all transactions or digital activities
that are realized and shared between the participating parties, ie. participants (see Figure 1)7. Each

5
See more about that: [5]
6
See more about integrated reporting: [2]
7
See more: [8]
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transaction in the public ledger was verified by consensus of the majority of participants in the system.
Namely, once entered, the information can never be deleted again. The blockchain contains a reliable
and verifiable record, ie. records of every single transaction ever executed.8

Figure 1. Example of a blockchain transaction [4].

Blocking technology is applicable to any transaction of digital assets that are exchanged over the
network, ie. on line. The distributed public book, functionally combined with the security offered by
blockchain, makes it a very attractive technology that is able to solve financial as well as non-financial
business problems.

However, leaving aside the issues of application and undoubted advantages of blockchain technology
currently aside, we will analyze below the readiness of the accounting community to digitize financial
reporting and overall operations, especially in the context of the current COVID 19 pandemic.

Research methodology and results

As pointed out in the introductory part of the paper, the emergence of blockchain, cryptocurrency,
and general digitization of financial reporting, as well as the possibility of implementing the latest
standards for exchanging business information include reviewing and assessing the totality of the
accounting profession, especially when it comes to accountants and their organizations. Also, the
state has a significant role in the development of the accounting profession, which is the basis for the
quality of financial reporting, by adopting relevant and quality legislation.

Research methodology
The data collection strategy is a structured Web survey that is distributed electronically. The survey

8
See more: [4]
213
was sent to 500 e-mail addresses - accountants and auditors of the members of the Institute of
Accountants and Auditors of Montenegro.

The web survey was available for four weeks, starting March 1 of the current year. Data entry was
performed automatically via Google Forms, while data processing with the necessary logical controls
was performed in the SPSS program (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).

A total of 212 respondents responded to the survey, which is a total response of 42%. The question
is whether the sample size (N) of 212 units (respondents) is sufficient to conduct the research? To get
an answer to this question, we will use a comparative analysis with similar research at the regional
and international level. In support of the claim that the response exceeds international standards when
it comes to the percentage of responses collected in similar Web surveys, we can cite the fact that the
response rate collected in relevant surveys is 2.9% [8] or similar surveys in region - 4.4% [6], 27.8%
[1], 53% [3].

In addition, through a survey (structured Web survey) of students at the Faculty of Business
Economics and Law Bar, we wanted to see the perception of students as future creators of the labor
market, focusing on their knowledge of the latest technologies in accounting practice (XBRL,
blockchain, cryptocurrencies). The distribution of the survey was assisted by the Faculty of Business
Economics and Law.9
Research results
A. Profile of respondents
When it comes to the position of respondents in companies, we can conclude that the most represented
are accountants (41.9%) and chief accountants (24.2%).

9,4%
11,7%

4,3% 41,9%
8,5%

24,2%

Accountant Head Accountant CFO Manager Auditor Other

Figure 2. The position of the respondents

9
Faculty of Business Economics and Law, Adriatic University; www.fpebar.me
214
More than half of the respondents have the title of certified accountant (56.6%), while 16.2% have
the title of certified accountant. Certainly, this structure of respondents from the aspect of positioning
and professional title is very important, precisely because of the importance of the information they
provide, or the relevance of their opinion.

Other 33
Internal auditor 37
Certified accountant 48
Certified Public Accountant 168
Accountant 37
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 3. The level of professional title of the respondents

B. Manner of publishing financial statements

In most cases, financial reports are submitted to the competent authorities (87.7%), which is their
legal obligation, and they are available at the company's headquarters (51.2%). Slightly less than half
of the respondents (47.2%) stated that they publish financial reports on the company's website. This
may be an indication that in addition to meeting the minimum legal requirements, companies strive
to achieve greater transparency of their business by publishing financial statements on the Internet.

Other 3
They are submitted to the… 264
At the company's headquarters 154
On the company's website 142
They are not published 19
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Figure 4. Manner of publishing financial reports

However, the analysis shows that 73% of companies own a website, while 27% do not own a
website.10 This is also in line with the results of similar research. An example is the research by
Lalević, A. [1], which finds that 24% do not own a website. Hence, the question arises as to how
much companies are ready to successfully respond to stakeholder demands in the current COVID 19

10
These results largely correspond to the Survey conducted by the Securities Commission within the implementation of
the project "Improvement of corporate governance in Montenegro", according to which 30.70% of surveyed companies
do not have a website. The results of the research are available on the website of the Securities and Exchange
Commission http://www.scmn.me.
215
pandemic, as more than a quarter of respondents do not understand, or at least did not understand the
importance of digitizing financial reporting or understand the essential importance of transparency of
financial statements.

27%

73%

Yes No

Figure 5. Owning a Website

However, these results have been somewhat corrected, given the fact that most companies publish
financial statements in PDF format (75%), more than 20% in Excel, while the smallest number of
companies (4%) publish their financial statements in Word.

On the other hand, no company prepares or publishes its financial statements in XBRL format, which
today is a digital standard in the exchange of business information and reports.11

0%
4%
21%

75%

Excel PDF Word XBRL

11
See more: [5]
216
 Figure 6. Formats for publishing financial statements

C. Level of knowledge about Blockchain among accountants in Montenegro

When it comes to the general level of knowledge about blockchain technology and the benefits it
provides, slightly more than 80% of respondents state that they have no knowledge, while only 17.9%
have relevant knowledge (see Figure 7).

17,9%

82,1%

Yes No

Figure 7. Are you familiar with the essence and effects of using Blockchain?

Furthermore, of the total number of respondents who have knowledge of Blockchain technology, only
1.7% assess their knowledge at a professional level. On the other hand, more than half of the
respondents (54.2%) rate their knowledge as moderately bad or very bad.

1,7%

20,3% 15,3%

28,8%
33,9%

Very good (professional level) Medium good

Neither good nor bad Moderately bad
Very bad

Figure 8. Assess your level of knowledge of Blockchain

Respondents are most often informed about innovations in financial reporting and digital standards
via the Internet (71.7%), professional journals (62.3%) and by attending educational and professional
seminars (59.4%). In only 17% of cases, respondents are informed by the regulator (Figure 9).

217
 Other

Internet resources

Professional journals

Educational and professional seminars

Examples of positive practice

Regulator announcements

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 9. How to obtain information on digital standards

Hence, we are of the opinion that it is necessary that information on the latest digital technologies in
financial reporting be transposed into our professional and practical literature. On the other hand, it
is necessary for financial reporting regulators to more explicitly support the initiative, given the
amount of data they process as well as the time required to process that data. This is especially true
given that regulators and stock exchanges around the world are leaders in the digitization of financial
reporting. That is why it is of great importance that regulators influence the quality of financial
reporting of the entities they regulate and over which they act as supervisors.

D. Students' perception of digital accounting development trends

In the continuation of the research, the issue of students' perception of the Faculty of Business
Economics and Law Bar was addressed, in terms of their knowledge of the latest digital technologies
in accounting practice and data sources from where they get information (curricula, internet, etc.). In
the first part of the analysis, we divided the respondents according to the level of studies, according
to the following:

218
 23,1%

23,1% 53,8%

Undergraduate student Student of specialist studies

Master's student

Figure 10. Current level of study of respondents

When it comes to the general level of knowledge about XBRL and blockchain technology and the
benefits it provides, about 60% of respondents state that they have no knowledge, while slightly more
than 17.9% have relevant knowledge (see Figure 11 and 12).

7,7%

35,9%
56,4%

I am completely familiar I am partially familiar I'm not familiar with

Figure 11. Respondents' level of knowledge about XBRL

7,7%

35,9%
56,4%

I am completely familiar I am partially familiar I'm not familiar with

Figure 12. Respondents' level of knowledge about blockchain technology

Respondents are most often informed about innovations in financial reporting and digital standards
via the Internet (38.5%), professional journals (5.1%) and by attending educational and professional
seminars (5.1%). In only 7.7% of cases, respondents received information through curricula during

219
schooling.

Other 56,4%
Internet resources 38,5%
Professional journals 5,1%
Educational professional seminars,… 5,1%
During secondary and academic… 7,7%
Regulatory announcements… 7,7%
0,0% 10,0% 20,0% 30,0% 40,0% 50,0% 60,0%

Figure no 13. Method of obtaining data

However, these results have been somewhat corrected, bearing in mind the fact that 12.8% of
respondents stated that during their education within the curricula they had accounting subjects in
which the subject innovations are studied.

12,8%

48,7%

38,5%

Yes Partly No

Figure no 14. Syllabus

All this once again confirms the above thesis that information on the latest digital technologies is still
not sufficiently transposed into our accounting professional and scientific literature. In that sense, it
is necessary for the creators to redesign the curricula, which is the conclusion of a significant
percentage of respondents (about 90%).

220
 10,3%
20,5%

23,1%

46,2%

Yes, completely Yes, for the most part

Yes, but a small part I am indifferent

Figure 15. Curriculum redesign

Conclusion

Considerations and conducted analyzes and research leave the possibility to draw the following
conclusions:
- The conventional system of financial reporting and education is not able to adequately respond
to the challenges of the new business environment. On the other hand, the current COVID 19
pandemic is accelerating the development and application of digital information technologies
that are shifting business to the Internet. In this sense, the accounting and academic
community must embrace the digital revolution and look for ways to adequately respond to
the challenges that the COVID 19 pandemic brings with it.
- There is no doubt that the digitalization of financial reporting brings a number of benefits to
all participants in the financial reporting chain. However, practice shows that the benefits do
not come by themselves - that is, there are certain risks associated with the digitalization of
reporting.
- However, the risks of ignoring the digital revolution that has transformed virtually every form
of business on the planet are potentially greater. In this sense, it is necessary to timely consider
trends, phenomena and changes in accounting practice. Murphy's Law states: "The amount of
energy needed to correct a wrong direction increases geometrically with time." That is why it
is necessary to choose the right direction immediately, and that is how far-sighted and vision-
oriented organizations and individuals are.
- On the other hand, our theoretical and professional literature in the field of accounting was
not significantly occupied with the issue and application of the latest digital technologies.
Relevant world accounting literature has been dealing with the affirmation of the digitalization

221
 of the accounting profession for almost ten years and points to examples of positive practice
at the global level.

In addition to the above, in order to more fully understand the perspective of digitalization of the
accounting profession in our country, it is necessary to focus attention on several other issues, such
as:
- inertia of the accounting profession in terms of accepting positive innovations in accounting,
outside the official "main" accounting;
- readiness of national standard setters to accept the need to digitize financial reporting;
- issues of general level of required specialist, accounting and broader knowledge in the field
of information technologies;
- insufficiently developed management in our companies and the like.

References

1. Lalević Filipović, Novović M., Izazovi računovodstvene profesije u uslovima pandemije COVID
19 - ostvrt na Crnu Goru, Zbornik radova naučno stručne konferencije „FIRA 2020“, str. 200- 215.

2. Malinić, S., Integrisano izvještavanje preduzeća, Zbornik radova sa XLIV. Simpozijuma Saveza
računovođa i revizora Srbije: Računovodstveno regulatorno okruženje: podsticaj ili ograničenje
privrednog rasta, Zlatibor, 2013, str. 21-42.

3. Martić V, Digitalizacija finansijskog izvještavanja u Crnoj Gori - empirijsko istraživanje na

primjeru XBRL standarda, XI Kongres računovođa i revizora Crne Gore, Bečići, 2016.

4. Martić V., Blokčejn revolucija - bitkoin je samo početak, XII Kongres računovođa i revizora Crne
Gore: Računovodstvo i revizija kao faktor uspješnosti poslovanja, Bečići, 2017.

5. Martić, V., XBRL kao pretpostavka unaprijeđenja kvaliteta finansijskog izvještavanja, Zbornik
radova sa 44. Simpozijuma Saveza računovođa i revizora Srbije - Računovodstveno regulatorno
okruženje: podsticaj ili ograničenje privrednog rasta, Zlatibor, 2013, str. 106-131.

6. Milutinović, S. (2015). Savremeni trendovi u harmonizaciji finansijskog izvještavanja. doktorska

disertacija, Subotica.

7. Nel, G.F., Steenkamp, L.P. (2012). The adoption of XBRL in South Africa: an empirical study.
The electronic Library, Emerald Group, Vol 30, No.3.

8. https://www.editiondigital.com/#!showcase-quintessence.

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Barsa Rai,
Royal Thimphu College, Bhutan

Ishore Koirala,
Royal Thimphu College, Bhutan

Yeshi Zangmo,
Royal Thimphu College, Bhutan

Katarina Aškerc Zadravec,

Ljubljana School of Business, Ljubljana, Slovenia
orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4710-2066

INTERCULTURAL AND TRANSVERSAL COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT

AMONG ERASMUS STUDENTS

Abstract. In today's globalized world, competition is fierce among economies and individuals, who
see education as an investment for the improvement of an individual’s personality and protection
from unemployment. International, intercultural, and other soft and employability skills are
essential among future graduates so that they can compete successfully in the internationally
intertwined labor market and everyday life. International academic mobility can improve
previously mentioned skills and perspectives. In this context, academic mobility refers to students
and teachers in higher education who move to another institution within or outside of their home
country for a brief period to study or teach [1]. One of such mobility programs has been established
by the European Union termed Erasmus. The primary objective of this paper is to find out how the
Erasmus mobility program impacts the development of a selected list of intercultural and
transversal competence, and personal development among the Erasmus students. By conducting
an online questionnaire and interviews among Erasmus students from different countries, it was
found that Erasmus mobility helps in the improvement of a selected list of skills (intercultural and
transversal skills) among students, it enhances and helps understand each individual Erasmus
student’s characteristics development, international mobility improves students’ ability for coping
with academic activity, as well as it helps in gaining opportunities and hikes self-belief among
students.

Keywords: intercultural competence, transversal skills, Erasmus mobility, international mobility

Introduction

In today's globalized world, where improved transversal skills and knowledge are required,
competition is fierce among economies and individuals, who see education as an investment that
would, on the one hand, improve their individual’s personality and, on the other, protect them from
223
unemployment. International, intercultural, and other soft and employability skills are essential
among future graduates so that they can compete successfully in the internationally intertwined labor
market and everyday life. The development of intercultural skills (that are important for successful
functioning of students/future graduates) is closely connected with ones’ international the experience,
thus promoting mobility processes should be an important part of universities missions and strategic
goals.

Education, in contrast to a few decades before, must be distinguished by internationally recognized

high academic standards [2]. A graduate's skills and knowledge gained in one country must be
recognized worldwide as equal. Governments trying to safeguard their nations' long-term economic
and social growth are promoting the adoption of internationally recognized high academic standards
and encouraging student interchange and mobility. Academic mobility refers to students and teachers
in higher education who move to another institution within or outside of their home country for a
brief period to study or teach [1]. There has been significant growth of student mobility un recent
years.

One of such mobility programs has been established by the European Union termed as Erasmus. The
primary motive of the program is to promote and facilitate mobility in higher education as well as in
other level of education.
Brief details about Erasmus mobility
Since its inception in 1987, the Erasmus program has given students the chance to experience student
life in one of the 33 program countries. Erasmus is the European Union's program to assist education,
training, youth, and sport throughout Europe. It is anticipated to have a budget of €26.2 billion out of
which 70% will be used for international mobility. The Program's overarching goal is to assist the
educational, professional, and personal development of persons in education, training, youth, and
sport in Europe and beyond, therefore contributing to long-term growth, quality employment, and
social cohesion, driving innovation and building international competence [3].

Each year more than 300,000 students are study under the umbrella of Erasmus. These students study
abroad in face to face mode or virtually [3]. Thus, such students especially those that are physically
mobile are obliged to move away from comfort zones and adapt to the culture of the host nations
during the time of the mobility. This period is very essential as they get to interact with someone who
is not part of their culture or race. Therefore, enhancing one’s ability to interact in a foreign cultural
and develop intercultural competence.

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 Developing Intercultural Competence with international mobility
University graduates are required to possess intercultural competence in addition to strong academic
skills in today’s globalized world. Intercultural competence is defined as the capacity to operate
successfully across cultures, to think and behave correctly, and to interact and collaborate with
individuals from various cultural backgrounds - whether at home or abroad [4]. According to Dead
off intercultural competence is the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes that lead
to visible growth in behavior and communication that are both effective and appropriate in
intercultural interactions [5]. Intercultural competence is a significant skill in today's more globalized
society, as we are more likely to engage with individuals from other cultures and nations, each with
their own set of values, beliefs, and experiences

Global competence, graduate qualities, employability skills, global citizenship, communication skills,
education for sustainable development, and global employability are all notions that fall under the
umbrella of intercultural competence [6]. Furthermore, as aforementioned studying under Erasmus
umbrella mean you not only must have the ability to interact in intercultural environment but also
possess the ability to work along and comply with the foreign culture. Thus, it can be stated that
international mobility can impact the growth of transversal skills of the mobility students.

Developing transversal skills through international mobility

UNESCO defines transversal skills as the skills that are typically considered as not specifically related
to a particular job, task, academic discipline or area of knowledge and that can be used in a wide
variety of situations and work settings (for example, organizational skills). UNESCO also list skills
such as critical and innovative thinking, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, media and
information literacy, global citizenship and communication skills under transversal skills [7].
Mobility is widely considered an important contributor to the enhancement of youth employability
through the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are not purely occupational but
fundamental to success in life [3]. Now, more than ever, new ways of working and more frequent
changes in jobs call for a broader set of skills. Transversal skills are those not only relevant to finding
jobs but also assist one to tackle daily challenges he/she faces.

Purpose of this research

In the context of previously presented theoretical background, the primary objective of this
assignment is to find out how the Erasmus mobility program impacts the development of a selected
list of intercultural and transversal competence, and personal development among the Erasmus
students. Various researches like Erasmus Impact Study [8] claim or the surveys show that

225
international mobility encourages the development of international and transversal skills, personal
development. A research conducted by Sheli Rampoid and Robert [9] concluded that short-term
mobility programs helped to generate intercultural competence among undergraduate students. In this
light, the following research questions serves as the guide for this study.
1. Does Erasmus mobility help in improvement of intercultural and transversal skills among the
Erasmus students?
2. Does Erasmus mobility help in enhancement of characteristic development of Erasmus
students?
3. How has Erasmus mobility helped in gaining future opportunities for Erasmus students?

Methodology

Research Method
This section describes the essential aspects of the study design and methodology. Following an outline
of the study design, key information on data collection tools and analysis part is presented.

Questionnaire development
Online questionnaires were designed for above-mentioned target research questions. The
questionnaire was based on the Erasmus+ questionnaire, which Erasmus students need to answer
during their time of entry and/or exit from the mobility. However, the authors have made substantial
changes to the questionnaire.

Furthermore, to get more insightful research data, the authors also conducted a semi-structured
interview both online and face to face. In total 6 students were interviewed and they were asked the
following questions:
1. What was the reason for applying for the Erasmus mobility?
2. What was your academic accomplishment from the mobility, and do you think it would add
on to the career opportunities that you are seeking for?
3. Having an opportunity to be part of the Erasmus mobility, what changes have you felt in terms
of your personality?
4. How has your perception of cross-cultural communication changed and how would you
describe your role in a team since participating in the Erasmus mobility?
5. Do you think the course you did as part of the Erasmus mobility is relevant to the current
market in your country?
6. How would you describe the Erasmus program if you have to describe it?

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 Population and sample
For this particular research the authors decided to collect data and information from the Erasmus
students within our contacts from Slovenia, Ukraine, Bhutan, Germany, Bulgaria, Spain, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Albania, and Montenegro. There were 31 respondents to the survey questionnaire. The
average age of the respondents was 21 year and majority of the respondents were female (61.8%).

Data collection tools

As aforementioned, the questionnaire and interview were conducted to collect the data and
information. The questionnaires were distributed online via Google forms for a period of 25 days
from mid of April till 10th of May 2022. Semi structured Interview was conducted through both face-
to-face mode and Microsoft teams at the beginning of May 2022. 5 Erasmus students were
interviewed face-to-face, and 1 student was interviewed virtually. The recording and transcripts are
properly retained by the authors.

From the above discussions it can be noticed that students who are under virtual mobility do not agree
to our research question especially in aspect of intercultural adaptability. Virtual mobility refers to
students and teachers in higher education using another institution outside their own country to study
or teach for a limited period of time, without physically leaving their home, whereas as in physical
mobility students or the teachers leave their home country to study or teach abroad. As
aforementioned, from our findings it could be seen that students who are on virtual mobility claim
that they have not developed intercultural competence as much as those students who moved
physically. The authors of this article are also included in virtual mobility, and also agree with this
statement. This is because the students who are on virtual mobility do not get real time experience
with their colleagues aboard and they do not get chance to have a taste of the foreign culture. In the
research “Will virtual mobility replace physical mobility” done by Jauneikaite and Misiunas [10], it
is stated that though virtual mobility is cheaper than physical mobility, it is not as efficient as physical
mobility.

Beside several insightful findings of this small-scale survey, quite some improvements can be pointed
out to make the research more accurate. This particular paper emphasizes on determining whether
Erasmus mobility impacts the growth of various skills like transversal, intercultural skills and
personality development. It does not emphasize on determining how or in which way the impacts are
caused and what correlations exist between various dependent and independent variables (e.g., virtual
and physical mobility). Furthermore, the sample size for the research was very small; this increases
the risk of producing inaccurate result. Consequently, qualitative results gained from interviews were

227
included in the paper to overcome some of these shortcomings. The study would have been more
accurate if the data was collected from large number of samples. Furthermore, the data collection
period was short, since it lasted for only 25 days. In addition, majority of the respondents are
centralized from few countries. The findings would have been more accurate if the data was collected
from diverse country.

Results

In this section, the quantitative and qualitative results of the survey will be presented with the aim to
find the responses to the research questions stated in the introductory part of the paper. No specific
quantitative statistical analyses were conducted due to the small number of respondents included in
the online survey. Consequently, the latter quantitative data are supplemented by quotes from the
interviews to obtained more detailed survey results.

Identify and express my opinion clearly 40% 35% 25% 0%0%

My capability to take responsibilities have

71% 29% 0% 0%
increased
0%

I have gained more confident 64% 30% 3%

0%
3%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stronly Disagree

Graph 1. Students’ perceptions about their personal development as a result of Erasmus mobility.

Graph 1 represents how students who participated in the Erasmus mobility program improved their
personal growth. It incorporates self-evaluation in terms of opinion expression, responsibility, and
consciousness. We can see from the graph above that the majority of students firmly agree that their
personalities have developed as a result of their Erasmus mobility.

Students have developed a strong sense of responsibility as a result of the mobility, as we can see
from the observation that 71% of students believe their capacity to hold responsibility has increased.
Similarly, 64% of students think that their self-assurance has strengthened. Furthermore, 40% of
students participating in mobility said that the Erasmus program's learning environment allows them

228
to conduct self-analysis and share their opinions.

In this context, one of the Erasmus students who were part of this mobility and was included in the
interviews stated:
“I became more independent as in past. I used to depend on my friends and other
people around to do any sort of daily task.” Further, she explained: “my sense of
responsibility has improved as I had to do visa processing all by myself which was
the beginning of my confidence building” (Interview 1).
Another Erasmus student pointed out:
“Firstly, I became a step closer to managing myself starting from personal matters
to things that require a considerable amount of attention. Secondly, I acquired the
skill of adaptability to new environment and customs which became an additional
asset to my personal strength” (Interview 2).

I am confident enough to work abraod 60% 30% 10%0%

I have learned better to value others culture 60% 40% 0%0%

I am more calm and adaptable to new

68% 25% 4% 4%
environment

Socialize annd interact with diverse people 58% 26% 16% 0%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stronly Disagree

Graph 2. students’ perception of intercultural adaptability as a result of Erasmus Mobility.

The graph above explains about how the cross culture communications have spread over the students
due to the Erasmus mobility. We have analyzed from the data that more than 50% of the participant
have developed cross-culture communication which they believe can help them in adapting,
socializing and seeking opportunities in diverse cultural environment. Moreover, students were also
able to appreciate and respect others’ perceptions and cultural values.
Interviewee 3 pointed out:
“I believe that the confidence that one gains going abroad and experiencing
different cultures is fundamental to life in a way of working life. I also found that
different culture has different values while in Bhutan I believed that people were

229
 very conservative and avoided sharing opinion in case it hurt the other person which
seems absurd. However, I also learned that Bhutanese respect others feeling which
made me accept and learn more about cultural values of other people”.

Though there is a huge positive response about the cultural adaption, few have also had very less
experience which shows that there are 4% and 16% students responding neutral in terms of socializing
and adaption to new environment. This was mainly due to the lack of interaction as certain number
of students had to join virtually which gave them lesser time to know and understand the culture of
others. One of the interviewees explained:
“I was not able to interpret the cultural adaption changes I had and my perception
was still constant as before the Erasmus mobility as I was studying virtually and did
not join the institute face to face (Interview 4)”.

Only in case of the student that was virtually included in the mobility the latter skill has not changed
significantly, because they did not have the opportunity to meet other students in person and to
experience differences in cultures, values, habits first hand.

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stronly Disagree

I have improved my problem solving skills 45% 40% 15% 0%

I have improved to collaborate in team 43% 43% 14% 0%

Think Logically and draw conclusion 27% 50% 18% 5%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Graph 3. Participants’ view on transversal skills after Erasmus Mobility

The data in the Graph 3 displays about the ways Erasmus mobility have refined the transversal skills
among the students. Skills like problem solving, logical thinking and collaborating in team is seen to
have drastic improvement. The data show that 45% students strongly agree that problem solving have
improved for them. Additionally, 40% other students also have agreed on improving of their problem
solving skills.

230
One of the interviewee mentioned:
“I he had many opportunities to actively participate in events held in my receiving
institution. Back when I was in Bhutan I faced problems in team collaboration but as
my mobility started I found collectiveness among students there, which helped me
improve his team skills. Further, being independent in a foreign country, I also build
skills such as communication, problem solving and decision making skills”.

11% 4%
Increased sector specified skills 39% 46%
0%
More opportunity to work abroad 59% 30% 11%0%
0%
better opportunties for job 68% 25% 7%
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stronly Disagree

Graph 4. Future expectations and opportunities students seek from Erasmus Mobility.

The Graph 4 depicts the likelihood of future chances for Erasmus students. 39 % of survey
participants strongly agreed that their sector-specific skills had improved, while 46 % agreed. Only a
few participants disagreed, while 11 % were having a neutral opinion. Similarly, 59 % of participants
strongly agreed that their prospects for working overseas have expanded, and 30 % agreed with this
assertion. Only a few students disagreed, while the rest were on the fence. Likewise, the majority of
participants (68 %) strongly agreed that their work chances have improved, while 25% agreed and
only a few students disagreed.

While interviewing one of the Erasmus students, the interviewee pointed out that:
“Even if this mobility program doesn’t give immediate opportunities to me, it will be
beneficial for my future job” (Interview 5).
Further, another student mentioned that:
“The courses that I took were very relevant to the present job market of my home
country, and because of that, I have very high expectations to get better
opportunities due to Erasmus being a renowned program around the
globe”(Interview 6).

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 Discussion

Intercultural communication is the study of what happens when people from various cultures
communicate with each other and it overlaps with many different disciplines, including sociology,
psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, in addition to
being its own study [12]. The primary goal of this research, in light of the previously stated theoretical
framework, is to determine how the Erasmus mobility program influences the development of a
selected list of intercultural and transversal competence, as well as personal development, among
Erasmus students.

Intercultural Communication can be seen of as an attempt to teach us about ourselves as people and
as a species by analyzing how we construct meaning and convey it with other civilizations utilizing
the concept of "culture. "Intercultural competence is ability to adapt and show variety of behavioral
skill that helps people to interact with different people from different culture and understand and
respect them. The gained results from the questionnaire and interviews shows, that intercultural
competence is ability to adapt and show variety of behavioral skill that helps people to interact with
different people from different culture and understand and respect them, which is also highlighted in
the survey [13].

The another study also focus on the evaluation of the transversal skills because they are defined as
essential skills needed in school or job market to have successful and competent work environment.
Some of the commonly known transversal skills are creative and logical thinking, team building,
knowing of different languages and being more entrepreneurial [14].

From the study to date, it was expected that there will be an improvement in the transversal and
intercultural skills among the students due to their participation in Erasmus mobility, which is also
highlighted in the research on Erasmus+ Higher Education Impact study [8], where it was found that
the participants agreed on the improvement of different skills according to their impact dimensions.
With this paper, the authors found that a strong number of students agreed that their transversal skills
such as problem-solving skills, team collaboration, and logical thinking were improved from
participating in mobility.

Additionally, the Erasmus+ Higher Education Impact study survey correlation analysis also revealed
that participants with high social engagement also showed higher improvement in their intercultural
openness whereby the correlation was about 0.7 between the social engagement and intercultural

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openness. As authors expected from the current study, on average more than 60% of Erasmus
participants confirmed that their intercultural openness showed growth. Thus, the research question
1 on the improvement of the transversal skills and intercultural communication from the mobility was
achieved as expected with a very strong positive affirmation.

Personal and personality development can be understood as a life-long process. It helps people
analyze and assess their skills and quality. Additionally, personality development helps in setting
instrumental and terminal goals and aims of ones’ life [15].

As expected, more than half of survey respondents strongly agreed, and more than a quarter of
students stated that the Erasmus mobility program has helped them develop their personalities. As a
result, the answer to the second research question about personality development can be confirmed.
We can support our findings with those gained with the Erasmus+ Higher Education Impact Study
[8], where 77.29 % of participants from low GDP, 77% from high Mid-Low GDP, 68% from Mid-
High GDP, and another 68 % from High GDP report that their personalities have developed as a result
of Erasmus mobility.

As per the Erasmus+ Higher Education effect study, 73.77 % from low GDP, 73 % from high mid-
low GDP, 64 % from mid-high GDP, and 60 % students from high GDP claim that their employability
skills have enhanced [8]. In our study, more than 35 % strongly agreed, and more than 25 % agreed
that Erasmus mobility has improved their future chances, this is why our team also anticipates a
positive response to this question, given the Erasmus+ mobility program is a well-known program
worldwide. As a result, the third study question about future expectations is likewise answered.

From the above discussions it can be noticed that students who are under virtual mobility do not agree
to our research question especially in aspect of intercultural adaptability. Virtual mobility refers to
students and teachers in higher education using another institution outside their own country to study
or teach for a limited period of time, without physically leaving their home, whereas as in physical
mobility students or the teachers leave their home country to study or teach abroad. As
aforementioned, from our findings it could be seen that students who are on virtual mobility claim
that they have not developed intercultural competence as much as those students who moved
physically. The authors of this article are also included in virtual mobility, and also agree with this
statement. This is because the students who are on virtual mobility do not get real time experience
with their colleagues aboard and they do not get chance to have a taste of the foreign culture. In the
research “Will virtual mobility replace physical mobility” done by Jauneikaite and Misiunas [10], it

233
is stated that though virtual mobility is cheaper than physical mobility, it is not as efficient as physical
mobility.

Beside several insightful findings of this small-scale survey, quite some improvements can be pointed
out to make the research more accurate. This particular paper emphasizes on determining whether
Erasmus mobility impacts the growth of various skills like transversal, intercultural skills and
personality development. It does not emphasize on determining how or in which way the impacts are
caused and what correlations exist between various dependent and independent variables (e.g., virtual
and physical mobility). Furthermore, the sample size for the research was very small; this increases
the risk of producing inaccurate result. Consequently, qualitative results gained from interviews were
included in the paper to overcome some of these shortcomings. The study would have been more
accurate if the data was collected from large number of samples. Furthermore, the data collection
period was short, since it lasted for only 25 days. In addition, majority of the respondents are
centralized from Ukraine, Slovenia and Bhutan and the samples are collected from only seven
countries. The findings would have been more accurate if the data was collected from diverse country.
The survey is useful because it shows an added value of international mobility, especially if the
students attended physically. Thus, this survey can help the students to analyze their improvement
through mobility and also encourage other young souls to participate in E+ mobility to improve
intercultural communication, transversal skills, employment skills, and have a stronger personality in
order to compete better in the labor market.

References

1. Zubieta, A. F. (2015). What Do We Know of the Mobility of Research Scientists and Impact on
Scientific Production. 10.1016/B978-0-12-801396-0.00001-6.
2. Rachaniotis, N. P., Kotsi, F., & Agiomirgianakis, G. M. (2013). Internationalization in Teritiary
Education: Intra-European Students Mobility. Journal of Economic Integration, 28(3), 457-481.
3. Erasmus+. (2021). Erasmus+. Retrieved from An official EU website.
4. Odag, O., Wallin, H., & Kedzior, K. (2015). Definition of Intercultural to Undergraduate Students
at an International University in Germany. Journal of Studies in International Education, 20(2):1-
22. DOI: 10.1177/1028315315587105
5. Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and Assesment of Intercultural Competence as a Student
Outcome of Internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306287002
6. Leung, K., Ang, S., & Tan, M. L. (2014). Intercultural Competence. Annual Review of
Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior. 1, 489-519.
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 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091229
7. UNESCO. (2019). UNESCO Bangkok . Retrieved from UNESCO:
https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/assessment-transversal-competencies-current-tools-asian-
region
8. Erasmus+ Higher Education Impact Study. (2019). European Commission. Retrived from:
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/94d97f5c-7ae2-11e9-9f05-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
9. Sheli, D. R., Coleman, B., & Robert, R. (2020). Exploring students' cultural competence
development during short-term international experinece . Advancements in Agricultural
Development, 1(2), 65-78.
10. Jauneikaite, K. & Misiunas. (2007). Will virtual mobility replace physical mobility? WIT
Transactions on the Built Environment, 96. 53-62.
11. Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, E. L. (2009). Trends in Global HIgher Eductaion:
Tracking ans Academic Revolution. France: UNESCO.
12. Commisceo Global . (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.commisceo-global.com/blog/what-is-
intercultural-communication-and-why-is-it-important
13. Indeed Editorial Team. (2021, March 19). Indeed. Retrieved from
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/intercultural-skills-
examples#:~:text=Intercultural%20skills%20refer%20to%20the,often%20from%20various%20
cultural%20backgrounds.
14. Briefing paper on Transversal Skills. (2017). Visible skills on adults - VISKA. Retrived from:
https://ciencias.ulisboa.pt/sites/default/files/fcul/formacao/Briefing-paper-on-Transversal-Skills-
Erasmus-e-VISKA-Visible-skills-of-adults.pdf.
15. Skills you need . (2020). Retrieved from: https://www.skillsyouneed.com

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Katarina Aškerc Zadravec,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija
orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4710-2066

INTERNACIONALIZACIJA IN DIGITALIZACIJA VISOKOŠOLSKEGA

IZOBRAŽEVANJA

Povzetek. Pojav epidemije Covida-19 je vplival na pogostejšo implementacijo spletnih in hibridnih

oblik dela v izobraževanem procesu. Vpetost v mednarodno, medkulturno, globalno izobraževalno
okolje je preko virtualnih oblik izobraževanja postala dostopnejša in intenzivnejša, kar je še
posebej izrazito v visokem šolstvu. Slednje omogoča lažjo in bolj učinkovito doseganje ciljev
internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v domačem učnem okolju. Prispevek predstavlja stične točke
med digitalizacijo in internacionalizacijo izobraževanja s poudarkom na implementaciji izbranih
elementov internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v domačem učnem okolju. Na osnovi raziskave
(izvedene tik pred pojavom epidemije Covida-19), v katero je bilo vključenih 1.367 predstavnikov
akademskega osebja oz. 19,7 odstotkov celotne populacije, ugotavljamo, da je bila tedaj le dobra
tretjina učnega osebja vključena v različne oblike spletnih sodelovanj s tujimi institucijami, v katere
so bili vključeni tudi študenti. Večina se je posluževala sinhronih oblik spletnih sodelovanj preko
različnih platform ali orodij. Preko 63 % respondentov je navedlo, da študente spodbujajo k
skupnemu učenju v mednarodno mešanih skupinah tudi preko virtualnih učno-poučevalnih
aktivnosti. V zaključnem delu članek predstavi možna izhodišča nadaljnjih bolj poglobljenih
statističnih analiz.

Ključne besede: digitalizacija izobraževanja, internacionalizacija izobraževanja,

internacionalizacija doma, internacionalizacija kurikuluma

Uvod

S pojavom epidemije Covida-19 je izvedba spletnih in hibridnih oblik izobraževanja postala

vsakdanja realnost na celotni izobraževalni vertikali. Vpetost v mednarodno izobraževalno okolje je
preko virtualnih oblik izobraževanja postala dostopnejša in intenzivnejša, kar je še posebej izrazit
pojav v visokem šolstvu. Vključevanje mednarodnih, medkulturnih in globalnih vsebin in razsežnosti
v visokošolsko izobraževanje v domačem učnem okolju je tesno povezano z digitalizacijo
univerzitetnega učenja in poučevanja. V tem kontekstu je smiselno izpostaviti koncepta
internacionalizacije doma in internacionalizacije kurikuluma, oz. pomen uspešne implementacije
internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v domačem učnem okolju, tj. brez fizičnega premika v tuje
izobraževalno okolje. Namen prispevka je predstaviti ključne značilnosti spletnega izobraževanja v
povezavi z internacionaliziranim kurikulumom, s ključnim poudarkom na implementaciji koncepta
internacionalizacije doma.

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 Digitalizacija izobraževanja
Digitalizacijo izobraževanja je mogoče opredeliti na različne načine in iz različnih perspektiv, zato
se pojavljajo različna poimenovanja istih ali primerljivih pojmov oz. konceptov, kot npr. e-
izobraževanje, spletno izobraževanje, izobraževanje na daljavo ali študij na daljavo, e-študij ipd.
Kakršnokoli uporabo informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije v izobraževalnem procesu lahko
opredelimo kot e-izobraževanje; termin torej ne vključuje le izobraževanja, pri katerem sta učeči se
in učitelj fizično na različnih lokacijah, temveč pomeni vsesplošni način uporabe tovrstne tehnologije
v izobraževalne namene, vključno z izvedbo izobraževanja v klasičnih predavalnicah [1]. Kljub temu
pa e-izobraževanje najpogosteje enačimo s študijem na daljavo v smislu prostorske in časovne
oddaljenosti učečega in učitelja [2, p. 140; 3, p. 44].

V zadnjem dvajsetletnem obdobju sta opazna dva trenda, ki vplivata na izobraževalni proces:
povečana uporaba informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije, ter hitrost in obseg sprememb, s
katerimi smo soočeni v sodobnem (izobraževalnem) okolju. Učenje na daljavo postaja intenzivnejše,
prav tako je pogosta uporaba kombinacij poučevanja na daljavo in tradicionalnega pristopa k
izobraževanju [4]. Slednje je postalo še posebej izrazito s pojavom epidemije. Po navedbah
Abdelhafeza [5] so se med epidemije Covida-19 štiri strategije izkazale za učinkovite pri
zagotavljanju poučevanja na daljavo, in sicer: (i) virtualno strokovno učenje z osredotočenostjo na
ustrezno pedagogiko, ki podpira virtualno učenje, ter podporno tehnologijo; (ii) videokonference, ki
učiteljem omogočajo sinhrono interakcijo z učečimi, in uporabo ločenih sob za delo v skupinah; (iii)
pomen globalnih spletnih seminarjev oz. webinarjev je postal izrazitejši z objavami v obliki blogov,
preko družbenih medijev; in (iv) varno pošiljanje sporočil, ki se nanaša na uporabo varnih platform
za pošiljanje sporočil. Izrednega pomena je tudi nudenje ustrezne strokovne podpore osebju pri
implementaciji spletnih oblik izobraževanja tako v obliki izobraževalnih seminarjev kot tudi v smislu
nudenja ustrezne IKT podpore.

S pojavom pandemije je prišlo do intenzivnejše ponudbe orodij in platform, ki omogočajo raznovrstne

načine in pristope k izvajanju izobraževanja na daljavo. Učinkovitost slednjih je različna, prav tako
se razlikujejo percepcije akademikov in študentov glede uporabnosti orodij oz. rešitev, ki jih ponujajo
različni ponudniki. Opazen je porast množičnih odprtih spletnih tečajev (ang. Massive Open Online
Courses – MOOCs), ki javnosti omogočajo dostopnost znanja, ki ga razvijajo predvsem univerze. Še
bolj intenziven premik je razviden v uporabi raznovrstnih platform, ki omogočajo podporo
univerzitetnemu e-izobraževanju, npr. Moodle in Microsoft Teams. Florjančič in Wiechetek [6] v
primerjalni študiji poljskega in slovenskega visokošolskega okolja predstavita primere spletnih
tečajev z uporabo omenjenih platform, pri čemer ugotavljata, da je Moodle uporabno, a kompleksno

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orodje, medtem ko je sodobnejše Microsoft Teams orodje manj kompleksno za uporabo, obe
platformi pa je mogoče tudi učinkovito kombinirati v izobraževalne namene. Raziskava na eni izmed
tehniško usmerjenih kitajskih univerz je pokazala, da je smiselno uporabljati kombinirane modele
učenja, kar pomeni predvsem uporabo kombiniranega spletnega izobraževanje s t.i. obrnjenim
učenjem in drugimi tradicionalnimi modeli [7]. Študenti so namreč izražali nezadovoljstvo v primeru
spletnega učenja in poučevanja, medtem ko je kombiniran model spletnega poučevanja z
vključevanjem obrnjenega učenja vplival na boljšo učinkovitost njihovega učenja, povečala se je
pozornost študentov, tovrstne pristope k izobraževanju pa so študenti ovrednotili tudi z boljšimi
ocenami.

E-izobraževanje ponuja povsem novo paleto priložnosti za vključevanje mednarodnih, medkulturnih

in globalnih razsežnosti v študij, virtualni stik z drugimi kulturami, sinhrono komunikacijo s
predstavniki iz drugih regij itd., brez potrebe po premiku preko nacionalnih meja. Tovrstne priložnosti
so še posebej izrazite z ustrezno implementacijo koncepta internacionalizacije doma.

Internacionalizacija doma
Internacionalizacija doma se nanaša na aktivnosti v domačem učnem okolju, ki spodbujajo
vključevanje mednarodnih, medkulturnih in globalnih razsežnosti v študijski proces ali obštudijske
dejavnosti za vse študente, torej tudi tiste, ki nimajo izkušnje z mobilnostjo v tujino.
Internacionalizacija doma sicer ni didaktični koncept, temveč predstavlja niz namensko oblikovanih
aktivnosti in instrumentov, ki omogočajo razvoj medkulturne zmožnosti in mednarodnih, globalnih
perspektiv študentov v domačem učnem okolju v sklopu formalnega in neformalnega kurikuluma [8,
p. 69]. Njej bližnji koncept se imenuje internacionalizacija kurikuluma, ki pa za razliko od
internacionalizacije doma dopušča fizično mobilnost v tujino, saj se ne omejuje le na domače učno
okolje; koncept je usmerjen predvsem v implementacijo vseh faz formalnega internacionaliziranega
kurikuluma (v skladu z modelom konstruktivne poravnave kurikuluma [za podrobnosti gl. [9]), kot
tudi podpornih storitev študijskega programa [10].

Vključevanje mednarodnih elementov v študijski proces je možno z različnimi pristopi in mehanizmi;

obstajajo povsem nesistematični ad hoc načini implementacije kot tudi napredne oblike izvedbe, kar
obravnavajo različni avtorji, npr. [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Dejstvo je, da je v primeru prisotnosti tujih
študentov v predavalnici doseganje ciljev internacionaliziranega kurikuluma, ki predstavlja produkt
obeh omenjenih konceptov, ki sta sicer procesno usmerjena [10], lažja in bolj učinkovita. Hkrati smo
v slovenskem visokošolskem okolju soočeni z dejstvom, da se študijski proces v največji meri izvaja
v slovenskem jeziku (8. člen ZViS) [17, 18], kar ima zaviralni učinek na izvajanje

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internacionaliziranega kurikuluma, saj so v predavalnicah redko prisotni tuji študenti skupaj s
slovenskimi. Študijski programi ali njihovi deli se v slovenskem visokošolskem okolju namreč lahko
izvajajo v tujem jeziku le v izjemnih primerih, kot npr. v primeru sodelovanja gostujočih
visokošolskih učiteljev iz tujine v študijskem procesu, v primeru vpisa večjega števila tujih študentov
ali v primeru vzporednega izvajanja študijskega programa tudi v slovenskem jeziku (ibid.).

Kot odgovor na omenjeno situacijo lahko predstavljajo učinkovit mehanizem za vključevanje

mednarodnih in medkulturnih razsežnosti v slovenski visokošolski učni proces spletne oblike
sodelovanj s tujimi visokošolskimi okolji.

Povezave med spletnim izobraževanjem in internacionalizacijo doma

Obstaja vrsta pristopov k implementaciji internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v praksi. Namen vseh je
spodbujanje aktivne vloge študenta v študijskem procesu na način, ki na dolgi rok omogoča razvoj
medkulturne zmožnosti ter mednarodnih, medkulturnih in globalnih perspektiv študentov, s tem pa
se spodbuja posameznikova opolnomočenost in kompetentnost za delovanje v vsakdanjem globalno
orientiranem svetu, kot tudi posameznikova konkurenčnost na trgu dela.

Udejanjanje internacionaliziranega kurikuluma je mogoče s/z [19, 8]: (i) oblikovanjem poučevalno-
učnih aktivnosti na način, ki omogoča aktivno prepletanje in neizogibno medsebojno sodelovanje
domačih in tujih študentov (v virtualnem ali fizičnem okolju), (ii) vključevanjem primerjalnih
študij/primerov in raziskav v učni proces ob upoštevanju različnih nacionalnih in kulturnih
kontekstov, (iii) uporabo literature oz. učnih gradiv iz različnih kulturnih in nacionalnih okolij, (iv)
(virtualnim ali fizičnim) vključevanjem gostujočih predavateljev iz tujine, kot tudi z vključevanjem
predavateljev iz prakse, ki delujejo v mednarodnem okolju oz. v mednarodnih
podjetjih/organizacijah, itd. (v) V današnjem (post)Covid obdobju predstavljajo učinkovit
mehanizem za implementacijo internacionaliziranega kurikuluma tudi virtualne izmenjave ali
virtualne mobilnosti oz. različne oblike e-izobraževanja oz. študija na daljavo, kjer v študijskem
procesu na daljavo sodelujejo študenti različnih visokošolskih oz. kulturnih okolij, ne da bi ob tem
zapustili domače učno okolje. V tem kontekstu prepoznavno in vedno bolj pogosto obliko
mednarodnega spletnega sodelovanja predstavlja t.i. sodelovalno spletno mednarodno učenje (ang.
Collaborative Online International Learning – COIL).

COIL kot oblika pedagoškega pristopa spodbuja razvoj medkulturne zmožnosti študentov preko
uporabe informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije v učnem oz. študijskem procesu, v katerega so
vključeni učenci oz. študenti iz medsebojno geografsko oddaljenih lokacij in z različnim jezikovnim

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ozadjem [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Struktura delovanja COIL temelji na medsebojnem akademskem
sodelovanju učnega osebja, ki poučuje isti (primerljiv) predmet na različnih visokošolskih
institucijah, predvidoma iz različnih kulturnih okolij oz. regij ali držav. Izvajalci predmeta so-
oblikujejo skupne učne izide, so-ustvarijo skupni kurikulum ali učni načrt, učno gradivo ter skupno
učno orodje oz. pristop za delo. Poučevalno-učne aktivnosti temeljijo na aktivnem delu študentov,
izkušenjskem učenju, ki lahko izhaja iz projektne oblike dela, obrnjenega učenja ipd., ki se odvija
nekaj tednov ali cel semester, lahko tudi celotno študijsko leto. Odgovornost za doseganje ciljev in
učnih izidov tako zastavljenega predmeta ali modula je razdeljena med vse vključene deležnike,
predvsem pa vsi nosilci predmeta/modula nosijo mentorsko vlogo vsem študentom, vključenim v
COIL. Z omenjenim pristopom se spodbuja implementacija koncepta internacionalizacije doma,
katerega ključni cilj je razvoj medkulturne zmožnosti študentov, njihovih globalnih in mednarodnih
perspektiv, globalnega državljanstva, kot tudi drugih mehkih, prenosljivih in zaposlitvenih
zmožnosti, ne da bi zapustili domače učno okolje. Slednje predstavlja še posebej dodano vrednost za
študente, ki zaradi različnih objektivnih ali subjektivnih razlogov nimajo možnosti vključitve v
fizične oblike mednarodne akademske mobilnosti.

Glede na predstavljeno teoretično osnovo so cilji pričujočega prispevka naslednji:

Cilj 1: Ugotoviti, v kakšnem deležu in s kakšnimi spletnimi oblikami dela (v katere so vključeni tudi
študenti) se akademsko osebje vključuje v sodelovanje s tujimi institucijami.
Cilj 2: Preveriti, v kolikšni meri akademsko osebje spodbuja študente k učenju v mednarodno mešanih
timih (z upoštevanjem virtualnih aktivnosti).
Cilj 3: Predstaviti poučevalno-učne aktivnosti, ki se jih v spletnih oblikah sodelovanj s tujino
poslužuje akademsko osebje.
Cilj 4: Preveriti mnenja akademskega osebja o ustrezni informacijsko-komunikacijski tehnologiji,
nudeni s strani visokošolskih institucij, za vključevanje mednarodne razsežnosti v študijski proces.

Metoda

Instrument in zbiranje podatkov

V začetku leta 2020 smo zaključili z zbiranjem podatkov med akademskim osebjem, sodelujočim na
slovenskih visokošolskih zavodih, v sklopu kvantitativne empirične raziskave, ki je preverjala
vključevanje mednarodnih in medkulturnih razsežnosti v študijski proces. Temeljila je na spletnem
vprašalniku (prirejenem predvsem po vprašalniku QIC [25]), pripravljenim v sistemu 1ka, v katerem
so prevladovala vprašanja ali trditve s 5-stopenjsko Likertovo lestvico. Del vprašanj je bilo odprtega
tipa – odgovore nanje smo analizirali s kvalitativno metodo.
Za namen raziskave smo podatke o e-poštnih naslovih akademskega osebja zbrali iz spletnih strani
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vseh javnih in zasebnih visokošolskih zavodov v Sloveniji. Začetnemu pošiljanju je sledil opomnik
po tednu dni zbiranja podatkov.

Populacija in vzorec
V raziskavo je bilo vključeno visokošolsko osebje s poudarkom na visokošolskem
učnem/akademskem osebju – odgovori slednjih so predmet analize v zadevnem članku. Spletna
povezava do vprašalnika je bila poslana na vse zbrane e-naslove (9.335), zato vzorčenja ni bilo
izvedeno. Končni vzorec v celoti ustreznih respondentov je vključeval 1.367 predstavnikov
akademskega osebja. Ob ustreznem čiščenju podatkovne baze je zaključni vzorec izračunan na 19,7
odstotkov [26], kar predstavlja solidno raven odzivnosti glede na celotno populacijo akademskega
osebja v Sloveniji [27].

Rezultati

V nadaljevanju predstavljamo nekaj temeljnih prikazov in odgovarjamo na zastavljene cilje

zadevnega članka. Med drugim je bilo z raziskavo ugotovljeno, da spletne oblike izobraževanj s
tujino, v katere akademiki aktivno vključujejo tudi študente, izvaja 31,9 odstotka akademskega
osebja, torej slaba tretjina celotne populacije. 68,1 odstotek jih je na zadevno vprašanje odgovorilo
negativno (gl. tudi [9]). Ob tem je treba poudariti, da je bila raziskava izvedena tik pred pričetkom
epidemije Covida-19, zato bi ponovitev raziskave v časi (post)Covidne situacije najverjetneje prinesla
drugačne rezultate.

Nadalje so visokošolski učitelji, ki so (bili) vključeni v spletne oblike sodelovanja s tujino, navedli,
kakšnih oblik spletnih sodelovanj, v katere so vključeni tudi študenti, se ob tem poslužujejo (Tabela
1). Dobrih 28 odstotkov učnega osebja je kot najpogostejši spletni pristop dela izbrala
platforme/orodja, kot so Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype in druge oblike interaktivnih/sinhronih video
predavanj. Pogosti odgovori so se nanašali na e-korespondenco (e-pošta in izmenjava različnih učnih
materialov; tj. 16,4 odstotke), kot tudi na vključevanje študentov v mednarodne projekte in
raziskovalne aktivnosti (skoraj 14 odstotkov) in na pristope dela z uporabo spletnih učilnic, npr.
Moodle (gl. tudi [9]).

Tabela 3. Prikaz deleža različnih oblik spletnih sodelovanj akademskega osebja z visokošolskimi
institucijami iz tujine, v katere so vključeni tudi študenti.
Oblike spletnih sodelovanj akademskega osebja z visokošolskimi institucijami iz Delež
tujine, v katere so vključeni tudi študenti
Sinhrona video predavanja, npr. Zoom, MS Teams, Skype, različne platforme/orodja, itd. 28.4%
E-korespondenca, npr. e-pošta, učnih izmenjava gradiv 16.4%

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 Mednarodni projekti in raziskovalne aktivnosti z vključenostjo študentov 13.8%
Uporaba spletnih učilnic, npr. Moodle in druge platforme/orodja 9.5%
Spletno mentorstvo 2.3%
MOOCs 1.8%
Obrnjeno učenje 1.3%
Drugo 6.1%
Irelevantni odgovori 20.5%
Skupaj 100.0%

Kot je razvidno iz Grafa 1, je večina akademskega osebja mnenja, da jim je na njihovem

visokošolskem zavodu nudena ustrezna informacijsko-komunikacijska tehnologija za uspešno
vključevanje mednarodne in medkulturne razsežnosti v študij – več kot 50 odstotkov učnega osebja
se strinja ali popolnoma strinja s to trditvijo, medtem ko se jih le nekaj več kot 20 odstotkov s to
trditvijo (popolnoma) ne strinja. Glede na slednje ni presenetljivo, da kar 74,3 odstotke učnega osebja
navaja, da v študijskem procesu uporablja informacijsko-komunikacijsko tehnologijo, le nekaj več
kot 8 odstotkov respondentov je odgovorilo, da se s to trditvijo ne strinja ali sploh ne strinja. Glede
na slednji trditvi ja hkrati zanimivo, da se le slabih 24 odstotkov vprašanih strinja ali popolnoma
strinja s trditvijo, da v študijski proces vključujejo videoposnetke ali predavanja, kot npr. MOOCs,
Coursera, Udacity, edX, ipd. Tudi obrnjeno učenje preko spletnih oblik dela je redko v uporabi, saj
je kar 55,5 odstotkov respondentov na zadevno trditev odgovorilo negativno. Kljub temu pa kar 63,3
odstotkov visokošolskih učiteljev ali sodelavcev navaja, da študente spodbujajo k skupnemu učenju
v mednarodno mešanih timih ali skupinah z upoštevanjem (tudi) virtualnih učno-poučevalnih
aktivnosti. Z zadevno trditev se le 16 odstotkov vprašanih (sploh) ni strinjalo.

Graf 8. Prikaza percepcij akademskega osebja glede na izbrane trditve v odstotkih.

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 Diskusija

Digitalizacija izobraževanja je v visokošolskem izobraževanju (in tudi na drugih stopnjah

izobraževanja) vedno bolj pogosta. Ob dejstvu, da v tovrstne poučevano-učne aktivnosti sodijo
kakršnekoli oblike uporabe informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije bi pravzaprav pričakovali 100-
odstotni delež izvajanja digitaliziranih oblik, metod in pristopov pedagoškega dela. Ker je bila
raziskava izvedena pred pojavom epidemije Covida-19, so odgovori respondentov zagotovo izražali
manjšo naklonjenost spletnim oblikam izobraževanj, kot bi jo v času (post)Covid situacije. Zaradi
pogostejše uporabe spletnih oblik dela v izobraževalne namene je tudi vključevanje mednarodne in
medkulturne razsežnosti v študijski proces v domačem učnem okolju postal manjši izziv. V zadevnem
prispevku smo osredotočeni v nekatere stične točke med digitalizacijo izobraževanja in priložnostmi
za vključevanje mednarodne razsežnosti v študijski proces v okviru zastavljenih ciljev raziskave. Vsi
navedeni cilji so bili realizirani; odgovore nanje smo podali v predhodni sekciji, v zaključni diskusiji
pa jih postavljamo v nekoliko širši kontekst.

Le slabih 30 odstotkov respondentov je navedlo, da so vključeni v spletne oblike sodelovanj s tujimi

visokošolskimi institucijami, v katere vključujejo tudi študente; v skladu s pričakovanji je bila kot
najpogostejši način sodelovanj navedena uporaba platform, kot so Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype in
druge primerljive platforme, ki omogočajo sinhrona video predavanja. Florjančič in Wiechetek [6] v
tem kontekstu ugotavljata, da je Microsoft Teams manj kompleksno orodje za uporabo, ki hkrati
omogoča tudi uspešno dopolnjevanje z drugimi primerljivi orodji ali platformami. Čeprav tovrstno
kombiniranje, s poudarkom na obrnjenem učenju, omogoča tudi bolj učinkovito študijsko izkušnjo
študentov [7], je v zadevnem prispevku le slabih 19 odstotkov respondentov navedlo, da tovrstni
pristop prakticira pri svojem pedagoškem delu. Ob tem je potrebno poudariti, da predstavlja članek
le uvodno izhodišče s predstavitvijo temeljnih praks akademskega osebja, ki povezujejo digitalizacijo
in internacionalizacijo izobraževanja. V naslednjem koraku bo vsekakor smiselno statistično
podrobneje preveriti, ali obstajajo vzročno posledične povezave med vključevanjem spletnih oblik
dela v študijski proces in implementacijo izbranih elementov internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v
praksi.

Dejstvo je, da je z razširjeno implementacijo digitalizacije izobraževanja lažje vključevanje

elementov internacionaliziranega kurikuluma v študijski proces v domačem učnem okolju. Obstajajo
raznovrstni načini za doseganje ciljev internacionaliziranega kurikuluma (gl. Beelen in Jonesova [8],
[19]), pri čemer je smiselno izpostaviti, da se le 16 odstotkov respondentov iz slovenskega
visokošolskega okolja (sploh) ni strinjalo s trditvijo, ki je naslavljala spodbujanje študentov k učenju

243
v mednarodnih timih z upoštevanjem virtualnih oblik sodelovanj. V tej luči je smiselno izpostaviti v
zadnjem času vse bolj aktualni pristop dela, ki spodbuja implementacijo internacionaliziranega
kurikuluma, tj. COIL. Slednji zahteva kompleksne priprave, dolgoročno in vzajemno načrtovanje več
deležnikov iz različnih držav oz. kulturnih ozadij. Zaradi izzivov, povezanih z implementacijo COIL
so na eni izmed nizozemskih institucij k sodelovanju povabili študentko, ki je bila večkrat deležna
izvedbe predmeta ali modula, ki je sledil principu COIL, naposled pa je dobila tudi priliko za aktivno
vključenost v priprave modula po zadevnem pristopu in torej aktivnega sodelovanja z akademskim
osebjem, odgovornim za izvedbo takšnega modula [28]. V intervjuju je izpostavljen predvsem
obsežen časovni in vsebinski vložek, ki ga zahteva takšen pristop dela, da se zgradi logična struktura
predmeta in prenese osnovna COIL ideja v atraktivne in smiselne naloge za študente. Nekdo, ki nima
izkušnje z aktivnim načrtovanjem in izvedbo po principu COIL, si le s težavo predstavlja, kako
obsežen zalogaj predstavlja.

Omenjeni pristop vsekakor predstavlja izziv, a hkrati enega najbolj učinkovitih načinov za
vključevanje mednarodne in medkulturne razsežnosti v študijski proces v domačem učnem okolju.
Potrebno je izpostaviti, da je pomembna osredotočenost na mednarodne in medkulturne elemente v
vseh fazah načrtovanja internacionaliziranega kurikuluma, torej ne le v sklopu poučevalno-učnih
aktivnosti, temveč morajo biti najprej vsebinsko smiselno formulirani internacionalizirani učni izidi,
katerim pritiče ustrezno načrtovano delo študentov (in učitelja) s pripadajočim izborom učnih vsebin
in materialov z mednarodno razsežnostjo, nenazadnje pa mora biti slednje tudi ustrezno evalvirano
in ocenjeno. Omenjeni princip sledi modelu konstruktivne poravnave kurikuluma [9, prirejeno po
29], pri katerem je potrebno izpostaviti pomen dolgoročnega učinka, ki rezultira v razvoju
medkulturne zmožnosti študentov, mednarodnih in globalnih perspektiv, mehkih, zaposlitvenih in
prenosljivih kompetenc, ki so bistvene za uspešno osebno in profesionalno delovanje in rast v
sodobnem globalnem okolju.

Vira in literatura

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2. Florjančič, V. (2014). E-študij v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru. Didactica Slovenica –
Pedagoška obzorja, 29(3–4), 139–155.
3. Keegan, D. (1991). Foundations of distance education. 2. izdaja. London, New York: Routlege.
4. Mihhailova, G. (2006). E-learning as internationalization strategy in higher education - Lecturer’s
and student’s perspective. Baltic Journal of Management, 1(3), 270–284.
5. Abdelhafeza, A. (2021). Digitizing Teacher Education and Professional Development during the
COVID-19 Pandemic. Academia Letters, Article 295. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL295.
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6. Florjančič, V., Wiechetek, Ł. (2022). Using Moodle and MS Teams in higher education - a
comparative study. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 31(2), 264–286.
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E. (2020). Efficiency of flipped classroom with online-based teaching under COVID-
19, Interactive Learning Environments, DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2020.1817761.
8. Beelen, J. in Jones, E. (2015). Redefining Internationalization at Home. V The European Higher
Education Area: Between critical reflections and future policies, ur. A. Curaj, L. Matei, R.
Pricopie, J. Salmi in P. Scott, str. 59–72. Dordrecht: Springer.
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programih. PhD Thesis. Ljubljana: Faculty of Education.
10. Leask, B. (2015). Internationalizing the curriculum. London: Routledge.
11. Bache, I., Kane, M. in Meth, D. (2015). Internationalisation of Learning and Teaching across the
student journey. Broomhall: The University of Sheffield.
12. van der Wende, M. (1996). Internationalizing the curriculum in higher education. Tertiary
Education and Management, 2, str. 186–195.
13. Bond, S. L. (2003b). Engaging educators: Bringing the world into the classroom, guidelines for
practice. Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education.
14. Webb, G. (2005). Internationalization of curriculum: An institutional approach. V Teaching
international students, improving learning for all: Chepter 10, ur. J. Carroll in J. Ryan. London:
Routledge.
15. Leask, B. (2012). Internationalisation of the curriculum (IoC) in action – A guide. Adelaide:
University of South Australia.
16. Aškerc Veniger, K. 2017. Internacionalizacija kurikuluma - vključevanje mednarodne in
medkulturne razsežnosti v študijski proces, priročnik za visokošolske učitelje in podporno osebje.
Ljubljana: CMEPIUS.
17. Zakon o visokem šolstvu (ZViS–UPB2). Ur. l. RS, št. 100/2004.
18. Zakon o visokem šolstvu (ZViS–UPB7). Ur. l. RS, št. 32/2012.
19. Beelen, J., in B. Leask 2011. »Internationalisation at home on the move.« V Handbook
Internationalisation. Berlin: Raabe Academic Publishers.
20. Appiah-Kubi, P. & Annan, E. 2020. A Review of a Collaborative Online International Learning.
iJEP, 10(1), 109-124. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v10i1.11678
21. Esche, M. (2018). "Incorporating Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) into Study
22. Abroad Courses: A Training Design," ed: Capstone Collection.
https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/3096/
23. Suny COIL Center, "Faculty Guide for Collaborative Online International Learning Course

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 Development," vol. 1.4, ed: The Center for Collaborative Online International Learning. The State
University of New York Global Center, 116 E. 55th St. New York, NY 10022.
http://www.ufic.ufl.edu/uap/forms/coil_guide.pdf
24. Caplow, J. A. H & Kardash, C. M. 1995. "Collaborative learning activities in graduate courses,"
Innovative Higher Education, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 207-221, 1995/03/01 1995,
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01191220
25. QIC - Questionnaire for Internationalisation of the Curriculum. N.d. Retrieved October 10, 2019,
from http://ioc.global/questionnaire-for-internationalisation-of-the-curriculum-qic/.
26. AAPOR - American Association for Public Opinion Research (2016). Standard Definitions: Final
Dispositions of Case Codes and Outcome Rates for Surveys (9th edition). Washington: The
American Association for Public Opinion Research.
27. SURS - Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. n.d. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from
https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/.
28. Beelen, J. (2022). A student perspective: making the most of participation in a COIL practice: An
interview with Marlous Schouten. Retrived from:
https://www.dehaagsehogeschool.nl/docs/default-source/documenten-nieuws/interview-coil-
digi.pdf.
29. Biggs, J. & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for Quality Learning at University (3rd ed.). Buckingham,
UK: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

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Section Globalisation as a Powerful Force for Growth and
Development

247
Boštjan Urbancl,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija

KAKO UBEŽATI MOTNJAM V GLOBALNIH OSKRBOVALNIH

VERIGAH?

Povzetek. Od začetka pandemije covid-19 so se globalne oskrbovalne verige znašle pod izjemnim
pritiskom. Omejitveni ukrepi, pomanjkanje ladijskih kontejnerjev, spreminjajoče se povpraševanje,
omejene proizvodne kapacitete in ostale težave so povzročile velike motnje, ki jih podjetja in kupci
občutijo v višjih cenah in daljših dobavnih rokih. Močno so narasle tudi cene mednarodnega
ladijskega transporta. Podjetja so tako vse bolj prisiljena iskati partnerje v bližnji okolici, če si
želijo zagotoviti dobave po sprejemljivih pogojih. Zdi se, da je celoten proces globalizacije
postavljen pred velik izziv, kar tlakuje pot bolj regionalnim pristopom. Namen članka je analizirati
vzroke motenj v globalnih oskrbovalnih verigah in poiskati možne rešitve.

Ključne besede: Globalizacija, oskrbovalne verige, motnje, odpornost, robustnost

Uvod

Od 90. let 20. stoletja dalje so podjetja iz ZDA in Evrope začela seliti proizvodnjo v azijske države
in graditi čezmejne več-nivojske vrednostne verige, da bi izkoristila prednosti nižji stroškov, bližino
naravnih virov, naraščajoči potencial globalnih logističnih ponudnikov in predvsem velik bazen
dobro usposobljene, a poceni delovne sile [1]. To je vzpodbudilo razvoj dveh osnovnih modelov
verig, od katerih je prvi slonel na izgradnji okrog ključnih proizvodnih podjetij v tehnološko in
kapitalno intenzivnih panogah, kot npr. avtomobilska, farmacevtska in računalniška industrija, pri
drugem pa se je veriga oblikovala okrog trgovskih podjetjih kot npr. Walmart, Carreforur ali Tesco.
Kompleksnost teh verig je zahtevala veliko vloženih naporov v njihovo upravljanje, še posebej v
povezavi s koordinacijo aktivnosti med vodilnimi podjetji in njihovimi dobavitelji [2].

Globalne oskrbovalne verige morajo vseskozi iskati ravnotežje med učinkovitostjo in ranljivostjo [3].
Njihova vitkost, vzpodbujena z globalizacijo trgov sloni na učinkovitih procesih, visoki stopnji
odzivnosti, nizkih nivojih zalog ter dobavah ravno ob pravem času. Pritiski v smeri zniževanja
stroškov so kljub dolgim verigam vzpodbujali večjo logistično učinkovitost z nižjimi zalogami. S tem
pa je hkrati naraščala kompleksnost in visoka stopnja medsebojne odvisnosti podjetij ter s tem
ranljivost verig v primeru večjih motenj. Predpogoj za dobro delovanja tega modela je temeljil na
stabilnem okolju in nemotenem poteku blagovnih tokov [4].

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Relativna stabilnost ponudbe in povpraševanja je oblikovala mentaliteto brezskrbnosti, skratka
prepričanja, da so tveganja dobro kontrolirana. Vitke strukture in nizek obseg zalog so bili pogosto
vodilo pri upravljanju podjetij [5]. Z nastopom pandemije covid-19 ter z ukrepi za zajezitev širjenja
virusa se je sorazmerno stabilno poslovno okolje precej zamajalo. Že v njeni zgodnji fazi je bilo zaradi
zapiranja podjetij in omejitev pri prevozu blaga in potnikov kot tudi omejitev pri izvozu kritičnega
blaga (zaščitne maske, ventilatorji) zaznati veliko prizadevanj tako podjetij, kot držav v smeri
zagotavljanja višje stopnje lokalne oskrbe. Globalni blagovni tokovi so postali močno ovirani in kar
naenkrat so se pod velikim vprašajem znašle številne pridobitve globalizacije, ki so se akumulirale
skozi desetletja gospodarskega povezovanja [6].

Naraščajoča tveganja in motnje tokov v globalnih oskrbovalnih verigah

Podjetja, ki so vpeta v globalne oskrbovalne verige se soočajo z naslednjimi tveganji [7]:

- tveganje na strani povpraševanja, ki je povezano z negotovostjo da bodo kupci plasirali
naročila,
- tveganje na strani ponudbe izhaja iz nezmožnosti pridobitve naročenega blaga s strani
dobaviteljev,
- logistično tveganje je povezano z možnostjo motenj v transportnem ali skladiščnem procesu,
ki onemogoča predvidene blagovne tokove,
- politično tveganje je povezano s spremembo zakonodaje, z ekonomskimi politikami in
pristopi različnih držav k mednarodnim odnosom,
- proizvodno tveganje nastopi zaradi stavk, prepovedi delovanja določenih dejavnosti, ali
drugih omejitev, ki onemogočajo proizvodnjo,
- finančno tveganje je povezano s finančno nezmožnostjo poravnavanja obveznosti na strani
partnerjev v oskrbovalni verigi,
- informacijsko tveganje izhaja iz motenj informacijskih tokov v verigi,
- valutno tveganje, ki obstaja zaradi sprememb v valutnih tečajih.

Motnje v oskrbovalni verigah so nenačrtovani dogodki, ki imajo pomemben vpliv na materialne

tokove [8]. Lahko nastanejo zaradi naravnih razlogov, ali pa so povezane s človeškim faktorjem in
vodijo v nenadno prekinitev proizvodnje, do pomanjkanja blaga in nesposobnosti izpolnitve naročil
[9]. Potekajo lahko po verigi navzgor zaradi težav na strani dobaviteljev (nezmožnost proizvodnje,
težave s kakovostjo, omejeni viri) ali navzdol zaradi sprememb povpraševanja ter zakonskih ali
ekonomskih sprememb na trgu. Primer prve skupine motenj bi bil dobava neustreznih komponent s
škodljivimi lastnostmi na ljudi ali okolje višjemu členu v verigi, kar vodi do preklica oz. vračila
naročila in posledično do zamud pri dobavi končnega proizvoda [10].
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V hujših primerih lahko motnje vodijo v nezmožnost dobave končnih proizvodov kupcem, zaradi
česar trpi dobro ime podjetja in pripelje do nižje prodaje ter padca tržnega deleža, prav tako lahko
povzročajo višje stroške zaradi uporabe alternativnih vrst transporta, višjih administrativnih stroškov,
nabave pri dražjih dobaviteljih, zamika ali ustavitve proizvodnje ter nižje stopnje izkoriščenosti
kapacitet [11]. Številna podjetja si ob takšnih dogodkih nikoli ne opomorejo.

Oskrbovalne verige se vseskozi nahajajo pod določenimi pritiski in nekateri dogodki v preteklosti so
že povzročili velike motnje v oskrbi v širšem globalnem okolju. Šlo je predvsem za naravne nesreče
kot npr. potres na Japonskem v letu 2011, ki je močno pretresel oskrbovalne verige v avtomobilski
industriji. Pretrganje ekonomskih zavezništev ter trgovinske omejitve posameznih držav, ki so bile
sprejete zaradi političnih ali ekonomskih razlogov za zaščito domače industrije so prav tako pustile
določene posledice.

Motnje v oskrbi so do določene mere predvidljive in podjetja se skušajo nanje prilagajati ter jih
obvladovati z uporabo različnih strategij za obvladovanje tveganj. Nepredvidljive motnje lahko imajo
lahko katastrofalne posledice za celotne verige z vplivom na širšo družbo. Prilagajanje je v takih
primerih težje in prinaša manj koristi, zato morajo podjetja začeti bolj razmišljati v smeri izboljšanja
odpornosti in robustnosti svojih verig. Pandemija covid-19 je sprožila serijo dogodkov, ki so postavili
na preizkus odpornost globalnih oskrbovalnih verig. Izbruh koronavirusa v začetku leta 2020 je
povzročil velik šok širom po svetu. Potekal je nepredvidljivo v več valovih na različnih geografskih
lokacijah. Epidemični izbruhi so predstavljali posebno vrsto tveganj in so vodili do hkratnih motenj
tako na dobavni kot prodajni strani ter tudi do omejitev logističnih tokov [12].

Zaradi večplastnih posledic pandemije na oskrbovalne verige predstavlja njen razdiralni učinek izziv
tudi za raziskovalce. V preteklosti izjemne motnje v verigah postajajo tako vse bolj stalnica. Globoka
negotovost pa sama po sebi vodi v kaos oz. nezmožnost njihovega uspešnega upravljanja [13].

Vpliv pandemije covid-19

Pandemije so se v preteklosti že dogajale in raziskovalci so na to nevarnost tudi opozarjali. Kljub

temu je bilo zelo težko napovedati takšen dogodek in oceniti z njim povezana tveganja. Pretekle
študije vezane na temo obvladovanja tveganj v oskrbovalnih verigah so bile osredotočene predvsem
na naravne nesreče, vojne, terorizem, politično okolje, ekonomsko nestabilnost in socialne premike
v državah [14]. Pandemija covid-19 pa predstavlja nekakšno točko preloma, saj se dogaja v valovih,
katerih trajanje in intenzivnost ter posledično vpliv na širše poslovno okolje je zelo težko v naprej
predvideti. Potrdila je medsebojno odvisnost gospodarstev in njen vpliv na rast in razvoj.
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Motnje v proizvodnji zaradi pandemije so prizadele številne tovarne po svetu. Proizvodnja je bila
najprej ustavljena na Kitajskem, nedolgo zatem pa se je val zapiranj razširil na večino preostalega
sveta. Težave v proizvodnih procesih niso nastale zgolj zaradi pomanjkanja komponent in prisilnih
ustavitev proizvodnje izhajajočih iz omejitvenih ukrepov držav, temveč tudi zaradi obolelosti in
karanten zaposlenih, ki so bili lahko tudi več tednov umaknjeni iz delovnih procesov. Omejena
mobilnost delovne sile je prav tako imela svoj vpliv [15].

Težave pri dobavah so se najprej odrazile pri podjetjih, ki so močno odvisna od uvoza blaga iz
Kitajske. Raziskava ISM je pokazala, da je kar 62% podjetij iz ZDA občutilo občutne zamude pri
uvozu blaga iz te države. Prizadete so bile gospodarske panoge kot so: proizvodnja zdravil,
elektronike, strojegradnja in avtomobilska industrija. Za slednjo je bil učinek še posebej močan, saj
sloni na več-nivojski strukturi verige, ki jo sestavlja velika množica neodvisnih globalnih dobaviteljev
ter pogosto sloni na dobavah po sistemu ravno ob pravem času. Po ponovnem zagonu proizvodnje na
Kitajskem v marcu 2020 so se proizvajalci tam soočili s težavo pri dobavi sestavnih delov zaradi
zaprtij podjetij v Evropi in ZDA. Ponudbeni šoki so ste tako selili skupaj z epidemičnimi izbruhi s
kontinenta na kontinent. Posebno težavo so predstavljala ozka grla v proizvodnji zaščitne medicinske
opreme, ki v začetni fazi nikakor ni uspela slediti večkratnemu povečanju povpraševanja. Države so
se začele zavedati visoke odvisnosti od kitajske proizvodnje in začele vzpodbujati domače
proizvajalce, da zagotovijo lokalno oskrbo. Zaradi vse večjih težav v oskrbi s številnimi izdelki in
sestavnimi deli so podobna razmišljanja pridobivala na teži tudi v drugih industrijskih vejah [16].

Na strani povpraševanja je bil učinek precej različen od panoge do panoge. Težava je predvsem v
nezadostnih informacijah s strani kupcev o bodočih potrebah, saj so se nakupovalni vzorci marsikje
spremenili, kar je povečalo napake v planiranju [7]. Pri nekaterih nujnih potrošnih dobrinah je prišlo
do velikega skoka povpraševanja (vitamini, zaščitne maske, dezinfekcijska sredstva), pri določenih
proizvodih je prihajalo celo do paničnih nakupov (kvas, toaletni papir). Zaznana je bila tudi
sprememba v nakupovalnih navadah potrošnikov, ki so začeli kupovati izdelke v vse večjih količinah
zaradi zmanjšanja frekvenc nakupov, narasla je tudi spletna prodaja [17]. Pri hrani in pijači je zaradi
omejitev na strani distribucije (zaprti hoteli, restavracije in bari) prišlo do zmanjšanja povpraševanja
po izdelkih namenjenih prodaji skozi gostinsko in turistično dejavnost, ter naraščanja po tistih, ki so
jih kupci uživali doma. Zapore v določenih distribucijskih kanalih so po drugi strani vodile v večjo
obremenjenost drugih še delujočih. Nove navade potrošnikov, ki so več časa preživeli doma, so imele
za posledico spremenjeno strukturo povpraševanja po proizvodih, ki se mu je ponudba šele z
zamikom skušala prilagoditi.

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Nezadostne informacije o bodočem povpraševanju lahko sprožijo tudi t.i. učinek biča. Spremenljive
kupne navade potrošnikov povečujejo negotovost in silijo podjetja k oblikovanju dodatnih zalog
blaga in plasiranju višjih količin naročil. Spremembe v povpraševanju kupcev izhajajo iz njihovih
pričakovanj, dohodkov, spremenjenih navad, itd. Pandemija covid-19 je sprožila spremembo
preferenc pri kupcih tudi zaradi negotovosti glede njihovega bodočega finančnega stanja. Slabša
kupna moč potrošnikov zaradi nastale brezposelnosti ali finančne negotovosti lahko pomembno zniža
povpraševanje, še posebej pri manj nujnih potrošnih dobrinah. Ta pritisk je bil še posebej opazen pri
delavcih z nižjimi dohodki [7].

Izzivi globalne logistike

Ena od najbolj prevladujočih motenj v času pandemije se nanaša na delovanje mednarodnega

trgovskega omrežja. Presekane transportne povezave so onemogočale premike blaga med dobavitelji,
proizvajalci in kupci tudi kadar v primerih, ko je bilo blago pripravljeno za odpremo [18]. Poostrene
mejne kontrole, zahtevnejša pravila v pristaniščih ter nove carinske procedure so močno upočasnile
blagovne tokove. Zaradi zmanjšanja obsega letalskega potniškega transporta ob začetku krize so
hkrati upadle kapacitete za prevoz tovora, saj se polovica letalskega tovornega prometa opravi s
potniškimi letali. Cene so posledično močno poskočile, njihov dvig pa je zaradi višjih stroškov
energentov in drugih dejavnikov kasneje zajel še ostale transportne panoge. Nenaden skok spletnih
naročil je predstavljal velik izziv za spletne trgovce, saj so se ti soočali bodisi s premajhnimi zalogami
določenih artiklov, ali pa z nezadostnimi dostavnimi kapacitetami, kar je vodilo v pogoste zamude
pri dobavah in zaradi preteka roka uporabe tudi v veliko zavržene hrane [15].

Začetno zmanjšanje povpraševanja po prevozu določenega blaga je vodilo v slabšo izkoriščenost

kapacitet in posledično k višjim transportnim stroškom. Nekatera manjša transportna so zaradi tega
celo propadla, kar je vodilo k zmanjšanim transportnim kapacitetam [19]. Sledilo je nenadno močno
povečanje povpraševanja po določenih izdelkih (mali gospodinjski aparati, zabavna elektronika).
Številne zapore pristanišč so povzročale velike zamude pri nakladanju blaga na ladje in razkladanju
z njih. Mnogi ladjarji so začasno prenehali pluti v določena pristanišča in preusmerjali ladje drugam,
ali so celo odpovedovali določene načrtovane prevoze. To je vplivalo na vse s pristanišči povezane
logistične dejavnosti, kot so cestni in železniški prevozi [20]. Potrebe po ladijskem prevozu blaga iz
Azije v ZDA in Evropo so hitro narasle in prevozniki jim niso več uspeli slediti. Pojavile so se težave
zaradi pomanjkanja kontejnerjev, saj so ti v času zaprtja trgovin služili kot nekakšna manjša skladišča
za določeno blago in se posledično niso vračali v azijske države.

Zastoj v Sueškem prekopu, ki ga je povzročila zagozdena ladja Evergreen v marcu 2021 in je trajal
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skoraj teden dni, je težave samo še povečal. Kot vse večja težava se kaže pomanjkanje delavcev v
pristaniščih in še bolj pri prevozniških podjetjih. Gre za velik kadrovski problem, ki postaja vsako
leto večji, saj se zaradi neprivlačnosti teh poklicev mladi zanje vse težje odločajo, medtem ko se
starejše generacije množično upokojujejo.

Podjetja so postavljena pred nove izzive tudi ko gre za njihov pristop k oblikovanju zalog. V 70. letih
20. stoletja je Toyota razvila sistem ravno ob pravem času, ki so ga kasneje prevzeli mnogi konkurenti
in tudi podjetja v drugih dejavnostih. Njegova učinkovitost se izraža v nižjih stroških zalog, krajših
časih dobav ter višji stopnji kakovosti. Zaradi višje negotovosti na nabavnem trgu in daljših rokov
dobave so nekatera podjetja strategijo »just in time« zamenjala za t.i. »just in case«, ki pomeni
oblikovanje večjih zalog kritičnih komponent [6]. Na ta način se tveganja sicer znižajo, vendar se
pojavi vprašanje, če to odtehta zmanjšanje učinkovitosti in nastanek morebitnih nekurantnih zalog
zaradi nepredvidljivega povpraševanja. Ozka grla pri dobavi nekaterih ključnih komponent (kot so
npr. polprevodniki) po drugi strani niti ne omogočajo oblikovanja varnostnih zalog.

Krepitev odpornosti

Prilagajanje na novo normalnost, ki odstopa od stabilnosti in dolgoročnega planiranja je postalo izziv

tudi za dobro organizirane oskrbovalne verige, saj je upadlo zaupanje v sposobnost predvidevanja
razvoja dogodkov in upravljanja tveganj. Številne verige, ki so bile v preteklosti že deležne motenj,
so se zdaj soočile z neprecendenčnimi šoki nastalimi skozi dolgotrajno pandemično krizo. Zaradi
novo nastalega negotovega okolja se vse bolj v ospredje postavlja potreba po reinoviranju upravljanja
oskrbovalnih verig [5].

Krhkost globalnih oskrbovalnih verig se je pokazala kot velika težave v času pandemije. Vsled tega
so podjetja začela razmišljati kako izgraditi bolj robustne verige, ki ne bodo tako zlahka podlegle
vsem mogočim motnjam. Za okrepitev trajnosti delovanja je pomembno, da se aktivnosti usklajujejo
s ključnimi členi verige [21]. Paradigmo vitkosti ponekod zamenjala paradigma aglilne proizvodnje,
kjer je glavni poudarek na sposobnosti hitrega reagiranja na spremembe v okolju.

Odpornost v oskrbovalnih verigah predstavlja njihovo sposobnost da si opomorejo v primeru motenj.

Gre torej za vrnitev v prejšnje normalno stanje [22]. Krepitev odpornosti v globalnih verigah
vrednosti je zelo zahtevna, saj imamo opravka s podjetji na različnih trgih, ki okrevajo v različnih
časovnih terminih. Proizvodnja končnih dobrin lahko nemoteno steče šele ko se sprostijo omejitve
proizvodnje in distribucije sestavnih delov na nižjih stopnjah verige. Vplivi pandemije na
gospodarstva so postali tako veliki, da so nekatere države aktivno pristopile k vzpodbujanju
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proizvodnje kritičnih komponent kot so polprevodniki, baterije visokih kapacitet, cepiva in drugi
farmacevtski izdelki na lokalni ravni [23].

Z namenom doseči večjo odpornost oskrbovalnih verig nekateri avtorji predlagajo, da naj se te
skrajšajo, lokalizirajo in še bolj diverzificirajo. Ta pristop je tudi v skladu z novimi politikami tako
posameznih podjetij, kot tudi držav, ki si želijo večje neodvisnosti od globalnih virov. Postavi se torej
vprašanje: je to prava pot, razvijati verige na bolj lokalni oz. regionalni osnovi, kar pomeni zmanjšati
stopnjo globaliziranosti? Miroudot (2020) nasprotno meni, da tovrstno prestrukturiranje ne izboljšuje
odpornosti in predlaga večje napore v smeri agilnosti, fleksibilnosti in transparentnosti verig. Zaradi
medsebojne povezanosti trgov pa seveda ni mogoče preprosto odmisliti zahtevnosti vrnitve v
predhodno stanje ob različnih stopnjah okrevanja posameznih trgov [6].

Zaradi vojne v Ukrajini so postali izzivi še toliko večji, saj so se težave razširile še na področje oskrbe
s surovinami (energenti, pšenica, koruza, les, jeklo, itd.), kot tudi številnih drugih sestavnih delov, ki
jih v zahodnih gospodarstvih ne bo mogoče tako kmalu nadomestiti. Državne intervencije postajajo
vse bolj pogoste ko gre za reguliranje cen pri omejitvi cenovnih šokov zaradi visokih cen energentov.
Od pandemije že tako načete oskrbovalne verige bodo brez državnih ukrepov v marsikateri dejavnosti
težko kos dodatnim ozkim grlom, omejitvam in negotovosti.

Morebitne rešitve

Izkušnja pandemije covid-19 je pokazala, da je potrebno stroškovno učinkovite strategije kot so vitka
proizvodnja, dobave ravno ob pravem času in iskanje virov na globalnem trgu uravnotežiti z
odzivnostjo ter višjo stopnjo pripravljenosti in odpornosti. Preko uvajanja različnih strategij
povečanja odpornosti se skušajo podjetja zaščititi pred naraščajočo negotovostjo. To lahko vključuje
občutno reorganizacijo in implementacijo upravljanja tveganj skozi celotno organizacijo [24].

Podjetja bodo morala sprejeti krizo kot nekaj normalnega in ne kot izredni dogodek, kar pomeni, da
bodo morala biti stalno pripravljena na motnje v oskrbi in se hitro odzivati na spremembe v okolju.
Dolgoročno planiranje se je pokazalo kot precej nezanesljivo, zato je pričakovati večji poudarek na
kratkoročnih planih [5]. Povečanje fleksibilnosti v oskrbovalnih verigah postaja tako vse bolj
pomembno. Vendar pa je doseganje večje stopnje fleksibilnosti verige možno doseči le z večjo
proizvodno fleksibilnostjo, kot tudi fleksibilnostjo zaposlenih da prilagodijo svoje delo [19]. Z
vključevanjem dodatnih dobaviteljev je do neke mere možno zmanjšati ranljivost pri oskrbi. Krepitev
nabavnih virov ter proizvodnih in logističnih kapacitet pa mora sloneti predvsem na sposobnosti
reagiranja glede na nastalo situacijo in ne pretežno na preventivnih ukrepih [25], ki povečujejo
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stroške.

Višja stopnja sodelovanja med členi oskrbovalne verige lahko izboljša monitoring stanja na trgu in
pospeši odziv na nastale spremembe [26]. Odpornost oskrbovalnih verig pomeni njihovo sposobnost
da si opomorejo v primeru izrednih dogodkov. Podjetja bodo morala postati vse bolj sposobna v
kratkem času obnavljati, kakor tudi občutno spreminjati svoje procese in skupaj z drugimi členi verige
iskati rešitve pri graditvi bolj robustnih sistemov.

V strokovni literaturi je dobro poznan in raziskan učinek biča, ki izvira iz negotovosti povpraševanja
in nezadostne delitve informacij med členi v verigi. Boljša delitev informacij lahko v takšnih primerih
precej pripomore k blaženju posledic in k večji odzivnosti [9]. Vodi lahko tudi do bolj koordiniranih
strategij, ki bodo omogočale hitrejše okrevanje. To pa zahteva prehod iz transakcijsko pogojenih
razmerij v gradnjo partnerstev, kar je možno doseči preko povezovanja, krepitve zaupanja ter delitve
stroškov in koristi [27]. Zagotavljanje večje preglednosti je pomembno tudi pri preprečevanju učinka
biča, kar še posebej velja za boljše obvladovanje tveganj na strani povpraševanja.

Sklep

Desetletja naraščanja svetovne trgovine s poglabljanjem vezi med partnerji na globalnem trgu so
prinašala gospodarski razvoj in povečanje blagostanja državljanom širom po svetu. Večje motnje v
blagovnih tokovih so bile redek dogodek, vladalo je zaupanje v sposobnost podjetij da uspešno
obvladujejo poslovna tveganja. Z nastankom pandemije covid-19 se je ta percepcija močno
spremenila. Zaradi nastalih motenj v blagovnih tokovih se vse bolj pojavljajo težnje po preureditvi
globalnih oskrbovalnih verig. V prizadevanju za povečanje odpornosti se podjetja zatekajo k
njihovemu krajšanju. Nepremišljen umik z globalnih trgov s premikom na lokalne lahko povzroči
dodatne stroške, podvajanje kapacitet in povečevanje zalog pa zmanjšujeta učinkovitost.

Podjetja se prav tako soočajo z ozkimi grli pri dobavi nekaterih ključnih materialov ter s povečanimi
stroški logistike. Zaradi posledic pandemije covid-19 ter vojne v Ukrajini so se močno dvignile cene
surovin. Inflacijski pritiski so močni in neučinkovite oskrbovalne verige jih lahko samo še povečujejo.
Eden od načinov kako se temu zoperstaviti je izboljšanje odzivnosti vseh členov v verigi skozi višjo
stopnjo delitve informacij. Večja stopnja digitalizacije in integracije informacijskih sistemov je pri
tem lahko v veliko pomoč.

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COVID‑19 disruption—What is the role of digital technologies? Operations Management
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14. Salcedo, A., Yar, S., & Cherelus, G. (2020). Coronavirus travel restrictions, across the
globe (p. 1). The New York Times.
15. Agrawal, M., Eloot, K., Mancini, M., Patel, A. (2020). Industry 4.0: Reimagining
manufacturing operations after COVID-19. McKinsey.
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reimagining-manufacturing-operations-after-covid-19. Accessed 29 Nov 2020
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Test. Wall Street Journal. https://webreprints.djreprints.com/57268.html?x=mnMQQK
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sustainable production and operations management. Sustainable Operations and
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20–21.
21. Vandchali, H. R., Cahoon, S., & Chen, S.-L. (2021). The impact of power on the depth of
sustainability collaboration in the supply chain network for Australian food retailers.
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chain resilience analysis. Transportation Research, Part E: Logistics and Transportation
Review, 125, 285–307.
23. Barribal, E., Malik, Y., Mueller, C., Swan, D. (2021). Effectively implementing President
Biden’s supply-chain review. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-
sector/our-insights/effectively-implementing-president-bidens-supply-chain-
review?cid=other-eml-dre-mip-
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9a8a-46a3-8b49-aadc8047380a
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from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/supply-chain-strategy-post-pandemic-world-
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25. Ivanov, D. & Das, A. (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19/SARS-CoV-2) and supply chain

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26. Sharma, R., Shishodia, A., Kamble, S., Gunasekaran, A., Belhadi, A. (2020). Agriculture
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https://doi.org/10.1080/13675567.2020.1830049
27. Choi, T.Y., Rogers, D., Vakil, B. (2020). Coronavirus Is a Wake-Up Call for Supply Chain
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up-call-for-supply-chain-management.

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Franci Žohar12
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenija

URAVNOTEŽENJE GLOBALIZACIJE - BALANCING GLOBALIZATION

Povzetek. Globalizacija je proces, dokončan v dvajsetem stoletju, ki kapitalizem uveljavi kot

prevladujoč svetovni sistem in ga razširi po svetu. Tako kot v vsakem novem sistemu imajo največ
od tega tisti, ki so pobudniki in pospeševalci. Vendar vsak sistem ima svoje omejitve, še posebej,
če se le ta realizira v realnem svetu. Globalizacija je z vidika ekonometristov še ena uspešna
linearna zgodba, ki pa ima ekspotencialno negativno rast/padec z globalno boleznijo Covid-19,
napadom Rusije na Ukrajino ter napetostmi na Balkanu, s premikom interesnih gospodarskih in
političnih centrov v smeri jugovzhodne Azije in Kitajske, s slabenjem Evropske unije in ZDA ter
demografskim skokom Afrike. Podnebne spremembe so dejstvo, nevarnost- dvig temperatur, dvig
nivoja morij in sprememba pomembnih tokov, nevarnost poplav za velik delež svetovne populacije,
hkrati pa priložnost - možnost gospodarskega izkoriščanja nekaterih območij-Grenlandija,
Sibirija, Arktika in Antarktika. Odpiranje novih morskih poti npr. Severna morska pot. Nove
tehnologije - energija na podlagi jedrske fuzije, samo vozeča vozila, ipd., kar je povezano tudi z
osvajanjem vesolja, odkritjem tekoče vode na Marsu, iskanjem sekundarnih okolij za gospodarsko
izkoriščanje in »turističnimi« poleti v vesolje. Zaton nekaterih velesil, verjetno tudi skorajšnja
menjava svetovne valute in zaton kapitalizma. Potrebujemo uravnoteženje in nov svetovni red!

Ključne besede: globalizacija, velesile, podnebne spremembe, nove tehnologije, zaton

kapitalizma, uravnoteženje, nov svetovni red

Uvod

Konec novembra lanskega leta sem prejel poziv za prijavo prispevka na 4. EECME konferenco, kar
nekaj časa sem razmišljal in potem januarja 2022 oddal prijavo s temo, ki se dotika nekaterih
neravnovesij, celo nasprotovanj znotraj globalizacijskih procesov, za katere sem predvideval, da se
dajo rešiti z institucionalnimi oziroma mirnimi spremembami. Več kot očitno je, da so geopolitična,
geoekonomska in vrednostna nasprotja tako velika, da je prišlo 24. februarja 2022 do vojne oziroma
napada Rusije na Ukrajino. 20. februarja 2022 so se zaključile zimske olimpijske igre na Kitajskem.
4. februarja 2020 ob otvoritvi olimpijskih iger se je ruski predsednik Vladimir Putin v Pekingu srečal
s kitajskim voditeljem Xi Jinpingom. Mnogi zahodni voditelji so napovedali diplomatski bojkot
zimskih olimpijskih iger in se slovesnosti ob odprtju iger niso udeležili. Za bojkot so se odločili zaradi
kršitev človekovih pravic na Kitajskem. Visoko moralna poteza, vsebinsko gledano, pa se ZDA in
EU odrekajo Aziji, ki je zadnje desetletje najbolj propulzivna regija, pravzaprav potiskajo Rusijo iz

12 Prispevek je mnenje avtorja in ga predstavlja izključno v svojem lastnem imenu, in ne izraža nujno stališča organizacije v kateri je zaposlen, oziroma s katerimi sodeluje.

259
Evrope v Azijo in jo prisiljujejo k navezi s Kitajsko in morda celo z Indijo. S tem se krepi novi
gospodarski, politični in vojaški center v Aziji, kar se ob slabljenju ZDA in EU, ki nikakor ne more
preskoka iz gospodarske v politično povezavo, samo pospešuje.

V svojem prispevku sem želel opozoriti na nekatere pomembne pokazatelje, na osnovi katerih je
potrebno realizirati oziroma ponovno uravnotežiti globalizacijo kot svetovni proces, da nam »para v
pregretem loncu ne bi odnesla pokrovke«. Na žalost se je z vojno v Ukrajini, pokazalo, da para že
uhaja iz lonca in da se bo potrebno z vso resnostjo in odgovornostjo lotiti problemov, ki zadevajo cel
planet Zemljo. Na nekatere bom skušal opozoriti in predlagati posamezne rešitve, upajoč, da se bo v
tem času do objave prispevka vse skupaj »ohladilo« in da bomo lahko začeli ponovno trezno
razmišljati o skupnem reševanju problemov.

Epidemija Covid-19

Pandemija koronavirusne bolezni (COVID-19), ki je izbruhnila decembra 2019 na Kitajskem13, se je

v Slovenijo prvič potrjeno razširila 4. marca 2020, ko je bil odkrit prvi okuženi.

Svetovna zdravstvena organizacija je zaradi širjenja 30. januarja 2020 razglasila javnozdravstveno
krizo mednarodnih razsežnosti, 11. marca 2020 pa ga je označila za pandemijo. Konec februarja 2022
je bilo potrjenih več kot 500 milijonov primerov bolezni COVID-19 v več kot 200 državah in
ozemljih, umrlo je več kot 6 milijonov ljudi [8], po dotlej zbranih podatkih je 77,2 milijonov ljudi
ozdravelo.

Pandemija je povzročila hude socialno-ekonomske motnje po vsem svetu, prestavitev ali odpoved
pomembnih športnih, verskih in kulturnih dogodkov ter strah pred pomanjkanjem, ki je ponekod
sprožil panično nakupovanje. V več kot 160 državah so zaprli šole in univerze, bodisi na lokalni,
bodisi na državni ravni, kar je oviralo šolanje skoraj 90 odstotkov učencev na svetu. Hkrati so se
začele po svetovnem spletu širiti številne dezinformacije in teorije zarote o virusu, zabeleženi pa so
bili tudi posamezni ksenofobni izpadi, usmerjeni proti Kitajcem oz. ljudem z vzhodnoazijskim
izgledom, kot tudi tujcem iz drugih žarišč bolezni po svetu
[2].https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemija_koronavirusne_bolezni_2019 - cite_note-NYT_Racism-43

13
Wuhan je glavno mesto province Hubej v Ljudski republiki Kitajski in s približno 11 milijoni prebivalcev (po podatkih
iz leta 2018 [3]) največje mesto v Osrednji Kitajski. Po oceni je širše metropolitansko območje že leta 2010 doseglo 19
milijonov prebivalcev in je eno najpomembnejših prometnih ter industrijskih središč v notranjosti Kitajske [7].
260
 Slika 1. Razporeditev okuženih na 100.000 prebivalcev v svetu [9]

Pandemija koronavirusne bolezni (COVID-19), je zajela celoten planet Zemlja z sorazmerno veliko
hitrostjo in se z zadnjimi različicami umirja šele v prvi polovici leta 2022, torej več kot dve leti so
imeli skoraj vse države in prebivalci po svetu negativne socialne in ekonomske učinke. Drastično se
je zmanjšal letalski promet in turizem, čeprav so ga posamezne države z različnimi instrumenti
poizkušale spodbujati vsaj v nacionalnem okolju.14

Slika 2. Število smrtnih žrtev posamezne epidemije v primerjavi s celotnim svetovnim prebivalstvom [10].

14
V Sloveniji: TB: za nastanitev ali za nastanitev z zajtrkom in BON21: za plačilo storitve s področja*
(gostinstva, turizma, športa in kulture)
261
Vsekakor koronavirusna bolezen ni prva bolezen svetovne razsežnosti in glede na število žrtev v
primerjavi s svetovnim prebivalstvom ni niti največja, je pa pomembno, da je tokratna epidemija
potekla zelo hitro in da je kljub sodobnim znanstvenim dognanji potrebovala sorazmerno dolgi čas
za izdelavo cepiva. Pri čemer ni bilo npr. enotnega nastopa EU, temveč so se v reševanje nastale
problematike vključile posamezne države, kar je dajalo veliko prostora za korupcijo in »vojno«
dobičkarstvo, kot tudi nenavadno vedenje mednarodnih korporacij15, ki proizvajajo cepiva [3].

Premik gospodarskih in političnih centrov

Kot posledica II. Svetovne vojne sta se politično prepričanje ter družbena struktura močno
spremenila. Medtem ko je bila ustanovljena Organizacija združenih narodov (OZN) za krepitev
mednarodnega sodelovanja ter preprečevanje nadaljnjih spopadov, se je zaradi ideoloških razlik med
takratnima supersilama, tj. med ZDA in Sovjetsko zvezo, začelo obdobje hladne vojne. V tem času
je OZN-ovo zagovarjanje pravice narodov do samoodločbe pospešilo dekolonizacijska gibanja v
Aziji in Afriki, v Zahodni Evropi pa sta se gospodarstvo ter proces evropska integracije okrepila,
najprej v okviru EGS, ki je kasneje prerasla v EU. Prav tako so ZDA skupaj z državami Zahodne
Evrope na podlagi Severnoatlantske pogodbene organizacije oz. Organizacija severnoatlantske
pogodbe, organizirale v zvezo NATO ali pakt NATO (angleško North Atlantic Treaty Organisation,
kratica Nato ali NATO), ki je mednarodna vojaško-politična organizacija držav za sodelovanje na
področju obrambe, ki je bila ustanovljena 4. aprila 1949 z Washingtonsko pogodbo. Države članice
NATA lahko v okviru izvajanja samoobrambe ravnajo tudi mimo Varnostnega sveta OZN, kot
temeljnega organa zagotavljanja mednarodnega miru in varnosti, vendar ga morajo o tem takoj
obvestiti. Varnostni svet ZN šteje 15 članic, od katerih je 5 stalnih (ZDA, Združeno kraljestvo,
Francija, Ljudska republika Kitajska in Rusija), ki imajo pravico veta. Njegova naloga je ohranjanje
miru in varnosti v svetu. In prav te članice, še posebej ZDA in Rusija so povzročile veliko vojn. ZDA
v Vietnamu, Koreji, Iraku, Afganistanu, Libiji in Rusija v Čečeniji, Gruziji, Afganistanu, na Krimu
in sedaj v Ukrajini. Vojne so odraz nakopičenih političnih napetosti in geoekonomskih interesov. Ob
tem moramo opozoriti, da se svetovna ekonomska moč premika proti vzhodu oziroma jugovzhodu,
kjer je tudi največ prebivalstva, torej Kitajska, Indija, Indonezija, itd., kar povzroča določene
napetosti v regiji predvsem zaradi znanega stališča Kitajske do Tajvana pa tudi do Japonske. Kitajska
bo po ocenah kot azijski gospodarski gigant v letu 2027 ali 2028 presegla ZDA kot največje svetovno
gospodarstvo, saj kot je vidno iz spodnje slike se ji je že v letu 2021 pomembno približala.

15
EU zaradi težav z dobavo cepiva proti covidu-19 od britansko-švedske farmacevtske družbe AstraZeneca razmišlja o
tožbi proti temu podjetju.
262
 Slika 3. Globalni GDP v letu 2021 [11].

Slabljenje ekonomske moči ZDA, odhod Velike Britanije iz EU in oblikovanje »vzhodne povezave«
držav članic EU, ob nezmožnosti preoblikovanja EU v ne zgolj gospodarsko povezavo, temveč
politično unijo, slabi Evropo. Vojna v Ukrajini bo več kot dodatno oslabila Evropo in potisnila Rusijo
v interesno okolje Kitajske in Indije, ki bodo potem, ko bodo uredile svoja medsebojna razmerja
zahtevale razpravo in eventualne spremembe svetovne ureditve in zamenjavo svetovne valute. Pri
čemer bo pomembno prispevala tudi demografsko naraščajoča Afrika z svojimi rudnimi bogastvi.

Vojna v Ukrajini bo povzročila, da se bo Evropa »zmanjšala« za Rusijo, da se bo še bolj povezala v

NATO in da se bo ob ekonomsko-političnemu slabljenju ZDA in negativni demografskim trendom
morala bolj povezati tudi politično in bolj demokratizirati svoje delovanje, saj Svet Evrope in
Evropski parlament skupaj z Komisijo EU nezadostno vključujeta državljane v ključne odločitve16.
Prav tako bo imela probleme v energetiki in preskrbi hrane, še posebej, če se bo oblikoval tako
imenovani »žitni OPEC«.17

16
V svetovni prostor bo morala vstopiti kot samostojna sila, ki se ne bo mogla več zanašati na “sestrično” onstran
Atlantskega oceana, prav tako bo morala zahtevati spremembo svetovne ureditve, saj v Varnostnem svetu OZN nima niti
stalnega sedeža.
17
Rusija izvozi za okoli 35 milijonov ton pšenice letno in je na prvem mestu na svetu. Na drugi strani so pred izbruhom
vojne na svetovnem trgu pričakovali za okoli 24 milijonov ton pšenice iz Ukrajine. To naj bi Ukrajino uvrstilo na četrto
mesto med izvoznicami pšenice na svetu. Približno 400 milijonov ljudi po vsem svetu je neposredno odvisnih od
ukrajinskega izvoza. Velik izvoznik pšenice je tudi Kazahstan, ki na leto požanje od deset do 20 milijonov ton pšenice.
263
 Demografske spremembe

Delež prebivalstva Evrope v svetu se krči in do leta 2070 ne bo znašal več niti 4 % svetovnega prebivalstva.
Demografske spremembe lahko vplivajo tudi na položaj Evrope v svetu. Njen delež prebivalstva in
BDP-ja v svetu se bosta temu primerno zmanjšala [6]. Povečal se bo delež starejšega prebivalstva in
zmanjšal delež delovno aktivnih prebivalcev, za ohranitev pridobljenega življenjskega standarda bo
poleg aktivne (skoraj agresivne) demografske politike, nujna tudi selektivna migracijska politika, kar
pa bo težko doseči brez predhodne politične stabilizacije Evrope. Podobni trendi se pojavljajo po
skoraj »celotnem« zahodnem svetu, tako ZDA, Kanadi, Avstraliji, ipd..18

Slika 4. Ocena in projekcije prebivalstva po regijah [12].

V Aziji bo rast prebivalstva nekje do leta 2050 še zmerna (Slika 4.), potem pa sledi stagnacija in padec
števila prebivalcev predvsem zaradi politike »enega otroka« s strani Kitajske. Pri tem se nekako pozablja na
Indijo, ki bo po številu prebivalcev kmalu presegla Kitajsko, postaja pa moderna država z dokaj izobraženim
prebivalstvom, navedeno pa povečuje napetosti s Pakistanom.

Demografski vzpon pa bo doživela Afrika, nekatere države bodo postale demografske velesile (predvsem
v Nigeriji, DR Kongo, Tanzaniji, Etiopiji in Ugandi se bo število prebivalcev precej povečalo), kar bo ob
neustrezni infrastrukturi povečalo notranje napetosti, hkrati pa grozilo z večjimi emigracijskimi premiki
proti severu.

Kazahstan, ki je na devetem mestu izvoznikov pšenice na svetu, nima neposrednega dostopa na svetovni trg, ampak mora
pšenico čez Rusijo po železnici prevažati do črnomorskih pristanišč.
18
Nič nenavadnega se nam v perspektivi ne zdi, da bodo ZDA porušile varovalne ograje ob meji z Mehiko in postale
velik zaposlovalec južno-američanov.
264
 Podnebne spremembe

Človekove dejavnosti postopoma vplivajo na Zemljino podnebje, saj se v ozračje sproščajo ogromne
količine toplogrednih plinov (poleg tistih, ki so tam že naravno prisotni). Tovrstni toplogredni plini
nastajajo predvsem zaradi zgorevanja fosilnih goriv za proizvodnjo energije ter drugih človekovih
dejavnosti, kot so krčenje deževnih gozdov, kmetijstvo, živinoreja in proizvodnja kemikalij. Ogljikov
dioksid (CO2) je toplogredni plin, ki največkrat nastaja zaradi človekovih dejavnosti. Dodatna
količina plinov povečuje „toplogredni učinek“ v ozračju, zaradi česar se temperatura Zemlje izjemno
hitro zvišuje in povzroča obsežne podnebne spremembe. Podnebne spremembe že občutimo po vsem
svetu, po napovedih naj bi učinki sprememb v prihodnjih desetletjih postali še pogostejši in
intenzivnejši. Brez ukrepanja v zvezi s podnebnimi spremembami bo EU v času življenja naših otrok
doživela:
- 400 tisoč prezgodnjih smrti na leto zaradi onesnaženosti zraka,
- 90 tisoč smrtnih žrtev letno zaradi vročinskih valov,
- v južnih regijah EU bo na voljo 40 % manj vode,
- 2,2 milijona ljudi bo vsako leto izpostavljenih poplavam obalnih območij,
- 190 milijard evrov letne gospodarske izgube.

Podnebne spremembe lahko preoblikujejo naš planet in vplivajo na preskrbo s hrano in vodo ter
zdravje ljudi. Tveganju smo izpostavljeni vsi, vendar pa učinki bolj prizadenejo revne in ranljivejše.
Večje kot bodo težave, težje in dražje jih bo rešiti, zato je zgodnje ukrepanje za boj proti podnebnim
spremembam najboljša možnost. Prehod na podnebno nevtralno družbo je pereč izziv in obenem tudi
priložnost za ustvarjanje boljše prihodnosti za vse. Koristi za družbo vključujejo:
- nova, zelena delovna mesta.
- večjo konkurenčnost.
- gospodarsko rast.
- čistejši zrak in učinkovitejši javni potniški promet v mestih.
- nove tehnologije, kot so električni in hibridni avtomobili, energijsko varčne hiše in stavbe z
inteligentnimi sistemi ogrevanja in hlajenja.
- zanesljivo oskrbo z energijo in drugimi viri, zaradi česar bo Evropa manj odvisna od uvoza
[4].

265
 Slika 5. Primerjava severne poti in poti skozi Sueški prekop [13].

Podnebne spremembe pa bodo poleg neposrednih negativnih učinkov prinesle tudi neposredne pozitivne
učinke, kot je vzpostavitev severne morske poti (Slika 5.) pri čemer bi se pot iz Šanghaja do Hamburga
skozi Suez skrajšala iz 40 dni na 30 do 25 dni, kar ima pomemben vpliv na transportne stroške kot tudi
zmanjšanje vplivov na okolje [5]. Prav tako bo led izginil iz Grenlandije je večjega dela Antarktike, ki
skrivata izjemne rudninske zaloge.

Nove tehnologije in osvajanje vesolja

Poleg alternativnih virov energije- sončna, vetrna, plimovanje, ipd. je pomembna tudi oblika
izkoriščanja radioaktivne energije, ki namesto fizijske tehnologije uporablja fuzijsko tehnologijo.19Z
novimi oblikami povezav preko satelitov se omogoča dostopnost do telekomunikacijskih povezav po
vsem svetu.20Razvoj in uvedba umetne inteligence na posamezna področja dela in življenja je
pomemben [1].

Poleg tega, da nam nove tehnologije izboljšujejo življenje in omogočajo razvoj na planetu Zemlja,
nam omogočajo smelejše korake pri raziskovanju in osvajanju vesolja, v kar so se vključili tudi
zasebniki,21 kar ne pomeni le turističnih užitkov, temveč pomeni, da se zasebni kapital zanima za
sodelovanje pri osvajanju vesolja. Konkurenčnosti, ki jo je poganjal odnos med ZDA in Sovjetsko

19
Kitajska je uspešno zaključila prvo preizkušnjo svojega nuklearnega fuzijskega reaktorja, ki je znan tudi pod imenom
'umetno sonce', ker posnema enak proces ustvarjanja energije kot naravno sonce. Nuklearna fuzija je obetajoča
tehnologija, ki lahko proizvede ogromne količine čiste energije z zelo malo stranskih produktov [14].
20
Elon Musk je uvedel Starlink, ki zagotavlja hiter širokopasovni internet z nizko zamudo po vsem svetu.
21
Podjetju Virgin Galactic je uspel polet s polno posadko v vesolje s posebnim letalom. Na njem je bil tudi Richard
Branson. Ameriški milijarder Jeff Bezos je skupaj z bratom Markom, 18-letnim Oliverjem Daemenom in 82-letno
ameriško pilotko Wally Funk poletel v vesolje. Vesoljsko podjetje Space X, ki je v lasti Elona Muska, je pred kratkim v
vesolje poslalo raketo s popolnoma amatersko ekipo. Gre za prvi turistični polet v zgodovini vesoljskih poletov brez
poklicnih astronavtov.
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zvezo (Rusijo) je vedno manj, tudi kot posledica političnih in geostrateških premikov. Se pa v
osvajanje vesolja podaja nova svetovna ekonomska velesila Kitajska.22
Zadnja odkritja v vesolju, še posebej potrditev, da je na planetu Mars prisotna voda, nam daje izzive
za prihodnost v razvoju tehnologij in osvajanju vesolja.

Zaton kapitalizma

Različni filozofi in teoretiki so razpravljali o oblikah vladanja (upravljanja) družbe v posameznih

razvojnih fazah le te ter poizkušali z argumenti določiti najboljšo. Platon23 je zavrgel tako oligarhijo,
demokracijo in tiranijo. Idealna država, je zanj oblast najboljših (tj. aristokracija), naj bi bila
zasnovana na razredni delitvi družbe ter podreditvi interesov posameznika v splošno korist skupnosti
(države). Marx in Engels sta predvidela to vlogo proletariatu, ki je po eksperimentu Lenina v tedanji
Rusiji in sledenju nekaterih manj razvitih držav v obliki socialističnih držav, ki stremijo k komunizmu
s padcem Berlinskega zidu, doživel svoj konec. Kot predhodni in konkurenčni model je z
mnogokaterimi modifikacijami preživel kapitalizem. Kitajska je kot po številu največja država šla
skozi več samosvojih razvojnih faz socializma in deluje na principu socialističnega državnega
kapitalizma. Obema modeloma je pomembna gospodarska rast, v kapitalističnem sistemu zaradi
dobička in t. i. kitajskem sistemu zaradi dviga standarda življenja in politične stabilnosti. Oba sistema
vnašata v širše okolje negativne učinke, ki vplivajo na podnebne spremembe ter delo in življenje ljudi,
kar povečuje stroške delovanja in na dolgi rok rezultira v anonizimiranje sistema ali v uničenje okolja.
Nov prevladujoči družbeno-ekonomski sistem še nima jasnih obrisov, ugotovimo lahko le, da mu
osnovno gibalo ne more biti gospodarska rast, temveč varovanje okolja in spoštovanje človekovih
pravic.

Zaključek

Globalizacija je dosegla pomembne rezultate pri gospodarskemu razvoju v svetu, hkrati je omogočila
dostop do pomembnih surovin kljub večjim transportnim razdaljam, hitrejšega prenosa tehnologij,

22
Kitajsko ministrstvo za znanost in tehnologijo je objavilo razpis za idejno in tehnološko pripravo načrta gradnje
vesoljske ladje, ki bi bila glede na zahteve dolga dober kilometer. Izraba rudnin in drugih virov na asteroidih in drugih
planetih ter raziskovanje vesolja.
23
V svoji kritiki do obstoječih oblik vladavine je Platon zavrgel oligarhijo, demokracijo in tiranijo. Idealna država, oblast
najboljših (tj. aristokracija), naj bi bila zasnovana na razredni delitvi družbe ter podreditvi interesov posameznika v
splošno korist skupnosti (države). Platon razlikuje tri razrede glede na dolžnost do skupnosti: trgovce in obrtnike, vojake
ali čuvaje ter vladajoče (modreci, filozofi). V procesu državne vzgoje in izbora naj bi duhovno najsposobnejše vzgajali
za naloge, ki jih čakajo v teoriji in praksi. Voditeljski položaj kot »kralji filozofov« bi dosegli šele po vsestranskih
preizkušnjah in po petdesetem letu starosti. Pri opravljanju dolžnosti za skupnost jih ne bi smela ovirati niti družina niti
zasebna lastnina.
267
ekonomija obsega je zajela ves svet, prav tako pa družba potrošništva pljuska v najbolj odročne dele.24
Svetovne blagovne znamke se ne pojavljajo več samo v zahodni polovici Zemlje, temveč se npr.
Nike, Coca Cola, ipd. najde skoraj kjerkoli. Globalizacija je podobno kot piramidalna igra najbolj
donosna za tiste, ki so igro začeli oziroma so se ji priključili v zgodnji fazi razvoja, torej za države
kapitalizma z močnimi multinacionalkami.

Globalizacija pa ima tudi negativne učinke in na nekatere od teh smo v prispevku opozorili, na
globalne bolezni, še posebej na COVID-19, ki nas je globalno ohromil več kot dve leti. Prav tako je
za nadaljnji razvoj in spodbudo potrebno akceptirati spremembe v spremembi oziroma premiku
gospodarskih in političnih centrov. Ne nazadnje nam vojna o Ukrajini kaže, da se uveljavljene
interesov lahko sprevrže v spopad in agresijo. Na kar pa pritiskajo poleg gospodarskega razvoja tudi
velike demografske in podnebne spremembe. Nekaj upanja in poživitev elana dajejo nove tehnologije
in posamezniki, ki se skupaj z državami poizkušajo v osvajanju vesolja in primernih planetov za
naselitev. Vendar dokler tega ne bomo realizirali smo obsojeni na življenje na planetu Zemlja, ki pa
po propadu socializma in počasnemu zatonu kapitalizma nujno potrebuje alternativni družbeno-
ekonomski sistem, ki sicer še nima jasnih obrisov, ugotovimo lahko le, da mu osnovno gibalo ne
more biti gospodarska rast, temveč varovanje okolja in spoštovanje človekovih pravic.

Na osnovi navedenega je potrebno uravnotežiti globalni razvoj, kar pa zahteva nov svetovni dogovor
in red, čemur mora slediti prenova OZN, Varnostnega sveta, IMF in ostalih pomembnih institucij,
kot tudi odpreti razpravo o svetovni valuti.

Literatura in viri

1. Fukuyama, Francis: Konec človeštva: posledice revolucije v biotehnologiji (2003), Tržič: Učila
International, 2006.
2. Wikipedia. https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemija_koronavirusne_bolezni_2019_v_Sloveniji,
12. 4. 2022.
3. Rainews. https://www.rainews.it/tgr/fjk/articoli/2021/04/tdd-eu-astrazeneca-72f55c22-53e4-
4ceb-8953-77aee232b4fc.html, 10. 4. 2022.
4. Europa.eu. https://europa.eu/climate-pact/about/climate-change_sl, 12. 4. 2022.
5. Finance. https://oe.finance.si/8838274/Se-ob-talitvi-ledu-tresejo-noge-slovenskim-logistom, 10.
4. 2022.

24
"Na življenju je nekaj več, kot samo pospeševanje njegove hitrosti." - Mahatma Gandhi

268
6. Europa.eu. https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/new-push-european-
democracy/impact-demographic-change-europe_sl#demographictrends, 10. 4. 2022.
7. Wikipedia. ttps://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuhan. 9. 4. 2022.
8. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/, 10. 4. 2022.
9. Euro Geographics. https://eurogeographics.org/, 8. 4. 2022.
10. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/, 12. 4. 2022.
11. IMF 2021. https://www.imf.org/en/Home, 8. 4. 2022.
12. Infografika Delo. https://www.delo.si/tag/infografika/, 12. 4. 2022
13. Zielonyatom. https://www.zielonyatom.pl/atom-przelamuje-lody/, 5. 4. 2022.
14. 24.ur. https://www.24ur.com/novice/znanost-in-tehnologija/kitajska-uspesno-prizgala-umetno-
sonce.html, 5. 4. 2022.

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Brigadier JS Rajpurohit,
University of Ladakh, Leh, Ladakh, India
orcid.org/0000-0001-9427-4720

HETERODOX IN GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES

Abstract. The world has invented the growth tool in the form of globalisation. Economics is a pillar
of civilisation, and heterodoxian economics is a causal effect on contemporary culture. All economies
have been the backbone of the evolution of human society and have seen changes more than any other
field of development. Science, Technology and expansion changes have taken the economy in stride.
Mainstream economics has been at the centre of learning in all academic institutes, and alternate
methods have received scant attention. As a result, post-Neoclassical and post-Keynesian economic
models surfaced. The observation that heterodoxian economic theories are part of micro and
macroeconomics, and are self-sustaining cycles, has seen divergent views with contemporary
economic thoughts. Financial education and the practised economy in the real world have given rise
to new thought processes in the economics world, leading to new approaches and studies. The
changes in current times have impacted all spheres of life and economics and money matters have
changed. However, the required up-gradation and alterations have not seen that theories have
changed or modified simultaneously. This paper attempts to gaze into the global economic knowledge
base and discuss contemporary economic thoughts through a Heterodox prism.

Keywords: Global economy, Neoclassical, Mainstream economics, Heterodox economy

Introduction

The economic world has identified with globalisation for growth and prosperity. Economics is
civilisation and heterodoxian economics is contemporary civilisation. All economies have paved the
way for human society’s economic and resource-based progress and have seen changes more than
any other development field. Science, Technology and expansion changes have taken the economy
in stride. Mainstream economics has been at the centre of learning in all academic institutes, and
alternate methods have received scant attention. As a result, post-Neoclassical and post-Keynesian
economic models surfaced alongside industrialisation. The observation that heterodoxian economic
theories are part of micro and macroeconomics, and are self-sustaining cycles, has seen divergent
views with traditional economic thoughts. Financial education and the practised economy in the real
world have given rise to new thought processes in the economics world, leading to new approaches
and studies. The changes in current times have impacted all spheres of life and economics and money
matters have been transformed. However, the required up-gradation and alterations have not been
included in the mainstream theories and as a result, these theories have got alienated from the social-
economic threads.
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Humanity has seen the growth of economic thoughts alongside the social structures and forms of
governance. The struggle to survive also led to the constant effort to procure crucial commodities for
survival. The basic fundamental concept of survival of the fittest and ten avatars from ancient Indian
sciences is the primary platform for human skills. [1] Mainstream economics also termed
Neoclassical, old, orthodox, Keynesian etc., is based on the evolution of thoughts and means to
provide sustenance and growth. [2] The circumstances in which the economy existed in societies in
the past helped develop ideas and practices. The Barter system has been the fundamental pillar that
has given rise to all other forms of economic thoughts and practices involving a kind of ‘give and
take’. [3] The competitive human nature resulted in the concept of “Me more, better, higher, brighter
than others”. Nations fought each other for the better pie of the shared pool of resources available in
nature. The exploitation of resources has been the norm ever since and has been depleting by the day.
Mainstream economics is the basis of the study of economics in the academic institutes the world
over and is part of the business world. The business world and the need for human sustenance led the
industries to provide the products.

Furthermore, industries relied on human resources and efforts from society to manufacture and supply
the products. The cycle of industry, workforce and production continued to be the basis of mainstream
thoughts, with the ruling governments regulating the entire process. [4]

The growth of technology in the twenty-first century has also impacted economic thoughts. The
physical form of manufacturing, processing and delivery processing is changing to technology-based
systems. The involvement of physical human efforts has also been on the decline and machine-based
tools are replacing them. Technology has added new dimensions to economic thoughts and all forms
of human actions are converting into global knowledge-based systems.

Problem Statement

The economy in vogue in the contemporary world has a good combination of traditional and modern
thoughts. Keynesian economy forms part of the mainstream businesses and the majority of the world
has been following the conventional economic principles and procedures. However, new facets like
divergent thinking of social aspects of the economy and the crypto and NFT have taken firm roots in
the system. [5] The mainstream economy has to evolve to the need of the contemporary economic
environment gradually. [6] The acceptability and changing over to the new patterns are finding
difficulty in the governance systems. However hard the traditional economic thinkers apply
themselves, the change is inevitable and will impact society and the planet. The research focuses on
271
understanding the challenges to the existing economic norms and identifying new ways of managing
the challenges. Thought processes have started impacting the financial forms of different countries.
A parallel economy is already in the pipeline with the new generation of the 21st century. Schools of
Heterodox Economy have already taken shape in the US and the EU. It is appropriate to gradually
bring the new concepts into practice to better govern economic activities in the current world order.
The paper analyses the impact of a heterodox economy and international relations. An attempt to
create a contemporary model of the Heterodox economy will be part of the research.

Research Questions
The economies have never been static and efficient with one set of rules. The economic patterns
change with every season and every trade. The entire process depends on the two sides operating the
economy. The regulations set by the economists and followed by countries rely on the traditions,
concepts, forms and methods. The world order for strategic, diplomatic, and economic order has
changed with technology-aided economic relations modes since the early 19th and 20th centuries.
These new trends force the thinkers to re-think and revise the existing patterns and give rise to many
questions. Research questions for the paper are as shown below:
1. Is mainstream economics adequate in the contemporary world?
2. Is there a need to evolve new economic standards?
3. Why are Heterodox schools of economics prospering in the Western world?
4. How will technology impact the heterodox economy?
5. Identify the relevance of a new economic model and code of economy for the new world
order?
Purpose of the Study
The economy has been ever-growing and adapting to the need of society. After all, it is the society
for which any economy is designed. If there is a change in society, the corresponding changes in the
economy are bound to occur. The same applies to the existing nation-states wherein the changes in
the nation-states and their interstate relations have been dynamic; the difference in the economic ties
and the trade are natural outcomes. There is thus a need for all national-level political leaders to
understand the glaring change and the need to apply those changes to their respective state-level trade
relations and economic standards. There is a need to create infrastructure to adapt to the changing
market of society. The safety of the environment and the planet’s safety have to be dovetailed into
the economic system. However, the mainstream economy is either unaware of the changing patterns
of the states or is not concerned about the universe’s environment and existence and prosperity. The
study aims to reflect on the emerging heterodox economy and bring out relevant lessons for humanity
to understand the changes and new economic order. The Heterodox economy is here to stay and

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adaptation is possibly the way forward.

Growth of Mainstream Economic Theories towards Heterodox Thoughts

The orthodox or neoclassical tradition of economics, in which markets are driven by an invisible hand
and all stakeholders are rational, is defined as mainstream economics. Adm Smith is one of the
pioneers in mainstream economics known as the father of modern economics. Emergent disciplines
of study are progressively superseding mainstream economics theories because they do not account
for the precise, irrational nature of markets and individuals’ behaviours. Many mainstream economies
find the underlying ideas and assumptions in notions such as economic scarcity and the importance
of government regulation. Other factors that influence consumers’ decisions are the utility of the
concept of traditional economics and the assumption that people are rational and would make
judgments based solely on available knowledge and not emotions.

Mainstream economics employs statistics and mathematical models to demonstrate theories and
analyse various economic developments based on the rational choice theory, which argues that people
make decisions to maximise their utility. The importance of social interaction phenomenon in a more
scientific manner may be the common-sense view of the subject. [7] The supply and chain demand
have been constant ever since but what has changed is the technology, types of resources and needs
of the consumers. Constant research-based changes have also been incorporated and new principles
adopted. However, the changes in the system and the need to be responsive have been at risk. The
model of mainstream economics took shape in the 1930s and can be traced back as per the below-
given figure: -

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 Source: https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/how-the-term-mainstream-economics-
became-mainstream-a-speculation

The mainstream concept takes care of the majority of the masses, which gave rise to social activism
in evolving the economic thoughts. The state of a nation owns the responsibility to feed the entire
country most satisfyingly. The move from gatherers and hunters to the modern-day mainstream users
of the economic models has involved the government of the day in setting governance rules.
Economic activities are the primary focus of providing the best services to people. The very fact that
society decides what is best for its growth. The thinkers have been practising a form of economics
with a fair share of the population, nation-states, and appropriate environment. Central stream
economics has been the backbone of the society all these years. It has changed form from one set of
20th century to another based on the need of the environment, availability of resources and the experts
deciding the economic models to match the two. The Western countries identified economic theories
as open and closed economies. The market was regulated, and the nations thrived.

However, the downfall of economies could not explain the meltdown of economies and the world
market. The Global Financial Crisis in 2008 has had a disastrous impact on life and society across the
world. It appeared that all policies and understanding of mainstream economics came down crashing.
There are mathematical and financial answers to the crisis by social, behavioural, emotional and many
other facets that are yet to find logical solutions. [8] The sub-prime crisis possibly is inadequate to
explain the economic suffering of people and losing faith in the economic and social systems. Why
should the mismanagement of a system in the US negatively impact the rest of the world? The
plausible answer appears to be the role of influential individuals, institutions and some nations
wanting to dominate the world resources. US, UK and Europe had dominated the industrial revolution
with a singular aim of gathering more for their governments even at the cost of depriving others.

The 19th century saw the advent of “neoclassical economics” in the United Kingdom by William
Whewell based on the mathematical exposition of some doctrines of political economy. M. Longfield,
in his lectures on political economy, W.F Lloyd in his studies on population, values, poor laws and
rent, JS Mill on principles of political economy and D. Lardner in his analysis of railroad pricing
established the mainstream economic model as the most desired models during industrialisation.
Similarly, Hufeland, Menger Rao and Hermann explained economy propounded theories h demand-
supply framework and marginal utility analysis in Germany. [9] Marshall connected with some of
his learnings from Hermann and reflected in his Principles of Economics. Both argue that the human
side is essential for the economy; however, the numbers and profits are necessary for the economy’s

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growth. [10]

Neoclassical theorists opine that consumers’ primary concern is to enhance personal satisfaction. As
a result, people base their purchasing decisions on their assessments of a product’s or service’s utility.
A comparison between the neoclassical theory and rational behaviour theory provides insights into
how people make decisions regarding money. John Peters et al. stated in their paper on Economic
Transition, “Much of the neoclassical general equilibrium vision is that it is regarded as providing
the theoretical basis for Smith’s classic insight that tended consequences of economic agents acting
in their own best interests will lead to social coherence rather than chaos.” [11] The hegemony of
neoclassical economics within the economics profession is the first challenge. The effect of
neoclassical ideas on other social sciences and law reflects this hegemony. The hegemony is visible
in the leading research journals on objectives, procedures and measures of economic thoughts with a
bias toward benefitting a specific economy. Since the late 19th century, the financial safety net, when
the development of mathematical general equilibrium theory in the 1950s and 1960s came into
prominence, neoclassical economics has been the dominant paradigm in economics. The illusion of
society and the growth of the common masses remained a significant challenge. The need-based
growth of the economy gave rise to new thoughts on the financial effectiveness of nations and, with
better alternatives, was termed as Heterodox Economy.

Heterodox Economy
The primary reason for a different way of looking at the economy was the imbalance in people’s
social and economic well-being. At first glance, one might think of heterodox economics as the
opposite of orthodox economics, and many people have also used the term to refer to mainstream
economics. Applying the terms unorthodox in mainstream economics in interchangeable roles will
make the definition of heterodox economics more explicit. The heterodox economy is a broader
spectrum term that can refer to either non-orthodox or non-mainstream economics. The economists
and non-status quo observers have seen the changes in the financial world depending on academic
research and the influence of the orthodox economy over a broad spectrum of time and locations. In
the United States, mainstream economics has incorporated changes to neoclassical economics, but
that has been inadequate as the reasons and logic of mathematics and rational based economy have
yielded gross illogical economic means to match the social and emotional needs of the populace. The
need for change has resulted in the form of a novel concept called Heterodox Economy. A few other
approaches throughout the last three or four decades have surfaced and all of them reflect on the
economy in one or the other form. While the underlying factor of economics is shared, the processes
and objectives are different from the mainstream. Ideally and initially, the evolution of the economy

275
was based welfare of each and everyone in society. Still, gradually, the financial-focused approach
removed the human aspect from the practical world of money matters. Another part of social
interactions, which permits active stakeholders to influence cumulative features, is typified by ideas
like Schumpeter’s entrepreneur. [12] and Keynes’ animal spirit. [13]

Both the laureates emphasise that some individual decisions have a significant impact on future
developments of the economy and these decisions may not have been rational or logical. In light of
this, it is probable to witness critical players take on new and unconventional approaches to economic
cooperation and trust and institutional design, path construction, and route dependency. (Hirschman,
1970) Mark Granovetter emphasised that the dual character of social interactions allows for top-down
and bottom-up effects and identified that individual actors and social systems are mutually
interconnected. [14] Granovetter distinguished between an over-socialised and an under-socialised
conception of individuals. The latter is attributed to neoclassical and new institutional economics,
while the former can be found in immaculately comprehensive social and economic analysis
approaches. [15]

Heterodox Economic Models

There is no single definition of a Heterodox economy. There is a common observation by many
economists about the changes needed in the overall system and how economic affairs will change.
[16] He says, “Over the last 50 years, and particularly since the financial crash in 2008, the
community of heterodox economists has expanded, and its publications have proliferated.
Nevertheless, its power in departments of economics has waned.” Addressing this paradox, Hodgson
argues that heterodox economists are defined more by a left ideology than by a shared understanding
of orthodox economics’ nature. Heterodox economists may disagree on what heterodoxy means.
Mainstream economics continues to dominate world economics. The ideas of new and alternative
forms of economics are not readily accepted by those in the commanding positions in world trade and
economics.

The discussion is on the research question, ‘Is the existing mainstream economics adequate in the
contemporary world?’ The answer can never be always ‘yes’ and a ‘No’ is a problematic option for
mainstream economists. The creative economists with new concepts of economics worldwide want
the inclusion of society in the formation of economic policies. They are against the capitalists’
colonisation of the poor economies and races. Economists, sociologists, behavioural scientists,
politicians and others think that a change is needed. Change is the next best option for the world in
case equity and care for all are inclusive. The challenge is to identify convenient definitions, and

276
institutions and governments must take on the institutionalisation of the modern economy to seek
plausible solutions. The thought process asks, ‘Is there a need to evolve new economic standards?’
The upheaval and the way economic patterns are changing. The way the economy impacts the social
behaviour of the masses is humongous. Elon Musk has recently purchased ‘Twitter” for US$44
billion. [17] People use Twitter and continue to use it, but the deal is likely to change with the new
owner and the new rules. Calculations and mathematics around the agreement make good economic
sense. It may be argued that the poor economies are least concerned about the billion-dollar deal; they
are concerned with Maslow’s basic physiological needs and the survival of their citizens in a post-
Covid scenario. Does this find a place in the traditional mainstream economic system? Nevertheless,
socialist and behavioural scientists would maintain the quality and impact on society. The need to
evolve the financial strategies may help the community in an overall context of contentment.

The studies have shown a variant thinking style about economics in the 21st century. This divergent
thinking, commonly termed Heterodox economy, can be reflected in two models, as explained in the
succeeding paragraphs. Figure 1 reflects contemporary thinking based on mainstream thinking and
Figure 2 is a solo attempt to identify the heterodox global knowledge economic system.

277
 Enhance
rs
Output
Resource
• Goods &
s
Policies & Services
Procedure Societ • Rich people
y
s • Poor people
Exploitatio • Inequalities
n of
Resources • Inequities
Distractors • Inferior
i
Environment
Source: Self designed model

Figure 1. Impact of Mainstream Economy in the 21st century

Discussion and Recommendations

Impact of Mainstream Economy in the 21st century (Figure 1)

Whenever a system is working, be it social or economic, there are tasks, structures, policies, and
people as part of the system. All of them work in unison to achieve the objectives of the organisation’s
design. Economic models work developed in the US, UK and Europe were most likely suitable in
those countries and their citizens would enjoy the outcome of the economic policies. The same
economic principles are unlikely to be effective in Africa or any other continent. Mainstream
economic ways and means have been integrated into the existing economic models to continue the
system’s efficient functioning. There is a vast set of resources available as a case in point. They are
in the form of Panchmahabhutas, i.e., space, air, water, fire and earth. [18] They are God gifted
resources to humanity alongside the rest of the living and non-living beings. The resources have been
used vide specific policies organised by the leaders of society. In the process of utilisation of
resources, many anomalies have crept in. As a result, instead of humankind enjoying nature’s
inequitable terms, part of humanity has suffered due to the lust and greed of some self-oriented
organisations, industries and industries. The ultimate result is a non-equitable distribution to all the
countries and continents. The entire ecosystem in the environment has, therefore, suffered. The divide
between haves and have-nots has increased and people have become rich or inferior. The new
thoughts of Heterodoxian versions have started coming out. Economies have to be reoriented based
on the needs of the society and managing the environment well.

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 Heterodoxian View of Contemporary Economic World

Feedbac
k

Enhanc S Output
ers Heterodox o
Economists • Effective
c
• Socialists Goods &
i
Resour Services
Governa • Behaviour e
ces nce, al scientist t • Happy
society
• Care for y
Planet • Equitable
distributio
Distract • Exploitatio
ors n
n

Source: Self designed

model
Feedbac
k
Figure 2. Heterodox Economic Perspective

Heterodox Economic Perspective (Figure 2)

Humanity has continuously used the environment and its resources, and individuals and organisations
promote and exploit them. Governments have established legal organisations to organise their
respective economy. Over time, these resources have been unevenly used and exploited
ostentatiously, resulting in mismanagement of the demand and supply curve. Most organisations
wanting to control nature for their selfish motives have thrown the mainstream economic theories out
of the window. The model in Figure 2 explains that there is competition for the resources and
employment of the workforce to gain max profits. Inflation has soared higher, economies have shrunk
over time, and there is a visible deterioration of nature. People have suffered the most, and inequalities
have forced them to adapt to economic situations that are most unsuitable to their countries and
culture.

There are enhancers of the environment and the economy as well. These are the experts and
commoners in equal measure who wish to contribute to the welfare of society. They support the
national and international economic and social causes in maintaining a good balance between the
nature of industrialisation and inflation. Riches and poverty are shared based on respective society
and their financial resources. They are the agencies that connect the governments and the community.
They make everyone aware of the situation and rise against the negative factors. The ultimate aim of
these organisations is to assist in maintaining excellent supply chain management, reduce the gap
between haves and have-nots, organise equitable distribution, reduce the negative impact of feminism
279
and ensure good behavioural growth in the society. They can undertake many more similar actions to
help manage a healthy environment and a happy community.

The model is a humble attempt to envision an intelligent global heterodox knowledge system. This
knowledge system will assist in setting the pace for a heterodox economy. The model has a feedback
loop that connects all the stakeholders to interact continuously to maintain efficacy in the system. The
model is on a conceptual plane as of now and requires validation.

Findings

The research has analysed the existing system of mainstream economics and its implications in
present-day society. The technological world of contemporary times makes the economy very
transparent. At the same time, it enables the world economic leaders to play dominant roles in
intrastate and interstate strategic relations. These relations also impact economic ties. The Russia-
Ukraine war is a live example. One set of countries considers the war unethical and has banned and
blocked economic ties with Russia. Other countries support Russian and have threatened it with dire
strategic consequences. Domination of the US dollar and significant world currency has been
threatened. Irrespective of the war’s outcome, masses have suffered, environment, health, and the
ecosystem have been impacted. [19] Economists have opinions that support both mainstream and
heterodox views. However, the negative impact of mainstream economics has developed cracks and
there is a substantial view to review the entire financial structure.

A model has been attempted to overview how a heterodox economy is likely to emerge. There has to
be a holistic synchronisation of the entire universe to bring about equitability in all spheres of human
society.

Conclusion

The heterodox economy refers to a general term to express the economic view of the holistic
ecosystem of humans living in sync with nature. It attempts to identify alternative means to the
ongoing mainstream economics. The irrelevance and redundancies in the financial world must be
removed and effectiveness and changes to suit the modern needs have to be included. The inclusivity
of the pluralistic approach towards the newness is the day’s call. Positive aspects of the mainstream
theories must continue and multi-levels of heterodox economics of the 21st century must become part
of the overall system. A model toward that has been attempted. The model is required to be validated
and is a move forward for more studies on the subject.

280
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Yue Ma,
University of Nova Gorica

Iztok Sila,
Visoka šola za poslovne vede, Ljubljana, Slovenia

IMPACT OF THE LABEL ON THE PURCHASING DECISION PROCESS

OF CHINESE WINE CONSUMERS

CASE: SELECTED SLOVENIAN WINE LABEL

Abstract. Wine packaging usually provides the most important information for our consumers
while they are choosing the wines from the shelf. In this paper, we were aimed to determine
the preferences of Chinese consumers on various styles of Slovenian wine labels and tried to
determine if there are any differences between female and male Chinese customers. Slovenian
wine is still a niche offer in China. Therefore, our research work could help Slovenian wine
cellars to gain more knowledge of the Chinese market, and this could give them an opportunity
to be more prepared and aware of what to expect on the Chinese market with a completely
different cultural background and drinking habits. We have conducted two online surveys with
a total of 110 female respondents and 105 male respondents. Within the questionnaire we have
used 5 wine labels from different Slovenian wine cellars with completely diversified designs
and styles, to compare customers' preferences.

Keywords: wine label, Slovenian wine label, Chinese wine market, female, male wine consumers

Introduction

Knowledge of the purchasing or drinking habits that characterize a particular market is essential for
vine growers and winemakers, as they effectively respond to the needs of the market based on
strategic decisions that consider the needs and wants of the consumer. Wine consumers decide to buy
based on a subjective perception of the quality, taste, manner, and opportunity of consuming wine, as
well as many other important factors that influence individual purchasing decisions [1]. It is not
enough that the wine is enjoyed only by its exporter and producer, but also by its consumer. A
successful business story is based on knowing the behavior of customers through sales channels to
the end customer or consumer. [12]

Therefore, according to the theory [1], it is always necessary to keep in mind the competitive
advantage and the characteristics of the buyer on the market we want to enter, while being aware that
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the buyer or consumer is ultimately the one who values competitive advantages.

On the international markets, the offer and the choice are even more diverse, in terms of quality, price,
origin and, finally, the shape or visual image. Since the sale of wine is also significantly influenced
by the way we offer the product, the packaging is even more important and includes not only the
functionality of the bottle, but also the message on the bottle or label. [12]

Background

Advertising of wine is far more regulated than other products on the shelves of stores, supermarkets,
or specialty stores. Thus, the wine label is one of the first things a buyer would notice and analyze
while looking for a bottle of wine to buy. Therefore, a quick and relevant overview should be enabled
on the label to make a buying decision easier. This is especially important for non-experts [2]. In
case, an experienced salesperson is present at the point of sales, he or she can influence the decision
decisively.

Especially in supermarkets, where self-service is the usual way of buying, the label affects the
attention to the product or brand and brand choice. [3]. If your wine is one of dozens of wines on
shelves, it must really stand out to attract buyer’s attention and start the process of consideration.

History of wine labels

During the Roman times, amphorae were used for wine to be transported and sold, and sometimes
they were equipped with a clay seal, that listed the region, vintage date, and producer of wine.
Wooden barrels were the shipping vessel for wine after Romans conquered Britain and during the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Wine was later decanted into bottles for making wine servicing
easier. Corks were firstly used in the 1600s [4]. With a common use of glass bottles, labels began to
be a part of the package design.

Wine labels today

Despite “a whole new world of wine packaging has come into play, from screwcap bottles, aluminum
cans, to bag-in-the-box containers” … “the package must serve as a shipping container for the wine
as well as a serving container” [4, p. 125], a label nowadays should help sales with being attractive
and presentable.

Wine packaging, including labels design is very complex. It is impossible to say what kind of a label
would end to be a successful one. [5]

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If millennials are to be our primary target, we should consider that “this is a demographic
which overwhelmingly decide to buy based on how pretty the packaging is. In fact, 71% of millennial
wine drinkers are influenced by the label (vs. 41% of all wine consumers)– and they are looking for
"eye-catching, unique, stylish, creative, clever, and colorful" labels”. [6]
In their research in Bangladesh, Abdullah, Kalam and Akterujjaman “considered seven key factors
as independent variables and consumer buying decision as a dependent variable for the study. These
factors have massive correlation to the consumer purchase decision.
- Color of packaging and
- front style of packaging has perfect positive correlation to the consumer buying decision.
- Nice background of packaging,
- handling and transport facility of packaging and
- available information on packaging has the high degree of positive correlation with the
consumer buying decision.
- Attractiveness of packaging and
- printed information on packaging has the low degree of positive correlation with the consumer
buying decision”. [7, p. 285]

The wine industry has seen a “substantial increase in consumption from the Millennial generation (in
the US) over the past decade, even though Millennials are extremely uninformed about the wine
industry” and lack of experience in drinking wine. Therefore, for them the label is the main source of
information (and not journals or industry reports). The label (as a part of packaging) should be eye-
catching and attractive. [8]

Consumer preferences for a product are influenced by the presentation of the product – the label in
our case – where consumers don’t know the product and are unable to test it before the purchase.
Usually, wine consumers choose wine based on the information they received from the label. [9]

Chinese wine consumers are lacking the knowledge about wine also due to short tradition of enjoying
wine, so for the information from them the label is extremely important. As stated in the research
conducted by Tang, Tchetchik and Cohen in Shanghai in 2015, for younger segment origin of wine,
grape variety, wine pairing and elegant contemporary design are preferred. [10]

Materials and methods

Different steps were used to conduct our research: Creating questionnaire and translating into
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Chinese, defining the needed audience and distribution of the questionnaire, data processing, and
analyzing and interpreting data. [12]

A lot of social media in China is restricted, banned or with a limited access to the audience. Therefore,
Wechat was used as the means to spread the questionnaire among the targeted audience. It is a Chinese
social media platform with more than a billion active users a month, used on daily basis.
The Tencent website [11] was used to prepare and design the quantitative questionnaire.

The survey
The data was collected through a survey conducted among Chinese residents who enjoy the wine.
Both surveys were conducted in 2021 with a difference of few months in between. By the end of data
collection, we got in total of 110 respondents for survey of female part, without the 5 deleted answers
from people that were not considered as our right audience. For the male survey we got in total of
105 respondents, without 7 deleted answers.
The questionnaire contained closed and half-open type questions, which offered pre-prepared options
and an additional option where respondents could answer in writing if they didn’t decide on any of
the offered answers. The closed questions were mostly demographic, while the questions where the
organoleptic evaluation was discussed, or the wines and packaging, were half open and allowed
personal answer. [12]
34 questions were divided into three parts – to determine wine preferences of respondents, to gather
information on selected labels and to get demographic data. For the purpose of this paper, we were
focused on the results, connected primarily to the label and its impact on purchasing decision.

Labels in the survey

Five different wines from five Slovenian wineries – from different regions - were chosen, with
differences in design, traditionality or illustration.

Figure 1. Puklavec Family Wines, Jeruzalem Ormož, Muskat ottonel [12]

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Figure 2. Radgonske Gorice, Traminec [12]

Figure 3. Fedora, Zelen [12]

Figure 4. Vinakoper, Capris Malvazija [12]

Figure 5. Ščurek, Rumena rebula [12]

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 Demographic data
Female respondents

By the end of data collection, there was a total of 110 respondents for our survey. Respondents were
100% consisted of female consumers and Chinese residents. Over half of the respondent's age range
was from 18 to 24 (64.3%) and the second group was from 25 to 34 (33.9%). Most of them were the
residents of the first-tier cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai (77%).

Male respondents

At the end of the survey, we got a total of 104 respondents. Respondents were 100% consisted of
only male consumers and Chinese residents. Over 57.1% of the male respondents were from the age
range 25 to 34, followed by 37.1% of the age from 18 to 24. Most of the residents were coming from
Shanghai, Beijing and Guangdong (69%).

Measurements
A simple method was used to analyze results from the survey. Frequencies were only needed to
calculate the average percentage that described the willingness to buy a proposed bottle (label) or not.

Results and discussion

Drinking habits
In this section, we were aiming to determine drinking habits such as which type of wines they prefer
and their wine consumption frequency.

Female

In our research, we could see that the preferences of our respondents were whites (33.9%) over reds
(32.1%), with a big percentage in rose wines (25.9%). Evidently, there was not a large per cent
difference between both reds and whites, but we could still note that white wines dominated in
preferences for our female consumers [12].

Most of our female consumers are occasional drinkers, referred to as drinking once a month (44.6%).
Due to the different drinking culture in China compared to other countries, wine consumption here is
still not quite high. Although, with the social development, the younger generation learned and
adapted to the western culture and habits which eventually lead to a higher wine consumption among

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those who travelled, lived or studied abroad. Nonetheless, we could capture that the percentage of
infrequent drinkers is fairly high as well, which was referred to as drinking once a year (30.4%).

Male

Our research showed that the main wine preference of male respondents were red wines (45.7%) over
whites (39%) and these two types of wine has gained almost 85% of the total.

Surprisingly, more than half of our male consumers are drinking occasionally, once a month (52.4%).
This could also be explained with the male consumers to be more of beer or other alcohol beverage
drinkers than wine drinkers and wine could be referred to as more of a fancy drink which is drunken
on more important occasions for them. The number of infrequent drinkers also exceeded our
expectations, reaching 30.5%, which is the same percentage as the female group. Other than that, we
should mention that with frequent drinkers, drinking once a week our female consumers had gained
19.6% and male consumers only 12.4%.

Wine label texture preference

An external factor such as wine label texture could also be a beneficial detail for the winemakers to
know and have in mind before they make up their choice to decide, which texture they would be using
for their wine labels. [12]

Therefore, in our research we could see that natural paper label has gained 25% from female
respondents, followed by glossy and matte texture (20.5%).

The results for male respondents showed that labels using natural paper (29.5%) was the most chosen,
followed by matte texture (23.8%), embossed, or raised (13.3) and unique shape (12.4%).

Willingness to buy a selected wine

Last part of our research work was mainly focused on understanding whether our customers were
willing to purchase the 5 wines listed in our survey or not willing to purchase.

To illustrate more precise the table of results, we made calculation of an average position of which
wine label our customers were willing or not willing to buy.

Female

In Table 1, we could clearly see that wine #5 has gained an average of the most votes for willing to
buy while being elected the least on not willing to buy section. This shows us that the chic and stylish

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packaging of the wine was the best beloved by our female respondents. We should also point out that
the most feminine packaging of wine #1, label with pink colors and flowers, was highly chosen as
willing to buy as well as not willing to buy. This could express that these days women are more open
to trying new things other than what the market is defining for them. Wine #3 with a sharp and brutal
label, was picked a lot like a bottle of wine for business gatherings. Finally, wine #2 holds the last
position as willing to buy and elected as the first wine of not willing to buy, which could illustrate
that a traditional-looking wine label isn't very well accepted by our female audience and there should
be some adjustments made in this wine label in order to increase the sales on the Chinese market for
female customers.

Table 1: Result with calculated average order, position of which wine label example a female
customer is willing or not willing to purchase [12]

Wine examples Willing to buy Not willing to buy

#5
Ščurek, Rumena rebula 29.8% 7.3%
#1
Puklavec Family Wines, Jeruzalem Ormož, 38.5% 21.9%
Muškat ottonel
#3
Fedora, Zelen 13.5% 16.7%
#4
Vinakoper, Capris Malvazija 9.6% 15.6%
#2
Radgonske Gorice, Traminec 8.6% 38.5%

Male

As the result, table 2 shows that wine #5 was the first choice for both genders for willing to buy as
well as being the one that is least on not willing to buy. Wine #3 had almost same percentage on
willing and not willing to buy, which means that this wine could be controversial for our customers.
Wine #1, with most feminine features held a high position on willing to buy, but at the same time was
greatly chosen as not willing to buy, because of its loud wine label showing that the wine was most
probably suited for female consumers. Finally, wine #2 should be mentioned as it was selected as
least willing to buy and picked out as most not willing to buy wine. Which can give an idea of the
Slovenian traditional kind of wine label is not very well accepted by male consumers as well as female
consumers.

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 Table 2: Result with calculated average order, position of which wine label example a male
customer is willing or not willing to purchase

Wine examples Willing to buy Not willing to buy

#5
Ščurek, Rumena rebula 32.9% 7.06%
#3
Fedora, Zelen 18.09% 18.8%
#4
Vinakoper, Capris Malvazija 12.7% 14.1%
#1
Puklavec Family Wines, Jeruzalem 27.6% 29.4%
Ormož, Muškat ottonel
#2
Radgonske Gorice, Traminec 8.5% 30.6%

Difference in preferences between female and male on wine labels

As can be seen, wine #5 is best beloved by both genders, a wine that has both chic and stylish look,
where color of the capsule and the label itself fits well to the glass bottle and the color theme. But the
difference can be seen from top 2 wines.

Female consumers chose label #1 that would be defined as a wine for female audience, the wine label
with soft pink color and flowers on it. The top 2 wine for male consumers appeared to be the wine
label #3, which has more brutal figure, colors that are colder and the glass bottle with the shoulders
down, which makes the bottle to feel heavier.

The 3rd most picked wine label was also different for both genders, where female chose the wine label
#3 for their willing to buy as a business occasion wine or a bottle as a gift. Male respondents chose
wine label #4, a classic looking wine label that you can find on shelf of different stores.

Top 4th wine for female respondents was the classic wine label #4 and for male was the more feminine
wine label #1.

Conclusions

As the research work was done on a less common topic – number of studies on wine labels in China
are very limited (10) - and there were certain limitations, such as a small number of survey
respondents, and the sample retrieved from Wechat, the research work might not be considered the
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most precise, but we could still make some assumptions with data collected from the questionnaire
and we came to some conclusions and proposals [12].

Wine labels would always be noticed as the first external factor that will lead a customer to a decision
on purchasing a bottle of wine. In the case that the given bottle of wine is not something, they have
tried or known before it will be challenging for a seller to persuade a customer to purchase our wine
if there are no significant differences between them. Therefore, it is crucial to have as many elements
that will attract a specific target group as possible. In our research, we were concentrating on both
Chinese female and male consumers and their perceptions about selected Slovenian wine labels.

Based on our survey results, we could notice that the whole packaging was the key element for both
female and male consumers. The elements on the wine bottle cannot be divided into parts, the wine
capsule, wine label and illustration also the color should be balanced and fit the whole style of the
packaging. As for wine #5, the stylish and elegant white label combined with the capsule in the same
color and the transparent bottle were chosen as the favorite for both genders with the least negative
feedback. On the other hand, wine #1 with its' glamorous pink as its' major color held a high ranking
among both sides of willing and not willing to buy. Therefore, both genders had mixed feelings
towards loud color and labels that are showing too specifically which gender they are targeting. Wine
#4, with the traditional wine label, held a lower position, while wine #3 with the darkest shades was
selected as the least favorite for both groups.

Although the color was one of the points that have driven consumers to purchase the wine, an
illustration on the label also has specific effects on customers' purchasing decisions. For example,
wine #3 with the darkest colors remained in the third position for females and the second position for
males on willing to buy. Therefore, the wine shows us that it has the potential to be sold to the certain
target group. Wine label #3 had the murkiest and the most vicious illustration out of all 5 wines,
nevertheless, both gender respondents have picked out wine #3 as a perfect gift for business occasions
and liked its’ exclusive illustration.
Given the above, it is crucial for Slovenian winemakers to combine all the criteria stated in this work
for their wine label in order to increase sales in the Chinese market. The combination of color of the
label and the capsule, illustration on the label up to wine label texture can have a huge impact on the
purchasing decision of both genders. However, we can see that more modern looking, fashionable
label has gained more popularity among our young respondents and traditional looking labels were

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the least favorite for them. Further, the natural paper label texture was the most chosen by both
genders.

To summarize, when a customer is driven by an external visual factor or elements on a wine bottle,
it is important to have as many advantageous or preferable aspects as possible to attract a consumer
as to increase the chance of selling a bottle of wine.

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