14AEC21 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT I

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS: Performance characteristics, Static

characteristics, Errors in Measurement, types of static error, sources of error, dynamic characteristics,
statistical analysis. DC ammeters, Multirange ammeters, Universal shunt, Extending of Ammeter
ranges, DC voltmeters-multirange, Extending voltmeter ranges, Loading, Transistor voltmeter, AC
voltmeters using halfwave and fullwave rectifier, Multirange AC voltmeter, Series type and Shunt type
ohmmeter, multimeter for voltage, current and resistance measurements.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs. It consist of two basic characteristics- static and dynamic.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general. considered for instruments which are used to
measure an unvarying process condition. All the static performance characteristics are obtained by one form
or another of a process called calibration. There are a number of related definitions (or characteristics),
which are described below, such as accuracy, precision, repeatability. resolution, errors, sensitivity, etc.

1.Instrument – A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under
measurement.

2. Measurement The process of determining the amount, degree, capacity by comparison (direct or indirect)
with the accepted standards of the system units being used.

3. Accuracy The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected (desired)
value.

4. Resolution The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.

5. Precision A measure the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i e, successive reading do not

differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input).

6. Expected value-The design value, ie, the most probable value that calculations indicate one should expect
to measure.

7. Error The deviation of the true value from the desired value.

8. sensitivity The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change of input or measured
variable.

Dynamic Characteristics:

Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables. Instead, they exhibit
slowness or sluggishness due to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric
capacitance. In addition to this, pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrument waits for some
reaction to take place. Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for measuring quantities that
fluctuate with time. Therefore, the Dynamic Characteristics and transient behavior of the instrument is as
important as the static behavior.

The Dynamic Characteristics of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element (sensing
element) to some unknown and predetermined variations in the measured quantity. The three most common
variations in the measured quantity are as follows:

1. Step change, in which the primary.element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite change in measured
variable.

2. Linear change, in which the primary element is following a measured variable, changing linearly with
time.

3. Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured variable, the magnitude of which
changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are

(i) speed of response,

(ii) fidelity,

(iii) lag, and

(iv) dynamic error.

(i) Speed of Response

It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured quantity.

(ii) Fidelity

It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error
(faithful reproduction).

(iii) Lag

It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable.

(iv) Dynamic Error

It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
instrument, if no static error is assumed.

When measurement problems are concerned with rapidly varying quantities, the dynamic relations between
the instruments input and output are generally defined by the use of differential equations.

Dynamic Response of Zero-order Instruments

We would like an equation that describes the performance of the zero order instrument exactly. The relations
between any input and output can, by using suitable simplifying assumptions, be written as
a’s and b’s are combinations of systems physical parameters, assumed constant.

When all the a’s and b’s, other than a0 and b0 are assumed to be zero, the differential equation degenerates
into the simple equation given as

Any instrument that closely obeys Eq. (1.2) over its intended range of oper-ating conditions is defined as a
zero-order instrument. The static sensitivity (or steady state gain) of a zero-order instrument may be defined
as follows

Since the equation x0 = Kxi is an algebraic equation, it is clear that no matter how x i might vary with time,
the instrument output (reading) follows it perfectly with no distortion or time lag of any sort. Thus, a zero-
order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance. A practical example of a zero order
instrument is the displacement measuring potentiometer.

Dynamic Response of a First Order Instrument

If in Eq. (1.1) all a’s and b’s other than a1, a0, b0 are taken as zero, we get

Any instrument that follows this equation is called a first order instrument. By dividing by a 0, the equation
can be written as
The time constant τ always has the dimensions of time while the static sensitivity K has the dimensions of
output/input. The operational transfer function of any first order instrument is

A very common example of a first-order instrument is a mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Dynamic Response of Second Order Instrument

A second order instrument is defined as one that follows the equation

The above equations can be reduced as

Any instrument following this equation is a second order instrument. A prac-tical example of this type is the
spring balance. Linear devices range from mass spring arrangements, transducers, amplifiers and filters to
indicators and recorders.

Most devices have first or second order responses, i.e. the equations of motion describing the devices are
either first or second order linear differentials. For example, a search coil and mercury-in-glass thermometer
have a first order response. Filters used at the output of a phase sensitive detector and amplifiers used in
feedback measuring systems essentially have response due to a single time constant. First order systems
involve only one kind of energy, e.g. thermal energy in the case of a thermometer, while a characteristic
feature of second order system is an exchange between two types of energy, e.g. electrostatic and
electromagnetic energy in electrical LC circuits, moving coil indicators and electromechanical recorders.

Types of Static Error:

The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a quantity
and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different
indications. Types of Static error are categorized as gross errors or human errors, systematic errors, and
random errors.

Gross Errors:

These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or errors in recording
observations. Errors may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes.
These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can minimize them. Some errors are easily
detected while others may be elusive. One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use
of an instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the
measurement parameter.

In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some extent when connected into a
complete circuit. One should therefore not be completely dependent on one reading only; at least three
separate readings should be taken, preferably under conditions in which instruments are switched off and
on.)

Systematic Error:

These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, or ageing or
effects of the environment on the instrument.

These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence all measurements of a quantity alike. A
constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a systematic error. There are
basically three types of systematic errors

(i) Instrumental,

(ii) Environmental, and

(iii) Observational.

(I) Instrumental Errors

Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical structure. For
example, in the D’Arsonval movement, friction in the bearings of various moving components, irregular
spring tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of
the instrument.

Instrumental errors can be avoided by

(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.

(b) applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error.

(c) calibrating the instrument against a standard.

(II) Environmental Errors

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields.

These errors can also be avoided by

(i) air conditioning,

(ii) hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments, and

(iii) using magnetic shields.

(III)Observational Errors

Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer. The most common error is the parallax error
introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.

These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For example, an observer may always
introduce an error by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale
reading.

In general,. systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static errors are caused
by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. Dynamic errors are
caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

Random Errors

These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially reduced or at least
accounted for. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be
of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed
statistically.

These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of making measurements.
Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors can thus be treated
mathematically.

For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at 15 minutes intervals.
Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions and is accurately calibrated before
measurement, it still gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation cannot
be corrected by any method of calibration or any other known method of control.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a true measurement, are as
follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
2. Poor design
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance
5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment
6. Certain design limitations

Statistical Analysis:
The statistical analysis of measurement data is important because it allows an analytical determination of the
uncertainty of the final test result. To make statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements
is usually required. Systematic errors should be small compared to random errors, because statistical
analysis of data cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all measurements.
Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken. The
best approximation is possible when the number of readings of the same quantity is very large. The
arithmetic mean of n measurements at a specific count of the variable x is given by the expression
Deviation from the Mean
This is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. If the deviation
of the first reading, x1, is called d1 and that of the second reading x2 is called d2, and so on,
The deviations from the mean can be expressed as

The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the deviations must be zero.
Average Deviations
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instrument used in measurement. Average
deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the number of readings.
The absolute value of the deviation is the value without respect to the sign.
Average deviation may be expressed as

Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation between readings.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square root of the sum of all the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. It may be expressed as

The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation, and is the most important factor in
the statistical analysis of measurement data. Reduction in this quantity effectively means improvement in
measurement.
For small readings (n < 30), the denominator is frequently expressed as (n — 1) to obtain a more accurate
value for the standard deviation.
Limiting Errors
Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a certain % of a full scale reading.
For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may specify the instrument to be accurate within ± 2%
with full scale deflection. This specification is called the limiting error. This means that a full scale
deflection reading is guaranteed to be within the limits of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading; however, with
a reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

DC Ammeter:
DC Ammeter – The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a dc ammeter. Since the coil
winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When large currents
are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part of the current through a resistancecalled a shunt, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. The resistance of shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.
Referring to Fig. 3.1
Rm = internal resistance of the movement.
Ish = shunt current
Im = full scale deflection current of the movement
I = full scale current of the ammeter + shunt (i.e. total current)

Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop across the shunt and
movement must be the same.
Therefore Vsh = Vm

For each required value of full scale meter current, we can determine the value of shunt resistance.
MultirangeAmmeters:
The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range
switch. Such a meter is called a multirange ammeter, shown in Fig. 3.2.
The circuit has four shunts R1,R2,R3 and R4, which can be placed in parallel with the movement to give four
different current ranges. Switch S is a multiposition switch, (having low contact resistanceand high current
carrying capacity, since its contacts are in series with low resistance shunts). Make before break type switch
is used for range changing. This switch protects the meter movement from being damaged without a shunt
during range changing.
If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not have any shunt in parallel while the
range is being changed, and hence full current passes through the meter movement, damaging the
movement. Hence a make before break type switch is used. The switch is so designed that when the switch
position is changed, it makes contact with the next terminal (range) before breaking contact with the
previous terminal. Therefore the meter movement is never left unprotected. Multirange ammeters are used
for ranges up to 50A. When using a multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease
the range until good upscale reading is obtained. The resistance used for the various ranges are of very high
precision values, hence the cost of the meter increases.
The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt:
The Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without a shunt. This
advantage is gained at the price of slightly higher overall resistance. Figure 3.3 shows a circuit of an Aryton
shunt ammeter. In this circuit, when the switch is in position “1”, resistance Ra is in parallel with the series
combination of Rb,Rc, and the meter movement. Hence the current through the shunt is more than the current
through the meter movement, thereby protecting the meter movement and reducing its sensitivity. If the
switch is connected to position “2”, resistance Ra and Rb are together in parallel with the series combination
of Rc and the meter movement. Now the current through the meter is more than the current through the shunt
resistance.
If the switch is connected to position “3” Ra,Rb and Rc are together in parallel with the meter. Hence,
maximum current flows through the meter movement and very little through the shunt. This increases the
sensitivity.

Requirements of a Shunt:
The type of material that should be used to join the shunts should have two main properties.
1. Minimum Thermo Dielectric Voltage Drop
Soldering of joint should not cause a voltage drop.
2. Solderability
Resistance of different sizes and values must be soldered with minimum change in value.
The following precautions should be observed when using an ammeter for measurement.
1. Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf. Because of its low resistance it would draw a high
current and destroy the movement. Always connect an ammeter in series with a load capable of limiting the
current.
2. Observe the correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes the meter to deflect against the mechanical stopper,
which may damage the pointer.
3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the current range until
substantial deflection is obtained. To increase the accuracy use the range that will give a reading as near full
scale as possible.
Extending of Ammeter Ranges:
The range of an ammeter can be extended to measure high current values by using external shunts connected
to the basic meter movement (usually the lowest current range), as given in Fig. 3.5.

Note that the range of the basic meter movement cannot be lowered.

(For example, if a 100 μA movement with 100 scale division is used to measure 1 μA, the meter will deflect
by only one division. Hence ranges lower than the basic range are not practically possible.)

Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter

To use the basic meter as a dc voltmeter, it is necessary to know the amount of current required to deflect the
basic meter to full scale. This current is known as full scale deflection current (Ifsd). For example, suppose a
50 μA current is required for full scale deflection.
This full scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Ω per V.
The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full scale current of 50 μA results whenever 20,000 Ω
of resistance is present in the meter circuit for each voltage applied.
Sensitivity = 1/Ifsd=1/50μA=20kΩ/V
Hence, a 0 – 1 mA would have a sensitivity of 1 V/1 mA = 1 kΩ/V or 1000 Ω.
DC Voltmeter
A basic D’ Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series resistor known as
multiplier, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the movement
so that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection value. A dc voltmeter measures the potential
difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component.
To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component, a dc voltmeter
is always connected across them with the proper polarity.
The value of the multiplier required is calculated as follows. Referring to Fig. 4.1,
Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)
Rm = internal resistance of movement
Rs = multiplier resistance
V = full range voltage of the instrument
From the circuit of Fig. 4.1
The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed the value of the full scale
deflection Ifsd. The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.

Multirange Voltmeter
As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts are connected across the
movement with a multi-position switch. Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange
voltmeter by connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) along with a range switch to provide a greater
number of workable ranges.
Figure 4.2 shows a multirange voltmeter using a three position switch and three multipliers R1, R2, and
R3 for voltage values V1, V2, and V3. Figure 4.2 can be further modified to Fig. 4.3, which is a more
practical arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.
In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string, and the range selector selects the
appropriate amount of resistance required in series with the movement.

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all multiplier resistances except
the first have the standard resistance value and are also easily available in precision tolerances:
The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which has to be specially
manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.
Extending Voltmeter Ranges
The range of a voltmeter can be extended to measure high voltages, by using a high voltage probe or by
using an external multiplier resistor, as shown in Fig. 4.4. In most meters the basic movement is used on the
lowest current range. Values for multipliers can be determined using the procedure of Section 4.4.

The basic meter movement can be used to measure very low voltages. However, great care must be used not
to exceed the voltage drop required for full scale deflection of the basic movement.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of the total circuit resistance Rt to the
voltage range. Sensitivity is essentially the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the basic
movement. Therefore, S=1/Ifsd Ω/V
The sensitivity ‘ S’ of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be used to calculate the value of multiplier
resistors in a dc voltmeter. As,
Rt = total circuit resistance [Rt = Rs + Rm]
S = sensitivity of voltmeter in ohms per volt
V = voltage range as set by range switch
Rm = internal resistance of the movement
Since
Rs = Rt — Rm and Rt = S x V
Rs = (S x V) — Rm

LOADING

When selecting a meter for a certain voltage measurement, it is important to

consider the sensitivity of a dc voltmeter. A low sensitivity meter may give a
correct reading when measuring voltages in a low resistance circuit, but it is
certain to produce unreliable readings in a high resistance circuit. A Voltmeter
when connected across two points in a highly resistive circuits, acts as a shunt
for that portion of the circuit, reducing the total equivalent resistance of that
portion as shown in Fig. 4.6. The meter then indicates a lower reading than what
existed before the meter was connected. This is called the loading effect of an
instrument and is caused mainly by low sensitivity instruments.

Transistor Voltmeter(TVM):
Transistor Voltmeter – Direct coupled amplifiers are economical and hence used widely in general
purpose low priced VTVM’ s. Figure 4.9 gives a simplified schematic diagram of a dc coupled amplifier
with an indicating meter. The dc input is applied to a range attenuator to provide input voltage levels which
can be accommodated by the dc amplifier. The input stage of the amplifier consists of a FET which provides
high input impedance to effectively isolate the meter circuit from the circuit under measurement. The input
impedance of a FET is greater than 10 MΩ. The bridge is balanced, so that for zero input the dial indicates
zero.

The two transistors, Q1 and Q2 forms a dc coupled amplifier driving the meter movement. Within the
dynamic range of the amplifier, the meter deflection is proportional to the magnitude of the applied input
voltage. The input overload does not burn the meter because the amplifier saturates, limiting the maximum
current through the meter. The gain of the dc amplifier allows the instrument to be used for measurement of
voltages in the mV range. Instruments in the μV range of measurement require a high gain dc amplifier to
supply sufficient current for driving the meter movement. In order to avoid the drift problems of dc
amplifiers, chopper type dc amplifiers are commonly used in high sensitivity voltmeters.

AC Voltmeter using Rectifiers:

AC Voltmeter using Rectifiers – Rectifier type instruments generally use a PMMC movement along with
a rectifier arrangement. Silicon diodes are preferred because of their low reverse current and high forward
current ratings. Figure 4.16 (a) gives an ac voltmeter circuit consisting of a multiplier, a bridge rectifier and
a PMMC movement.

The bridge rectifier provides a full wave pulsating dc. Due to the inertia of the movable coil, the meter
indicates a steady deflection proportional to the average value of the current (Fig. 4.16 (b)). The meter scale
is usually calibrated to give the RMS value of an alternating sine wave input.
 Practical rectifiers are non-linear devices particularly at low
values of forward current (Fig. 4.16 (c)). Hence the meter scale is
non-linear and is generally crowded at the lower end of a low
range voltmeter. In this part the meter has low sensitivity because
of the high forward resistance of the diode. Also,
the diode resistance depends on the temperature.
The rectifier exhibits capacitance properties when reverse
biased, and tends to bypass higher frequencies. The meter reading
may be in error by as much as 0.5% decrease for every 1 kHz rise
in frequency.
A general rectifier type ac voltmeter arrangement is given in Fig. 4.17.

Diode D1 conducts during the positive half of the input cycle and causes the meter to deflect according to
the average value of this half cycle. The meter movement is shunted by a resistor, Rsh in order to draw more
current through the diode D1 and move the operating point into the linear portion of the characteristic curve,
In the negative half cycle, diode D2 conducts and the current through the measuring circuit, which is in
an opposite direction, bypasses the meter movement.

AC Voltmeter using Half wave Rectifier:

AC Voltmeter using Half wave Rectifier – If a diode D1 is added to the dc voltmeter, as shown in Fig.
4.18, we have an ac voltmeter using half wave rectifier circuit capable of measuring ac voltages. The
sensitivity of the dc voltmeter is given by

A multiple of 10 times this value means a 10 V dc input would cause exactly full scale deflection when
connected with proper polarity. Assume D1 to be an ideal diode with negligible forward bias resistance. If
this dc input is replaced by a 10 V rms sine wave input. The voltages appearing at the output is due to
the +ve half cycle due to rectifying action.
The peak value of 10 V rms sine wave is

The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input, therefore

Since the diode conducts only during the positive half cycle, the average value over the entire cycle is one
half the average value of 8.99 V, i.e. about 4.5 V.
Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 V dc is applied and 4.5 V when a 10 Vrms
sinusoidal signal is applied. This means that an ac voltmeter is not as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.
 As
The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as

AC Voltmeter using Full wave Rectifier

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.20. The peak value of a 10 V rms signal is

Average value is

Therefore, we can see that a 10 V rms voltage is equal to a 9 V dc for full scale deflection, i.e. the pointer
will deflect to 90% of full scale, or
Sensitivity (ac) = 0.9 x Sensitivity (dc)

MultiRange AC Voltmeter
Figure 4.22 is circuit for measuring ac voltages for different ranges. Resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4form a
chain of multipliers for voltage ranges of 1000 V, 250 V, 50 V, and 10 V respectively.
 On the 2.5 V range, resistance R5 acts as a multiplier and corresponds to the multiplier Rs shown in Fig.
4.17.
Rsh is the meter shunt and acts to improve the rectifier operation

Series Type Ohmmeter:

Series Type Ohmmeter – A D’ Arsonval movement is connected in series with a resistance R1 and a
battery which is connected to a pair of terminals A and B, across which the unknown resistance is
connected. This forms the basic type of series ohmmeter, as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a).
The current flowing through the movement then depends on the magnitude of the unknown resistance.
Therefore, the meter deflection is directly proportional to the value of the unknown resistance.
Referring to Fig. 4.28 (a)
R1 = current limiting resistance
R2 = zero adjust resistance
V = battery
Rm = meter resistance
RX = unknown resistance

Calibration of the Series Type Ohmmeter

To mark the “0” reading on the scale, the terminals A and B are shorted, i.e. the unknown resistanceRx=
0, maximum current flows in the circuit and the shunt resistance R2 is adjusted until the movement indicates
full scale current (Ifsd). The position of the pointer on the scale is then marked “0” ohms.
Similarly, to mark the “∞” reading on the scale, terminals A and B are open, i.e. the
unknown resistance Rx = ∞, no current flow in the circuit and there is no deflection of the pointer. The
position of the pointer on the scale, is then marked as “∞” ohms.
By connecting different known values of the unknown resistance to terminals A and B, intermediate
markings can be done on the scale. The accuracy of the instrument can be checked by measuring different
values of standard resistance, i.e. the tolerance of the calibrated resistance, and noting the readings.
A major drawback in the series ohmmeter is the decrease in voltage of the internal battery with time and
age. Due to this, the full scale deflection current drops and the meter does not read “0” when A and B are
shorted. The variable shunt resistor R2 across the movement is adjusted to counteract the drop in battery
voltage, thereby bringing the pointer back to “0” ohms on the scale.
It is also possible to adjust the full scale deflection current without the shunt R2 in the circuit, by varying
the value of R1 to compensate for the voltage drop. Since this affects the calibration of the scale, varying by
R2 is much better solution. The internal resistance of the coil Rm is very low compared to R1. When R2 is
varied, the current through the movement is increased and the current through R 2 is reduced, thereby
bringing the pointer to the full scale deflection position.
The series ohmmeter is a simple and popular design, and is used extensively for general service work.
Therefore, in a series ohmmeter the scale marking on the dial, has “0” on the right side, corresponding to
full scale deflection current, and “∞” on the left side corresponding to no current flow, as given in Fig. 4.28
(b).
Values of R1 and R2 can be determined from the value of Rx which gives half the full scale deflection.

where
Rh = half of full scale deflection resistance.
The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2Rh and the battery current needed to supply half
scale deflection is Ih=V/2Rh..
To produce full scale current, the battery current must be doubled.
Therefore, the total current of the ckt, It=V/Rh
The shunt current through R2 is given by I2=It-Ifsd
The voltage across shunt, Vsh, is equal to the voltage across the meter.
Therefore

Therefore

But

Therefore

Therefore

As
 Therefore

Hence

Therefore

Hence, R1 and R2 can be determined.

Multirange Ohmmeter:
The Multirange Ohmmeter circuit shown in Fig. 4.28 (a) is only for a single range
of resistancemeasurement. To measure resistance over a wide range of values, we need to extend the
ohmmeter ranges. This type of ohmmeter is called a multirange ohmmeter, shown in Fig. 4.29.

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

The shunt type ohmmeter given in Fig. 4.30 consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistor R1,
and a D’Arsonval movement.
The unknown resistance is connected in parallel with the meter, across the terminals A and B, hence the
name shunt type ohmmeter.
 Calibration of the Shunt Type Ohmmeter
To mark the “0” ohms reading on the scale, terminals A and B are shorted, i.e. the
unknown resistanceRx = 0, and the current through the meter movement is zero, since it is bypassed by the
short-circuit. This pointer position is marked as “0” ohms.
Similarly, to mark “∞” on the scale, the terminals A and B are opened, i.e. Rx = ∞ and full current flows
through the meter movement; by appropriate selection of the value of R1, the pointer can be made to read
full scale deflection current. This position of the pointer is marked “∞” ohms. Intermediate marking can be
done by connecting known values of standard resistors to the terminals A and B.
This ohmmeter therefore has a zero mark at the left side of the scale and an ∞. mark at the right side of
the scale, corresponding to full scale deflection current as shown in Fig. 4.31.

The shunt type ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of low values of resistance. Hence it is
used as a test instrument in the laboratory for special low resistance applications.
Calibration of DC Instrument
The process of calibration involves the comparison of a given instrument with a standard instrument, to
determine its accuracy. A dc voltmeter may be calibrated with a standard, or by comparison with
a potentiometer. The circuit in Fig. 4.32 is used to calibrate a dc voltmeter; where a test voltmeter reading V
is compared to the voltage drop across R. The voltage drop across R is accurately measured with the help of
a standard meter. A rheostat, shown in Fig. 4.32, is used to limit the current.
A voltmeter tested with this method can be calibrated with an accuracy of ± 0.01%.

Calibration of Ohmmeter
 An ohmmeter is generally considered to be an instrument of moderate accuracy and low precision. A
rough calibration may be done by measuring a stand and resistance and noting the readings on the
ohmmeter. Doing this for several points on the ohmmeter scale and on several ranges allows one to obtain
an indication of the accuracy of the instrument.
Multimeter:
A multimeter is basically a PMMC meter. To measure dc current the meter acts as an ammeter with a low
series resistance.
Range changing is accomplished by shunts in such a way that the current passing through the meter does
not exceed the maximum rated value.
A multimeter consists of an ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter combined, with a function switch to
connect the appropriate circuit to the D’Arsonval movement.
Figure 4.33 shows a meter consisting of a dc milliammeter, a dc voltmeter, an ac voltmeter,
a microammeter, and an ohmmeter.

Microammeter
Figure 4.34 shows a circuit of a multimeter used as a microammeter.
DC Ammeter
Figure 4.35 shows a multimeter used as a dc ammeter.

DC Voltmeter
Figure 4.36 shows the dc voltmeter section of a multimeter. 1000 v
 AC Voltmeter
Figure 4.37 shows the ac voltmeter section of a multimeter. To measure ac voltage, the output ac voltage
is rectified by a half wave rectifier before the current passes through the meter. Across the meter, the other
diode serves as protection. The diode conducts when a reverse voltage appears across the diodes, so that
current bypasses the meter in the reverse direction.

Ohmmeter
Referring to Fig. 4.38 which shows the ohmmeter section of a multimeter, in the 10 k range the 102
Ω resistance is connected in parallel with the total circuit resistance and in the 1 MΩ range the 102
Ω resistance is totally disconnected from the circuit.

Therefore, on the 1 M range the half scale deflection is 10 k. Since on the 10 k range, the 102
Ω resistance is connected across the total resistance, therefore, in this range, the half scale deflection is 100
Ω. The measurement of resistance is done by applying a small voltage installed within the meter. For the 1
M range, the internal resistance is 10 Ω, i.e. value at midscale, as shown in Fig. 4.39. And for the 10 k range,
the internal resistance is 100 Ω, i.e. value at mid-scale as shown in Fig. 4.40.
 The range of an ohmmeter can be changed by connecting the switch to a suitable shunt resistance. By
using different values of shunt resistance, different ranges can be obtained.
By increasing the battery voltage and using a suitable shunt, the maximum values which the ohmmeter
reads can be changed.
Multimeter Operating Instructions
The combination volt-ohm-milliammeter is a basic tool in any electronic laboratory. The proper use of
this instrument increases its accuracy and life. The following precautions should be observed.
1. To prevent meter overloading and possible damage when checking voltage or current, start with the highest
range of the instrument and move down the range successively.
2. For higher accuracy, the range selected should be such that the deflection falls in the upper half on the meter
scale.
3. For maximum accuracy and minimum loading, choose a voltmeter range such that the
total voltmeterresistance (ohms per volt x full scale voltage) is at least 100 times the resistance of the circuit
under test.
4. Make all resistance readings in the uncrowded portion on the meter scale, whenever possible.
5. Take extra precautions when checking high voltages and checking current in high voltage circuits.
6. Verify the circuit polarity before making a test, particularly when measuring dc current or voltages.
7. When checking resistance in circuits, be sure power to the circuit is switched off, otherwise the voltage
across the resistance may damage the meter.

8. Renew ohmmeter batteries frequently to insure accuracy of the resistance scale.

9. Recalibrate the instrument at frequent intervals.
10. Protect the instrument from dust, moisture, fumes and heat.