Sustainability 15 13767
Sustainability 15 13767
Sustainability 15 13767
Article
Activated Carbon Electrodes for Bioenergy Production in
Microbial Fuel Cells Using Synthetic Wastewater as Substrate
Rickelmi Agüero-Quiñones 1 , Zairi Ávila-Sánchez 1 , Segundo Rojas-Flores 2, * , Luis Cabanillas-Chirinos 3 ,
Magaly De La Cruz-Noriega 3 , Renny Nazario-Naveda 4 and Walter Rojas-Villacorta 5
1 Escuela de Ingeniería Ambiental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo 13007, Peru;
[email protected] (R.A.-Q.); [email protected] (Z.Á.-S.)
2 Escuela de Ingeniería Mecánica Eléctrica, Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo 14000, Peru
3 Instituto de Investigación en Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad César Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru;
[email protected] (L.C.-C.); [email protected] (M.D.L.C.-N.)
4 Departamento de Ciencias, Universidad Privada del Norte, Trujillo 13007, Peru; [email protected]
5 Programa de Investigación Formativa e Integridad Científica, Universidad César Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: The growing global energy demand drives the need to develop new clean energy tech-
nologies. In this context, microbial fuel cells (MFC) are one of the emerging technologies with great
potential for eco-friendly energy generation; however, the correct choice of electrode material is a
significant limitation in the optimal configuration of MFCs. Therefore, this research evaluated the
efficiency of activated carbon (AC) anode electrodes for bioenergy production in MFC using synthetic
wastewater as a substrate. Peak values of voltage (1120 ± 0.050 mV), current (4.64 ± 0.040 mA),
power density (208.14 ± 17.15 mW/cm2 ), and current density (5.03 A/cm2 ) were generated, and
the Rint obtained was 214.52 ± 5.22 Ω. The substrate was operated at pH values from 5.31 to 7.66,
maximum ORP values (858 mV) were reached, and turbidity was reduced to 25.11 NTU. The SEM-
Citation: Agüero-Quiñones, R.; EDS (scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) analyses allowed us to
Ávila-Sánchez, Z.; Rojas-Flores, S.; observe the morphology and composition of the AC electrodes, revealing a predominance of O, C, Si,
Cabanillas-Chirinos, L.; De La
Al, Fe, K, and Ca. It is concluded that the AC electrodes have the potential to produce bioenergy at a
Cruz-Noriega, M.; Nazario-Naveda,
laboratory by means of MFC.
R.; Rojas-Villacorta, W. Activated
Carbon Electrodes for Bioenergy
Keywords: activated carbon; microbial fuel cells; wastewater; bioenergy
Production in Microbial Fuel Cells
Using Synthetic Wastewater as
Substrate. Sustainability 2023, 15,
13767. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su151813767
1. Introduction
In the growing global demand for energy, the growing dependence on fossil fuels
Academic Editor: Giovanni Esposito
poses a major challenge for modern and developed society [1]. Addressing these problems
Received: 14 August 2023 requires the development of clean technologies that use renewable energy sources that
Revised: 7 September 2023 promote sustainability [2–5]. Recently emerging energy technologies are growing remark-
Accepted: 11 September 2023 ably [6,7]. An emerging technology is microbial fuel cells (MFC) [8]. These MFCs are
Published: 15 September 2023 innovative bioelectrochemical systems with various applications ranging from bioenergy
production to wastewater treatment [9]. The process involves converting chemical energy
within biodegradable organic compounds into renewable bioenergy through exoelectro-
genic microorganisms [10,11]. Microorganisms are in charge of degrading organic matter
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
and releasing electrons, which are transferred through an external circuit, reach the cathode,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and produce ecological energy [12,13].
This article is an open access article
MFCs have been designed with a dual chamber (dcMFC) and a single chamber
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
(scMFC) [14]. dcMFCs have certain disadvantages that imply an unadaptable and in-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
flexible application since they use an expensive membrane as separator, in addition to the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ fact that, in many cases, the ion transfer rate is low [15]. On the other hand, the scMFC is a
4.0/). more prospective option, it is developed without spacers, and at the same time, that they are
Figure 1. (a) Prototype and (b) structure of the electrodes made with activated carbon.
2.2. Electrode
2.2. Electrode Waterproofing
Waterproofing
For the
For the waterproofing
waterproofing of of the
the electrodes,
electrodes, aa solution
solution of
of 70
70 mL
mL of
of ethanol
ethanol and
and 50
50 gg of
of
pine
pine resin was used, which was previously boiled for 15 min with 100 mL of water to
resin was used, which was previously boiled for 15 min with 100 mL of water to
eliminate the
eliminate volatile substances.
the volatile substances. Then,
Then, the
the electrodes
electrodes were
were immersed
immersed several
several times
times in
in the
the
solution until
solution until they
they were
were completely
completely covered
covered and
and were
were allowed
allowed toto rest
rest at
at room
room temperature
temperature
◦
(27 ±
(27 1.5°C)
± 1.5 C)for
for24
24h.h.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 and were connected to a 1 mm thick copper (Cu) wire to the outside, where they were
4 of 14
joined with a 100 Ω resistance to form a closed circuit, as shown in Figure 2.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a)2.Prototype
Figure and (b)
(a) Prototype experimental
and setup ofsetup
(b) experimental MFC-SC with activated
of MFC-SC carbon and
with activated zinc elec-
carbon and zinc
trodes.
electrodes.
compared to those that were not waterproofed. The loss of activated carbon from the elec-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 trodes within the substrate with synthetic wastewater was evaluated by performing 5 ofthe
14
previously described procedure. For this, weight was taken initially and then at the end
of the measurement period (30 days). With these values, the percentages of final weight
lossmeasurement
the were obtained.period (30 days). With these values, the percentages of final weight loss
were Through
obtained.the evaluation, it was found that the electrodes covered with pine resin ex-
perienced
Througha significantly lower
the evaluation, decrease
it was in their
found that weight compared
the electrodes covered withto pine
the non-water-
resin expe-
proofed electrode. Therefore, the effectiveness of pine resin as a waterproofing
rienced a significantly lower decrease in their weight compared to the non-waterproofed agent is
validated, thus preventing the detachment of the activated carbon electrodes when
electrode. Therefore, the effectiveness of pine resin as a waterproofing agent is validated,in con-
tact with
thus water, in
preventing thethis way it canofbethe
detachment tested with the
activated substrates.
carbon electrodes when in contact with
water, in this way it can be tested with the substrates.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results
3.1. and Discussion
Measurement of Electrochemical Parameters of MFCs
3.1. Measurement of
Figure 3a shows Electrochemical
the voltage Parameters of MFCsby the MFCs during the 30 days of
values generated
monitoring. The highest values were recorded duringbythe
Figure 3a shows the voltage values generated the MFCs
first daysduring the 30 with
of operation, daysthe
of
monitoring.
highest voltageThepeak
highest valuesonwere
observed recorded
the first during
day (1120 mV).theInfirst
the days of operation,
following days, thewith
pro-
the highest
duction voltageuntil
decreased peakdayobserved on the
8 (916 mV), first aday
where (1120variable
slightly mV). Ingeneration
the following
was days, the
observed
production
until day 16decreased
(908 mV). until
In theday 8 (916 days,
following mV), there
wherewas a slightly variable
a progressive generation
decrease until was
day
observed
30, when until
789 mVdaywas16 (908 mV). In The
generated. the following
high voltage days, there wasduring
production a progressive
the firstdecrease
days is
until day 30, when 789 mV was generated. The high voltage production
because the bacteria began to proliferate in the MFCs due to the high presence during theoffirst days
organic
is because the bacteria began to proliferate in the MFCs due to the high
substrates in the wastewater that allowed the development of microbial electrogenesis presence of organic
substrates
through redoxin the wastewater
reactions thatAtallowed
[40,41]. the same thetime,
development
the decreaseof microbial
in voltageelectrogenesis
is due to the
through redox reactions [40,41]. At the same time, the decrease
reduction in organic matter in the substrate, consumed by microorganisms in voltage through
is due totheir
the
reduction
metabolic in organic
process to matter
convertinchemical
the substrate,
energyconsumed by microorganisms
into electrical energy [42]. through their
metabolic process to convert chemical energy into electrical energy [42].
1150 5.0
1100 4.5
1050 4.0
1000 3.5
Voltage (mV)
Current (mA)
950 3.0
900 2.5
850 2.0
800 1.5
750 1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(a) (b)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Monitoring
Monitoring of
of values
values of
of (a)
(a) voltage
voltage and
and (b)
(b) electrical
electrical current
current of
of the
the MFCs.
MFCs.
properties as the zinc or copper used as connectors [45]. Figure 3b shows the values of
electric current the cells produce during monitoring. High current values were generated
during the first days of operation (4.64 mA on the first day), while in the following days,
the production decreased until day 12 (3.33 mA), where a relatively constant production
was presented until day 24 (3.33 mA). In the following days, the values experienced a
gradual decrease until they produced 1.93 mA on day 30. The peak current values shown
in the first days are attributed to the good formation of the electrogenic biofilm [46], which
depends largely on the measurement of the carbon sources present in the substrates [47],
which act as an energy supply in the biological process of microorganisms to produce
electric current [48]. As the organic compounds decrease, the production of electrons is
reduced, thus generating a lower electrical current in the last few days [49]. The values
shown in this research are higher than those reported by other authors; for example, De La
Cruz-Noriega et al. (2023) managed to generate maximum current values of 0.71 ± 0.02 mA
using MFC-DC from wastewater in the anodic chamber and electrogenic bacteria in the
cathodic chamber [50].
Figure 4a shows the value of the internal resistance of the MFC, showing a peak value
of 214.52 ± 5.22 Ω, calculated with the maximum value of voltage generation and electrical
current. The high value of Rint obtained can be attributed to the characteristics of the
substrate, which contains solids in suspension that hinder electrical conduction, increasing
internal resistance [51,52]. Other authors, such as Du and Shao (2022), reported a peak
internal resistance value of 163.2 Ω in MFC-DC with carbon felt electrodes using solid potato
waste and activated sludge [53]. Figure 4b shows the power density (PD) values as a current
density (DC) function, observing a maximum power density of 208.14 ± 17 mW/cm2 and
a maximum current density of 5.03 A/cm2 . It can be observed in the graphs that the
power density reaches a maximum value and subsequently presents a decrease due to
the operability of the operating time and also due to the reduction in the organic matter
available in the medium [54]. In addition, the values of DP and DC depend on the rate
of degradation of the organic energy of the substrates by the microbial community, on
the external operating conditions [55], as well as on the internal resistance of the MFCs,
due to the fact that a higher Rint hinders the flow of electrons through the system [56].
The values obtained in this research are higher than those shown in other studies, such as
that of Lee et al. (2018), who obtained a power density and maximum current density of
0.0251 mW/m2 and 285.71 mA/m2 , respectively, in MFC-SC with hybrid and conventional
carbon felt bioanodes using municipal wastewater [57], while Rossi et al. (2022) achieved
maximum power density values of 0.135 W/m2 and 0.278 A/m2 current density in 850 L
air cathode MFC of domestic wastewater with carbon-fiber brush anodes and stainless steel
carbon-fiber cathodes [58].
Figure 4. Characterization of (a) internal resistance and (b) power density concerning the current
density of the MFCs.
content due to microbial metabolic activity over days [59]. In addition, the anode material
ORP (mV)
50
500
40 (activated carbon) has adsorption properties that trap suspended wastewater particles on
400
the electrode surface [60]. Tee et al. (2017) removed 98.00 ± 0.7% of the turbidity of
30
wastewater generated in a palm oil plant in MFC-SC with graphite-fiber brush electrodes
300
20
and granular activated carbon [61]. 200
10
100
0 1000
Sustainability
900 2023, 15,
5 x FOR10
PEER REVIEW
15 20 25 30
0 8 of 14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days) 900
80 Time (days)
800
70 (a) (b)
700
60 8.0
Turbidity (NTU)
600
ORP (mV)
50
7.5 500
40
400
30 7.0
300
20
200
6.5
pH
10
100
0 0
6.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)
Time (days)
5.5
(a) (b)
5.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)
(c)
Figure 5. Monitoring of (a) turbidity, (b) ORP, and (c) pH of the MFC substrate.
Figure 5. Monitoring of (a) turbidity, (b) ORP, and (c) pH of the MFC substrate.
On the other hand, the ORP values of the substrate are observed in Figure 5b, pre-
senting an increasing behavior from day 1 (134 mV) to day 7 (858 mV) and then slowly
decreased, presenting decreases and increases until day 13, where a value of 378 mV was
found. High ORP values indicate that there is a more oxidizing environment in the cell
[62,63], which makes it easier for some electroactive bacterial species to thrive in these
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 8 of 14
On the other hand, the ORP values of the substrate are observed in Figure 5b, pre-
senting an increasing behavior from day 1 (134 mV) to day 7 (858 mV) and then slowly
decreased, presenting decreases and increases until day 13, where a value of 378 mV
was found. High ORP values indicate that there is a more oxidizing environment in the
cell [62,63], which makes it easier for some electroactive bacterial species to thrive in these
conditions, resulting in increased production of electrons at the anode and favoring the
generation of energy in MFCs [64]. Zhao et al. (2023) reported a peak value of around
325 mV for wastewater ORP in the MFC of sediment coupled with Vallisneria natans [65].
The monitored data of the pH of the substrate are shown in Figure 5c, where it can be seen
that in the first days, the values decreased from 6.55 to slightly acid on day 8 (5.31), and
then in the following days, a significant increase was observed reaching values of 7.66 on
day 30, showing optimal pH values in this period (6–9) for the development of biofilms by
microorganisms [66]. During the oxidation process of the organic compounds in the anode
chamber of the MFC in the first days of operation, the microorganisms, in addition to gen-
erating electrons, also release protons (H+ ions) [67]. If the proton production rate is high
compared to its consumption or transfers to the cathode, there could be an accumulation
of protons at the anode, lowering the pH (5.31) [68]. At the same time, the increase in pH
(7.66) can be attributed to the greater use of protons during microbial and electrochemical
reactions at the anode instead of their release [69]. In other investigations, it has been
observed that the pH values exhibit different variations due to the unique composition
of each substrate; for example, Radeef and Ismail worked with car wash wastewater in
MFCs with graphite electrodes and observed increases in pH from 7.5 to 8.3 after 90 days
of operation [70].
Figure 6. SEM
Figure SEMmicrographs
micrographsofofactivated carbon
activated electrodes
carbon (a) (a)
electrodes electrode surface
electrode morphology,
surface (b) acti-
morphology, (b)
activated carbon,
vated carbon, (c) electrode
(c) electrode structure,
structure, and and (d) aluminum
(d) aluminum meshmesh
withwith activated
activated carbon
carbon and carbon
and carbon wire
wire copper.
copper.
Figure
Figure 77 presents
presents the composition
composition spectra
spectra of of the elements
elements in the activated carboncarbon
electrodes obtained from
electrodes obtained fromthe theEDS
EDSanalysis.
analysis.AAmajority
majoritypresence
presenceofof elements
elements such
such as as oxy-
oxygen
(O), (O),
gen carbon (C),(C),
carbon silicon (Si),(Si),
silicon aluminum
aluminum (Al), iron
(Al), (Fe),
iron potassium
(Fe), potassium (K), and
(K), andcalcium
calcium(Ca) is
(Ca)
observed.
is observed.TheThehigh
highpresence
presenceofofoxygen
oxygenreported
reportedin inthe
the spectra
spectra is due to several
several reasons,
reasons,
ranging from
ranging from the
the composition
composition of of the
the electrode
electrode material,
material, which,
which, being
being activated
activated carbon-
carbon-
based, contains a high proportion of oxygen
based, contains a high proportion of oxygen atoms due to atoms due to its activation process,
activation process, to to the
the
surface pollution of the electrode
surface pollution of the electrode that could have been contaminated with compounds
compounds
rich in
rich in oxygen,
oxygen, such
such asas oxides,
oxides, duedue to
to exposure
exposure to to air
air during
during the
the operation
operation process
process of
of the
the
MFC [74].
MFC [74]. At
Atthe
the same
same time,
time, the
the high
high detection
detection of of carbon
carbon is is due
due to
to the
the electrode
electrode material
material
based on
based on activated
activated carbon
carbon [75],
[75], while
while the
the Al
Alisisdue
dueto tothe
thepresence
presenceof ofthe
thealuminum
aluminummesh,mesh,
respectively. The considerable presence of silicon can be attributed
respectively. The considerable presence of silicon can be attributed to the composition of to the composition
of the
the substrate,
substrate, whichwhich
was was
based based on food
on food remainsremains and residual
and residual waterwashing
water from from washing
dishes
dishes using cleaning products [76]. Finally, the low presence of Fe, K, and Ca can be
attributed to the activated carbon material used, which may contain low concentrations of
these elements [77]. Other researchers such as Liu, Lu, and Zhang (2022) performed EDS
analyses on their graphite felt anode electrodes used in MFC with mariculture wastewater,
and the spectra before the operation showed a more significant presence of carbon, oxygen,
platinum, silicon, aluminum, and iron; however, after the operation, the presence of
other additional compounds such as sodium, magnesium, sulfur, potassium, calcium and
titanium were reported; even so, there was a greater predominance of carbon and oxygen
in the electrode sample [78].
ments [77]. Other researchers such as Liu, Lu, and Zhang (2022) performed EDS analyses
on their graphite felt anode electrodes used in MFC with mariculture wastewater, and the
spectra before the operation showed a more significant presence of carbon, oxygen, plati-
num, silicon, aluminum, and iron; however, after the operation, the presence of other ad-
ditional compounds such as sodium, magnesium, sulfur, potassium, calcium and titanium
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 10 of 14
were reported; even so, there was a greater predominance of carbon and oxygen in the
electrode sample [78].
Figure 7.
Figure 7. EDS
EDS analysis
analysis of
of the
the activated
activated carbon
carbon electrodes
electrodes after
after the
the period
period of
of operation.
operation.
3.4.
3.4. Resistance
Resistance Test
Test of
of Activated
Activated Carbon-Based
Carbon-Based Electrode
Electrode in
in Liquid
Liquid Substrate
Substrate
The
The resistance of the activated carbon based electrodes werelow,
resistance of the activated carbon based electrodes were low,asas
shown inin
shown Table 1.
Table
1.
Table 1. Evaluation of the resistance of the activated carbon-based electrodes in synthetic wastewater
contained
Table 1. in MFC for 30
Evaluation ofdays.
the resistance of the activated carbon-based electrodes in synthetic
wastewater contained in MFC for 30 days.
ID Electrode Waterproofing Agent Initial Weight (g) Final Weight (g) Weight Loss Percentage (%)
ID MFC-A
Electrode Waterproofing Agent Initial 27.58
Weight (g) Final Weight
27.18
(g) Weight Loss1.45
Percentage (%)
MFC-A pine resin 27.58 27.18 1.45
MFC-B 27.36 26.99 1.35
pine resin
MFC-B 27.36 26.99 1.35
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The electrodes based on activated carbon and zinc were efficient in terms of pro-
ducingTheelectrical
electrodes basedusing
energy on activated carbon
an scMFC. and zinc
By using were efficient
synthetic wastewater in terms
as aof produc-
substrate,
ing electrical energy using an scMFC. By using synthetic wastewater
it was possible to generate maximum values of voltage (1120 ± 0.050 mV) and current as a substrate, it was
(4.64 ± 0.040 mA), respectively. Another important aspect is the reduction in substrate±
possible to generate maximum values of voltage (1120 ± 0.050 mV) and current (4.64
0.040 mA),
turbidity to respectively.
25.11 NTU and Another important
ORP values of 858aspect
mV. Inisthe
thesame
reduction in substrate
way, values turbidity
of internal resis-
to 25.11 NTU and ORP values of 858 mV. In the same way, values of internal
tance of the cell (214.52 ± 5.22 Ω), power density (208.14 ± 17.15 mW/cm ), and a current 2 resistance of
the cell (214.52 ± 5.22
2 Ω), power density (208.14 ± 17.15 mW/cm 2), and a current density
density (5.03 A/cm ) were obtained. EDS analyses revealed that the most predominant
(5.03 A/cm
elements in )the
2 were obtained. EDS analyses revealed that the most predominant elements
electrodes were oxygen, carbon, silicon, aluminum, iron, potassium, and
in the electrodes
calcium. The potentialwere ofoxygen, carbon,
activated silicon,
carbon anodealuminum,
electrodes iron, potassium, andbioenergy
for laboratory-level calcium.
The potential
production in of
MFCactivated
has been carbon anode electrodes
demonstrated. for laboratory-level
In addition, it has contributed bioenergy produc-
to the develop-
tion inofMFC
ment thesehas been demonstrated.
sustainable technologiesInthrough
addition,theitdevelopment
has contributed to the development
of economical, of
ecological,
and eco-efficient electrodes. Although electrodes are inexpensive, there are still certain
technical challenges for MFCs to increase bioelectricity generation. It is recommended
to optimize MFC designs to improve the electron utilization of substrates for bioenergy
generation.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 11 of 14
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.A.-Q., Z.Á.-S. and S.R.-F.; methodology, R.A.-Q., Z.Á.-S.
and S.R.-F.; software, R.A.-Q. and S.R.-F.; validation, Z.Á.-S. and M.D.L.C.-N.; formal analysis, R.A.-Q.
and W.R.-V.; research, R.A.-Q. and Z.Á.-S.; resources, R.A.-Q., Z.Á.-S. and L.C.-C.; data retention, R.A.-
Q., Z.Á.-S. and S.R.-F.; writing—preparing original draft, R.A.-Q. and Z.Á.-S.; Writing—Proofreading
and Editing, S.R.-F., M.D.L.C.-N. and L.C.-C.; visualization, R.A.-Q. and S.R.-F.; supervision, R.A.-Q.,
Z.Á.-S., L.C.-C. and R.N.-N.; project management, R.A.-Q., Z.Á.-S. and W.R.-V. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Hoang, A.; Nižetić, S.; Ng, K.H.; Papadopoulos, A.M.; Le, A.T.; Kumar, S.; Hadiyanto, H.; Pham, V.V. Microbial fuel cells for
bioelectricity production from waste as sustainable prospect of future energy sector. Chemosphere 2022, 287, 132285. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
2. Verma, P.; Daverey, A.; Kumar, A.; Arunachalam, K. Microbial Fuel Cell—A Sustainable Approach for Simultaneous Wastewater
Treatment and Energy Recovery. J. Water Process Eng. 2021, 40, 101768. [CrossRef]
3. Nookwam, K.; Cheirsilp, B.; Maneechote, W.; Boonsawang, P.; Sukkasem, C. Microbial fuel cells with Photosynthetic-Cathodic
chamber in vertical cascade for integrated Bioelectricity, biodiesel feedstock production and wastewater treatment. Bioresour.
Technol. 2022, 346, 126559. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Li, X.; Liu, G.; Ma, F.; Sun, S.; Zhou, S.; Ardhi, R.E.A.; Lee, J.K.; Yao, H. Enhanced power generation in a single-chamber dynamic
membrane microbial fuel cell using a nonstructural air-breathing activated carbon fiber felt cathode. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018,
172, e98–e104. [CrossRef]
5. Bose, D.; Sridharan, S.; Dhawan, H.; Vijay, P.; Gopinath, M. Biomass derived activated carbon cathode performance for sustainable
power generation from Microbial Fuel Cells. Fuel 2019, 236, e325–e337. [CrossRef]
6. Van Limbergen, T.; Bonné, R.; Hustings, J.; Valcke, R.; Thijs, S.; Vangronsveld, J.; Manca, J.V. Plant microbial fuel cells from the
perspective of photovoltaics: Efficiency, power, and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 169, 112953. [CrossRef]
7. Mirza, S.S.; Al-Ansari, M.N.; Ali, M.; Aslam, S.; Akmal, M.; Al-Humaid, L.; Hussain, A. Towards sustainable wastewater
treatment: Influence of iron, zinc and aluminum as anode in combination with salt bridge on microbial fuel cell performance.
Environ. Res. 2022, 209, 112781. [CrossRef]
8. Cuicui, L.; Liang, B.; Zhong, M.; Li, K.; Qi, Y. Activated carbon-supported multi-doped graphene as high-efficient catalyst to
modify air cathode in microbial fuel cells. Electrochim. Acta 2019, 304, e360–e369. [CrossRef]
9. Guo, H.; Huang, C.; Geng, X.; Jia, X.; Huo, H.; Yue, W. Influence of the original electrogenic bacteria on the performance of oily
sludge Microbial Fuel Cells. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, e14374–e14381. [CrossRef]
10. Tan, S.-M.; Ong, S.-A.; Ho, L.-N.; Wong, Y.-S.; Abidin, C.Z.A.; Thung, W.-E.; Teoh, T.-P. Polypropylene biofilm carrier and
fabricated stainless steel mesh supporting activated carbon: Integrated configuration for performances enhancement of microbial
fuel cell. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2021, 46, 101268. [CrossRef]
11. Ahirwar, A.; Das, S.; Das, S.; Yang, Y.-H.; Bhatia, S.K.; Vinayak, V.; Ghangrekar, M.M. Photosynthetic microbial fuel cell for
bioenergy and valuable production: A review of circular bio-economy approach. Algal Res. 2023, 70, 102973. [CrossRef]
12. Sonawane, J.M.; Mahadevan, M.; Pandey, A.; Greener, J. Recent progress in microbial fuel cells using substrates from diverse
sources. Heliyon 2022, 8, e12353. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Mukimin, A.; Vistanty, H. Low carbon development based on microbial fuel cells as electrical generation and wastewater
treatment unit. Renew. Energy Focus 2023, 44, e132–e138. [CrossRef]
14. Kouam-Ida, T.; Mandal, B. Microbial fuel cell design, application and performance: A review. Materials Today. Proceedings 2023,
76, e88–e94. [CrossRef]
15. Kamali, M.; Guo, Y.; Aminabhavi, T.M.; Abbassi, R.; Dewil, R.; Appels, L. Pathway towards the commercialization of sustainable
microbial fuel cell-based wastewater treatment technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2023, 173, 113095. [CrossRef]
16. Saran, C.; Purchase, D.; Saratale, G.D.; Saratale, R.G.; Romanholo-Ferreira, L.F.; Bilal, M.; Iqbal, H.M.N.; Hussain, C.M.; Mulla,
S.I.; Bharagava, R.N. Microbial fuel cell: A green eco-friendly agent for tannery wastewater treatment and simultaneous
bioelectricity/power generation. Chemosphere 2023, 312, 137072. [CrossRef]
17. Borja-Maldonado, F.; López Zavala, M.Á. Contribution of Configurations, Electrode and Membrane Materials, Electron Transfer
Mechanisms, and Cost of Components on the Current and Future Development of Microbial Fuel Cells. Heliyon 2022, 8, e09849.
[CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 12 of 14
18. Ingavale, S.; Marbaniang, P.; Kakade, B.; Swami, A. Starbon with Zn-N and Zn-O Active Sites: An Efficient Electrocatalyst for
Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Energy Conversion Devices. Catal. Today 2021, 370, 55–65. [CrossRef]
19. Lai, M.-F.; Lou, C.-W.; Lin, J.-H. Improve 3D Electrode Materials Performance on Electricity Generation from Livestock Wastewater
in Microbial Fuel Cell. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2018, 43, 11520–11529. [CrossRef]
20. Ouzi, Z.A.; Aber, S.; Nofouzi, K.; Khajeh, R.T.; Rezaei, A. Carbon paste/LDH/bacteria biohybrid for the modification of the
anode electrode of a microbial fuel cell. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2023, 142, 104668. [CrossRef]
21. Muñoz-Cupa, C.; Hu, Y.; Xu, C.; Bassi, A. An overview of microbial fuel cell usage in wastewater treatment, resource recovery
and energy production. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 754, 142429. [CrossRef]
22. Neethu, B.; Bhowmick, G.D.; Ghangrekar, M.M. Improving performance of microbial fuel cell by enhanced bacterial-anode
interaction using sludge immobilized beads with activated carbon. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2020, 143, e285–e292. [CrossRef]
23. Meylani, V.; Surahman, E.; Fudholi, A.; Almalki, W.H.; Ilyas, N.; Sayyed, R.Z. Biodiversity in microbial fuel cells: Review of a
promising technology for wastewater treatment. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2023, 11, 109503. [CrossRef]
24. Palanisamy, G.; Jung, H.-Y.; Sadhasivam, T.; Kurkuri, M.D.; Kim, S.C.; Roh, S.-H. A comprehensive review on microbial fuel
cell technologies: Processes, utilization, and advanced developments in electrodes and membranes. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 221,
e598–e621. [CrossRef]
25. Mwale, S.; Munyati, M.O.; Nyirenda, J. Preparation, characterization and optimization of a porous polyaniline-copper anode
microbial fuel cell. J. Solid State Electrochem. 2021, 25, 639–650. [CrossRef]
26. Papiya, F.; Das, S.; Pattanayak, P.; Kundu, P.P. The fabrication of silane modified graphene oxide supported Ni–Co bimetallic
electrocatalysts: A catalytic system for superior oxygen reduction in microbial fuel cells. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2019, 44,
e25874–e25893. [CrossRef]
27. Sharif, H.; Farooq, M.; Hussain, I.; Ali, M.; Mujtaba, M.A.; Sultan, M.; Yang, B. Recent innovations for scaling up microbial fuel
cell systems: Significance of physicochemical factors for electrodes and membranes materials. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2021, 129,
e207–e226. [CrossRef]
28. Cheraghipoor, M.; Mohebbi-Kalhori, D.; Noroozifar, M.; Maghsoodlou, M.T. Enhancing the efficiency of ceramic native soil
membrane using Zircon in a continuous microbial fuel cell for wastewater treatment and sustainable energy. J. Environ. Chem.
Eng. 2022, 10, 108255. [CrossRef]
29. Slate, A.J.; Whitehead, K.A.; Brownson, D.A.C.; Banks, C.E. Microbial fuel cells: An overview of current technology. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 101, e60–e81. [CrossRef]
30. Gajda, I.; You, J.; Santoro, C.; Greenman, J.; Ieropoulos, I.A. A new method for urine electrofiltration and long term power
enhancement using surface modified anodes with activated carbon in ceramic microbial fuel cells. Electrochim. Acta 2020, 353,
136388. [CrossRef]
31. Poli, F.; Santoro, C.; Soavi, F. Improving microbial fuel cells power output using internal and external optimized, tailored and
totally green supercapacitor. J. Power Sources 2023, 564, 232780. [CrossRef]
32. Chen, Y.; Zhao, F.; Pu, Y.; Lin, X.; Yin, H.; Tang, X. Nano-Fe3 O4 coated on carbon monolith for anode enhancement in microbial
fuel cells. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2023, 11, 109608. [CrossRef]
33. Liu, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Li, K.; Wang, Z.; Tian, P.; Liu, D.; Yang, T.; Wang, J. Activated carbon derived from chitosan as air cathode catalyst
for high performance in microbial fuel cells. J. Power Sources 2018, 378, e1–e9. [CrossRef]
34. Pan, Y.; Mo, X.; Li, K.; Pu, L.; Liu, D.; Yang, T. Iron–nitrogen–activated carbon as cathode catalyst to improve the power generation
of single-chamber air-cathode microbial fuel cells. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 206, e285–e289. [CrossRef]
35. Yellappa, M.; Modestra, J.A.; Reddy, Y.V.R.; Mohan, S.V. Functionalized conductive activated carbon-polyaniline composite anode
for augmented energy recovery in microbial fuel cells. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 320, 124340. [CrossRef]
36. Huang, S.-J.; Dwivedi, K.A.; Kumar, S.; Wang, C.-T.; Yadav, A.K. Binder-free NiO/MnO2 coated carbon based anodes for
simultaneous norfloxacin removal, wastewater treatment and power generation in dual-chamber microbial fuel cell. Environ.
Pollut. 2023, 317, 120578. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Karra, U.; Muto, E.; Umaz, R.; Kölln, M.; Santoro, C.; Wang, L.; Li, B. Performance evaluation of activated carbon-based electrodes
with novel power management system for long-term benthic microbial fuel cells. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2014, 39, e21847–e21856.
[CrossRef]
38. Rojas-Flores, S.; De La Cruz-Noriega, M.; Benites, S.M.; Delfín-Narciso, D.; Luis, A.S.; Díaz, F.; Luis, C.C.; Moises, G.C. Electric
Current Generation by Increasing Sucrose in Papaya Waste in Microbial Fuel Cells. Molecules 2022, 27, 5198. [CrossRef]
39. Silva-Palacios, F.; Salvador-Salinas, A.; Quezada-Alvarez, M.; Rodriguez-Yupanqui, M.; Rojas-Flores, S.; Nazario-Naveda, R.;
Cabanillas-Chirinos, L. Bioelectricity generation through Microbial Fuel Cells using Serratia fonticola bacteria and Rhodotorula
glutinis yeast. Energy Rep. 2023, 9, e295–e301. [CrossRef]
40. Yu, J.; Park, Y.; Widyaningsih, E.; Kim, S.; Kim, Y.; Lee, T. Microbial fuel cells: Devices for real wastewater treatment, rather than
electricity production. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 775, 145904. [CrossRef]
41. Yang, Y.; Xu, P.; Dong, S.; Yu, Y.; Chen, H.; Xiao, J. Using watermelon rind and nitrite-containing wastewater for electricity
production in a membraneless biocathode microbial fuel cell. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 307, 127306. [CrossRef]
42. Rojas-Flores, S.; De La Cruz-Noriega, M.; Cabanillas-Chirinos, L.; Nazario-Naveda, R.; Gallozzo-Cardenas, M.; Diaz, F.; Murga-
Torres, E. Potential Use of Coriander Waste as Fuel for the Generation of Electric Power. Sustainability 2023, 15, 896. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 13 of 14
43. Sikder, S.; Rahman, M.M. Efficiency of microbial fuel cell in wastewater (municipal, textile and tannery) treatment and bioelectric-
ity production. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 2023, 8, 100421. [CrossRef]
44. Bose, D.; Bhattacharya, R.; Gopinath, M.; Vijay, P.; Krishnakumar, B. Bioelectricity production and bioremediation from sugarcane
industry wastewater using microbial fuel cells with activated carbon cathodes. Results Eng. 2023, 18, 101052. [CrossRef]
45. Agüero-Quiñones, R.A.; Díaz-Coronado, J.J.; Enríquez-León, R.M.C.; Zelada-Cabellos, P.C.; Rojas-Flores, S. Electricity generation
and wastewater treatment using microbial fuel cells with graphite and aluminum electrodes. LACCEI 2022, 2, 1–6. [CrossRef]
46. Rojas-Flores, S.; Cabanillas-Chirinos, L.; Nazario-Naveda, R.; Gallozzo-Cardenas, M.; Diaz, F.; Delfin-Narciso, D.; Rojas-Villacorta,
W. Use of Tangerine Waste as Fuel for the Generation of Electric Current. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3559. [CrossRef]
47. El-Hag Ali, A.; Gomaa, O.M.; Fathey, R.; El Kareem, H.A.; Zaid, M.A. Optimization of double chamber microbial fuel cell for
domestic wastewater treatment and electricity production. J. Fuel Chem. Technol. 2015, 43, e1092–e1099. [CrossRef]
48. Rojas-Villacorta, W.; Rojas-Flores, W.; Benites, S.M.; Nazario-Naveda, R.; Romero, C.V.; Gallozzo-Cardenas, M.; Delfín-Narciso,
D.; Díaz, F.; Murga-Torres, E. Preliminary Study of Bioelectricity Generation Using Lettuce Waste as Substrate by Microbial Fuel
Cells. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10339. [CrossRef]
49. Koo, B.; Lee, S.-M.; Oh, S.-E.; Kim, E.J.; Hwang, Y.; Seo, D.; Kim, J.Y.; Kahng, Y.H.; Lee, Y.W.; Chung, S.-Y.; et al. Addition of
reduced graphene oxide to an activated-carbon cathode increases electrical power generation of a microbial fuel cell by enhancing
cathodic performance. Electrochim. Acta 2019, 297, e613–e622. [CrossRef]
50. De La Cruz-Noriega, M.; Benites, S.M.; Rojas-Flores, S.; Otiniano, N.M.; Sabogal-Vargas, A.M.; Alfaro, R.; Cabanillas-Chirinos, L.;
Rojas-Villacorta, W.; Nazario-Naveda, R.; Delfín-Narciso, D. Use of Wastewater and Electrogenic Bacteria to Generate Eco-Friendly
Electricity through Microbial Fuel Cells. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10640. [CrossRef]
51. Li, S.; Jiang, J.; Ho, S.-H.; Zhang, S.; Zeng, W.; Li, F. Sustainable conversion of antibiotic wastewater using microbial fuel cells:
Energy harvesting and resistance mechanism analysis. Chemosphere 2023, 313, 137584. [CrossRef]
52. Pasternak, G.; Greenman, J.; Ieropoulos, I. Dynamic evolution of anodic biofilm when maturing under different external resistive
loads in microbial fuel cells. Electrochemical perspective. J. Power Sources 2018, 400, e392–e401. [CrossRef]
53. Du, H.; Shao, Z. Synergistic effects between solid potato waste and waste activated sludge for waste-to-power conversion in
microbial fuel cells. Appl. Energy 2022, 314, 118994. [CrossRef]
54. Rojas-Flores, S.; De La Cruz-Noriega, M.; Benites, S.M.; Delfín-Narciso, D.; Angelats-Silva, L.; Díaz, F.; Cabanillas-Chirinos, L.;
Silva-Palacios, F. Increase in Electrical Parameters Using Sucrose in Tomato Waste. Fermentation 2022, 8, 335. [CrossRef]
55. Li, S.; Cheng, C.; Thomas, A. Carbon-Based Microbial-Fuel-Cell Electrodes: From Conductive Supports to Active Catalysts. Adv.
Mater. 2017, 29, 1602547. [CrossRef]
56. Bazina, N.; Ahmed, T.G.; Almdaaf, M.; Jibia, S.; Sarker, M. Power generation from wastewater using microbial fuel cells: A review.
J. Biotechnol. 2023, 374, e17–e30. [CrossRef]
57. Lee, S.H.; Lee, K.-S.; Sorcar, S.; Razzaq, A.; Grimes, C.A.; In, S.-I. Wastewater treatment and electricity generation from a
sunlight-powered single chamber microbial fuel cell. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem. 2018, 358, e432–e440. [CrossRef]
58. Rossi, R.; Hur, A.Y.; Page, M.A.; Thomas, A.O.; Butkiewicz, J.J.; Jones, D.W.; Baek, G.; Saikaly, P.E.; Cropek, D.M.; Logan, B.E. Pilot
scale microbial fuel cells using air cathodes for producing electricity while treating wastewater. Water Res. 2022, 215, 118208.
[CrossRef]
59. Lutterbeck, C.A.; Colares, G.S.; Oliveira, G.A.; Mohr, G.; Beckenkamp, F.; Rieger, A.; Lobo, E.A.; Ribeiro-Rodrigues, L.H.;
Machado, E.L. Microbial fuel cells and constructed wetlands as a sustainable alternative for the treatment of hospital laundry
wastewaters: Assessment of load parameters and genotoxicity. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2022, 10, 108105. [CrossRef]
60. Xu, X.; Feng, W.; Guo, L.; Huang, X.; Shi, B. Controlled synthesis of distiller’s grains biochar for turbidity removal in Baijiu. Sci.
Total Environ. 2023, 867, 161382. [CrossRef]
61. Tee, P.F.; Abdullah, M.O.; Tan, I.A.W.; Amin, M.A.N.; Nolasco-Hipolito, C.; Bujang, K. Effects of temperature on wastewater
treatment in an affordable microbial fuel cell-adsorption hybrid system. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, e178–e188. [CrossRef]
62. Xing, F.; Xi, H.; Yu, Y.; Zhou, Y. Anode biofilm influence on the toxic response of microbial fuel cells under different operating
conditions. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 775, 145048. [CrossRef]
63. Yang, G.; Wang, J.; Zhang, H.; Jia, H.; Zhang, Y.; Fang, H.; Gao, F.; Li, J. Fluctuation of electrode potential based on molecular
regulation induced diversity of electrogenesis behavior in multiple equilibrium microbial fuel cell. Chemosphere 2019, 237, 124453.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Cai, L.; Zhang, H.; Feng, Y.; Wang, Y.; Yu, M. Sludge decrement and electricity generation of sludge microbial fuel cell enhanced
by zero valent iron. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 174, e35–e41. [CrossRef]
65. Zhao, T.; Hu, H.; Chow, A.T.; Chen, P.; Wang, Y.; Xu, X.; Gong, Z.; Huang, S. Evaluation of organic matter and nitrogen removals,
electricity generation and bacterial community responses in sediment microbial fuel cell coupled with Vallisneria natans. J. Environ.
Chem. Eng. 2023, 11, 110058. [CrossRef]
66. Ren, Z.; Ji, G.; Liu, H.; Yang, M.; Xu, S.; Ye, M.; Lichtfouse, E. Accelerated start-up and improved performance of wastewater
microbial fuel cells in four circuit modes: Role of anodic potential. J. Power Sources 2022, 535, 231403. [CrossRef]
67. Salehmin, M.N.I.; Me, M.F.H.; Daud, W.R.W.; Yasin, N.H.N.; Bakar, M.H.A.; Sulong, A.B.; Lim, S.S. Construction of microbial
electrodialysis cells equipped with internal proton migration pathways: Enhancement of wastewater treatment, desalination, and
hydrogen production. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 855, 158527. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13767 14 of 14
68. Vilas-Boas, J.; Marcon, L.R.C.; Oliveira, V.B.; Simões, M.; Pinto, A.M.F.R. Performance evaluation of a single-chamber microbial
fuel cell with Zygosaccharomyces bailii. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 2023, 23, 101547. [CrossRef]
69. Tian, E.; Liu, Y.; Yin, F.; Lu, S.; Zheng, L.; Wang, X.; Wang, Z.; Liu, H. Facilitating proton transport by endowing forward osmosis
membrane with proton conductive sites in osmotic microbial fuel cell. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 451, 138767. [CrossRef]
70. Radeef, A.Y.; Ismail, Z.Z. Bioelectrochemical treatment of actual carwash wastewater associated with sustainable energy
generation in three-dimensional microbial fuel cell. Bioelectrochemistry 2021, 142, 107925. [CrossRef]
71. Nishio, Y.; Nguyen, D.-T.; Taguchi, K. Urethane-based electrode material for microbial fuel cells. Energy Rep. 2023, 9, e66–e73.
[CrossRef]
72. Li, C.; Zhang, Y.; Ling, Y.; Wang, H.; Wang, H.; Yan, G.; Duan, L.; Dong, W.; Chang, Y. Novel slow-release carbon source improves
anodic denitrification and electricity generation efficiency in microbial fuel cells. Environ. Res. 2023, 236, 116644. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
73. Li, J.; Li, H.; Fu, Q.; Liao, Q.; Zhu, X.; Kobayashi, H.; Ye, D. Voltage reversal causes bioanode corrosion in microbial fuel cell stacks.
Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, e7649–e27656. [CrossRef]
74. Li, C.; Omine, K.; Zhang, Z.; Sivasankar, V.; Sano, H.; Chicas, S.D. Development of peat microbial fuel cells (Peat MFCs)—The
green and sustainable generators of electricity. Energy Convers. Manag. 2023, 279, 116771. [CrossRef]
75. Silveira, G.; De Aquino-Neto, S.; José Maurício Schneedorf, J.M. Development, characterization and application of a low-cost
single chamber microbial fuel cell based on hydraulic couplers. Energy 2020, 208, 118395. [CrossRef]
76. Zeytuncu, B.; Pasaoglu, M.E.; Eryildiz, B.; Kazak, A.; Yuksekdag, A.; Korkut, S.; Kaya, R.; Turken, T.; Ceylan, M.; Koyuncu, I.
Application of different treatment systems for boron removal from industrial wastewater with extremely high boron content. J.
Water Process Eng. 2023, 55, 104083. [CrossRef]
77. Mani, D.; Elango, D.; Priyadharsan, A.; Al-Humaid, L.A.; Al- Dahmash, N.D.; Ragupathy, S.; Jayanthi, P.; Ahn, Y.-H. Groundnut
shell chemically treated with KOH to prepare inexpensive activated carbon: Methylene blue adsorption and equilibrium isotherm
studies. Environ. Res. 2023, 231, 116026. [CrossRef]
78. Liu, F.-F.; Lu, T.; Zhang, Y.-X. Performance assessment of constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell for treatment of mariculture
wastewater containing heavy metals. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2022, 168, e633–e641. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.