The Lowest Animal By Mark Twain is this difference between man and the higher animals: he is avaricious and

miserly; they are not.

In the course of my experiments I convinced myself that among the 5
I have been studying the traits and dispositions of the lower animals (so- 1
animals man is the only one that harbors insults and injuries, broods over
called), and contrasting them with the traits and dispositions of man. I find the
them, waits till a chance offers, then takes revenge. The passion of revenge is
result humiliating to me. For it obliges me to renounce my allegiance to the
Darwinian theory of the Ascent of Man from the Lower Animals; since it now unknown to the higher animals.
seems plain to me that the theory ought to be vacated in favor of a new and Roosters keep harems, but it is by consent of their concubines; therefore 6
truer one, this new and truer one to be named the Descent of Man from the no wrong is done. Men keep harems but it is by brute force, privileged by
Higher Animals. atrocious laws, which the other sex was allowed no hand in making. In this
2
matter man occupies a far lower place than the rooster.
In proceeding toward this unpleasant conclusion I have not guessed or
speculated or conjectured, but have used what is commonly called the scientific Cats are loose in their morals, but not consciously so. Man, in his descent 7
method. That is to say, I have subjected every postulate that presented itself to from the cat, has brought the cats looseness with him but has left the
the crucial test of actual experiment, and have adopted it or rejected it unconsciousness behind (the saving grace which excuses the cat). The cat is
according to the result. Thus I verified and established each step of my course innocent, man is not.
in its turn before advancing to the next. These experiments were made in the
Indecency, vulgarity, obscenity (these are strictly confined to man); he 8
London Zoological Gardens, and covered many months of painstaking and
fatiguing work…. invented them. Among the higher animals there is no trace of them. They
hide nothing; they are not ashamed. Man, with his soiled mind, covers himself.
Some of my experiments were quite curious. In the course of my reading I 3 He will not even enter a drawing room with his breast and back naked, so alive
had come across a case where, many years ago, some hunters on our Great are he and his mates to indecent suggestion. Man is The Animal that Laughs.
Plains organized a buffalo hunt for the entertainment of an English earl. They But so does the monkey, as Mr. Darwin pointed out; and so does the
had charming sport. They killed seventy-two of those great animals; and ate Australian bird that is called the laughing jackass. No! Man is the Animal that
part of one of them and left the seventy-one to rot. In order to determine the Blushes. He is the only one that does it or has occasion to.
difference between an anaconda and an earl (if any) I caused seven young
…Of all the animals, man is the only one that is cruel. He is the only one 9
calves to be turned into the anaconda’s cage. The grateful reptile immediately
crushed one of them and swallowed it, then lay back satisfied. It showed no that inflicts pain for the pleasure of doing it. It is a trait that is not known to
further interest in the calves, and no disposition to harm them. I tried this the higher animals. The cat plays with the frightened mouse; but she has this
experiment with other anacondas; always with the same result. The fact stood excuse, that she does not know that the mouse is suffering. The cat is
proven that the difference between an earl and an anaconda is that the earl is moderate (inhumanly moderate: she only scares the mouse, she does not hurt
cruel and the anaconda isn’t; and that the earl wantonly destroys what he has it; she doesn’t dig out its eyes, or tear off its skin, or drive splinters under its
no use for, but the anaconda doesn’t. This seemed to suggest that the nails) man-fashion; when she is done playing with it she makes a sudden meal
anaconda was not descended from the earl. It also seemed to suggest that the of it and puts it out of its trouble. Man is the Cruel Animal. He is alone in that
earl was descended from the anaconda, and had lost a good deal in the distinction.
transition. The higher animals engage in individual fights, but never in organized 10

I was aware that many men who have accumulated more millions of money 4 masses. Man is the only animal that deals in that atrocity of atrocities, War.
than they can ever use have shown a rabid hunger for more, and have not He is the only one that gathers his brethren about him and goes forth in cold
scrupled to cheat the ignorant and the helpless out of their poor servings in blood and with calm pulse to exterminate his kind. He is the only animal that
order to partially appease that appetite. I furnished a hundred different kinds for sordid wages will march out, as the Hessians did in our Revolution, and as
of wild and tame animals the opportunity to accumulate vast stores of food, the boyish Prince Napoleon did in the Zulu war, and help to slaughter
but none of them would do it. The squirrels and bees and certain birds made strangers of his own species who have done him no harm and with whom he
accumulations, but stopped when they had gathered a winter s supply, and has no quarrel.
could not be persuaded to add to it either honestly or by chicane. In order to Man is the only animal that robs his helpless fellow of his country takes 11
bolster up a tottering reputation the ant pretended to store up supplies, but I possession of it and drives him out of it or destroys him. Man has done this in
was not deceived. I know the ant. These experiments convinced me that there all the ages. There is not an acre of ground on the globe that is in possession
of its rightful owner, or that has not been taken away from owner after owner, Methodist from the wilds of Arkansas; a Buddhist from China; a Brahman
cycle after cycle, by force and bloodshed. from Benares. Finally, a Salvation Army Colonel from Wapping. Then I stayed
12
away two whole days. When I came back to note results, the cage of Higher
Man is the only Slave. And he is the only animal who enslaves. He has
Animals was all right, but in the other there was but a chaos of gory odds and
always been a slave in one form or another, and has always held other slaves in
ends of turbans and fezzes and plaids and bones and flesh not a specimen left
bondage under him in one way or another. In our day he is always some mans
alive. These Reasoning Animals had disagreed on a theological detail and
slave for wages, and does that mans work; and this slave has other slaves under
carried the matter to a Higher Court.
him for minor wages, and they do his work. The higher animals are the only
ones who exclusively do their own work and provide their own living. One is obliged to concede that in true loftiness of character, Man cannot 18

13
claim to approach even the meanest of the Higher Animals. It is plain that he
Man is the only Patriot. He sets himself apart in his own country, under his
is constitutionally incapable of approaching that altitude; that he is
own flag, and sneers at the other nations, and keeps multitudinous uniformed
constitutionally afflicted with a Defect, which must make such approach
assassins on hand at heavy expense to grab slices of other peoples countries,
forever impossible, for it is manifest that this defect is permanent in him,
and keep them from grabbing slices of his. And in the intervals between cam-
indestructible, ineradicable.
paigns, he washes the blood off his hands and works for the universal brotherhood
of man, with his mouth. I find this Defect to be the Moral Sense. He is the only animal that has it. It 19

14
is the secret of his degradation. It is the quality, which enables him to do wrong. It
Man is the Religious Animal. He is the only Religious Animal. He is the
has no other office. It is in capable of performing any other function. It could
only animal that has the True Religion, several of them. He is the only animal
never hate been intended to perform any other. Without it, man could do no
that loves his neighbor as himself, and cuts his throat if his theology isn’t
wrong. He would rise at once to the level of the Higher Animals.
straight. He has made a graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to
smooth his brother’s path to happiness and heaven. He was at it in the time of Since the Moral Sense has but the one office, the one capacity (to enable 20
the Caesars, he was at it in Mahomet’s time, he was at it in the time of the man to do wrong) it is plainly without value to him. It is as valueless to him as
Inquisition, he was at it in France a couple of centuries, he was at it in England is disease. In fact, it manifestly is a disease. Rabies is bad, but it is not so bad as
in Mary’s day, he has been at it ever since he first saw the light, he is at it today this disease. Rabies enables a man to do a thing, which he could not do when
in Crete (as per the telegrams quoted above) he will be at it somewhere else in a healthy state: kill his neighbor with a poisonous bite.) one is the better man
tomorrow. The higher animals have no religion. And we are told that they are for having rabies: The Moral Sense enables a man to do wrong. It enables him
going to be left out, in the Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable to do wrong in a thousand ways. Rabies is an innocent disease, compared to
taste. the Moral Sense. No one, then, can be the better man for having the Moral
15
Sense. What now, do we find the Primal Curse to have been? Plainly what it
Man is the Reasoning Animal. Such is the claim. I think it is open to
was in the beginning: the infliction upon man of the Moral Sense; the ability to
dispute. Indeed, my experiments have proven to me that he is the
distinguish good from evil; and with it, necessarily, the ability to do evil; for
Unreasoning Animal. Note his history, as sketched above. It seems plain to
there can be no evil act without the presence of consciousness of it in the doer
me that whatever he is he is not a reasoning animal. His record is the fantastic
of it.
record of a maniac. I consider that the strongest count against his intelligence
is the fact that with that record back of him he blandly sets himself up as the And so I find that we have descended and degenerated, from some far 21
head animal of the lot: whereas by his own standards he is the bottom one. ancestor (some microscopic atom wandering at its pleasure between the mighty
16
horizons of a drop of water perchance) insect by insect, animal by animal,
In truth, man is incurably foolish. Simple things which the other animals
reptile by reptile, down the long highway of smirch less innocence, till we have
easily learn, he is incapable of learning. Among my experiments was this. In
reached the bottom stage of development (namable as the Human Being).
an hour I taught a cat and a dog to be friends. I put them in a cage. In another
Below us, nothing.
hour I taught them to be friends with a rabbit. In the course of two days I was
able to add a fox, a goose, a squirrel and some doves. Finally a monkey. They
lived together in peace; even affectionately.
Next, in another cage I confined an Irish Catholic from Tipperary, and as 17
soon as he seemed tame I added a Scotch Presbyterian from Aberdeen. Next a
Turk from Constantinople; a Greek Christian from Crete; an Armenian; a